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On the Resiliency of Sex Testing in Sport

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On the Resiliency of Sex Testing in Sport ON THE RESILIENCY OF SEX TESTING IN SPORT by CASSANDRA J. WELLS BPHE, University of Toronto, 2004 M.Sc., University of Toronto, 2009 A DISSERTATION SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY in THE FACULTY OF GRADUATE AND POSTDOCTORAL STUDIES (Kinesiology) THE UNIVERSITY OF BRITISH COLUMBIA (Vancouver) SEPTEMBER 2020 © Cassandra J. Wells, 2020 The following individuals certify that they have read, and recommend to the Faculty of Graduate and Postdoctoral Studies for acceptance, the dissertation entitled: ON THE RESILIENCY OF SEX TESTING IN SPORT submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements by Cassandra J. Wells for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY in Kinesiology Examining Committee: Patricia Vertinsky, Professor, School of Kinesiology, Faculty of Education, UBC Supervisor Mary Bryson, Senior Associate Dean and Professor, Department of Language and Literacy Education, Faculty of Education, UBC Supervisory Committee Member Carla Nappi, Andrew W. Melon Chair, Department of History, Faculty of Arts and Sciences, University of Pittsburgh Supervisory Committee Member Dr. Moss Norman, Assistant professor, School of Kinesiology, Faculty of Education, UBC University Examiner Dr. Mona Gleason, Professor, Department of Educational Studies, Faculty of Education, UBC University Examiner ii Abstract In 2009, a controversy at the World Championships of Athletics forced a new reckoning in sport with the issue of sexual difference and competitive fairness. The winner of the women’s 800m event, South African Caster Semenya, was subjected to so-called ‘sex testing’ procedures, the primarily physiological search for markers of maleness and femaleness in the bodies of athletes competing in the women’s category. While extant literature has focused on the representation of sex and gender differences and the repercussions of such discourses for sport policy and athletes, the current study addresses the resiliency of sex testing in sport – its ability to persists despite the ethical, scientific, and political problems that have made sex testing a controversial policy in every era. Using methods adapted from Actor-Network-Theory (Latour, 2005), this project uses archival and anthropological data to trace the persons, artifacts, elements and processes that contribute to the “settlement of controversies” (p. 64) regarding sex testing in sport at moments when its viability is in doubt. A close examination of the changes made to policy following three cases of sex testing controversies – from, respectively, the 1960s, 1990s, and the 2009 event – reveals that the viability of sex testing policy depends on a network of linkages that connect biological knowledge about sex difference with competitive fairness. The resiliency of sex testing’s network is revealed through the work of establishing, challenging, and reworking these connections in ways that either support or undermine sex testing policy in a given place and time. By comparing their rationales and methods, the current research identifies the ideological pillars that keep sex testing policies stable, even through changing understandings of sexual difference and fair competition, and the actors/aspects of the policy that give it the flexibility needed to change with the times and to therefore persist. This research contributes to a new understanding of the mechanisms by which social and biological knowledge interact to produce, reproduce, and alter sex testing policies for sport. iii Lay Summary This study traces the evolution of sex testing policy and practice from the implementation of the first lab-based sex tests in Olympic sport in the 1960s until the present. Using archival and anthropological sources and methods, this project addresses the question of sex testing’s resiliency – how it is able to continue to persist across time and place as the rationales, methods, and actors involved in sex test policies fail to remain the same. The analysis presented here contributes to an understanding of how local and global forces and changing biological knowledge about sexual difference combine to influence international sport culture and policy-making processes. iv Preface This dissertation is original, unpublished, independent work by the author, Cassandra J. Wells. v Table of Contents Abstract …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….…… iii Lay Summary ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… iv Preface ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. v Table of Contents …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..……… vi List of Abbreviations ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..…………… viii Acknowledgements …………………………………………………………………………………………………….………………………………. ix Dedication ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..………………………….. x CHAPTER 1 – WOMEN, SPORT, AND THE RESILIENCY OF SEX TESTING …………………………………………………………. 1 Change without change: A history of sex testing (and its critique) in sport …………………………………….…………. 5 Outline of a study of resiliency ………….……………………………………………………………………………………………….……… 15 CHAPTER 2 – METHODOLOGY ……………………………………………………………….……………………………………………………… 19 A life for sex testing policy – Object agency and Actor Networks ………………………………….…….…………………….. 21 Research Questions ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………….…………………. 24 Data and Analysis ……………………………………………………………………………..…………………………………..………………….. 25 CHAPTER 3 – STURDY AND FLEXIBLE: TESTING FOR SEX IN THE AGE OF OPTIMISM .………………………..…………… 28 Toward human perfection: Olympism, improvement medicine, and the modern theory of sex ……………….. 30 Olympism ………………………………………………………………………………………….……….……………………………………………… 30 Olympism and the woman question ……………………………………..…………………………………………………………………… 34 Improvement medicine: Health, fitness, perfection ……………………………………………………………………………..……. 36 The art of difference: Hormones, genes, and the modern theory of sex ………………………………………………..….. 37 Endocrinology and genetics of sex testing ………………………………………………………………………………………..……….. 39 The sex chromatin test, hormones, and the plastic dichotomy of sex ………………………………………………….……. 43 The three pillars combined: Sturdiness and flexibility in the science of sex testing in sport …………………….… 48 vi Administering science, medicine, and Olympism: The IOC Medical Commission and finding a test for sex … 54 Developing eligibility policy for women ……………………………………………………………………………………….………….… 62 A tale of two medical officers …………………………………………………………………………………………………………..……….. 66 Conclusion: ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….………………….. 76 CHAPTER 4 – THE TROUBLE WITH SEX TESTING ……………………………………………….………………………..………………… 81 The sportswoman and medicine: Elizabeth Ferris and the myth of female inferiority in sport ..…………….…… 83 Malcolm Ferguson-Smith and the genetics of sex-linked fairness ………………………………………………………………. 90 Albert de la Chapelle and the quest for a sex test-free Olympics …………………………………………………..…………… 99 The coalition of critics ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..………... 102 The IOC working group on gender verification in sport ………………………………………………………………..……………. 113 From critic to council member: Defending AIS in Olympic sport …………………………………………..……………………. 118 The IAF working group on gender verification in sport ……………………………………………………..……………………….. 127 Controlling the message, changing the paradigm ………………………………………………………….………………………….. 135 Conclusion: Inclusion with restrictions …………………………………………………………………….……………………………….. 139 CHAPTER 5 – MAINSTREAMING GENDER CRITICISM IN SEX TEST POLICY ………………..……….……………………………. 143 Gender verification and the Stockholm consensus on sex reassignment: A transition to inclusion ……………. 144 Hyperandrogenism regulations and DSD regulations, 2011-2018: Inclusion with restrictions ………………….. 151 The entanglement of critique within sex testing’s network ……………………………………………………………………….. 161 CHAPTER 6 – RESILIENCY AND CRITIQUE ………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 164 Fairness and the practicalities of policy ……………………………………………………………………………………………………… 167 Fairness and the practicalities of performance ………………………………………………………………………………………….. 172 A history of sex testing critique …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 177 The future of sex testing critique ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 182 The Splits: Nature/Culture, Sex/Gender ………………………………………………………………………………………..…………… 189 An outline of a method for incorporating NMF into a study of objects that are multiple .............................. 192 NMF and the future of sex testing research ……………………………………..……………………………………………………….. 200 BIBLIOGRAPHY ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 203 vii List of Abbreviations ADC Albert de la Chapelle AFI Athletics Federation of India BOA British Olympic Association CAS Court of Arbitration for Sport DSD Regulations Sex testing policy document, 2018: Eligibility regulations for the female classification (athletes with differences of sex development) EF Elizabeth Ferris GV Gender verification HA Regulations Sex testing policy document, 2011: Regulations governing eligibility of females with hyperandrogenism to compete in women’s competitions. IAAF International Association of Athletics Federations (re-named World Athletics in 2019) IAF International Athletics Fund IAFWG International Athletics Fund Working Group on gender verification IOC International Olympic Committee IOCEB International Olympic Committee Executive Board IOCMC International Olympic Committee Medical Commission IOCWG International Olympic Committee Working Group on gender
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