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UNIVERSIDADE ESTADUAL DE CAMPINAS INSTITUTO DE FÍSICA “GLEB WATAGHIN” F 609 – TÓPICOS DE ENSINO DE FÍSICA I Coordenador: Profº Dr. Jose Joaquín Lunazzi TELEFONE COM DIAPASÃO: UMA DAS PATENTES DE ALEXANDER GRAHAM BELL André Coelho da Silva* Orientação: Profº Dr. Peter Alexander Bleinroth Schulz** 2º semestre de 2009 – Relatório finalizado em 3 de dezembro * [email protected] ** [email protected] 1) RESULTADOS ATINGIDOS Após a coleta dos materiais necessários e a busca por fontes de informação sobre o tema, foram alcançados como resultados uma bem-sucedida realização do experimento do telefone com diapasão e uma discussão da parte histórica envolvida no surgimento do telefone. Ou seja, foi possível, assim como fez originalmente Alexander Graham Bell, transmitir o som de um diapasão através de fios elétricos e ouvi-lo com o auxílio de um alto-falante; e realizar um trabalho sobre a evolução das telecomunicações focado principalmente no telefone e nos protagonistas de seu desenvolvimento. Deve-se ressaltar que, ao menos a priori, não há restrições no que diz respeito ao público-alvo deste trabalho. 2) FOTOS DA EXPERIÊNCIA Seguem logo abaixo as fotos dos materiais utilizados: Figura 1: Diapasão de garfo Figura 2: Bateria de 9 Volts Figura 3: Alto-falante Figura 4: Parte de trás do alto-falante 2 Figura 5: Tipo de fio elétrico usado Figura 6: Recipiente com água e vinagre Com os materiais acima, montamos o experimento: Figura 7: Montagem experimental – as setas azuis indicam que dois fios compõem o fio branco do alto-falante, um deles deve ser ligado ao diapasão e o outro à bateria 3 3) DIFICULDADES ENCONTRADAS Na etapa de coleta de materiais houve certa dificuldade em encontrar um alto-falante que pudesse ser usado, então, o retiramos de uma “caixinha” de som (de computador). Os outros materiais foram encontrados com razoável facilidade: o diapasão foi comprado em uma loja de instrumentos musicais e a bateria num supermercado; os fios (três pequenos pedaços) foram conseguidos com um eletricista. Houve dificuldade também na montagem do experimento: é preciso observar bem a maneira como os componentes do circuito são interligados, em especial o alto-falante, que, como pode ser visto na figura 4, possui dois fios conectados a ele, os quais devem ser conectados a dois elementos diferentes do circuito. Para a realização da discussão histórica talvez a maior dificuldade tenha sido filtrar as informações mais confiáveis, pois há grande disponibilidade de fontes, principalmente na internet. Além disso, boa parte das referências está em inglês, o que requer certo conhecimento dessa língua. 4) PESQUISA REALIZADA - REFERÊNCIAS Através do website de busca “Google” foram encontradas referências utilizando como palavras-chave (em português e em inglês): “Alexander Graham Bell”, “invenção do telefone”, “história do telefone”, “Antonio Meucci”, “telefone com diapasão”, “experimentos de Bell” e “patentes do telefone”. Além disso, alguns desses websites visitados fornecem links para outros websites que também tratam do assunto. A referência [1] foi encontrada através de uma busca no website do Sistema de Bibliotecas da Unicamp e as referências [54], [55] e [56] através de uma busca no website da SpringerLink ( http://www.springerlink.com ). A seguir são explicitadas brevemente as funções de cada referência. Todas as páginas virtuais foram acessados pela última vez em 05/11/09 por volta das 17 horas e algumas delas ([4], [6], [9], [10], [11], [12], [14], [16], [18], [28], [31], [32], [33], [34], [35], [36], [37], [43], [50] e [53]) constituem o apêndice deste relatório. 4 [1] SHIPPEN, Katherine Binney. Alexander Graham Bell. Tradução de Neil R. da Silva. Volume 4. Belo Horizonte: Difusão Pan-Americana do Livro, 1964. – narra, inclusive, através de diálogos, a história de Bell a partir de sua chegada à Boston em 1871 (em português). [2] http://www.juliantrubin.com/bigten/telephoneexperiments.html - fala sobre a invenção do telefone e sobre dois dos experimentos de Bell, inclusive o com diapasão (em inglês). [3] http://www.kidcyber.com.au/topics/agbell.htm - fala um pouco sobre Meucci e o reconhecimento dado à ele na invenção do telefone (em inglês). [4] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_Graham_Bell - VER APÊNDICES - descrição detalhada sobre a vida de Bell (em inglês). [5] http://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_Graham_Bell - pequena biografia de Bell (em português). [6] http://www.ieee.org/web/aboutus/history_center/biography/bell.html - VER APÊNDICES - biografia de Bell (em inglês). [7] http://www.independenciaoumorte.com.br/node/1864 - biografia de Bell (em português). [8] http://www.antiquetelephonehistory.com/scienceliquid.html - fala sobre o experimento do transmissor líquido, realizado por Bell após o experimento com diapasão (em inglês). [9] http://atcaonline.com/phone/sciencefork.html - VER APÊNDICES - descrição um pouco mais detalhada sobre o experimento com diapasão (em inglês). [10] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Invention_of_the_telephone - VER APÊNDICES - fala sobre a invenção do telefone e sobre diversos personagens dessa história (em inglês). [11] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canadian_Parliamentary_Motion_on_Alexander_Graham_Bell - VER APÊNDICES - fala sobre o reconhecimento de Bell como o inventor do telefone, o qual foi reiterado pelo Canadá recentemente (em inglês). [12] http://www2.iath.virginia.edu/albell/introduction.html - VER APÊNDICES - descrição dos trabalhos de Bell envolvidos com a invenção do telefone (em inglês). [13] http://www2.uol.com.br/debate/1109/cadd/cadernod05.htm - fala sobre o reconhecimento recente nos EUA da invenção do telefone por Meucci e não por Bell (em português). [14] http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2002/jun/17/humanities.internationaleducationnews - VER APÊNDICES - matéria do dia 17 de junho de 2002 do jornal britânico “The Guardian” sobre o reconhecimento nos EUA de Meucci como o inventor do telefone (em inglês). [15] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuning_fork - explica o que é, como funciona e como calcular a freqüência de um diapasão (em inglês). [16] http://www.fisica.net/feirasdeciencias/telefone_de_bell.php - VER APÊNDICES - descrição resumida do experimento com diapasão (em português). 5 [17] http://www.acoustics.org/press/156th/korman.html - fala sobre demonstrações utilizando o som e, muito brevemente, sobre o experimento com diapasão (em inglês). [18] http://www.scitechantiques.com/belltelephone/pages/Variable_Restance_Microphones.htm - VER APÊNDICES - fala um pouco sobre microfones de resistência variável, inclusive sobre o experimento com diapasão (em inglês). [19] http://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antonio_Meucci - pequena biografia de Meucci (em português). [20] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elisha_Gray - fala sobre Elisha Gray que também é tido por alguns como inventor do telefone (em inglês). [21] http://www.ufsm.br/gef/Ondas16.htm - fala sobre ondas e a física da música (em português). [22] HALLIDAY, D.; RESNICK, R.; WALKER, J.. Fundamentos de Física. Volume 3, 6ª edição. Rio de Janeiro: Livros Técnicos e Científicos Editora, 2002. – fala no capítulo 27 sobre corrente e resistência elétrica (em português). [23] http://www.school-for-champions.com/senses/hearpitch.htm - fala sobre as freqüências sonoras ouvidas por diferentes animais (em inglês). [24] http://www.scitechantiques.com/belltelephone/index.htm - traz algumas datas importantes para a construção do telefone e contém muitas fotos interessantes (em inglês). [25] http://www.nossosaopaulo.com.br/Reg_SP/Barra_Escolha/B_AntonioMeucci.htm - biografia de Meucci (em português). [26] http://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telefone - define o telefone e trata um pouco da história dele (em português). [27] http://www.privateline.com/TelephoneHistory/History1.htm - descrição longa e detalhada sobre a história do telefone (em inglês). [28] http://members.fortunecity.com/cibercultura/vol11/vol11_richardwise.htm - VER APÊNDICES - trata da evolução da rede multimídia, inclusive da telefonia (em português). [29] http://telefonesdotempo.blogspot.com/ - fala sobre a vida de Graham Bell e contém muitas fotos de telefones antigos (em português). [30] http://www.modulatedlight.org/Modulated_Light_DX/ModLightBiblio.html - percurso histórico das comunicações através da óptica (em inglês). [31] http://www.lifeinitaly.com/heroes-villains/antonio-meucci.asp - VER APÊNDICES - fala sobre Meucci e a invenção do telefone (em inglês). [32] http://hnn.us/articles/802.html - VER APÊNDICES - matéria do dia 20 de junho de 2002 da History News Network que fala sobre o reconhecimento dado à Meucci na invenção do telefone e traz a resolução original do Congresso dos EUA (em inglês). [33] http://www.nap.edu/html/biomems/abell.pdf - VER APÊNDICES - biografia de Bell que consta na National Academy of Sciences (NAS) dos EUA (em inglês). 6 [34] http://www.google.com/patents?id=crhRAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&source=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q=&f=false - VER APÊNDICES - patente nº 174.465 dos EUA: original de Bell para o telefone (em inglês). [35] http://www.fundacaotelefonica.org.br/museu/O-telefone-alexander-graham-bell.aspx - VER APÊNDICES - fala sobre os trabalhos de Bell relacionados ao telégrafo e ao telefone (em português). [36] http://www.fundacaotelefonica.org.br/museu/Linha-do-tempo.aspx - VER APÊNDICES - linha do tempo dos fatos que estão envolvidos com a telefonia (em português). [37] http://www.fundacaotelefonica.org.br/museu/Personagens.aspx - VER APÊNDICES - fala sobre alguns dos personagens da história do telefone (em português). [38] http://www.fundacaotelefonica.org.br/museu/Funcionamento.aspx
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  • A History of Audio Effects

    A History of Audio Effects

    applied sciences Review A History of Audio Effects Thomas Wilmering 1,∗ , David Moffat 2 , Alessia Milo 1 and Mark B. Sandler 1 1 Centre for Digital Music, Queen Mary University of London, London E1 4NS, UK; [email protected] (A.M.); [email protected] (M.B.S.) 2 Interdisciplinary Centre for Computer Music Research, University of Plymouth, Plymouth PL4 8AA, UK; [email protected] * Correspondence: [email protected] Received: 16 December 2019; Accepted: 13 January 2020; Published: 22 January 2020 Abstract: Audio effects are an essential tool that the field of music production relies upon. The ability to intentionally manipulate and modify a piece of sound has opened up considerable opportunities for music making. The evolution of technology has often driven new audio tools and effects, from early architectural acoustics through electromechanical and electronic devices to the digitisation of music production studios. Throughout time, music has constantly borrowed ideas and technological advancements from all other fields and contributed back to the innovative technology. This is defined as transsectorial innovation and fundamentally underpins the technological developments of audio effects. The development and evolution of audio effect technology is discussed, highlighting major technical breakthroughs and the impact of available audio effects. Keywords: audio effects; history; transsectorial innovation; technology; audio processing; music production 1. Introduction In this article, we describe the history of audio effects with regards to musical composition (music performance and production). We define audio effects as the controlled transformation of a sound typically based on some control parameters. As such, the term sound transformation can be considered synonymous with audio effect.