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1983
Attitudes Toward Animals in Greco-Roman Antiquity
Liliane Bodson University of Liège
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Recommended Citation Bodson, L. (1983). Attitudes toward animals in Greco-Roman antiquity. International Journal for the Study of Animal Problems, 4(4), 312-320.
This material is brought to you for free and open access by WellBeing International. It has been accepted for inclusion by an authorized administrator of the WBI Studies Repository. For more information, please contact [email protected]. L. Bodson- Greco-Roman Attitudes Original Article
meaning, they complete the direct and reader is kindly requested to turn to fur scarcer evidence and confirm that the ther details and references. Only the Attitudes Toward Animals problems arising from the daily relation essential points of immediate interest for ship between man and animal were never the question under examination will be in Greco-Roman Antiquity despised nor played down at any period. stressed below. Quite the reverse, they were paid atten In admonishing his brother on how tion to not only by philosophers and to behave properly, the moralist farmer moralists, but also by a wider public, by poet Hesiod (7th cent. B.C.) considered Liliane Bodson the State authorities, and by tho5e who the principles which rule the world and were concerned in the first place: animal stated that justice has been granted ex Liliane Bodson is with the Department of Classics, University of Liege, Liege, Belgium. owners, breeders, and keepers. Since clusively to mankind by Zeus, while the those accounts have also given the an wild animals- fish, birds, mammals Both wild and domesticated animals had a direct and wide-ranging role in the life cient authors and compilers the oppor deprived as they are of the logos (both of the ancient Greeks and Romans. The bond between humans and animals which first tunity to analyze and comment on the intelligence and language) that makes originated in the economic needs went far beyond strictly practical matters. It did in features they reported on, they became man's superiority, "teared each other to fluence and enrich the Classical culture in its major aspects from literature and arts to significant of the ideas prevailing at the pieces in a mercyless struggle" (Works philosophy and ethics. It also induced people to analyze the main implications of their time when they were set forth. Being ex and Days, 274-280). Hesiod also praised relationship with "subhuman" creatures. The present paper aims to survey the range of perienced by all people without excep the ploughing ox, suggested how the farmer the attitudes they developed about animals. It also examines to what extent they were tion, the relationship between man and should select it, but said nothing even concerned with the problems related to animal welfare and rights, and how they coped animal in the Classical antiquity cannot allusively on its welfare (ibid., 405, 436- with them. be isolated from what influenced it most: 441 ). One might, however, admit that the philosophers' and moralists' views the farmer, considering his own and per When one considers the impor Although the amount of materials and the religious beliefs and rites. All sonal interest, at least would care for his tance of the involvement of animals in lost over the ages should not be underes these factors are closely related. For the "first servant" and grant it the minimal the life of the ancient Greeks and Ro timated, the remaining evidence, either sake of clarity, they will be outlined sep comfort to keep it in good health. mans, one is bound to wonder how the direct or indirect, clearly shows the arately in the next two paragraphs, as an A few decades later, Pythagoras latter treated those subhuman creatures evolution of the mentalities throughout introduction to the survey of man's daily and his followers dealing among other of which they required so much for all the antiquity. They are scattered over relationship with the animal in Greece metaphysical concerns with I ife after their physical and metaphysical needs two millenia or so: from the Creta-myce arid Rome. death developed the theory of metem (Keller, 1909-1913; Toynbee, 1973). Did naean era (2nd mill. B.C.) down to the psychosis. They believed in the human they care for them and to what extent? first centuries of the Roman empire. Ancient Philosophers' and soul's transmigration to the other living Did they have any definite ideas on the Some of them, especially those recording Moralists' Views on Animals creatures, including the animals, and subject of animal welfare and animal the attitudes which were privately adopted therefore they taught their contem rights which was later to become such a towards the animals are concentrated in As soon as the Greek thought poraries not to kill them, whether they sensitive and controversial issue (Magel, the Greek and Roman texts of the first emerged, the question of defining man were wild or domestic. They relied upon 1981; Roll in, 1982)? three centuries A.D., at the time when in his relationship with the world and all a more or less exclusive vegetarian diet The relationship between man and people reconsidered the philosophical living beings arose. Although the debate depending on the range of animal animal is directly affected by the cultu and ethical theories previously elaborated was to remain strongly anthropocentric, species involved in the transmigration ral and intellectual environment of the in ancient anthropology, broadened the the early anthropology felt it necessary process (Haussleiter, 1935). The theory societies and civilizations in which it is debate, and focused on the human-ani to define both the supranatural and the of soul transmigration was later to be rooted. Since it has taken an increasing mal bond more systematically then ever subhuman creatures: gods and animals. taken up by Plato who distinguished a importance in the past few decades (due before. Yet, the data that they brought This did not go without flaws, ambigu double nature in man's soul: for its bet to the current economic, scientific, and up to illustrate the often diverging posi ities, and incoherences as the ideas ter part, divine and shared with the gods moral evolution), we run the risk, as al tions go back to events and episodes evolved. In spite of this, most theories, if (logistikon: the rational element), and, for ways when investigating an ancient tra which took place earlier, sometimes sev not all, did affect the relationship be the other, related to the animals through dition on matters of present interest, of eral centuries before the time when they tween man and animal. Full accounts of the thymoeides (the spirited element) being anachronistic. A few preliminary were definitively written down and pre the ideas developed on that matter have and epithymetikon (the appetitive ele remarks are therefore needed in order to served. This late emergence does not de been given, e.g., by Westermarck (1908), ment). (See Plato, Republic, IV. 439 define the sources to be taken into con tract from their importance. Far from being Boas and Lovejoy (1935), and more E-440 E.) Man could only fulfill himself sideration, their limits and prospects. mere anecdotes, colorful but of restricted recently by Dierauer (1977) to which the by giving his reason command over the ir-
312 /NT} STUD ANIM PROB 4(4) 1983 /NT} STUD ANIM PROB 4(4) 1983 313 L. Bodson- Greco-Roman Attitudes Original Article
meaning, they complete the direct and reader is kindly requested to turn to fur scarcer evidence and confirm that the ther details and references. Only the Attitudes Toward Animals problems arising from the daily relation essential points of immediate interest for ship between man and animal were never the question under examination will be in Greco-Roman Antiquity despised nor played down at any period. stressed below. Quite the reverse, they were paid atten In admonishing his brother on how tion to not only by philosophers and to behave properly, the moralist farmer moralists, but also by a wider public, by poet Hesiod (7th cent. B.C.) considered Liliane Bodson the State authorities, and by tho5e who the principles which rule the world and were concerned in the first place: animal stated that justice has been granted ex Liliane Bodson is with the Department of Classics, University of Liege, Liege, Belgium. owners, breeders, and keepers. Since clusively to mankind by Zeus, while the those accounts have also given the an wild animals- fish, birds, mammals Both wild and domesticated animals had a direct and wide-ranging role in the life cient authors and compilers the oppor deprived as they are of the logos (both of the ancient Greeks and Romans. The bond between humans and animals which first tunity to analyze and comment on the intelligence and language) that makes originated in the economic needs went far beyond strictly practical matters. It did in features they reported on, they became man's superiority, "teared each other to fluence and enrich the Classical culture in its major aspects from literature and arts to significant of the ideas prevailing at the pieces in a mercyless struggle" (Works philosophy and ethics. It also induced people to analyze the main implications of their time when they were set forth. Being ex and Days, 274-280). Hesiod also praised relationship with "subhuman" creatures. The present paper aims to survey the range of perienced by all people without excep the ploughing ox, suggested how the farmer the attitudes they developed about animals. It also examines to what extent they were tion, the relationship between man and should select it, but said nothing even concerned with the problems related to animal welfare and rights, and how they coped animal in the Classical antiquity cannot allusively on its welfare (ibid., 405, 436- with them. be isolated from what influenced it most: 441 ). One might, however, admit that the philosophers' and moralists' views the farmer, considering his own and per When one considers the impor Although the amount of materials and the religious beliefs and rites. All sonal interest, at least would care for his tance of the involvement of animals in lost over the ages should not be underes these factors are closely related. For the "first servant" and grant it the minimal the life of the ancient Greeks and Ro timated, the remaining evidence, either sake of clarity, they will be outlined sep comfort to keep it in good health. mans, one is bound to wonder how the direct or indirect, clearly shows the arately in the next two paragraphs, as an A few decades later, Pythagoras latter treated those subhuman creatures evolution of the mentalities throughout introduction to the survey of man's daily and his followers dealing among other of which they required so much for all the antiquity. They are scattered over relationship with the animal in Greece metaphysical concerns with I ife after their physical and metaphysical needs two millenia or so: from the Creta-myce arid Rome. death developed the theory of metem (Keller, 1909-1913; Toynbee, 1973). Did naean era (2nd mill. B.C.) down to the psychosis. They believed in the human they care for them and to what extent? first centuries of the Roman empire. Ancient Philosophers' and soul's transmigration to the other living Did they have any definite ideas on the Some of them, especially those recording Moralists' Views on Animals creatures, including the animals, and subject of animal welfare and animal the attitudes which were privately adopted therefore they taught their contem rights which was later to become such a towards the animals are concentrated in As soon as the Greek thought poraries not to kill them, whether they sensitive and controversial issue (Magel, the Greek and Roman texts of the first emerged, the question of defining man were wild or domestic. They relied upon 1981; Roll in, 1982)? three centuries A.D., at the time when in his relationship with the world and all a more or less exclusive vegetarian diet The relationship between man and people reconsidered the philosophical living beings arose. Although the debate depending on the range of animal animal is directly affected by the cultu and ethical theories previously elaborated was to remain strongly anthropocentric, species involved in the transmigration ral and intellectual environment of the in ancient anthropology, broadened the the early anthropology felt it necessary process (Haussleiter, 1935). The theory societies and civilizations in which it is debate, and focused on the human-ani to define both the supranatural and the of soul transmigration was later to be rooted. Since it has taken an increasing mal bond more systematically then ever subhuman creatures: gods and animals. taken up by Plato who distinguished a importance in the past few decades (due before. Yet, the data that they brought This did not go without flaws, ambigu double nature in man's soul: for its bet to the current economic, scientific, and up to illustrate the often diverging posi ities, and incoherences as the ideas ter part, divine and shared with the gods moral evolution), we run the risk, as al tions go back to events and episodes evolved. In spite of this, most theories, if (logistikon: the rational element), and, for ways when investigating an ancient tra which took place earlier, sometimes sev not all, did affect the relationship be the other, related to the animals through dition on matters of present interest, of eral centuries before the time when they tween man and animal. Full accounts of the thymoeides (the spirited element) being anachronistic. A few preliminary were definitively written down and pre the ideas developed on that matter have and epithymetikon (the appetitive ele remarks are therefore needed in order to served. This late emergence does not de been given, e.g., by Westermarck (1908), ment). (See Plato, Republic, IV. 439 define the sources to be taken into con tract from their importance. Far from being Boas and Lovejoy (1935), and more E-440 E.) Man could only fulfill himself sideration, their limits and prospects. mere anecdotes, colorful but of restricted recently by Dierauer (1977) to which the by giving his reason command over the ir-
312 /NT} STUD ANIM PROB 4(4) 1983 /NT} STUD ANIM PROB 4(4) 1983 313 L. Bodson- Creco-Roman Attitudes Original Article L. Bodson- Creco-Roman Attitudes Original Article
rational forces of his sou I. Aristotle who animal rights beyond the speculative sodes are commanded by the empathy for ural world and the sacred forces included correlated the rational and sensitive parts level and individual applications. There the animals in the sense defined by Fox in it was intensively perceived and re of the soul initiated an important pro is no clue of their discussions being in (1980) and the sentences are passed by vered, even in the later periods when re gram of research in animal psychology. fluential enough even at some local scale referring to the penalty for any attempt ligion became more formalistic. This After him, Theophrastus could argue on to stir up the radical changes that the mis upon man's life and physical integrity. played a part in the process which won the physical and mental similarities be handling of animals, such as in the games The contexts in which the episodes are the animals the moral right of being tween man and animal. He concluded to organized by authorities in the Roman mentioned suggest that the "moral con treated equitably. Yet, the major cult their kinship, since he agreed on the fact empire (see below), would have justified. science" of the public was hurt by the un celebration in honor of every god either that "if they are differences of degree, It is known that in Thessaly the storks motivated slaughter of and other acts of of first or of second rank included the there are no really qualitative distinc and in Argolid the grass snakes were pro cruelty towards animals, considered sacrifice of domestic animals. The slaugh tions with regard to the sense perception" tected by the local laws. The basic rea them as intolerable, and sought to curb ter of the victim was one of the main (Comperz, 1955; Gill, 1969; Dierauer, son for such regulation was man's ad them by requiring exiles, fines, public rep points at issue. Hunting the wild and fe 1977). Such views and similar ones pro vantages: those animals were judged to rimands, etc., for the author of the ges rocious animals was always justified as fessed by the founders of natural history be more effective than any other at keep ture assimilated to a crime. The avail an improvement of the living conditions were connected with the arguments al ing respectively vipers and small rodents able evidence, however, shows that such and as the best training in bravery, cour ready expressed or alluded to earlier in under control. In Athens, an old law men reactions, widely praised by those who age, and stamina for the youngster keen the tradition, e.g. by Empedocles, and des tioned by Plato in his ideal code (Laws, emphasized the animal's right of being on becoming a responsible citizen and a tined to undergo further developments, IX. 873 E) stated that "if any animal of fairly treated, remained occasional. They good soldier. But even then the rule was that the animals are superior in some burden or any other animal murdered any even seem to have been exceptional not to slaughter the newly-born offspring ways to human beings. The ancient theo one- except if they did it when taking enough to be underlined and remem of at least the undangerous species and reticians of the human-animal relation part in a public competition- the rela bered as guidelines by those who recorded to leave them to the goddess Artemis, ship also kept alive the polemics gener tives should prosecute the slayer for them. More often than from the laws protectress of both the hunter and the ated by the Stoics' ideas on the hierar murder, and so many of the land-stew and official regulations the reactions to game (Xenophon, Cynegetica, 5. 14). The chy of all beings and their concept of ards as were appointed by the relatives animal mistreatment came from the so problem was quite different with the do man's superiority correlated with his should decide the case, and the con called popular wisdom as is expressed in mestic species, especially sheep, goats, theoretically absolute dominion over victed beast they should kill and cast old proverbs. "There are Erinyes (i.e., and cattle, the slaughter of which in the animal. Epicurians, Cynics, and later beyond the borders of the country." No deities of vengeance) even for dogs", the spired a full range of rules and devices Skeptics, neo- Platonists, neo- Pythago consideration of the private right or the Creeks used to say meaning thereby that to justify a compulsory but feared ac reans, each of them with their own argu civil responsibility of the animal's owner every living being however great or tion perceived as an attack on the life of ments and purposes (Lorenz, 1974; Dier is to be found here. Such a law, anthro small in the scale of hierarchy would be man's first and faithful servants (Durand, auer, 1977) vigorously contested such pocentred as it is, is based on the ar in the end avenged by the immanent jus 1979). Required by cultural, political, theories and the consequences they in chaic notion of the blood stain to be re tice. In the meantime, this deeply-rooted and social reasons (Vernant, 1981), ani volved for the status of animals since solved in the ritual destruction and ex belief did not prevent the public from mal sacrifice was not carried out without the beasts were said to exist only for pulsion of the culprit, either an animal reacting and even overreacting against a carefully designed ceremonial which man's use and advantage. Underlining or even a simple object, as shown in Laws, animal abuse: the killer of a talking aimed at counterbalancing the potential the animals' irrationality, the Stoics de IX. 873 E-874 A (Cernet, 1917) No an raven famous and much appreciated in danger of shedding blood of innocent nied them any of the abilities indispen cient legislation favoring the mistreated Rome in the 1st cent. A.D. was "dealt victims (Yerkes, 1952; Burkert, 1972). In sable for their being granted recognition animal with comparable measures has with" by the crowd outraged at what that sense, the ancients could praise the of any rights, either natural or legal, and been found so far. Yet some evidence of was considered like an act of barbary Scythians otherwise despised as barbar therefore denied them the protection of court condemnation for abuses of ani (Pliny the Elder, Nat. Hist., X. 110). ians or the minorities such as the Pytha law and justice. One of the most com mals occurs in the tradition. Plutarch gorician sect, the former as "milk drink prehensive accounts of those controver (The Eating of Flesh, I. 7) mentioned the ers", the latter as vegetarians. Such The Impact of Religion sies preserved along with a good syn Athenian citizen condemned after flay diets, although out of reach for the ma thesis of the main factors at issue is ing his ram when it was still alive. Pliny Both wild and domestic animals ful jority, appealed to many because it re given by Plutarch's treatises, especially the Elder (Natural History, VIII. 180) filled countless functions in the Creek minded them somehow of the mythical those entitled The Cleverness of Ani pointed out the case of a Roman citizen and Roman religions, mythologies, and Colden Age when man and animal were mals, Beasts Are Rational, and The Eating "who was indicted for having killed an symbols in which they occurred as omen believed to live together in full harmony of Flesh. Yet, the most open-minded ox. He was convicted by the public court bearers, messengers, and attributes (Hopf, (Guthrie, 1957). Moreover, in Greece and among the ancient philosophers and and sent into exile as though he had 1888; Pollard, 1977; Bodson, 1978). That in Rome, the cult observance could also moralists never brought the question of murdered his farm-labourer." Such epi- privileged relationship with the supranat- be fulfilled on certain occasions with
314 /NT I STUD ANIM PROB 4(4) 1983 /NT I STUD ANIM PROB 4(4) 1983 315 L. Bodson- Creco-Roman Attitudes Original Article L. Bodson- Creco-Roman Attitudes Original Article
rational forces of his sou I. Aristotle who animal rights beyond the speculative sodes are commanded by the empathy for ural world and the sacred forces included correlated the rational and sensitive parts level and individual applications. There the animals in the sense defined by Fox in it was intensively perceived and re of the soul initiated an important pro is no clue of their discussions being in (1980) and the sentences are passed by vered, even in the later periods when re gram of research in animal psychology. fluential enough even at some local scale referring to the penalty for any attempt ligion became more formalistic. This After him, Theophrastus could argue on to stir up the radical changes that the mis upon man's life and physical integrity. played a part in the process which won the physical and mental similarities be handling of animals, such as in the games The contexts in which the episodes are the animals the moral right of being tween man and animal. He concluded to organized by authorities in the Roman mentioned suggest that the "moral con treated equitably. Yet, the major cult their kinship, since he agreed on the fact empire (see below), would have justified. science" of the public was hurt by the un celebration in honor of every god either that "if they are differences of degree, It is known that in Thessaly the storks motivated slaughter of and other acts of of first or of second rank included the there are no really qualitative distinc and in Argolid the grass snakes were pro cruelty towards animals, considered sacrifice of domestic animals. The slaugh tions with regard to the sense perception" tected by the local laws. The basic rea them as intolerable, and sought to curb ter of the victim was one of the main (Comperz, 1955; Gill, 1969; Dierauer, son for such regulation was man's ad them by requiring exiles, fines, public rep points at issue. Hunting the wild and fe 1977). Such views and similar ones pro vantages: those animals were judged to rimands, etc., for the author of the ges rocious animals was always justified as fessed by the founders of natural history be more effective than any other at keep ture assimilated to a crime. The avail an improvement of the living conditions were connected with the arguments al ing respectively vipers and small rodents able evidence, however, shows that such and as the best training in bravery, cour ready expressed or alluded to earlier in under control. In Athens, an old law men reactions, widely praised by those who age, and stamina for the youngster keen the tradition, e.g. by Empedocles, and des tioned by Plato in his ideal code (Laws, emphasized the animal's right of being on becoming a responsible citizen and a tined to undergo further developments, IX. 873 E) stated that "if any animal of fairly treated, remained occasional. They good soldier. But even then the rule was that the animals are superior in some burden or any other animal murdered any even seem to have been exceptional not to slaughter the newly-born offspring ways to human beings. The ancient theo one- except if they did it when taking enough to be underlined and remem of at least the undangerous species and reticians of the human-animal relation part in a public competition- the rela bered as guidelines by those who recorded to leave them to the goddess Artemis, ship also kept alive the polemics gener tives should prosecute the slayer for them. More often than from the laws protectress of both the hunter and the ated by the Stoics' ideas on the hierar murder, and so many of the land-stew and official regulations the reactions to game (Xenophon, Cynegetica, 5. 14). The chy of all beings and their concept of ards as were appointed by the relatives animal mistreatment came from the so problem was quite different with the do man's superiority correlated with his should decide the case, and the con called popular wisdom as is expressed in mestic species, especially sheep, goats, theoretically absolute dominion over victed beast they should kill and cast old proverbs. "There are Erinyes (i.e., and cattle, the slaughter of which in the animal. Epicurians, Cynics, and later beyond the borders of the country." No deities of vengeance) even for dogs", the spired a full range of rules and devices Skeptics, neo- Platonists, neo- Pythago consideration of the private right or the Creeks used to say meaning thereby that to justify a compulsory but feared ac reans, each of them with their own argu civil responsibility of the animal's owner every living being however great or tion perceived as an attack on the life of ments and purposes (Lorenz, 1974; Dier is to be found here. Such a law, anthro small in the scale of hierarchy would be man's first and faithful servants (Durand, auer, 1977) vigorously contested such pocentred as it is, is based on the ar in the end avenged by the immanent jus 1979). Required by cultural, political, theories and the consequences they in chaic notion of the blood stain to be re tice. In the meantime, this deeply-rooted and social reasons (Vernant, 1981), ani volved for the status of animals since solved in the ritual destruction and ex belief did not prevent the public from mal sacrifice was not carried out without the beasts were said to exist only for pulsion of the culprit, either an animal reacting and even overreacting against a carefully designed ceremonial which man's use and advantage. Underlining or even a simple object, as shown in Laws, animal abuse: the killer of a talking aimed at counterbalancing the potential the animals' irrationality, the Stoics de IX. 873 E-874 A (Cernet, 1917) No an raven famous and much appreciated in danger of shedding blood of innocent nied them any of the abilities indispen cient legislation favoring the mistreated Rome in the 1st cent. A.D. was "dealt victims (Yerkes, 1952; Burkert, 1972). In sable for their being granted recognition animal with comparable measures has with" by the crowd outraged at what that sense, the ancients could praise the of any rights, either natural or legal, and been found so far. Yet some evidence of was considered like an act of barbary Scythians otherwise despised as barbar therefore denied them the protection of court condemnation for abuses of ani (Pliny the Elder, Nat. Hist., X. 110). ians or the minorities such as the Pytha law and justice. One of the most com mals occurs in the tradition. Plutarch gorician sect, the former as "milk drink prehensive accounts of those controver (The Eating of Flesh, I. 7) mentioned the ers", the latter as vegetarians. Such The Impact of Religion sies preserved along with a good syn Athenian citizen condemned after flay diets, although out of reach for the ma thesis of the main factors at issue is ing his ram when it was still alive. Pliny Both wild and domestic animals ful jority, appealed to many because it re given by Plutarch's treatises, especially the Elder (Natural History, VIII. 180) filled countless functions in the Creek minded them somehow of the mythical those entitled The Cleverness of Ani pointed out the case of a Roman citizen and Roman religions, mythologies, and Colden Age when man and animal were mals, Beasts Are Rational, and The Eating "who was indicted for having killed an symbols in which they occurred as omen believed to live together in full harmony of Flesh. Yet, the most open-minded ox. He was convicted by the public court bearers, messengers, and attributes (Hopf, (Guthrie, 1957). Moreover, in Greece and among the ancient philosophers and and sent into exile as though he had 1888; Pollard, 1977; Bodson, 1978). That in Rome, the cult observance could also moralists never brought the question of murdered his farm-labourer." Such epi- privileged relationship with the supranat- be fulfilled on certain occasions with
314 /NT I STUD ANIM PROB 4(4) 1983 /NT I STUD ANIM PROB 4(4) 1983 315 L. Bodson- Creco-Roman Attitudes Original Article L. Bodson- Creco-Roman Attitudes Original A rtic/e
bloodless offerings made of flowers, veg they are not able to work any more; (2) for themselves and for their children (Bod died from exhaustion while trying to etables, fruits, etc., along with periodical honored and praised for the courage and son, 1980). Moreover, many people in swim behind the boat on which he was abstinence of meat. Such was the case at bravery that the best of them put in car Greece and in Rome took steps to have being evacuated from Athens before the some festivals celebrated for the Creek rying out their duties; and finally (3) themselves represented with their ani Persian invasion of 490 B.C. (Plutarch, goddess Demeter (lat. Ceres) which spread granted the right to die peacefully and mals- oxen, dogs, goats, birds, etc., Life of Themistocles, 10. 9-10). The Athen all over the ancient world the sacred to have their mortal remains removed on the tombstones to be erected after ians extended the application of the law rule once issued at Eleusis and requiring with dignity. Breeders and farmers were their death (Calletier, 1922; Herrlinger, designed to grant the athletes public the worshipper "to honour his parents, trained to pay close attention to the 1930). It is not unreasonable to conclude honors to some famous animals distin to bring fruit offerings to the gods, not health of the animals they raised and from the abundant evidence supplied by guished for their services. Such were a to injure any living creature." employed, to protect them from bad excavations that those who wished their mule which had worked tirelessly as a weather conditions, to provide them with animals to benefit by their piety and to draft animal in the building of the Par Individual and Collective Attitudes appropriate and sufficient fodder, to continue to share their companionship theon (Aristotle, History of Animals, VI. Towards Animal Welfare & Rights spare them any unnecessary hardship even after death were motivated by a 24), and a watchdog which had stopped (Columella, On Agriculture, VI- IX passim). deep and sincere empathy for them. In a sacrilegious burglar (Plutarch, The As seen above, the idea of the natu At first, such a policy could seem to be that general context, they did not have Cleverness of Animals, 13). Many private ral and moral rights of animals to be fair planned for no better purpose than the to refer to religion, philosophy, or laws citizens were keen to have their favorite ly treated was largely shared and spread profit of the animal's owner. Indeed, the to criticize and protest against those pets portrayed by painters or sculptors out under philosophical and religious in advantage of the owner should not be who mistreated their serving animals: and celebrated by poets while the ani fluences. From its very beginning, the disregarded, but this does not exclude the farmer who harassed his cow just mals were still alive or after their deaths Creek literature included significant evi unselfish reasons linked up with the irre after calving (Bianor, Palatine Anthology, as a last tribute (Calletier, 1922; Herrl dence of pity, compassion, and reverence placeable experience of the daily rela X. 101); the bathhouse keeper who forced inger, 1930). As Carson (1972) pointed out, paid to the animals (Lilja, 197 4). Some have tionship and contacts taking place in the his donkey to work without rest (Plu this was also a means to flaunt one's got worldwide fame: Argos, the dog common undertaking of the farm work tarch, On Love of Wealth, 5); Cato the wealth and social status. But when it faithfully awaiting his master Odysseus (Corteman, 1957). The animals were rec Elder who was heartless to the point of came from ordinary citizens for ordinary during his 20-year long absence (Odys ognized as sensitive creatures serving selling his horse after campaigning with dogs, birds, or cicadas, etc., or from a sey, 17. 290-327); the horses of the Tro man generously and faithfully. They him for months (Plutarch, Life of Cato Roman emperor like Hadrian who wished jan hero Pandaros who preferred to leave were at his mercy, he had the duty of major, 5. 7). Similar reactions occurred to compose the epitaph for his horse them at home lest they should be deprived elementary justice and equity towards against those who unscrupulously abused (Aymard, 1951 ), sincere attachment rath of the proper care in all the uncertain them, if for no other reason because he their pets or tame animals: Alcibiades er than selfish ostentation was probably ties of the battlefield of Troy (Iliad, 5. had been granted more intelligence than cutting his dog's tail to divert the Athen their true motive. 201-203). Those examples fit very well they. The argument of man's logos which ians' attention from his way of handling Yet, for all the sympathy they dis with the large amount of Homeric similes could, as seen above, be brought up to public affairs (Plutarch, Life of Alcibi played towards animals, the ancient focusing the interest on the animals and set up his superiority on the other ani ades, 9), the killer of the talking raven Creeks and Romans could not always re showing the reader that the extension of mals and to assert his right to use and mentioned above, or the local authori frain from cruelty and mistreatment. empathy to animals at the early stage of abuse them was then put forward to jus ties of Hippona secretly killing the dol The Creeks, especially the Athenians, the Creek civilization implied a better tify his duty of humaneness towards them. phin which they considered a great dis did enjoy quail- and cockfights (Bruneau, knowledge of their behavior and psychol Quite often, the attitudes towards ani turber of public peace because it attracted 1965), the latter being justified as a na ogy (Rahn, 1950-1954; 1967). From then mals were inspired by heartfelt reasons thousands of people eager to watch its tional celebration since a couple of fight down to the Roman period, there is a as much as philosophical ones. According frolics from the beach (Pliny the Younger, ing roosters was believed to have in wealth of evidence on how many among to Xenophon (Economics, 5. 20), Socrates Letters, 9. 33). spired the Athenian resistance to the the ancient people experienced and ad used to recommend prayers for farm an While reminding their readers of Persian invaders in the early 5th century mired the ability of the animals to learn, imals: cattle, horses, and sheep. Indeed, those abuses and their consequences in B.C. (Aelian, On Animals, 11.18). There is progress, and react, how much they felt shepherds, cattle raisers, donkey owners, order to prevent them in the future, the however nothing in those shows to com responsible for the animal dependants etc., concerned with their beasts prayed authors also wished to point out the oc pare with what was to become the com and concerned to exert their dominion the gods to bless their herds and to keep casions when the animals had been proper mon entertainment under the Roman em over them by ensuring their welfare. The them in good health. The prayer formu ly treated as a positive way to encourage pire. Besides the pacific exhibitions and main and first reason for doing so was las, the rites performed on such occa humanitarianism towards animals. Xan parades of exotic animals, people in Rome their conviction that the animals had the sions, and the monuments erected once thippos, Pericles' father, was remembered and in the more remote provinces as moral rights to be: (1) well treated during the prayer had been fulfilled are identi among other things because he had or well enjoyed the bloody games of the their lives including their old age when cal with those they used when praying dered a memorial for his dog which had arena in which thousands of wild animals
316 /NT] STUD ANIM PROB 4(4) 1983 /NT] STUD ANIM PROB 4(4) 1983 317 L. Bodson- Creco-Roman Attitudes Original Article L. Bodson- Creco-Roman Attitudes Original A rtic/e
bloodless offerings made of flowers, veg they are not able to work any more; (2) for themselves and for their children (Bod died from exhaustion while trying to etables, fruits, etc., along with periodical honored and praised for the courage and son, 1980). Moreover, many people in swim behind the boat on which he was abstinence of meat. Such was the case at bravery that the best of them put in car Greece and in Rome took steps to have being evacuated from Athens before the some festivals celebrated for the Creek rying out their duties; and finally (3) themselves represented with their ani Persian invasion of 490 B.C. (Plutarch, goddess Demeter (lat. Ceres) which spread granted the right to die peacefully and mals- oxen, dogs, goats, birds, etc., Life of Themistocles, 10. 9-10). The Athen all over the ancient world the sacred to have their mortal remains removed on the tombstones to be erected after ians extended the application of the law rule once issued at Eleusis and requiring with dignity. Breeders and farmers were their death (Calletier, 1922; Herrlinger, designed to grant the athletes public the worshipper "to honour his parents, trained to pay close attention to the 1930). It is not unreasonable to conclude honors to some famous animals distin to bring fruit offerings to the gods, not health of the animals they raised and from the abundant evidence supplied by guished for their services. Such were a to injure any living creature." employed, to protect them from bad excavations that those who wished their mule which had worked tirelessly as a weather conditions, to provide them with animals to benefit by their piety and to draft animal in the building of the Par Individual and Collective Attitudes appropriate and sufficient fodder, to continue to share their companionship theon (Aristotle, History of Animals, VI. Towards Animal Welfare & Rights spare them any unnecessary hardship even after death were motivated by a 24), and a watchdog which had stopped (Columella, On Agriculture, VI- IX passim). deep and sincere empathy for them. In a sacrilegious burglar (Plutarch, The As seen above, the idea of the natu At first, such a policy could seem to be that general context, they did not have Cleverness of Animals, 13). Many private ral and moral rights of animals to be fair planned for no better purpose than the to refer to religion, philosophy, or laws citizens were keen to have their favorite ly treated was largely shared and spread profit of the animal's owner. Indeed, the to criticize and protest against those pets portrayed by painters or sculptors out under philosophical and religious in advantage of the owner should not be who mistreated their serving animals: and celebrated by poets while the ani fluences. From its very beginning, the disregarded, but this does not exclude the farmer who harassed his cow just mals were still alive or after their deaths Creek literature included significant evi unselfish reasons linked up with the irre after calving (Bianor, Palatine Anthology, as a last tribute (Calletier, 1922; Herrl dence of pity, compassion, and reverence placeable experience of the daily rela X. 101); the bathhouse keeper who forced inger, 1930). As Carson (1972) pointed out, paid to the animals (Lilja, 197 4). Some have tionship and contacts taking place in the his donkey to work without rest (Plu this was also a means to flaunt one's got worldwide fame: Argos, the dog common undertaking of the farm work tarch, On Love of Wealth, 5); Cato the wealth and social status. But when it faithfully awaiting his master Odysseus (Corteman, 1957). The animals were rec Elder who was heartless to the point of came from ordinary citizens for ordinary during his 20-year long absence (Odys ognized as sensitive creatures serving selling his horse after campaigning with dogs, birds, or cicadas, etc., or from a sey, 17. 290-327); the horses of the Tro man generously and faithfully. They him for months (Plutarch, Life of Cato Roman emperor like Hadrian who wished jan hero Pandaros who preferred to leave were at his mercy, he had the duty of major, 5. 7). Similar reactions occurred to compose the epitaph for his horse them at home lest they should be deprived elementary justice and equity towards against those who unscrupulously abused (Aymard, 1951 ), sincere attachment rath of the proper care in all the uncertain them, if for no other reason because he their pets or tame animals: Alcibiades er than selfish ostentation was probably ties of the battlefield of Troy (Iliad, 5. had been granted more intelligence than cutting his dog's tail to divert the Athen their true motive. 201-203). Those examples fit very well they. The argument of man's logos which ians' attention from his way of handling Yet, for all the sympathy they dis with the large amount of Homeric similes could, as seen above, be brought up to public affairs (Plutarch, Life of Alcibi played towards animals, the ancient focusing the interest on the animals and set up his superiority on the other ani ades, 9), the killer of the talking raven Creeks and Romans could not always re showing the reader that the extension of mals and to assert his right to use and mentioned above, or the local authori frain from cruelty and mistreatment. empathy to animals at the early stage of abuse them was then put forward to jus ties of Hippona secretly killing the dol The Creeks, especially the Athenians, the Creek civilization implied a better tify his duty of humaneness towards them. phin which they considered a great dis did enjoy quail- and cockfights (Bruneau, knowledge of their behavior and psychol Quite often, the attitudes towards ani turber of public peace because it attracted 1965), the latter being justified as a na ogy (Rahn, 1950-1954; 1967). From then mals were inspired by heartfelt reasons thousands of people eager to watch its tional celebration since a couple of fight down to the Roman period, there is a as much as philosophical ones. According frolics from the beach (Pliny the Younger, ing roosters was believed to have in wealth of evidence on how many among to Xenophon (Economics, 5. 20), Socrates Letters, 9. 33). spired the Athenian resistance to the the ancient people experienced and ad used to recommend prayers for farm an While reminding their readers of Persian invaders in the early 5th century mired the ability of the animals to learn, imals: cattle, horses, and sheep. Indeed, those abuses and their consequences in B.C. (Aelian, On Animals, 11.18). There is progress, and react, how much they felt shepherds, cattle raisers, donkey owners, order to prevent them in the future, the however nothing in those shows to com responsible for the animal dependants etc., concerned with their beasts prayed authors also wished to point out the oc pare with what was to become the com and concerned to exert their dominion the gods to bless their herds and to keep casions when the animals had been proper mon entertainment under the Roman em over them by ensuring their welfare. The them in good health. The prayer formu ly treated as a positive way to encourage pire. Besides the pacific exhibitions and main and first reason for doing so was las, the rites performed on such occa humanitarianism towards animals. Xan parades of exotic animals, people in Rome their conviction that the animals had the sions, and the monuments erected once thippos, Pericles' father, was remembered and in the more remote provinces as moral rights to be: (1) well treated during the prayer had been fulfilled are identi among other things because he had or well enjoyed the bloody games of the their lives including their old age when cal with those they used when praying dered a memorial for his dog which had arena in which thousands of wild animals
316 /NT] STUD ANIM PROB 4(4) 1983 /NT] STUD ANIM PROB 4(4) 1983 317 L. Bodson- Creco-Roman Attitudes Original Article L. Bodson- Creco-Roman Attitudes Original Article
were slaughtered at the price of irre cruelty to humanitarianism which once paigned for the animal defense by writ Ia religion grecque ancienne, Acade trievable damage to the African, Asian, prevailed at different degrees in the rela ing, lecturing on the matter, and by teach mie royale de Belgique, Brussels. and European fauna (Loisel, 1912; Jenni tionship between man and animal. Those i•lg the children to respect the animals Bodson, L. (1980) La priere pour les ani son, 1937; Toynbee, 1973). Even though behaviors originated in all kinds of (see Bion quoted by Plutarch, The Clev maux. L'experience de Ia priere dans such games, yet on a lower scale, were motives and intentions involving religion, erness of Animals, 7), since they thought les grandes religions. Actes due colla originally part of funeral rites, by the ethics, and psychological factors which it to be more effective to prevent rather que de Louvain-la-Neuve et Liege (22- turn of the 1st century B.C., they no were sometimes quite elusive when they than to have to curb or even to prosecute 23 Novembre 1978), Centre d'histoire longer had any reference to a cult or re were rooted in the special fascination or the animal abuses. However, near the des religions, Louvain-la-Neuve, pp. ligious purpose. They were sometimes in the aversion the animal species gen end of the Antiquity, Plutarch echoing the 149-164. presented as a usefu I device of the erated in man's mind. relentless debates of his time on animal Bruneau, Ph. (1965) Le motif des coqs at emperors aiming at clearing some parts Investigating the ancient religion nature emphasized the ever present and frontes dans l'imagerie antique. Bul of the Empire from wild and dangerous and philosophy essentially, Lorenz (1974) paradoxical difficulty to reconcile man's letin de Correspondance Hellenique 89: mammals in order to enlarge the areas came to the conclusion that (p. 240) interest and claims with the animal rights 90-121. available for human settlements. Yet, "tauchte nun im vierten jahrhundert, fUr to welfare and humanitarian protection Burkert, W. (1972) Homo necas. lnterpre they were primarily a political and social uns greifbar bei Xenokrates and Theoph or, in other words, to reach the challeng tationen altgriechischer Opferriten phenomenon in which the goals of sport rast, der Cedanke auf, dass die Totung ing ideal of a harmonious relationship und Mythen, W. De Cruyter, Berlin hunting, once defined by Xenophon (see von zahmen und mit dem Menschen le between man and animal. While noticing New York. above) were perverted (Auguet, 1970). benden Tieren ein Unrecht darstelle." En the cases of empathy he observed towards Carson, C. (1972) Men, Beasts, and Gods. Contrasting with the literary evidence larged to the day-after-day experiences the domestic animals and pets and un A History of Cruelty and Kindness to and the rich diversity of sensitive depic of the relationship with animals, the evi derlining the consequences for their Animals, Charles Scribner's Sons, New tions of animals either common or rare, dence confirms a real empathy towards welfare, he had to mention the abuses York. the sadistic barbarity of those mass slaugh animals long before the 4th century B.C. and mistreatments inflicted especially Dierauer, U. (1977) Tier und Mensch im tering reveals one of the outstanding Personal and individual feelings of right on the wild animals in the Roman empire Denken der Antike. Studien zur Tier paradoxes of the Roman people. While or wrong in dealing with the animals by on a scale broader than ever before. psychologie, Anthropo/ogie und Ethik, being so much alive to the interest and standards of humaneness were first de The paradox still exists, and the B.R. GrUner, Amsterdam. beauty of the animal kingdom, they took signed to rule the relationship between challenge as well. Durand, J.L. (1979) Betes grecques, in La pleasure in gazing at the sufferings and human beings, and then extended to sub cuisine du sacrifice en pays grec, M. agonizing death of its most impressive human creatures. These standards were Detienne- J.P. Vernant, ed., Callimard, species. Cicero's, Seneca's, PI utarch' s active from the beginning of human-ani Paris, pp. 133-166. voices were among the very few which mal relationships, even though they References Fox, M.W. (1980) Empathy or Anthropo were raised in protest against those were not always fully asserted. They morphism? lnt j Stud Anim Prob 1(6): The quotations of ancient texts are hideous practices. They condemned them brought about a sharper and more gen 346. taken from "The Loeb Classical Library -unsuccessfully. As for the onlookers, erous attention to animal welfare. On Calletier, E. (1922) Etude sur Ia poesie fu (Creek and Roman Text and English Trans the first and last public protest recorded that general and empirical background, neraire romaine d'apres /es inscriptions, lation)" William Heinemann Ltd- Har in the ancient tradition occurred in 55 the impulse given by Aristotle and the Hachette, Paris. vard University Press, London- Cam B.C. during the great show given by Pom Peripatetician school to the study of the Cernet, L. (1917) Platon. Lois. Livre IX. Tra bridge, Mass. pey which turned into the killing of animal developed a new approach, at both duction et commentaire, E. Leroux, Par about twenty elephants (Scullard, 1974). scientific and psychological levels, of the Auguet, R. (1970) Cruaute et civilisation. is, pp. 163-168. animal nature, of its differences and sim Les jeux romains, Flammarion, Paris. Gill, J E. (1969) Theriophily in Antiquity: ilarities with the human nature, and of Aymard, J. (1951) Essai sur les chasses A Supplementary Account. j Hist Ideas Conclusion the place of the animal in the hierarchy romaines, des origines a Ia fin du siecle 30:401-412. Unlike Judaism with the Bible (Rim of living beings. Then, many philoso des A ntonins (Cynegetica), E. de Soc Comperz, Th. (1912) Creek Thinkers: A His bach, 1982), the Classical antiquity never phers and moralists stressed and pleaded card, Paris. tory of Ancient Philosophy, reissued disposed of a single and sacred book used for the idea that man could make no Boas, C. and Lovejoy, A.O. (1935) A Doc 1955, john Murray, London, IV, p. 495. as a standard of reference. The evidence better use of his logos towards the ani umentary History of Primitivism and Corteman, C. (1957) Sollicitude et amour to be taken into consideration is there mals than by granting them the natural Related Ideas. I. Primitivism and Related pour les animaux dans I'Egypte greco fore less homogeneous but it includes a and moral right to be fairly treated and by Ideas in Antiquity, The johns Hopkins romaine. Chronique d'Egypte 32:101- somehow larger range of data both con adapting his behavior to that principle. Press, Baltimore. 120. crete and theoretical. First of all, they They argued sometimes fiercely against Bodson, L. (1978) Hiera Zoa. Contribution Guthrie, W.K.C. (1957) In the Beginning, show all the possible attitudes from those who contested that right. They cam- a /'etude de Ia place de /'animal dans Methuen, London, pp. 69-79.
318 /NT I STUD ANIM PROB 4(4] 1983 /NT I STUD ANIM PROB 4(4) 1983 319 L. Bodson- Creco-Roman Attitudes Original Article L. Bodson- Creco-Roman Attitudes Original Article
were slaughtered at the price of irre cruelty to humanitarianism which once paigned for the animal defense by writ Ia religion grecque ancienne, Acade trievable damage to the African, Asian, prevailed at different degrees in the rela ing, lecturing on the matter, and by teach mie royale de Belgique, Brussels. and European fauna (Loisel, 1912; Jenni tionship between man and animal. Those i•lg the children to respect the animals Bodson, L. (1980) La priere pour les ani son, 1937; Toynbee, 1973). Even though behaviors originated in all kinds of (see Bion quoted by Plutarch, The Clev maux. L'experience de Ia priere dans such games, yet on a lower scale, were motives and intentions involving religion, erness of Animals, 7), since they thought les grandes religions. Actes due colla originally part of funeral rites, by the ethics, and psychological factors which it to be more effective to prevent rather que de Louvain-la-Neuve et Liege (22- turn of the 1st century B.C., they no were sometimes quite elusive when they than to have to curb or even to prosecute 23 Novembre 1978), Centre d'histoire longer had any reference to a cult or re were rooted in the special fascination or the animal abuses. However, near the des religions, Louvain-la-Neuve, pp. ligious purpose. They were sometimes in the aversion the animal species gen end of the Antiquity, Plutarch echoing the 149-164. presented as a usefu I device of the erated in man's mind. relentless debates of his time on animal Bruneau, Ph. (1965) Le motif des coqs at emperors aiming at clearing some parts Investigating the ancient religion nature emphasized the ever present and frontes dans l'imagerie antique. Bul of the Empire from wild and dangerous and philosophy essentially, Lorenz (1974) paradoxical difficulty to reconcile man's letin de Correspondance Hellenique 89: mammals in order to enlarge the areas came to the conclusion that (p. 240) interest and claims with the animal rights 90-121. available for human settlements. Yet, "tauchte nun im vierten jahrhundert, fUr to welfare and humanitarian protection Burkert, W. (1972) Homo necas. lnterpre they were primarily a political and social uns greifbar bei Xenokrates and Theoph or, in other words, to reach the challeng tationen altgriechischer Opferriten phenomenon in which the goals of sport rast, der Cedanke auf, dass die Totung ing ideal of a harmonious relationship und Mythen, W. De Cruyter, Berlin hunting, once defined by Xenophon (see von zahmen und mit dem Menschen le between man and animal. While noticing New York. above) were perverted (Auguet, 1970). benden Tieren ein Unrecht darstelle." En the cases of empathy he observed towards Carson, C. (1972) Men, Beasts, and Gods. Contrasting with the literary evidence larged to the day-after-day experiences the domestic animals and pets and un A History of Cruelty and Kindness to and the rich diversity of sensitive depic of the relationship with animals, the evi derlining the consequences for their Animals, Charles Scribner's Sons, New tions of animals either common or rare, dence confirms a real empathy towards welfare, he had to mention the abuses York. the sadistic barbarity of those mass slaugh animals long before the 4th century B.C. and mistreatments inflicted especially Dierauer, U. (1977) Tier und Mensch im tering reveals one of the outstanding Personal and individual feelings of right on the wild animals in the Roman empire Denken der Antike. Studien zur Tier paradoxes of the Roman people. While or wrong in dealing with the animals by on a scale broader than ever before. psychologie, Anthropo/ogie und Ethik, being so much alive to the interest and standards of humaneness were first de The paradox still exists, and the B.R. GrUner, Amsterdam. beauty of the animal kingdom, they took signed to rule the relationship between challenge as well. Durand, J.L. (1979) Betes grecques, in La pleasure in gazing at the sufferings and human beings, and then extended to sub cuisine du sacrifice en pays grec, M. agonizing death of its most impressive human creatures. These standards were Detienne- J.P. Vernant, ed., Callimard, species. Cicero's, Seneca's, PI utarch' s active from the beginning of human-ani Paris, pp. 133-166. voices were among the very few which mal relationships, even though they References Fox, M.W. (1980) Empathy or Anthropo were raised in protest against those were not always fully asserted. They morphism? lnt j Stud Anim Prob 1(6): The quotations of ancient texts are hideous practices. They condemned them brought about a sharper and more gen 346. taken from "The Loeb Classical Library -unsuccessfully. As for the onlookers, erous attention to animal welfare. On Calletier, E. (1922) Etude sur Ia poesie fu (Creek and Roman Text and English Trans the first and last public protest recorded that general and empirical background, neraire romaine d'apres /es inscriptions, lation)" William Heinemann Ltd- Har in the ancient tradition occurred in 55 the impulse given by Aristotle and the Hachette, Paris. vard University Press, London- Cam B.C. during the great show given by Pom Peripatetician school to the study of the Cernet, L. (1917) Platon. Lois. Livre IX. Tra bridge, Mass. pey which turned into the killing of animal developed a new approach, at both duction et commentaire, E. Leroux, Par about twenty elephants (Scullard, 1974). scientific and psychological levels, of the Auguet, R. (1970) Cruaute et civilisation. is, pp. 163-168. animal nature, of its differences and sim Les jeux romains, Flammarion, Paris. Gill, J E. (1969) Theriophily in Antiquity: ilarities with the human nature, and of Aymard, J. (1951) Essai sur les chasses A Supplementary Account. j Hist Ideas Conclusion the place of the animal in the hierarchy romaines, des origines a Ia fin du siecle 30:401-412. Unlike Judaism with the Bible (Rim of living beings. Then, many philoso des A ntonins (Cynegetica), E. de Soc Comperz, Th. (1912) Creek Thinkers: A His bach, 1982), the Classical antiquity never phers and moralists stressed and pleaded card, Paris. tory of Ancient Philosophy, reissued disposed of a single and sacred book used for the idea that man could make no Boas, C. and Lovejoy, A.O. (1935) A Doc 1955, john Murray, London, IV, p. 495. as a standard of reference. The evidence better use of his logos towards the ani umentary History of Primitivism and Corteman, C. (1957) Sollicitude et amour to be taken into consideration is there mals than by granting them the natural Related Ideas. I. Primitivism and Related pour les animaux dans I'Egypte greco fore less homogeneous but it includes a and moral right to be fairly treated and by Ideas in Antiquity, The johns Hopkins romaine. Chronique d'Egypte 32:101- somehow larger range of data both con adapting his behavior to that principle. Press, Baltimore. 120. crete and theoretical. First of all, they They argued sometimes fiercely against Bodson, L. (1978) Hiera Zoa. Contribution Guthrie, W.K.C. (1957) In the Beginning, show all the possible attitudes from those who contested that right. They cam- a /'etude de Ia place de /'animal dans Methuen, London, pp. 69-79.
318 /NT I STUD ANIM PROB 4(4] 1983 /NT I STUD ANIM PROB 4(4) 1983 319 L. Bodson- Greco-Roman Attitudes Original Article
Hauss leiter, J. (1935) Der Vegetarismus in Rahn, H. (1950-1954) Tier und Mensch in der Antike, Topelmann, Berlin, pp. der homerischen Auffassung der Wirk- 22-53. 1ichkeit. Paideuma 5:277-297, 431-480. The Care of Pets Herrlinger, G. (1930) Totenk/age um Tiere Rahn, H. (1967) Das Tier in der homeris in der antiken Dichtung, W. Kohl ham chen Dichtung. Studium generate 20: Within Child Abusing Families mer, Stuttgart. 90-105. Hopf, L. (1888) Thierorakel und Orakelthiere Rimbach, J.A. (1982) The J udeo-Christian in alter und neuer Zeit, W. Kohlhammer. Tradition and the Human/Animal Bond. Jennison, G. (1937) Animals for Show and tnt J Stud Anim Prob 3(3):198-207. Elizabeth DeViney, Jeffery Dickert, Pleasure in Ancient Rome, Manchester Rollin, B. E. (1981) Animal Rights and Hu and Randall Lockwood University Press, Manchester. man Morality, Prometheus Books, Kellert, 0. (1909-1913) Die antike Tierwelt, Buffalo, New York. 1-11, J. Cramer, Leipzig. Scullard, H.H. (1974) The Elephant in the Drs. DeViney and Dickert are with the Family Enrichment Program, Morristown Memorial Hospital, Morristown, Lilja, S. (1974)Theriophily in Homer. Arc Greek and Roman World, Thames and New jersey. Dr. Lockwood is with the Department of Psychology, State University of New York, Stony Brook, tos 8:71-78. Hudson, London, pp. 250-251. NY 11794. {Send requests for reprints to Dr. Lockwood.] Loisel, G. (1912) Histoire des menageries Toynbee, J.M.C. (1973) Animals in Roman de I'Antiquite a nos jours, 0. Doin and Life and Art, Thames and Hudson, Lon The treatment of animals was surveyed in 53 families in which child abuse had oc H. Laurens, Paris, I, pp. 9-139. don, pp. 21-23. curred. Patterns of pet ownership, attitudes towards pets and quality of veterinary care Lorenz, G. (1974) Ehrfurcht vor dem Leben Vernant, J.P. (1981) Theorie generale du did not differ greatly from comparable data from the general public. However, abuse der Tiere bei fruhen Griechen und Ro sacrifice et mise a mort dans Ia thysia of pets by a family member had taken place in 60 percent of the families. The families mern und bei den Naturvolkern? Kri grecque, in Le Sacrifice dans I'Antiqui in which animal abuse was indicated tended to have younger pets, lower levels of vet tische und vergleichende Studien zur te, J. Rudhardt and 0. Reverdin, ed., erinary care and more conflicts over care than non-abusive families in the study. There a/ten Geschichte und Universa/ges Fondation Hardt, Vandoeuvres-Geneve, were several parallels between the treatment of pets and the treatment of animals with chichte 18:211-241. pp. 1-39. in child-abusing families, suggesting that animal abuse may be a potential indicator of Magel, Ch.R. (1981) A Bibliography on An Westermarck, E. (1908) The Origin and De other family problems. These findings also suggest that it may be helpful to review the imal Rights and Related Matters, Univer velopment of the Moral Ideas, Mac role of pets in these families as part of the therapeutic process. sity Press of America, Washington, D.C. millan, London, II, pp. 490-514. Pollard, J. (1977) Birds in Greek Life and Yerkes, R.D. (1952) Sacrifice in Greek and The belief that one's treatment of animals was that it encouraged humane Myth, Thames and Hudson, London, Roman Religions and Early judaism, animals is closely associated with the feelings towards mankind. In his essay on pp. 116-129. Scribner, New York. treatment of fellow humans has a long "Duties to Animals and Spirits" he wrote: history. Several philosophers have sug " ... Our duties towards animals are gested this connection, even without ac merely indirect duties towards hu cepting the concept of intrinsic rights of manity. Animal nature has analo animals. In the thirteenth century Saint gies to human nature, and by doing Thomas Aquinas, in Summa Contra Gen our duties to animals in respect of tiles, followed his defense of exploitation manifestations of human nature, we of animals with the observation that: indirectly do our duties to humani " ... if any passages of Holy Writ ty." (Regan and Singer, 1976, p. 122). seem to forbid us to be cruel to dumb In "Metaphysical Principles of the animals, for instance to kill a bird Doctrine of Virtue" he came to a similar with its young, this is ... to remove conclusion regarding cruelty to animals: man's thoughts from being cruel to other men, and lest through being " ... cruelty to animals is contrary to cruel to other animals one becomes man's duty to himself, because it cruel to human beings ... " (Regan deadens in him the feeling of sym and Singer, 1976, p. 59). pathy for their sufferings, and thus a natural tendency that is very Immanuel Kant echoed these same useful to morality in relation to sentiments 500 years later, suggesting other human beings is weakened." that the only justification for kindness to (Regan and Singer, 1976, p. 125).
320 /NT} STUD ANJM PROB 4{4] 1983 /NT} STUD ANIM PROB 4{4) 1983 321