Rights Reserved This Dissertation Has Been Microfilmed Exactly As Received

Home , 1967 Pan American Games, 1976 Summer Olympics, Arctic Winter Games, CANUSA Games, James Worrall, List of Spartak athletes

71-27,426

BEDECKI, Thomas George, 1929- MODERN SPORT AS AN INSTRUMENT OF NATIONAL POLICY WITH REFERENCE TO CANADA AND SELECTED COUNTRIES.

The Ohio State University, Ph.D., 1971 Education, physical

University Microfilms, A XEROX Company, Ann Arbor, Michigan

THOMS GEORGE BEDECKI

THIS DISSERTATION HAS BEEN MICROFILMED EXACTLY AS RECEIVED MODERN SPORT AS AN INSTRUMENT OF NATIONAL

POLICY WITH REFERENCE TO CANADA

AND SELECTED COUNTRIES

DISSERTATION

Presented in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree Doctor of Philosophy in the Graduate School of The Ohio State University

By Thomas'Bedeckij B.A.

The Ohio State University 1971

Approved by

Advisor School of Health, Physical Education and Recreation ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The author wishes to express his sincere appreciation to his Coimiittee members. Dr. Bruce Bennett (Chainmn), Dr. Margaret

Mordy, and Dr. Charles Mand for their encouragement, guidance, and evaluation of the study. The assistance of the Department of National Health and

Welfare and the External Affairs Department of Canada, particularly the staff of these respective agencies in the Fitness and Amateur

Sport Directorate and the Information Division, is gratefully acknowledged.

The contribution of individuals, national sport organizations, international sport federations and especially of the embassies who

furnished information and responded to the questionnaire on national

government involvement in sport is also greatly appreciated and

acknowledged.

On a more personal note, the author wishes to express his

sincere thanks to his teaching colleagues and his Mother for their encouragement in the pursuit of knowledge, and to his wife Ann for

her understanding and assistance in the different stages of this

investigation.

11 VITA

May 4, 1929 . . . B o m - Glace Bay, Nova Scotia

1952 ...... B.A., St. Francis Xavier University, Antigonish, Nova Scotia

1952-1953 .... Graduate School, Springfield College, Springfield, Massachusetts

1953-1955 .... Instructor, University of Ottawa, Ontario 1955-1958 .... Assistant Professor, Department of Education, Colorado College, Colorado Springs, Colorado

1958-1961 .... Instructor, School of Physical Education, . University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida

1961-1965 .... Instructor, Department of Physical Education, The Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio

1965 ...... Assistant Director, Fitness and Amateur Sport, Department of National Health and Welfare, Ottawa

PUBLICATIONS

"An Examination of the Amateur Code in Canada," Ottawa, Fitness and Amateur Sport Directorate, 3^ pp., 1969-

FIELDS OF STUDY

Major Field: Physical Education

Studies in Applied Physiology and Preventive Medicine.

Studies in Physical Education. Professor Bruce L. Bennett

1 1 1 TABLE OF CONEENIS Ba@P ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS...... il

VITA ...... ill

LIST OF...... TABLES...... vll LIST OF...... FIGURES . vlll

Chapter I. INTRODUCTION...... I

Statement of the Problem...... 8

Purpose of the Study ...... 8

Justification of the Study ...... 9

Limitations of the S t u d y ...... 10 Methods and Procedures...... 11

n. CANADA IN THE WORLD OF SPORTS ...... l4

Tntemational Games in which Canada Participates . . 15

Olyirpic G a m e s ...... 15 World Championships in SpecificSports ...... 15

Continental G a m e s ...... 15 British Commonwealth Games ...... 18

Regional Games (Arctic Games) ...... 19 Special International Conpetitions ...... 21

Inter-Country Conpetitions (North American Chanpionships in Specific Sports) ...... 23

Inter-City Games (CANUSA G a m e s ) ...... 23

IV V

Chapter Page

Conparison of World Standards and Canadian Performances...... 23

Winter Sports, Men...... 26

Summer Sports, Men...... 28

Women’s Sports...... 38

III. OBJECTIVES UNDERLYING NATIONAL GOVERNMENT INVOLVEMENT IN SPORT...... 43

Unitary System, Constitutional Democracies...... 47

Federal System, Constitutional Democracies...... 50

Unitary System, Non-Constitutional Regimes...... 52

Federal System, Non-Constitutional Regimes...... 56

Relationship of Objectives to Tÿpe of Political Regime...... 57

IV. ADMINISTRATIVE AND ORGANIZATIONAL STRUCTURE...... 59

Unitary System, Constitutional Democracies...... 62

Federal System, Constitutional Democracies...... 71

Unitary System, Non-Constitutional Regimes...... 74

Federal System, Non-Constitutional Regimes...... 8l

Relationship of Organizational Structure to Type of Political Regime...... 84

V. PROGRAMS OF THE NATIONAL GOVERNMENTS...... 86

Competition...... 87

Coaching Programs...... 97

Facilities— Training Centers...... 115

Research and Sports Medicine...... 126

Summary...... 138 vl

Chuter • Pa^ VI. NATIONAL GOVERNMENT’S SUPPORT TO SPORT ...... 139

S u n m a r y ...... 164

VII. PROPOSAL FOR THE DEVELOPMENT OF GOVERNMENT SPORTS POLICY FOR CANADIANS IN INTERNATIONAL SPORTS...... 165

VIII. S U M M A R Y ...... 178

APPENDIXES A. QUESTIONNAIRE ON GOVERNMENT INVOLVEMENT IN AMATEUR SPORT ...... 182 B. EMBASSIES PARTTCIPATING-P&^S DRŒSTIGATION...... I86

C. FOREIGN INDIVIDUALS CONTACTED AND/OR INTERVIEWED .... I88

D. FOREIGN GOVERNMENT AGENCIES CONTACTED AND/OR INTERVIEWED...... 190 E. CANADIAN AMATEUR SPORT INDIVIDUALS AND ASSOCIATIONS CONTACTED AND/OR INTERVIEWED...... 192

F. NATIONAL SPORTS GOVERNING BODIES FOR CANADA ...... 193

BIBIIOGRAPHY...... 196 LIST OF'TABLES

Table Page

1. Number of Olyirpic Medals Won, 1908-1968 ...... l6 2. Results of Recent Pan American G a m e s ...... 17

3. Results of Recent Cormionwealth G a m e s ...... 20

4. Medals Won by Canada in Olyirpic Games, 1896-1968.... 25

5. Canadian Placings (Men) in Winter Olympics and World Competitions, 1950-70 .'...... 27 6. Canadian Placings (Men) in Summer Olympics andWorld Competitions, 1950-70 ...... 29 7. Canadian Placings (Women) in Olympics and World Competitions, 1950-70 ...... 39 8. The Classification of Political Systems ...... 45

vix LIST OP FIGURES

Figure Page

1. Best performance in track and field by Canadian men at Olyirpic conpetitions, conpared with top Olympic performance...... '...... 3“

2. Best performance in swimming by Canadian men at Olympic conpetitions, conpared with top Olympic performance . . . 36

3 . Best performance in wei^tlifting by Canadian men at Olympic conpetitions, conpared with top Olympic performance...... 37

4. Best performance in track and field by Canadian women at Olympic conpetitions, compared with top Olympic performance...... 4l

5 . Best performance in swirnrnirig by Canadian women at Olympic competitions, compared with top Olympic performance...... 42

. V l l l CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION

In the past two decades especially, respective national governments have considered and increased their role in relation to the world sport movement. Beneficial changes have occurred for the athlete in social life and in conditions for practising sport at a high perfonnance level. Mass sport has turned international conçetition into "a contest between nations . . . in which millions across the world feel that their national prestige is involved."^

Modem or international sport, for the purpose of this study, relates to coirpetition at an international level of significance for

Canada (e.g., world championships, Olympics, Commonwealth and Pan

American Games) and is characterized by severe training and competition on a regular basis in order to select the very best athletes.

The modem sport movement may be said to have its beginning with the rebirth of the Olympic Games in I896, an event that would gradually evolve into the testing grounds for International sport.

At the outset, most athletes who took part regarded their particular sport as a sort of hobby, a leisurely pastime to which they afforded

^Philip Goodhart and Christopher Chataway, War Without Weapons (London: W. H. Allan, I968), p. 2. 2 little serious training. But, by 1900, sport governing bodies were being formed and the rivalry that had once been most in evidence between Oxford and Eton had extended to the international level.

Athletes began to take their sport seriously; conscientious intensive training popularized by the Finns resulted in a hi^er degree of excellence in amateur sport.

The first pronounced departure from the traditional Olynpic ideology came in 1936, with Nazi Germany's najor political intrusion into the Olynpic Games which that nation hosted that year. As

Mandell stated, "Athletes from totalitarian nations performed strikingly well— and the most totalitarian performed best of all."2

Since World War II, the cold war, the emerging pattern of nationalism in modem Europe and Asia, the growing independency of the African nations, and the arrival of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics

(U.S.S.R.) on the Olynpic scene in 1952, a less intense but nonetheless nationalistic approach developed; national sport was in the ascendence.

Tliroughout history, governments have been involved in promoting and developing sport— their initial utilitarian purposes now included significant legislation, stated objectives and purposes, administrative and organizational structures, and programing and financial assistance.

^Richard D. Mandell, The Nazi Olynpics (New York: The Macmillan Conpany, 1971), p. xiii. 3 To the extent that trends are discernible in regard to foreign

governments’ involvement in sports, several can be evidenced. National governments are giving increased recognition to the responsibility to promote both physical fitness and amateur sport programs; there is a

greater tendency to allocate public monies to support of amateur

sport programs; and there is also a growing emphasis upon participation

and achievement in international sport competition. But althou^

there are these similarities, each country's involvement was developed

in its own economic, social, and political climate. Three factors appear to be chiefly responsible for the

intensifying national interest in sports. First, there is a,

heightened interest in international athletics as a means of promoting

one’s image, understanding and prestige; Canada’s withdrawal from

World Hockey conpetition was a move to maintain her image and prestige.

Second, emerging nations have the viewpoint that achievement in sport

represents a means of attaining recognition in the world. Third, the

apparent decision by the Communist nations in the early 1950's was

to project, for political reasons, a positive image based on athletic

excellence by aggressive sports development and participation in

international conpetitions.

Today the nations of the world rank differently according to the amount of interest their Governments take in the organization of sport. On the one side are those States whose sport is fully Integrated in the political system and thus becomes an inportant instrument in government policies. At the other end of the scale are found those countries in which sport is organized by independent bodies and is itself free of any political organization save when it involves international compe tition. The difference lies not in the organization and the nature of the aim but above all in the ideological attitude. There can be no doubt that in most Western countries genuine efforts have been made to exclude politics from sport. But I am still convinced that such an unpolitical organization of sport is today apparent rather than real. There are political Inplications in modem sport today which are unavoidable.^

The general hypothesis that this review puts forward is that the enphasis of national government involvement is related to an expressed political structure. National government involvement in sport appears to be directly related, to the values that are propagated by the culture and by the country’s technical and economic advancement.

So far in the twentieth century, it has generally been authoritarian regimes which have reacted most effectively to this popular demand for sporting victories. They seem to have been the quickest to see the value of sporting success in building national morale.^

The period between the two World Wars may be considered "a period of the emergence of accentuated nationalism. "5 Nazi Gennany was a notable exanple of such a regime to use the medium of sport ; more recently, Canmunist bloc countries have regarded sports as an arm of their foreign policy.

The postwar period is characterized by a "hi^ increase in the number of nations participating in the Olynpic Games and at the same time the division of scores among more nations and . . . the strength-

^Alex Natan, "Sport and Politics" in Sport, Culture and Society : A Reader on the Sociology of Sport (edited by John Lay and Gerald Kenyon), (New York: The MacMillan Conpany, 1969) p. 210. il Goodhart, War Without Weapons, p. 79.

5paavo Seppanen, "Sports Achievement and the Type of Culture," Proceedings of the First International Seminar on the History of Physical Education and Sport. (Israel: Wingate Institute for Physical Education, 1968), p. 4-2. 5 ening of nationalist or conparable elements In international conpetitive sports.Besides Russia, such nations as Czechoslovakia, Hungary,

Yugoslavia, Japan, and the African nations are notable successful newcomers to the world sport scene; the most dramatic displays of talent were by East Gerràarçr at the Mexico Olympics-in 1968 and by.

Cuba at the 1967 Pan American Games. Whereas the United States æid some British Commonwealth nations have held their own in sport events, smaller welfare European nations (e.g., the Netherlands, Sweden,

Norway, Derimark, and Finland) have lost ground. "An assumption . . . is that nationalistic elements in the culture of higjily successful countries could be more strongly represented than in the more inter nationally oriented culture of the stable democracies of Europe."7

In the past two or three decades there have been many changes in conditions relating to international sport. The role of the athlete itself has altered greatly as the definition of the ideal amateur sportsman has become increasingly more conplex in the pursuit of excellence, and pure amateurism as the Olynpic idealists envisioned it is an inevitable casualty. Athletes no longer regard their sport casually; for most conpetitors, sport is a full or part-time task around which their daily life is arranged to accommodate a rigorous training schedule. In the Communist countries, the athletes are

^Seppanen, Sports Achievement and the Type of Culture, p. 4-3.

7lbid, p. 4-3. 6 given the opportunity, facilities, and, most inportant, the valuable coaching and conpetitive time to perfect their skills; a number are students attending special schools or members of the armed forces.

In the Western World, athletes are for the most part younger students or from the errployee ranks; few attend special schools, and they must cope with a demanding training program and an occupation removed from rather than a part of sport. Having gone unheralded in the past, high performance athletes of today are assured enormous popularity and their ability is a positive factor in their social and economic life.

• The athlete is no longer just an individual corrpetitor in a sport; he is a representative of a nation of people who identify with him. He is an instrument of public relations, a messenger of friend ship and mutual respect among people, a subject for inspiration and even for biological research for the study of the limits of human possibi lities. He is a promoter of man's aspiration for self-inprovement, even as it relates to social problems within his own country.

The scope of international competition has broadened tremen dously in the past two decades ; modem means of transportation have made possible a wider field of conpetition, and the advancements in telecommunications have brou^t sport to the attention of much of the modem world. There has been a substantial increase in resources allotted to sport by public and private organizations to raise the level of athletic performance, to which end coaching, specialization, scientific and medical research have been vital contributions. % e s e changes cannot be ignored. In the words of René

Maheu, Director-General of the U.N.E.S.C.O.:

It would thus be no exaggeration to say that the future of sport in the world and in the coraraunity will largely depend on the conception that is adopted of top level conpetition and on the status that is accorded to athletes taking part in events at that level.°

Canada’s view on sport has been influenced to a large extent by the British traditional concept of play, the conpetitive aspect

of American sport, and more recently by the growth of national and

international sport among foreign countries. Divergent views have been expressed regarding the role of sport

and games in Canadian life by a number of Canadian authorities during

the past decade. .More recently views have been expressed that there

is necessity for a renewed national effort to make sport an integral

part of Canadian life and that excellence must become a national goal in sports.

The more active role attributed to the present Canadian

government has been criticized for lack of underlying motives, a sense

of direction, and purpose, in attenpting to develop a level of

performance in international conpetition that will contribute towards national prestige.

^Declaration on Sport by the International Council of Sport and Physical Education (Paris: UNESCO, 1964), p. 3. STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM

The problem, briefly stated. Is the lack of expressed objec tives as the basis for national policy, a lack which applies to both public and private sports agencies in Canada. Objectives are vital where action must be persuasive rather than authoritarian, and viiere many agencies influence the effectiveness of the means of reaching those objectives. But, in Canada, objectives have usually been

formulated to express what is being done in the sport movement rather than what should be done.

A private consultant firm in a confidential and internal

document to the Department of National Health and Welfare reported that

the federal government, as an entity, has no expressed set of objectives

for physical recreation, amateur sport and fitness. Because the programs have developed on an uncoordinated basis, it was difficult ■

to draw a rational set of objectives from them.

At present, provincial and local authorities, national sport

governing bodies and private agencies have sub-objectives varying in

quality and purpose. The federal government can provide a leadership

role which can form the basis for a national policy to which levels of

government, voluntary agencies, private enterprise and the citizens can

subscribe.

PURPOSE OF THIS STUDY

1. To review and analyze Canadian performance in the world

of sport since 1950 to the present, a period of intensifying 9 involvement in international sport.

2. To investigate the extent and scope of government involvement in sport in selected countries currently conpeting with

Canada. 3. To develop a proposal relative to the development of government sport policy for Canadians in international sport.

For the purposes of this study:

M odem or International Sport relates to conpetition at an international level of significance for Canada, e.g., world chanpion ships, Olynpics, Commonwealth and Pan Aœrican Games and is charac terized by severe training and conpetition on a regular basis in order to select the very best athletes. Government is the recognized agency or institution responsible for representing and conducting the affairs of the country both domestically and externally. Involvement of Government includes the significant legislation; stated objectives and purposes; administrative and organizational structure; programing and financial assistance.

JUSTIFICATION OF THE STUDY

The literature indicates the diversified relationship that exists between sport and government. Vendien and Nixon expressed concern at the lack of systematic data available that would assist in identifying and evaluating the different roles of sport and physical 10 education as they contribute to national, purposes.9

Little attention has been given in the recent reports initiated by the Canadian government to the phenomenon of modem sport as an instrument of national policy. In a section entitled "Sport Becomes

International and Nationalistic," the Task Force Report concluded:

. . . it has become a matter of national interest for the Federal Government to involve itself in the field of sports in Canada to a much greater extent than ever before. Because of the nature of international sporting conpetition, and the new significance attached to it, it is inevitable that sooner or later our national government must take a hand in a matter so closely bound up with Canada's place in the world, as we Canadians and as others see it.^^

The coiunitment of the 1976 Olynpics in Canada and the recent internal report by a private consultant firm for the Department of

National Health and Welfare which suggested national unity and inter national prestige as a national objective inply a current need to examine and interpret aspects of international sport in li#it of the extensive growth of governmental activity and as an instrument of national policy.

LIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY

The study is subject to the limitations of conparative investigations and of the availability of material.

9c. Lynn Vendien and John E. Nixon, The World Today in Health, Physical Education.and Recreation'(Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice- Hall Inc., 196b), pp. 47-4Ü.

^^Canada, Report of the Task Force on Sports for Canadians, Department of National Health and Welfare (Ottawa: Queen's Printer, 1969), p. 7. 11

The study is limited to the extent that the Investigator’s study-travel makes it possible to report accurately the various political policies related to international sport.

The study is further limited, by restriction to selected countries currently conpeting with Canada on an established basis.

METHODS AND PROCEDURES

The literature indicates that few research techniques and instruments have been developed to explore the interrelationship between sport and the institution of government. The proposed study lends itself to a descriptive methodology which can be divided into four distinct stages., description, analysis, comparison and summary, conclusions and recommendations. The area of study was delineated and subjected to an indepth description and analysis of the factual material followed by explanation. The following investigative procedures have been employed:

1. Review of the printed matter related to government programs and international sport. Library research utilized the sources of the

Canadian Documentation Centre in Ottawa as well as of the International

Documentation Centre for Sport, Physical Education and Recreation located at the Queen's University of Belfast in Northern Ireland.

Government reports, documents, publications and texts of speeches related to national governments' involvement iri sport were analyzed.

2. The author’s present position in government, and his study- travel in Europe, North and South America and Asia, enabled him by interviews and observation, to ascertain the present role of govern- 12 ment in promoting and developing sport and assisted him in the conparison aspect of the study.

3. Examination was made of models, conceptual structures dealing with sport and political classification systems. The frame work used was, where applicable, based upon current proposals as well as an analysis of the literature in comparative sport and political science.

4. Personal correspondence between some forty-five national and international organizations and the author, provided a deeper understanding of sport as an instrument of national policy. For names and addresses of these organizations, and also of various individuals contacted and/or interviewed, see Appendixes.

5. A questionnaire (Appendix A), similar to the one used by the Council for Cultural Cooperation of the Council of Europe, and adapted by the author for purposes of this study, was distributed by the Information Division of the Department of External Affairs.

The required material was gathered by our embassies abroad who possessed a working knowledge of the language and had a knowledge of the conponent parts of the country being examined. Consideration was given to geographic distribution as well as those countries who were competing in sport with Canada on an established basis. The ques tionnaire was completed for twenty-two countries; those for two, the

Council for Cultural Cooperation of the Council of Europe, Physical Education and Sport (Strasbourg, France: Libraire Berger- Lewault, 1964). 13 U.S.S.R. and Mexico, were considered incorrplete by the author.

However, because of the availability of other source material, the author has Included the prominent sport nations of U.S.S.R. and

East Germany in the study. The information pertaining to individual countries is treated in Chapters III to VI. CHAPTER II ■

CANADA IN THE WORLD OF SPORTS

Canada participates on a variety of levels of international sport conpetition and has done so, in most cases, since the origination of each particular event of any significance. Our athletes have conpeted in Olynpic, world, continental, Coirmonwealth, and regional ganfâs, as well as in special international conpetitions, as listed below:

Olynpic Games World Chanpionships in Specific Sports

Continental Games Pan American Games Pan Pacific Games British Commonwealth Games

Regional Games (Arctic Games)

Special International Conpetitions World Student Games World Games of the Deaf Games for Paraplegics Maccabiah Games

Inter-Country Conpetition (North American Chanpionships in Specific Sports)

Inter-City Games (CANUSA Games) A brief description of these various conpetitions, with an outline of Canadian participation, follows.

lif 15

INTERNATIONAL GAMES IN WHICH CANADA PARTICIPATES

Olyirplc Games The Olynpic Games, a series of athletic events held every four years, were revived by the Baron de Coubertin in I896 to

. . . promote the development of those fine physical and moral qualities that come from contests on the friendly fields of amateur sport and to bring together the youth of the world in a great quadrennial sport festival, thereby creating inter national respect and goodwill, and helping to construct a better and more peaceful world.^

Canada has been represented at all Olynpic Games but the very first. Table 1, following, gives the number of medals that have been won by various nations since 1896 in Summer and Winter Games.

World Chanpionships in Specific Sports

World wide conpetition is usually not held in the same year as the Olynpic Games. These conpetitions are held as often as the respective international sport federation constitutions prescribe.

For many sports, this event is on a two-year interval basis. Exanples of specific sports concerned are: weightlifting, tennis (Davis Cup), figure skating, hockey.

Continental Games These games' refer to international conpetition among countries of a designated continent, e.g., Asian Games, European Chanpionships, or among countries of different continents, as the Pan American Games.

^International Olynpic Committee, The Olympic Games (Lausanne, Switzerland: Canpagne Mon-Repos, 1967), p. 11. 16

Table 1

Number of Olynpic Medals Won, I896-I968

Medals Rank Nation Gold Silver Bronze Total

1 United States 597 449 380 1,426 2 U.S.S.R. 192 177 172 541 3 Great Britain 150 181 149 480 4 Germany 127 167 154 448 5 Sweden 144 133 163 440 6 France 127 138 148 413 7 Finland 105 95 115 315 8 Italy 116 101 96 313 9 Hungary 95 78 88 261 10 Norway 80 70 64 214 11 Switzerland 44 64 60 168 12 Australia 55 43 57 155 13 Japan 51 52 44 147 14 Austria 44 48 51 143 15 Holland 40 45 52 137 16 CANADA 35 42 49 126

17 Denmark 25 52 46 123 18 Belgium 37 40 41 118 19 Czechoslovakia 37 41 32 110 20 Poland 24 29 54 107 21 Rumania 15 16 26 57 22 Greece 12 20 23 55 23 South Africa 16 16 21 53 24 Argentine 13 17 14 44 25 Turkey 23 11 7 41 26 Bulgaria 7 15 10 32 27 Yugoslavia 10 14 7 31 28 East Germany 10 11 9 30 29 Iran 4 7 14 25 30 Mexico 6 7 11 24 31 Estonia 6 6 9 21 32 New Zealand 11 1 9 21 33 Cuba 7 8 3 18 34 Egypt 6 5 5 16 35 Brazil 3 2 9 14 17 Pan American Games. The Pan American Games are a series of athletic contests patterned after the Olyitpic Games and. sponsored by countries of the western hemisphere. These games are celebrated, usually in summer, in the year prior to the Olynpics. The first games were held in Buenos Aires, Argentina, in 1951.

Canada was not entered on a substantial or official basis at the Pan American Games in 1951 or 1955. Her standing in the years she has been represented has always been second, as seen in Table 2.

Table 2 Results of Recent Pan American Games

Year Number of Medals and Nations Standing Conpeting Gold Silver Bronze Total

1959 24 1. U.S.A. 121 72 52 245 2. Canada 7 21 28 56 3. Argentina 7 21 9 37 1963 24 1. U.S.A. 109 49 35 193 2. Canada 11 26 26 63 3 . Brazil . 14 21 18 53 1967 24 1. U.S.A. 120 63 44 227 2. Canada^ 16 42 50. 108 3 . Cuba 8 14 23 45

XIncludes medals for demonstration sports.

The aim of the Pan American Games is to benefit humanity, glorify and advance amateur sport and unifV all nations in the western 18 hemisphere, on the premise that sport is recognized as a uniting link between nations and as a medium of international conciliation. ^

Pan Pacific Games. The Pan Pacific Games were conceived in Tokyo in 1966. ,A track and field meet between the international teams of Japan, the United States, Canada, Australia, and New Zealand was to be held every four years starting in 1966 in Tokyo, with "satellite meets" in several areas to give as many people as possible the chance to see top athletes in action.

These games allow the participating countries to corrpete with countries against which they mi ^ t otherwise have little opportunity to compete outside the Olympics. There is some indication that the

Pan Pacific Games were proposed as a counterbalance for the Asian

Games. The purpose of the games is to promote international goodwill and top level competition.

British Commonwealth Games

The British Commonwealth Games are held every four years, the first having been in Hamnlton, Canada, in 1930. One of the official purposes of the games reads, "for the unifying of the Empire when needed on any international problems that might arise."3 In general, the aim of the British Commonwealth Games,

2c. R. Finery, "The History of the Pan American Games" (Bd.D. dissertation, Louisianna State University, 1964).

3jacob B. Agbogun, "A History of the British Commonwealth Games" (University of Alberta, unpublished Master's thesis, 1968), p. 94. 19 aside from the furthering of amateur athletes and good sportsmanship, is to increase goodwill and understanding among the Commonwealth nations.

Canada has played a major role in the founding of the friendly

British Commonwealth Games, and by 1970 has progressed to a strong third in the games’ standings behind England and Australia, as shown in Table 3 » following.

Regional Games (Arctic Games)

Regional games in lAich Canada participates are the Arctic

Games. The idea of these games originated during the Quebec Winter

Games in Quebec City in 1967; it was felt that sport in the Northwest

Territories would be better developed if its athletes could engage

at a level of conpetition more suitable to their own standards.

The purpose of the Arctic Games is to increase interest and

participation in sports in the geogr^hic area north of the sixtieth

parallel of latitude, and to inproye the quality of performance

among the athletes residing in this region. For this reason, rigid

qualifying standards have not been established for these games and

participation is encouraged by all athletes regardless of their level

of ability.^ The first games, attended by Alaska, the Yukon, and the

Northwest Territories, were held in Yellowknife, Northwest Territories,

in March, 1970.

^Arctic Winter Games Corporation, ’’Arctic Winter Games Hand book" (Yellowknife, 1969), p. 3. Table 3 20 Results of Recent Canmonwealth Games

Year Nations . Medals

Gold Silver Bronze Total

1950 12

1. Australia 34 27 19 80 2. New Zealand 10 22 21 53 3. England 19 16 13 48 4. CANADA 8 9 14 31

1954 24 ■

1. England 23 24 20 67 2. Australia 20 11 17 48 3. CANADA 9 20 14 ■ 43

1958 35 1. England 29 22 29 80 2. Australia 27 22 17 66 3. South Africa 13 10 8 31 4. CANADA 1 10 16 27

1962 35 1. Australia 38 36 31 105 2. England 29 21 26 76 3. New Zealand 10 12 10 32 4. CANADA 4 12 15 31

1966 35

1. England 33. 24 23 80 2. Australia 23 28 22 73 3 . CANADA 14 20 23 57

1970 41 1. England 27 25 34 86 2. Australia 36 24 23 83 3. CANADA 18 24 23 65 2 1 Special International Compétitions

World Student .Games. The purpose of these student games is the development of university sport, the physical education and welfare of

students, and closer contact between students of all countries and

their cooperation for the unity of international university sport.

The first Canadian entry into the World Student Games was in

the summer of I965, in track and field only. In I966, Canada entered a hockey team in the winter games and since then has been represented in

additional events. ‘

World Games of the Deaf. The International Silent Games were

organized in 1924 in Paris by the International Committee of Silent

Sports (CISS) which today has a membership of forty countries. These

gaiiBS, conprised of a variety of sports events, are held every four

years, the first having been in Paris in 1924.

The games are meant to be the same as regular Olympics by their

conception, content, and method of organization, stressing the equality

of people, including the deaf, in sports. CISS’s attitude is: "In

sports, we find ourselves."

"Federation of the Silent Sports of Canada" was incorporated

in 1964. The first participation for Canada in the World Games for the

Deaf was a single entry in the DCth World Game's at Helsinki in I96I.

The first official entry for Canada was at the Xth World Games held

in Washington in 1965. At this event, medals were won in swimming

and in basketball. A large team, thirty-five Canadian athletes,

participated in the Xlth World Games in Yugoslavia in I969. 22 To date, Canada has not participated in the World Chairpionships in Cross Country for the Deaf, known as the Cross of Pavia or the Cross of the Nations. A small contingent participated in the Vllth World

Winter Gatres for the Deaf, held in Adelboden, Switzerland in 1971.

Gaines for paraplegics. The International Stoke Mandeville Games are held every four years in conjunction with the Olympic Games, if possible in the same country and the same place (i.e., Rome, i960, and Tokyo, 196%). The aim of the Paralympics is to unite paralyzed men and women from all parts of the world in a sport movement, and through the spirit of good sportsmanship to give hope and inspiration to para lyzed people. The first such conpetition was on July 28, 19%8 , in

Stoke Mandeville, England. Since then, the number of competitors has increased steadily and so far forty-eight countries have been repre

sented, Canada included. ■ ' v:'.cÜï^til the 1960’s, before the formation of the Canadian Wheel

chair Sports Association, individual clubs in Canada sent represen

tatives to the annual Stoke Mandeville Games. Since then, Canada has

had no official part in the annual event.

Other competitions for paraplegics in which Canada has partici

pated include the British Commonwealth Paraplegic Games held in

Jamaica, which Canada attended in an unofficial capacity. In 1967,’the

Pan American Wheelchair Games were organized in Winnipeg, and Canada

was represented there and also at the Pan American Wheelchair Games in

Argentina in 1969. Canadian representatives also went to the games in Israel in 1968. 23 Maccabiah Games. The Maccablah Games began in 1932, and since

1950 have been held each year following the Olynpics. Jewish athletes from about thirty countries conpete against each other in Israel.

Canada’s first official entry was in 1950, and she has conpeted successfully throughout, finishing in seventh place in I969.

Inter-Country.Competitions (North' ^toerican Charrpionshlps Ih Specific Sports)

A few sports hold an annual conpetition between Canada and the

United States. The site is alternated between the two countries, and the conpetition is designated as a North American Chairpionship.

Exanples of sports in which Canada has participated in these conpetitions include: figure skating, bobsledding, canoeing.

Inter-City Games (CAMJSA Games)

The purpose of these geones is to create inteimational goodwill through the field of amateur athletic conpetition between Flint,

Michigan, and Hamilton, Ontario. The first conpetition took place in

1958. The event is an annual one, usually in the latter part of

August, and alternating between the two cities in a summer sports conpetition.

COMPARISON OF WORLD STANDARDS AMD CANADIAN PERFORMANCES

A conparison of a nation’s performance in international conpe tition against world standards is a difficult task with no clear cut approach. Measurable records are not possible for all sporting events, and even viien they are available, they usually fall short of providing 24 a fair description of a nation’s ranking.

There are several approaches used today in assessing a nation’s performance. One is an evaluation of top performance, which is sinply the number of medals which have been won. Table 4 summarizes the number of medals won by Canada in Summer and Winter Olympic Games since their inception. This, however, does not give any indication of improvements in performance below this top level.

An unofficial rating method, used by the press in particular, is a points system which evaluates superior performance on a ten-point graduated scale. For the purposes of this study, however, the eval uation will be of a successful performance over a time period of twenty years, considering individual sports in various groupings according to the type of event and the extent of Canada's participation. A success ful performance is considered to be anything above the median as repre senting the average performance of the total number of nations entered in the event. For this comparison of performances to have a proper international level of significance, the results that will be examined will be only those from the Olympic Games and world competitions.

In determining a meaningful time period for study, special consideration was given to the past twenty years. Reasons for the selection include the entry of the U.S.S.R. into Olympic competition in

1952, the developing independence of African nations, and the consid erable growth of International competition among amateur sports governing bodies. 25 Table 4

Medals Won by Canada In the Olynpic Games, 1896-I968

Year and Site Gold Sliver bronze "Total

Summer Ulyitpics

1896 Athens 0 0 0 0 1900 Paris 0 0 0 0 1904 St. Louis 4 1 0 5 1908 London 3 3 6 12 1912 Stockholm 3 2 3 8 1920 Antwerp 2 3 2 7 1924 Paris 0 3 1 4. 1928 Amsterdam 4 4 5 13 1932 Los Angles 2 5 • 8 15 1936 Berlin 1 3 5 9 1948 London 0 1 2 3 1952 Helsinki 1 2 0 3 1956 Melbourne 2 1 3 6 i960 Rome 0 1 0 1 1964 Tokyo 1 2 1 4 1968 Mexico 1 3 1 5

Total 24 34 37 95 Winter Olympics

1924 Chamonix 1 . 0 0 1 1928 St. Moritz 1 0 0 1 1932 Lake Placid 2 3 5 10 1936 Garmisch 0 1 0 1 1948 St. Moritz 2 • 0 1 3 1952 Oslo 1 0 1 2 1956 Cortina ■ 0 1 2 3 i960 Squaw Valley 2 1 1 ■4 1964 Innsbruck . 1 1 1 3 1968 Grenoble 1 1 1 3

Total 11 8 12 31

Grand Total 35 42 49 126 2 6 The sports to be examined in the comparison fall into roughly these groupings: winter sports,-men; summer sports, men; and women’s sports; with subgroupings relative to Canada's degree of participation.

Winter Sports, Men .

The sports considered here are those which are widely practised by men in at least twenty-five countries and two continents, and are

Included in Olympic Games and world conpetitions. Of these winter sports, there has been little participation on Canada’s part in luging and speedskating, and none in mountaineering. Curling has been

included because of the great enthusiasm shown for the sport in Canada.

• Over the period 1950-70, Canada has won medals in the following winter sports :

Sport Gold Silver Bronze Total

Bobsledding 2 0 ' 1 3

Curling 10 1 0 11

Figure Skating^ 10 9 10 •29

Hockey 6 3 4 13

^Includes medals won in pairs and dance.

Table 5 » following, shows placings obtained by Canadian men,

over the same period, in a more extensive series of significant winter

sports. Table 5 Canadian.Placings (Men) In Winter Olynpics and World Conpetitions, 1950-70

Bobsledding Figure Skating Skiing Alpine Skiing Year Curling Hockey Giant Nordic 2-Man 4-Man Singles Pairs Dance Slalan Slalom Downhill

1950 8 9 1 • 5 15 1951 9 1 1952 7,5 4,5 1 33 25 18 52 1953 7 2 1954 7 1 2 12 1955 ■ ^ 8 1 11 2 • 1956 4,8 2,2 9 3 50 39 25 19 1957 3 1,3 2 1958 4 1,3 2 1 1959 1 2 1 3 1 I960 1 2,3 1,1 2 2 19 24 22 35 1961 . 1 1

1962 1 . 1 1 3 1963 1 1 4 3 4 1964 4 1 1 9,9 3,3 2 4 19 26 25 34 1965 3 1 2 3 12 8 4 1966 . • 7 1 . 7 13 9 3 . 1967 13 ' 4 4 18 6 3 1968 19 17- 1 7,6 13,16 9 3 18 27 56 1969 13 10 1 6 10 11 4 1970 1 11 14 14 12 22 15 47 Double entry— for Olynpic years, placings are World and Olynpic, in that order; — for years other than Olynpic, all placings are World. 2 8

Summer Sports, Men

The sports considered here are those which are widely practised by men in at least thirty-five countries and two continents, and are included in the Olynpic Games and world conpetitions.

To this date, Canada has not been a part of any established structured world conpetitions in football, karate, lacrosse, rugby, or cricket. There has been little Canadian participation in archery, baseball, biathlon, bowling, field hockey, handball, soaring, soccer, volleyball, water polo, or water skiing. In fencing, badminton, boxing, tennis, and wrestling, it is difficult to determine placings because of elimination rounds in these events.

In golf, Canada has been placed second three times in the

Biennial World Amateur Team Championships, but her participation in this sport has been significant only in recent years. Canada will be entering her first men's team in squash this year.

During 1950-70, Canada has won medals in the following summer sports :

Sport Gold Silver Bronze Tote

Canoeing 0 1 0 1 Equestrian 1 0 1 2 Judo 0 1 0 1 Rowing 2 2 0 4 Sailing 4 1 . 1 6 Shooting 3 2 1 6 Swimming 0 1 0 • 1 Track and Field 0 1 1 2 Wei#itlifting 1 1 0 2

Placings obtained by Canadian men over the same period in significant summer sports are shown in Table 6, following. Table 6 Canadian Placings (Men) in Summer Olynpics and World Conpetitions, 1950-70 Basket Canoeing, 1,000 M. Canoeing, 10,000 M. Cycling Diving Year ball Kayak Kayak Ind. 1,000 1,000 2,000 Spring Plat Singles Tandem Singles Singles Tandem Tandem R.R. M.T.T. M.S. M.T. board ■ form 1950 1951 1952 9 el 8 9 5 2 11 22 1953 1954 7 , 1955 1956 9 8 7 . el 7 9 10 28 18 10 23 1957 1958 1959 12 i960 7 el el 5 22 1961 . 1962 11 1963 1964 14 7 7 el el 18 24 1965 1966 1967 1968 el 9 el el el 55 7 30 30 1969 80 1970 10 32 11 el el el— Eliminated or did not qualify. Table 6 (continued)

Equestrian Gymnastics Judo Rowing^ 3-Day Dress Grand Grand Indi Heavy 8 Cox Four Pair Single Double Year 3-Day Team age Prix Prix vidual Team Open weight Eights Pour 4- 2- Sc. 2 So . Team 4 +

1950 1951 1952 22 1953 1954 1955 1956 16 3 49 2 1 1957 1958 1959 I960 10 85 2 el el 1961 5 1962 100 18 el - 1963 1964 9 82 2 9 11 1 8 1965 1966 77 18 el el el 1967 7 1968 9 8 15 6 1 65 16 9 el 11 1969 1970 80 19 el el el el el 11 el— Eliminated or did not qualify. •' ^For Parachuting, see next page. OJ o Table 6 (continued) Parachuting Sailing snoouingx Indi- Plying Light Small bore rifle Free Year u^idual Team 5.5M Finn. Star Snipe Dinghy Dragon Dutch ning Rifle man 3 positions Prone 1950 1951 1952 8 10 10 21 4 19 1953 1954 1 1955 1956 8 10 8 1 10 1957 1958 36 1959 I960 39 7 19 7 23 5 22 47 12 24 1961 - 1 17 1962 9 5 1963 11 1964 9 5 7 11 . 7 11 12 32 4 1965 18 10 16 6 1966 3 9 1967 1 2 1968 18 4 6 20 15 1 4 7 6 20 1969 3 1 el 1970 10 3 88 29

%See next page for further shooting events-

y Table 6 (continued)

Shooting (continued) Wel^tllftlng Table Year Rree Rapid Clay Trap Skeet Tennis Bantan>- Feather Light Middle Light Middle Heavy Pistol Fire Pigeon Ind. Ind. welght weight weight weight Heavy- Heavy weight Pistol w e l ^ t weight

1950 1951 1952 42 1 2 9 10 2 5 1953 1 1954 6 6 4 1955 6 1956 13 25 25 9 8 6 1957 27 1958 1959 29 I960 11 33 14 6 1961 3 2 1962 5 5 10 1963 37 1964 15 22 9 18 12 9 1965 36 6 4 7 12 1966 1967 4 28 1968 15 34 8 15 11 10 21 1969 28 10 . 1970 62 46 7 32 13 12 14 33

Figures 1, 2, and 3 , following, illustrate the best Canadian performances (men) at the Olympics in the measurable sports of track and field, swimming, and weightlifting. Canada's best performance over the period of the last five Olympics is shown in relation to the top Olympic performance recorded in 1952 and that of the last (1968)

Olympics held in Mexico City.

IWo outstanding performances by Canadians are shown in Figure

1, that of Harry Jerome in the 100 metres and of Bill Crothers in the

Boo metres. In e i ^ t of the track events shown, however, Canada has not reached the top performance established in the 1952 Olynpics. It is. seen from Figure 2 that the swimming performance of Canadians has been consistently outstanding, with the exception of that in the 200 metre breaststroke event. Figure 3 indicates that Canada's best performances of the last five Olynpics in weightlifting have tended to approximate the top performance of the 1952 Olynpics. Olympic top Olympic top perf ortnano e Indicates best Canadian Olympic performance 1952 performance, 1952-68 1968

10.3S 9.9S 100 M. r (lO.la)

20.7SS ■? 19. 8S ( Z O M m Va) 200 M.

45.9S 43.8S

(US.l.) 400 M.

1MIN:49.2S 4s^ ;MIN:44.3S 800 M. 3MIN:45.2S 3MIN:34.9S

(3adT>tU7.6s) 1,500 M.

14MIN:06.6S 13MIN:S9.6S

(Uisiot21,6s) 5,000 M.

28MIN:45.6S 28MIN:24.4S

(30aiDt56*U») 10,000 M.

Figure 1

Best performance In track and field by Canadian men at Olympic competitions, I4=-j O compared with top Olympic performance Olympic top Olympic top performance Indicates best Canadian Olympic performance 1968 1952 performance, 1952-68

49.3S 48. IS

_ (51.5s) 400 M. Hurdles

4HRS:11MIN:i 2.4S 4HRS:28MIN:07.aS

(L hrei2? 50,000 M.

7,887Pts e,392Pts _ (7Ui7) DECATHLON

^ 3MIN:03.9s 2MIN;56.Is 1(3 mjm*08.2e) 4 X 400M. Relay

■ 2HRS:23MIN :03.2s 2HRS:l2MIN:ll.2S

I (? hrstZS BlniliOtZe) MARATHON

Figure 1 (cont)

Best performance in track and field by Canadian men at Olympic competitions, compared with top Olympic performance Olympic top Olympic top performance ii-W I ndlcates best Canadian Olympic performance 1968 1952 performance, 1952-68 57.IS 52.2S 100 M. Freestyle (a.8.)

4MIN;30.7S •4MIN:09.0S 400 M. Freestyle (Lmlnill.Ta)

18MIN:30.3S 16MIN:38.9S 1,500 M. Freestyle

2MIN:19.3S 2MIN:06.6S

200 M. Butterfly (2Rinil2.78)

2MIN:34.4S______2MIN:27.8S t(2Îiûi36.i.) 200 Mi Breaststroke 1MIN;05.4S 58.7S 100 M. Backstroke

4MIN:05.4S 3MIN;54.9S A, (Utaiofi.o.) 400 M. Medley Relay

8MIN:31.1S 7MIN:52,1S

800 M. Freestyle Relay (BminiOj.Za)

Figure 2

Best performance In swimming by Canadian men at Olympic competitions, (jO compared with top Olympic performance Olympic top Olympic top performance performance Indicates best Canadian Olympic 1952 1968 performance, 19 5 2-68

694-.0LBS. 810.0LBS. Bantamwe1ght

743.0LBS. 876.0LBS. w-/* •<•••••« I ( 7S«.01blI.) Featherweight

881,5LBS. * 981.0LB8,

(BJl.Olba.) MIddleweIght

A 1002.OLBS. 1140.OLBS.

(969. 01b a .) Middle Heavyweight

1013.OLBS. 1185.OLBS.

(J030. 01bo.) Heavywe ight

Figure 3

Best performance in weightlifting by Canadian men at Olympic competitions, uo compared with top Olympic performance 38 Women's Sports

The women's sports considered here are those which are widely- practised by women in at least twenty countries and two continents, and are included in Olympic Games, both Summer and Winter, as well as in world championships.

It is not possible to accurately guage women's placing or ranking in badminton, fencing, and tennis because of the elimination structure of these events. There is little participation by women in water skiing, bowling, field hockey, speedskating, luge, volleyball, canoeing and parachuting. Canada has performed very well in world competition in synchronized swimming,- but entered for the first time only last year.

Women have won medals for Canada in the following sports,

1950-70:

Sport Gold Silver Bronze Total

Archery 1 0 0 1 Diving 0 0 1 1 Figure Skating^ 1 1 3 5 Skiing, Alpine 5 1 1 7 Swimming 0 2 1 3

^Excludes medals won in pairs and dance.

Table 7, following, gives placings obtained by Canadian women over the 1950-70 period in significant sporting events. % b l e 7 Canadian Placings (Women) In Olympic and World Conpetitions, 1950-70

Diving Figure Gymnastics Skiing, Alpine Year Archery Skating Springboard Platform (singles) Cndividual Team Slalom Giant Downhill Slalom 1950 4 1951 4 1952 4,6 9 13 8 1953 5 1954 4 7 7 1955 • 6 1956 3 9,6 56 18 6 3 1957 4 1958 13 ' 60 5 1 1 1959 10 I960 6 9 7,10 76 1 12 12 1961 1962 2 91 16 1963 36 4 1964 11 11 3,3 55 15 16 7 1965 16 1 1966 3 71 15 4 1967 15 4 1968 7 4 7,7 51 11 2 1 10 1969 1 6 1970 4 41 13 8 1 4

Double entry— for Olynpic years, placings are World and Olynpic, in that order. uo kO 40 Figures 4 and 5, following^ illustrate the best perfoimances by Canadian women in the track and field and swimming events over the last five Olynpics j and corrpares them with the top Olynpic performances established in 1952 and 1968. Figure 4 indicates that the best Olynpic performances by

Canadian women in track and field have been in the sprint event of

100 metres and in the corresponding relay. In four of the seven track and field events, however, Canadian women are considerably below the top Olynpic performance of 1952. Figure 5, on the other hand, shows outstanding swimming performances by Canadian women in four of the events shown, with the best performance that recorded by Elaine Tanner in the 100 metre backstroke event. Olympic top Olympic top performance performance «^«Indioates best Canadian Olympic 1968 1952 performance, 1952-68 11.08 11.5S I (11.(11.3.) 100 M.

22.58 23.48

I (2J.7li)’ 200 M.

^ 2MIN:04.3S ' 2MIN:00.58

|^2»lniC6,8«) 800 M.

^ 10.98 10.38 \ (u.i.) _ 80 M. Hurdles

42.88 4 5 . 9 S _ A. lunr 4 X 100 M. Relay

5FT. 6 1/8 IN. 6FT. 2 3/4IN. (Srt.7t, )n.) High Jump

^ 20FT. 5 3/4 IN. 20FT.10 3/4IN. . * (IS rt.ds In.) Long Jump

Figure 4

Best performance In track and field by Canadian women at Olympic competitions,

compared with top Olympic performance Olympic top Olympic top performance indicates best Canadian Olympic performance 1952 performance, 1952-68 1968

59.5S 1M1N;05.5S lOOM. Freestyle

4MIN:31.8S 5MIN:12.1S 400M. Freestyle

1MIN;11.0S 1MIN:04..7S (ImintOÿ.ôa) lOOM. Butterfly

1MIN:06.2S 1MIN:13.8S lOOM. Backstroke (Ir4ni06,78)

4MIN;02.5S 4MIN:24.4S 400M. Freestyle Relay ({t9dnt07.?s)

4MtN:41.1S 4MIN:28.3S

I (liinln:ti3«ls} 400M. Medley Relay

Figure 5

Best performance in sv/imming by Canadian women at Olympic competitions, compared with top Olympic performance no4 =- CHAPTER TIT

OBJECTIVES UNDERLYING NATIONAL GOVERNMENT INVOLVEMENT IN SPORT

Government involvement in sport has, historically, been related to military fitness, education, national identification, and opportunity to participate in leisure activities. Recently, the extensive growth of national government participation in sport has been directed in accordance with national political objectives: the degree of national government involveiœnt appears to be directly • related to an expressed political ideology. Some systems focus on the development of the individual, lAile others place their enphasis on the function as service to the country.

A number of authors, including Foster,^ Meynaud,^ Miyhata,^

^Yvonne Foster, "A Conparison on the Programs in Physical Education in the United States of America and the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics" (unpublished Master’s thesis, Springfield Colley, 1967 ) • 2jean Meynaud, Sport et Politique (Paris: Payot Publishers, 1966).

^T. Miyhata, "General Organization of Physical Education and Sports in Japan, with Annotations Regarding Other Countries in Asia," F.I.E.P. Bulletin, III-IV (1962), pp. 14-23.

43 4 4 Molyneux,^ Morton,^ Seurln,^ have attenpted to relate general

classifications of government to sport and political structures.

In examining the sports objectives of governments selected

for this paper, it has been found meaningful to organize the countries

in terms of their political systems. An applicable classification

system of political regimes was selected from Curtis^ and proposed by Semotiuk.^ The political systems of countries to be examined in

this study were fitted into this classification list, as illustrated

on Table 8.

For a more workable classification, two general categories

have been selected by the author which reflect the largest number

of socio-political features of the countries, these two being

constitutional democracy and non-constitutional regime (federal or

^D. D. Molyneux, Central Government Aid to Sport and Physical Recreation in Countries of Western Europe (University of Birmingham, 1963), p. 11.

%enry Morton, Soviet Sport (New York: Collier Books, 1963).

^Pierre Seurin, "Comparative Study of the Organization of Physical Education and Sports in Western Countries," F.I.E.P. Bulletin, III-IV (1962), p. 139.

^Michael Curtis, Comparative Government and Politics (New York: Harper and Row, 1968), p. 52. o Darwin Semotiuk, "The Development of a Theoretical Framework for Analyzing the Role of National Government Involvement in Sport and Physical Education and its Application to Canada" (unpublished Doctoral dissertation, Ohio State University, 1970), p. 243. 45 Table 8 THE CLASSIFICATION OF POLITICAL SYSTEMS

N^on-Constitution Regime

Country -p -pw 0 m •H p 1 t It ro p •H p P CÜ 1 s i 1 1 1 1 1 U P U a s p II If

Argentina X X X X Australia X X XX Austria XX XX Brazil X XX X Canada X X XX Colombia X X X X Cuba X X X X X Czechoslovakia X XX X X England X X X X Finland X X XX France X X XX Germany (East) X X X XX Germany.(West) X X XX Hungary X X X X X Italy X X XX Japan X X XX New Zealand X X XX Norway X X XX Poland XX X XX Scotland X X X X South Africa X X XX Sweden XX XX Union of Soviet Socialist Republics XX X XX United States X X X X Yugoslavia X X X XX 46 unitary). Curtis defines these terms as follows:

A constitutional democracy is characterized by the "allocation of a higher sanction to the basic laws than the immediate wishes of a ruler" or the political party in power. The effective restraints on the group in power include free elections, the existence of a legal political opposition which has some inpact on decision making, a politically neutral civil service and array, and the existence of rule

of law. On the other hand, non-constitutional regimes are dictatorial

in varying degrees; the government may be extremely totalitarian, in which total control is exercised not only over political institutions • but over all details of social behaviour, or it may be mildly

authoritarian, in which case political and social liberties much less

rigorously are restricted.

A federal system is one in vhich the functions of government

are shared between a central authority and regional authorities,

both sets being autonomous in certain areas and deriving their

respective powers from the constitution or interpretations of it,

not from each other. In a unitary system, a central set of political institutions

exercise legitimate authority. Local authorities obtain their powers

from the central authority which can anend those powers if it desires.9

9curtis, Conparative Government and Politics, pp. 52-9. 47 ÜNITARÏ SYSTEM, CONSTITUTIONAL DEMOCRACIES

Austria

Tie Austrian government has no expressed objectives on sports:

It promotes amateur sport by means of technical and advisoiy systems and grants through the various Independent sports organizations which operate tie program.

England

In 1937, the Physical Training and Recreation Act was passed

In England; although since then It has been greatly amended. In

1958 It still outlined the role of the government In sports,

recreation, and physical training. The greater portion of It has

to do with guidelines for grant assistance. In Ehgland, the policy of the government Is to foster the

development of sport and physical recreation In the widest sense,

to provide greater opportunities for members of the canmunity to

enjoy the form of sport or physical recreation in which they are

interested.

Finland

In 1966, the Sports and Youth Work Office was created by a

statute vhlch stated Its relationship with the Ministry of Education

and all related functions, as well as with the National Sports Council and the Finnish Research Council for Physical Education and

Sports. The aim of the Finnish government and Its related sport

a^ncles Is "to follow the development of sports and physical education 4 8 at home and abroad, and to promote popular sports and the co-operation of athletic organization".^^

I^rance

Two recent decrees, in 1966 and I96 8 , defined and established the High Committee on Sports, one of the consultative organizations of the State Secretariat for Youth and Sport (a government agency).

As noted in Essai de Doctrine du Sport, the H i ^ Coirmittee regards sport in the following philosophical terms:

Sport, a true expression of human activities, whether they involve a struggle between the individual and himself or a conçetition against others, is the purest form of physical and moral discipline.

"Fair play", the pre-requisite of all athletic conpetition, implies loyalty, chivalry, a joyful contribution to human solidarity. Sports provide an opportunity for man to act on his own initiative and participate beyond all daily contingencies.

Italy

Ihe Italian govemnent has no expressed objectives towards

amateur sport, instead leaving the responsibility of sports promotion

and development outside the educational system to the Italian National

Olympic Committee (CONI).

Japan

The Amateur Sport Promotion Law was passed on June I6 , 1961

lOThe Finnish Society for Research in Sports and Physical Education, Physical Education.and Sports in Finland, Publication No.. l4 (Helsinki: Werner, 1969), p. 79. 1\S and Tfjas later emended in 1966. It put forth the basic policy relating to the government’s promotion of amateur sport and outlines the details of organization and structure of related government a^ncles, their programs and finances. The aim of the J^anese government, as stated in the Amateur

Sport Promotion Law, is "to contribute to the sound growth of the people" and "to strive to create the conditions enabling the people . at lar^ to engage voluntarily in amateur sport according to individual aptitude and state of health".

New Zealand The New Zealand government does little officially to encoura^ amateur sport outside the school system other than making financial grants to private sport agencies.

Norway

The State Office for Youth and Sport in Norway, established in 1946 and chan^d in 1949, has the central leadership for the developing of all types of sports facilities throughout the country in that it acts as a link between the government authorities which give their support to sports programs and the voluntary agencies actually engaged in these programs,

Scotland

Ehgland’s Physical Training and Recreation Act applies also, to Scotland,

Scotland’s governmental policy towards sport is largely that of Ehgland’s, as both come under the influence of the %iorts Council 50 for Great Britain. The govemnent’s responsibility is seen to be in the area of financial and advisory assistance to voluntary sports

organizations.

South Africa The Deparinent of Sport and Recreation was’established in

1966. The South African Govemiœnt promotes sports and recreation in the country in order to assure the development of a sound and

healthy people. It is a further policy of the government that there

will be no mixed sport between whites and non-whites.

Sweden

In Sweden, the government is responsible for physical

education only as far as schools of various kinds are concerned.

The broad program and activities for sport and physical training

in ^neral are administered by voluntary sports organizations with

financial help from the government.

FEDERAL SYSTEM, CONSTITOTIONAL DEMOCRACIES

Australia The National Fitness Act of July 4th, 1941, created a

Conmonwealth Council for National Fitness, stating its duties and

financial assistance powers. A series of National Fitness Councils,

one for each state, was also established. In Australia, there is no direction of amateur sport by the

gpvemnent other than in the form of financial assistance through

the National Fitness Councils in each state. It gives its ^neral 51 support to msasures aimed at developing ^preciation for the need of physical fitness and movements organized to achieve it.

Canada The Fitness and Amateur Sport Progtm commenced in December,

1961, with the proclamation of the Federal Fitness and Amateur Sport

Act, which set forth the objectives and powers of the government department responsible (National Health and Welfare) and established the National Advisory Council on Fitness and Amateur Sport.

The objective of the Canadian government, as stated in the

Fitness and Amateur Sport Act, is "to encourage, promote, and develop fitness and amateur sport in Canada" and the Fitness and Amateur

Sport Program is designed "to help Canadians keep fit and find fuller enjoyment of life through more active living . . . at all levels of ccmpetitive and non-coirpetitive activity.

Germany (Vfêst) The expressed responsibility of the federal government is to raise the achievement level of sport and gymnastics, particularly the efforts of the private a^ncies, to increase the broad partici-. pation base and to interest all population groups to participate actively in physical activities.

United States

The President's Council on Physical Fitness and Sports was

llCanada, Department of National Health and Welfare, A Program for Everyone, (Queen's Printer, Ottawa, 19^7)• 52 established by Executive Order No. 11398 on March 4, 1968, "to ejipand opportunities to engage in exercise, active recreation and sports".

The Council is a continuation, on an expanded basis, of the

President's Council on Physical Fitness established by President

Kennedy on January 8, 1963. The latter agency evolved from the

President's Council on Youth Fitness, which was established by

President Eisenhower on July I6 , 1956.

The federal government traditionally has taken a "hands off" attitude toward all amateur sport, regarding it as a matter for the independent sports governing bodies. The President's Council on

Physical Fitness and Sport is responsible for promoting increased participation in sport as a means of raising the fitness level of the general population. .'i"' • • •.

UNITARY SYSTEM, NON-CONSTITUTIONAL REGIMES

Argentina

Law No. 18,247 outlines the State's policy on sport. It tends

to view sport and its potentialities for physical culture in the

Tfthole community as the major issue, i.e., as an educational factor

for the formation of the individual, as a factor in the promotion

of people's health, as a means to achieve the development of human

potentialities in the country, and as a factor for the integration

of the community. The law also designates the Secretary of State

for the Promotion of/and Assistance to the Community and its powers

and responsibilities. 53 Colombia

The National Youth and Sport Council vas created by Decree

No. 2,743 in. November, 1968. The decree outlined the functions of the Council, its structure, etc. The Colombian Youth and Sport

Institute was also created by Decree No. 2,743 and this organization, vhich is the main instrument for promoting amateur sport, is defined

and its functions and structure outlined in the decree. Ihe by-laws

of the Colombian Youth and Sport Institute and detail of its functions

and those of the officers are given in Decree No. l48, February 10,

1969. The Colombian government sees as its objective "the well being and recreation of youth and the development of physical

education and sports with the territory of the nation . . . and shall

attend! to the development and application of any plans for the

stiimlation and promotion of physical education, recreation, and

sport" (Decree No. 2,743).

Cuba

The National Sports, Physical Education and Recreation

Institute was created by Law No.-936 of February 23, 196I. It

replaced the Sports Directorate which had been created by Law No.

683 of December 23, 1959. The 196I law, the purposes, organization,

and jurisdiction of the Institute were outlined.

The efforts of the National Sport, Physical Education, and

Recreation Institute, a government agency, are seen by the government

to have the purpose of shaping the future of Cuba, where physical

education and sport activities are now an essential part of a well- balanced education for young people and, at the same time, an indispenscüDle element in promoting better health and efficiency rates for each citizen, as well as a decisive factor in the productive efficiency of man and something essential for the life of the people.

Germany (East)

The new Constitution for the German Democratic Republic, passed in April, 1968, guaranteed to all citizens the right to sport.

A statement made by Walter Ulbricht, First Secretary of the German Socialist Unity Party’s Central Committee and Chairman of the GDR State Council, may be considered an accurate statement of his government’s sports policy.

Re^rding the whole conplex of sports, all its various fields in the seventies, we are faced with the inportant task of developing the physical culture for the people more and more thoroughly as characteristic of socialism, part of our national culture, the educational system and the working and living conditions of the working people in the process of the technological revolution. It is our main task in accordance with the socialist Constitution and the State Council decision on sports of 20th September, 1968, ”to make physical culture and sports a matter for the viiole people in a new and socialistic way.”

Hungary

Sport is a national activity, financially and morally supported by the Hungarian government. The constitution of Hungary prescribes that all citizens have the ri^t to education and to culture. This principle is realized in the financial and moral support of the state given to Hungarian sport.

The guiding principle of the Hungarian government is that physical training and sport be everyday activities for the masses 55 and serve the benefit of the citizens and the well-balanced intellectual and physical development of youth.

Poland

The rapid and ^neral development of social interest in physical culture is an expression of the State’s policy of treating such activities on a par with other social benefits. Development of pt^sical culture is a most significant element in social progress.

Yugoslavia

The operating principle behind government involvement in sport in Yugoslavia is covered in the Resolution of the Federal Assembly

Regarding the Physical Culture, which was issued on June 21, 1968.

The betterment of personal and social standards is creating an increased interest and opportunity for indivi duals to express their creativity in play, sports, gymnastics, and other outdoor activities, thus fostering the development of physical fitness which leads to a happier personal existence. Only if this type of concept is maintained will the physical culture acquire a truly humanistic and social meaning.

Such concept of physical culture can be created if the youth and working people in the independent status demand the creation of necessary conditions in their own operational organizations, schools, local and community councils in cities and in villages. One of the primary tasks of our time should be the development of physical culture on these premises. The performance of tiiis task is therefore, an obligation of all interested social and government officials particularly in those organi zations which are directly involved in the carrying out of social goals in this field.

^^Fhysical culture and sport in the Polish People's Republic (mimeograph paper) n.d. 56 FEDERAL SYSTEM, NON-CONSTITUTIONAL REGIMES

Brazil

The National Sports Council m s created by Edict-Iaw No.

3,199 on April l4, 1971. The law gives the entire structure, of.

administration in amateur sport, including details on responsibilities

of each level of administration.

In Edict-law No. 3,199, the government is "destined to orient,

supervise and incite the practice of sports in the entire country

. . . as well as to render sports more and more an effective means

for the physical and spiritual education of youth and a lofty

expression of national culture and energy."

Czechoslovakia

The President of the Czechoslovak Socialist Republic Antonin

Novotny, in his speech before the second Spartakiade in I96O, stated:

Our society will find more and more application for science and technology in industry, and also directly in the life of every individual. We shall automate industrial processes and shorten working hours. This will be a very exacting task for the people, their share of mental work will be greatly enhanced, because development and new technology in industry and agri culture will demand of the workers a high technical level and professional standard.

And this is why in the future Communist society physical training and sport will becoiiB a necessity for everybody.

The Czechoslovak Union for Physical Training, a government

a ^ncy, sees plrysical training (including sport) as an essential part

of education for the youth and the adults of the country. 57

Together with a rational and polytechnical education as well as an ethical and aesthetical upbringing, physical training is helping to further the development of character, to prepare young people for work, for the country and for leading a cultural life in a socialist society.13

Union of Soviet Socialist Republics

In terms of Communist goals, according to Morton, sport has

aided in the military preparedness of the nation, has helped to raise

labor productivity, has increased Soviet international prestige, and

has served as a means of social control in attracting and directing

individuals in Party-sponsored activlties.^^ Althou^ no specific

objectives are cited, generally they revolve around the mass partici

pation of working people, physical fitness for health and more

productive industry, and the superiority of the Communist system over

other political systems, especially capitalism.

RELATIONSHIP OF OBJECTIVES TO THE TYPE OP POLITICAL REGIME

Merely reviewing the stated sports policy statements of these

nations gives no clear indication of the degree or nature of government

involvement. It is difficult to apply Semotiuk's^^ further categori zation of predominant motives or function such as individualizing.

^^Czechoslovakia, 20 Years of Czechoslovak Physical Training 1945-1965 Prague: Sport and Tourism Publishing House n.d. p. J.

^^Morton, Soviet Sport, p. 211.

^^Semotiuk, "The Development of a Theoretical Framework for Analyzing the Role of National Government Involvement in Sport and Physical Education and Its Application to Canada," p. 74. 58 national prestige, socializing and international goodwill to the objectives just stated.

However, a general pattern of objectives for government involvement can be seen to be taking shape in the policy statements.

Among the constitutional democracies there is a basic concern for the individual, his health and his enjoyment through sport and recreation; granted, concern is given to the element of national and international competition, and the ensuing prestige it may bring to a nation, but since it is the private, independent sports governing bodies that are largely responsible for the athletes involved,, the

government appears to direct its resources to the individual's participation and his role.

The non-constitutional regimes, on the other hand, direct their

objectives in a different direction. Sport and recreation are conceived

as great socializing functions for the good and presti^ of the nation.

The term "physical culture," as it relates to the nation's total

cultural picture, tends to obscure the individual.

The next sections, on organization and administration of

government agencies, on programs, and on financial support, provide a

clearer picture of these two approaches in government involvement in

amateur sport, as well as pointing up the structural strength of

sport administration in countries vihose political systems are

characterized by a central authority. CHAPTER IV

ADMINISTRATIVE AND ORGANIZATIONAL STRUCTURE

The relationship between the government and amateur'sport is relatively unique in each country selected for this study. Althou^ there are similarities in the approach to an administrative and organizational structure, both for the government department officially concerned with sport and for the umbrella sports organization or series of sports bodies throu^ which it deals, a single pattern does not exist among the nations.

So that the most conprehensive view of the specific national government agency involved with amateur sport and its relationship with other non-political sports associations can be achieved, the countries have been once again divided into the two categories of constitutional democracies and non-constitutional regimes. And in order to illustrate the variations in administrative structure between the national government sports agency and related agencies and other government levels, a sub-division has been made— federal and unitary systems. As previously stated a federal system is one in which the functions of government are shared between a central authority and regional authorities, both sets being autonomous in certain areas and deriving their respective powers from the constitution or inter- 59 6 0 pretations of it, not from each other.

A unitary system is one in which the central set of political institutions exercise legitimate authority. Local authorities obtain their powers from the central authority which can amend those powers if it desires. Ihe following listing indicates the diversity as well as the similarities and differences among government agencies involved in sport.

Except for East Germany and the U.S.S.R., the material concerning organizational charts was obtained by means of the study questionnaire. For Japan, a more up to date chart has been used, and separate source material has provided the chart information for East

Germany and the U.S.S.R.

National Government Agencies Involved in Sport

Country Ministry (if any) Agency

Argentina Dept, of Social Secretary of State for Welfare the Promotion of/and Assistance to the Community

Australia Dept, of Health Commonwealth Secretariat for the National Fitness Movement

Austria Federal Ministry Sports Department under for Education National Education Brazil Ministry of Education National Sports Council and Health

Canada Dept, of National Fitness and Amateur Health and Welfare Sport Directorate 6 1 National Government.Agencies Involved In Sport (continued)

Country Ministry (If any) Agency

Colombia Dept, of National Colombia Institute of Education Youth and Sports

Cuba Ministry of National Institute for Education Sports, Physical Edu cation and Recreation

Czechoslovakia Czechoslovak Union for Physical Training

England Ministry of Housing Sports Council and Local Government

Finland Ministry of Education Sports and Youth Work Office

France Prime Minister State Secretariat for Youth and Sport

Germany (East) German Sports and Gymnastic Union .

Germany (West) The Dept, of the Dept, of Sport Interior

Hungary Hungarian Physical Training and Sports Association*

Italy Mmlstry of Tourism Italian National and Entertainment Olympic Committee*

Japan Ministry of Education Physical Education Bureau

New Zealand Dept, of Internal Youth Services Branch Affairs

Norway Ministry of Church State Office for Youth and Education and Sports In Norway

*Not a direct state agency 6 2 National Government . Agencies Involved in Sport (continued)

Country Ministry (if any) Agency

Poland Council of Ministers State Committee f Physical Culture and Tourism

Scotland Dept, of Education Sport Council for Scotland

South Africa Dept, of Sport and Recreation

Sweden Ministry of Commerce

Union of Soviet State Committee for Sport Socialist Republics and Physical Culture

United States President’s Council on Physical Fitness and Sports

Yugoslavia Federal Council of The Federation of Health and Social Organizations of Welfare Physical Culture

UNITARY SYSTEM, CONSTITUTIONAL DEMOCRACIES

Austria

The Federal Ministry for Education is the Austrian governmental

department responsible for the promotion of amateur sport in Austria.

The Sports Department under public or national education is responsible

for sport outside the school.

The government gives financial support and advice to the sports

governing bodies: the promotion of sport by subsidies is the responsi

bility of the provinces. 63 The Austrian Federal Sports Comnittee Is the hipest non governmental representative for the sports federations.

Organization of Sports In Austria

Federal Sports Council Federal Dept, of Hducation|— (Federal Sports Committee) Federal School for Physical Training Vienna Aust.Workers Lg. Gen.Fed. Aust.Ath. Austrian Olympic Reps.of for Sports & Phys. for Sports & Sports Committee the Fed. in Austria Union ______(OOC) Depts. Federal School for Physical Federal Council Training. of Sports Graz i Prov.Sports (Specialization) Provineial Federations Sports Offices at seat of Federal School each provincial Specialized Sports Federation _ for Physical government Sports Fed. (members of OOC) Training (non-members Innsbruck CGC) Administration of Sports & of Federal Sports Institutions

England

The governmental department responsible for the policy of the

government in its relations with sports bodies is the Ministry of

Housing and Local Government, this policy being to encourage programs

and give financial aid to those programs sponsored by the nation’s

voluntary sports organizations, in addition to support of all levels

of sports conpetition. A Sports Council has been established as an advisory and

consultative body to the Government to advise and make suggestions on sports and recreation services, and to foster cooperation among

government authorities and voluntary sports organizations. The Council has specific committees which cover the various areas of sport

and recreation. There are nine regional sports councils for England 64 and one for Scotland, and one for Wales, which work with local government authorities and local sports organizations.

The Council has close links with the independent sports governing bodies, influencing their administration and programs.

Apart from financial support, the government's involvement with these bodies is in the f o m of general encouragement where appropriate. Local government authorities receive central government funds and stipulate to some extent how they will be spent.

Ministry of Housing & Local Government

Sports Council

Facilities Planning Committee 9 regional Sports Councils and a Sports Council for International Scotland and 1 for Wales Committee Local Sports Advisory Research & Committees Statistics Committee

Development & Coaching Committee

Finland

The Sports and Youth Work Office in the Finnish Ministry of Education has the governmental responsibility for amateur sport from 65 physical education and sports Institutes to International sports.

Its related subsidiary agencies are the National Sports Council and the Finnish Research Council for Physical Education and Sports which both submit reports on their fields of reference and make relevant suggestions.

Sports committees operate both at the county and commercial level j functioning under the recommendations and plans of the Ministry of Education. They receive fluids from the State to put towards their work which Is largely following the development and planning the advancement of sports In their respective areas.

The most iuportant non-govemmental sports governing body Is the Finnish Central Sports Federation which Is an affiliation of sports federations. The government gives financial assistance and advice to the sports bodies.

Ministry of Education General Division Sports and Youth Work Office

Universities National National Finnish National Youth Board Sports Research Youth Work M u s i c of Council Council for Committee Committee Schools 1+16 Physical 1 + 14 1+8 Education & ..1 _ t Sports r. 1 1 1 1 I Sports Course County County u Institutes Centres Sports Youth Work b 6 9 Committees Committees 8 11 11 Sports Organ izations' Buildings, Finnish Olympic Youth Association and Organizations Other Bodies and other bodies

District District Organizations Organizations

Citizens' and Municipal Sports Committees Municipal Local Local Workers' 521 Youth Societies and Societies and Institute Work Clubs Clubs 411

State Aid 6 6 Prance

In Prance the principal government agency is the State Secretariat for Youth and Sport, which is attached directly to the office of the Prime Minister. Its administration is very coirplex and covers all areas of sport, recreation and physical education.

The sports governing bodies have a very close liaison with the Secretariat as it is the latter that authorizes them to organize sports conpetition in addition to providing financial assistance.

There are two types of sports governing bodies— those dealing with one sport and the multiple sports governing bodies. The four major multiple bodies are: the Union of Lay Organizations in Physical

Education; the Sport and Cultural Federation of Prance; the Sports and Gymnastics Federations of Labour; and the Union of Sports Workers.

State Secretariat for Youth & Sport

Various National Sport .‘Organizations Hlÿi Ccnmittee on General Dispectorate sports of ^o r t s ■- National Ski & Mountaineering School

Coimlttee - national Sports Listltute on Youth

Central Administration

Phys. Ed. & Youth & Soclo- Sub. Dept, for the Sub-Dept. for Soclo-Educatlonal Sports Dept. Educatlon^ Dept. Administration ______Sports Equipment______

Physical and Sports Education Dept, of Sports Activities ffedical Bureau Sub-Dept. - single sports federations & preparations - research and documentation for Oljmplcs

- teaching - nultlple sports governing bodies & outdoor recreation - training of teachers & coaches - sports instruction & regimentation 67 Italy The Italian National Olynpic Committee (CONI) controls the organization of sporting activities. It is made up of the sports

federations of Italy.

Despite the absence of direct involvement, the government is not without influence. CONI is under the supervision of the Presidency

of the Council of Ministers, the President of CONI being nominated by

decree of the President of the Council of Ministers. In addition, the

accounts of CONI are entrusted to a College of Auditors, one member

being nominated by the Minister of Finance, and all members are approved

by the President of the Council of Ministers to whom their report

must be presented.

ITALIAN NATIONAL OLYMPIC COMMUTEE (CONI)

National %)orts Federations National Council for CONI Council

National Sports Federation Regional & Provincial Conmittees Regional & Provincial Councils

Sports Clubs

Japan

The Physical Education Bureau of the Ministry of Education is responsible for the inprovement of health and physical fitness of the 58 people. The promotion of physical education and sports at the national level is also the responsibility of the Bureau.

Erefectural, municipal, and local governments receive advice and financial assistance from the national government, organizing their programs from the Ministry of Education's plans. They must report to special councils for promoting amateur sport which are created by law to help with sport within the educational systems.

The Japan Athletic Association is the major independent multiple sports governing body and carries out its programs and

conpetitions with government assistance.

The organization of the Physical Education Bureau follows.^

Minister’s Secretariat

Director, Elementary and Secondary Education Bureau

Director, Higher Education Minister and Science Bureau

Director, Education Physical Social Education Education Bureau Division

Director, Sports Physical Division Education Bureau School Health Director Division______Administrative Bureau School Lunch Agency for Division Cultural Affairs Head, Olympic Games Division

^Japan, Physical Education and Sports in Japan.Ministry of Education,Tokyo (1970) p- 3. 69 New Zealand

The New Zealand Department of Internal Affairs has within it the Youth Service Branch which is primarily concerned with providing an advisory service on all youth activities in the four major cities.

The sports governing bodies v M c h operate amateur sport in New Zealand are autonomous and independent and are supported by private sources.'

Norway

Within Norway's Ministry of Church and Education is the State

Office for Youth and Sports in Norway, which is the link connecting the government authorities and the voluntary agencies engaged in sports and youth work. Cooperating agencies responsible to the State Office are set up in municipalities and countries.

The Norwegian Confederation of Sports is the common denominator for all Norwegian sports federations and is responsible for organizing amateur sport and general physical fitness programs. It receives financial and technical assistance from the government.

ROYAL NORWEGIAN MINISTRY OF CHURCH AND EDUCATION

ADMINISTRATIVE CHURCH GENERAL VOCATIONAL CULTURAL ADULT SURVEY AND AND ECONOMIC DEPARTMENT EDUCATION EDUCATION DEPARTMENT EDUCATION PLANNING DEPARTMENT DEPARTMENT DEPARTMENT DEPARTMENT DEPARTMENT

OFFICE FOR OFFICE FOR OFFICE FOR OFFICE FOR SCIENCE I SCIENCE II ART AND CULTURAL CULTURE CONSERVATION

•Technical Div, (Planning, (Libraries, Budgeting, Museums, ■Health Div. Development) Archives, School Sport Consultant Div.

Community Centre "Div.

Mfouth Div. 70 Scotland

Government responsibility for amateur sport rests with the

Scottish Educational Department Tdaich comes under the Secretary of

State for Scotland and is advised by the Sports Council for Scotland, a part of the Sports Council for Great Britain. Government assistance to sports governing bodies is strictly financial; each body promotes and controls its own sport in Scotland.

South Africa

South Africa’s federal government has a Department of Sport and

Recreation which cooperates with the sports governing bodies through encouragement of their programs, facilities construction, and grant- giving. The Department has five regional offices to establish liaison with sports bodies and give technical advice and assistance. Most of the national governing bodies are affiliated to the South African

Federation of Youth and Sport, which is not state controlled.

DEPARTMENT OP SPORT AND RECREATION

Minister

Secretary

Division; Division: Liaison Services Administration [chief: Liaison Service Administrative Control Deputy Chief; Ljaison Services Officer Section Finance Section Section Section Accountant Planning Sport & Rec Publications reation Administrative Officer

Regional Offices

Bloemfontain Durban Johannesburg Cape Town Port Klizabeth 71 Sweden

There is no ministry for amateur sport in Sweden. The financial support of the sports governing bodies is handled by the Ministry of

Commerce which has one representative on the board of the largest multiple sports governing body, the Swedish Sports Federation, for the purpose of seeing that government finances are eriployed according to regulations. The Swedish Sports Federation administers the amateur sport and physical training programs.

FEDERAL SYSTEM, CONSTITUTIONAL DEMOCRACIES

Australia

Althou^ the Department of Health is not responsible for the administration of sport in Australia, it does provide the Commonwealth

Secretariat for the National Fitness Movement which works as a link between the government and the National Fitness Councils in each State.

Individual states are free to implement amateur sport programs, with funds provided by the State government.

Each state has its own State Association which comprises the major independent sports governing bodies and furthers their interests.

These Associations receive government grants as well.

Canada

The Fitness and Amateur Sport Directorate, under the Department of National Health and Welfare, is the government agency concerned with amateur sport in Canada. Its objective is to provide assistance for the promotion and development of amateur sport, fitness and recreation 72 in terms of grant giving and technical and administrative advice towards sports programs, training, coaching projects, research, and

Canadian participation in national and international coirpetitions.

The Minister of National Health and Welfare is advised on policy matters by the National Advisory Council on Fitness and Araa.teur

Sport. At least one member must come from each province. Provincial governments work closely with the provincial sports governing bodies and other sports organizations, all of which are autonomous, non-political associations; these goverrinents extend assistance to their sports programs and conpetitions.

The organization chart for the agency responsible for adminis tration of the program is shown below:

DIRECTORATE OF FITNESS & AMATEUR SPORT Present Organization (August I9 6 9 )

Minister National Health & Welfare

Deputy Minister of National Advisory National Welfare Council______Committees - Financial Special Advisor Director, Fitness - Communications Task Force & Amateur Sport - Fitness on Sports - Sports - Recreation Assistant to the Director

INational Assistant Chief, Chief Public i Recreation Director, Program Information Relations ! Consultant Sports Administration Specialist

National r Na"tl5nll lS-“ ; Head Audit Information FuETIc Sports —I centive Awards| ; Financial Officer Information — Consultant I Consultant 1 Services Officer

National Cross-Canada Sports Clinics Consultant Manager 73 Germany (West)

The Department of the Interior for West Germany has a Depart ment of %)ort v M c h works largely as a coordinating agency for all

sports and recreation matters but which operates on a subsidiary policy. If government assistance, which is mostly financial, is

necessary, it is given. The Sport Department is divided into four

divisions which concern: general sport matters, including the German

Sport Federation; Olynpics; sport development; facilities construction;

The provincial governments are responsible - for encouragement of

sport at their level and it is up to them to distribute federal

government grants as they see fit.

The German Sport Federation, an independent, autonomous

association comprising the major sports governing bodies of Germany, is

responsible for amateur sport in the country and distributes government

grants to these bodies for their programs.

United States

There are no United States Federal Government agencies or

personnel involved in amateur sport with the exception of the Presi

dent's Council on Physical Fitness and Sports, which is not involved

with conpetitive sport as such, instead concerning itself almost

exclusively with youth and adult physical fitness.

Amateur sport in the United States is left to the independent

sports governing bodies. Olympic sports are grouped together under

the administration of the United States Olynpic Committee, which

receives no assistance in any f o m from the government. 7 4 UNITARY SYSTEM, NON-CONSTITUTIONAL AGIMES

Argentina

Under law, the national government is responsible for sports in its various forms, and the government agency responsible for establishing sports programs, maintaining coordination between the various sports organizations and generally supervising sports activities, is the Secretary of State for the Promotion of/and Assistance to the

Corrmunity #ilch comes under the Department of Social Welfare.

This agency is sub-divided into the Permanent Sports Committee which handles sports programs and financing, and the Advisory Sports

Committee which promotes participation in sport in the community.

The federal authority is supreme in all fields of government and dictates any sports policy to lower levels.

The sports governing bodies (national and provincial) are affiliated with the Argentina Sports Confederation, a private

organization which receives financial and advisory assistance from the

government.

Secretary of State for the Promotion of/and ______Assistance to the Community

Permanent Sports Committee Advisory Sport Committee

Colombia The Colombian Institute of Youth and Sports, a branch of the

Department of National Education with branch offices in the municipa

lities, is the government agency responsible for organizing the 75 supervision and control of sports in their various forms, including

» competitions and training programs. It is advised by the National

Youth and Sport Council, also a part of the Department of National

Education.

Ihe Institute works with local government authorities in formulating plans for sport and youth activities on a national scale.

The national sports governing bodies are supervised and

financed by the government.

Department of National Education

National Youth & Sport Colombia Institute of Youth Council______& Sports_____ Board of Directors

[Director

Physical Education Colombian Olympic Dept.(Prov,) & Section of Dept.of Committee Municipal Branches National Education National Sports Assoc. & other Sports Institutes Leagues, Committees & ______Clubs______

Sports Court

Cuba Assistance to amateur sport in Cuba is channelled principally

through a single government agency, the National Institute for Sports,

Physical Education and Recreation (INDER), which has branches directly

involved in all aspects of sport, recreation and physical education.

INDER's programs are implemented at the working level by

Volunteer Committees at municipal, regional, and .provincial levels. 76 and by Sports Committees Cone for each sport). Through these programs,

INDER dictates sports activities on a nation-wide basis.

The provincial governments do not intervene, although they may work with various Volunteer Committees.

INDER works to some extent with the following national govern ment agencies: the Ministry of Education, the Cuban (Revolutionary)

Labour Organizations, the Communist Youth Union, and the Committees for

Defence of the Revolution.

NATIONAL INSTITUTE FOR SPORTS Volunteer PHYSICAL EDUCATION & RECREATION ^Adv 13 ory. Council Committees

Director General jsports Committees

Asst. Director General

Dept, of Phys. Dept, of Sports Supplies & Press & Recreational Prov. Éd. for School Medicine Investments Publ. Activities Div. (Mined) Div. Div. Mv.

Technical Nat. & Intern. Division Relations Div.

Organization Peoples Admin. & Implement of Phys. Div. Sports Act. Cultural Div, Div.

"Commondante Manuel Pajards" Higher Institute of Physical Education Div.

Germany (East)

The (ïennan Sports and Gymnastics Union (DSTB) is the organization responsible for sports and its administration in East

Germany. Its supreme body, the Gymnastics and Sports Congress, is 77 representative of the sports governing bodies and among its members are members of the German Democratic Republic State Council.

This sports organization is sub-divided into county and district branches which are directed in their administration of sports activities in their respective area. There are sports clubs in every unit of society— factories, offices, schools and residential •' ■ ■ '■ •'•r . area. The organizational set up of the German %iorts and Gymnastics

Union2 is as follows:

(EAST) GERMAN SPORTS AND GYMNASTICS UNION (DTSB) Finance Control Management Managements of . Bodies the Sports __ Central Finance EXECUTIVE Finance Control Presidium Control Committee Committee Presidium Bureau of Secretariat Presidium National Level COUNTY Expert Committee Finance Control EXECUTIVE in the County Committee Secretariat County Level DISTRICT Finance Control EXECUTIVE Expert Committee Committee Secretariat in the District District Level SPORTS Finance Control CLUB EXECUTIVE Section Committee Leadership Local Level (Factory, School, Town, Community)

Martin Kramer, "Socialist Democracy in Sport," Sports in G. D. R., No. 2 (1970), p. 4. 78 amgary

The Hungarian Physical Training and Sports Association is not a state agency although it is financially and morally supported by the state and regional governments.

The H.P.T.S.A. is responsible for the development of all qualified sports in Hungary, and,all national specialized sports clubs are represented on the National Council, to ivhich they report on all their affairs. Its programs are carried out by Regional Councils vtoich develop sports activities in their various areas.

HUNGARIAN PHYSICAL TRAINING & SPORTS ASSOCIATION

National Council

International Section Regional Councils (in counties & major cities) Organizing Section National Specialized Canvassing & Propaganda Sportsclubs Section Hungarian Olynpic Sportsclubs & Methodocial Committee Section

Mass Physical Training Section

Financial Section

Planning & Investment Section 79

Poland

Ihe State Committee for Physical Culture and Tourism is a central agency of state administration for problems of the development of physical culture, sport and tourism, and is responsible to the

Council of Ministers.

Its terms of reference include, in particular, planning and directing the implementation of the plans for the development of physical culture, sport and tourism, coordination and supervision of the activity of institutions and organizations operating in this field. The Committee issues directives for the activity of numerous sports unions and federations.

In the provinces there are committees of physical culture and tourism, at the provincial, district and urban levels, which carry out the directives of the State Committee.

THE STRUCTURE OF PHYSICAL CULTURE AND TOURISM IN. POLAND______Subordinate — — — " State Supervision Council of Minister’s of — — -- Cooperation the Polish People’s Republic

Polish Olympic State Committee for Physical Committee Culture and Tourism

Federation of Polish Physical Edu Institutions under Tourist Clubs Sport cation and the State Enter Unions Tourism Committee for prises Phys. Culture and Tourism

Voivodship Committees for physical culture & tourism / ^ - — — Regional Voivodship Branches Sports Unions of Associations

District and Municipal Committees for physical culture and tourism

Sports Clubs dircles, Groups, Teams 80 Yugoslavia The Federation of Organizations for Physical Culture, the federal government agency concerned with amateur sport, is an association of organizations involved with sport and physical education and facilitates the irrplementation of programs at all levels for the advancement of physical culture in Yugoslavia.

This federation is further broken down into Republican,

Provincial, Urban, and Municipal Federations of Organizations for Physical Culture which are under the siçervision of the federal agency and work with the Sports Councils (one for each sport) and other Sports Clubs in providing the resources required for their programs, giving whatever aid is necessary.

The Federation of Qrgan3.zations for Physical Culture

Republican & Provincial Federations of Organizations ______for Physical Culture ______

Sports Councils those less extensively developed______■

Urban & Municipal Federations of Organizations ______for Physical Culture______

Sports Councils Workers* Sports Basic Councils of Clubs (Specific sports) Clubs Organizations & Assoc. for Highly developed Physical Culture in Schools

Sport Organizations Organization for School Organizations for Physical Education Physical Culture_____ "Partizan"

Independent Clubs & Sections in Organization of Sports Clubs the Framework of Workerd Sport Sport Organizations Activities 8 1 FEDERAL SYSTEM, NON-CONSTITUTIONAL REGIMES

Brazil

Ihe official administrative body for amateur sport in Brazil is the National Sports Council, a part of the Ministry of Education and Health which supervises and directs all matters concerning amateur sport.

There is a regional Sports Council in every State or territory vhich works with these local governments under the direction of the

National Sports Councils.

The Sports Confederations, idiich are placed immediately below the superintendence of the National Sports Council and are created or approved by it, are the highest directing entities for the individual sports in Brazil. The Sports Federations, once again approved and decided by the National Sports Council, are the directing sports organisms in each individual unit.

SPORTING FEDERATIONS' WITHIN THE TERRITORIES OF BRAZIL MINISTRY OF EDUCATION AND CULTURE (M.E.Ç.) NATIONAL SPORTS COUNCIL (C.N.D.)

UNIVERSITY MILITARY SPORTS CONFEDERATIONS 0LYI4PIC CLASSICAL SPORTS SPORTS SPORTS SPORTS (C.B.D.U.) (C.D.F.A.) (C.O.B.) (C.C) 230 Federations Federations Federations Sports Leagues and Associations Czechoslovakia. 82

The specific government agency iwhich promotes and directs all amateur sport in Czechoslovakia is the Czechoslovak Union for

Physical Training (CSTV) which is represented at all government levels by agencies which supervise sport and physical training at that particular level.

The sports federations are also supervised at every level by the CSTV. .

Organization Diagram of CSTV

Industrial Elected General Federal Establishments General Board Executive Staff Board Sphere Enterprises and Central Committee Executive Staff Employees of _.of the Czechoslovak of Federal Central Adjoined Industrial Union' for Physical Central Committee Sport Establishments Training General Federations Assembly of the Cen. Committee

National Enterprises and Central Committees Sphere Adjoined of the Czech. & the Executive Staff National Establishments Slovak Organizations of Central Sport for Physical Training Committees of Federations National Organizations for Physical Training

Regional Regional Regional Sphere Secretariats Sport. Fed.

District Employees District Committees■ Sphere of Adjoined of the Czech. & The Executive Staff District Establishments Slovak Organizations ' of Regional Sport for Physical Training Committees Federations

Local Employees Sphere of Adjoined Sport Clubs of the Establishments Czech. & the Slovak Secretariats of - Sport Organizations for Sports Clubs Sections Physical Training

The Union of Soviet Socialist Republics

The government agency which directs sport activities in the

U.S.S.R. is the State Committee for Sport and Physical Culture; the 83 Soviet Olynpic Committee Is responsible to this committee. In addition, the Union of Sport Societies and Organizations (U.S.S.O.) Is a public body under #ilch all the sport societies of the trade unions are affiliated. The Presidium of the Central Committee has an overall

Influence over the Union.

The following abbreviated chart from Howell and Van Vllet

Indicates the organizational scheme for the State Committee .3 A similar system of organization Is followed In each of the republics of

U.S.S.R. and the heads from each are members of the Central Committee making a total of over thirty-five Individuals In the Presidium. There are also over thirty sport societies organized within the trade unions which are under the direction of the State Committee.

STATE FOR SPORT & PHYSICAL CULTURE

Presidium of Control Committee (35-37]

School: & Educ. Scientific Physical Culture Estobliihments Reseorch Establishments

Bureau of Sports Football Che» Gomes. - Teem Sports

3m . L. Howell and M. L. Van Vllet, Physical Education and Recreation In Europe (Ottawa: The Fitness and Amateur Sport Directorate, 19^5)* p. 9. 84 RELATIONSHIP OF ORGANIZATION STRUCTURE TO TYPE OP POLITICAL REGIME

As is evident from the organization structures, there is no common denominator in government sports administration. The government department officially responsible for amateur sport varies with each country as does the extent to which it is involved in directing sport.

In the constitutional democracies, government involvement in sports administration is largely concerned with financial and moral encouragement; in direction its role is minor. The actual initiative for sports direction comes under an "umbrella" sports organization which is an affiliation of all the sports governing bodies.

In the federal systems of the constitutional democracies, the provincial authorities have some degree of independence and power, initiating their own programs and working with sports governing bodies directly, rather than under the direction of the central authorities.

In these countries, administration has the appearance of fanning out from the highest to the lowest in authority, non-directing or otherwise. The system is a benevolent one, designed for the benefit of the individual, not the general society and nation.

Quite the opposite is true of the non-constitutional countries where it appears to be of little consequence to sports administration whether the political system is federal or unitary; the central authority lies with the national government sports agency, regardless of the number of divisions within it. All sports activity seems depersonalized and is channelled up to a national goal— the entity of 85 "physical culture" for the good of the nation. The government sports agency at the national level not only encourages and supports, but also dictates and directs administrations and programs at all levels."

The government itself is the "umbrella" sports organization. CHAPTER V

PROGRAMS OP THE NATIONAL GOVERNMENTS

Generally government involvement In sport programs varies in tezmis of enphasis, degree of centralization and enabling legislation.

A number of authors Nixon^, Van Dalen and Bennett^, Johnson^,

Nakamura^ and agencies such as U.N.E.S.C.0.5 and the European Council for Cultural Cooperation^ provide an excellent source on health, physical education, sport and recreation programs in other countries.

Vendien and Nixon, The World Today in Health, Physical Education and Recreation.

^Deobold Van Dalen and Bruce L. Bennett, A World History of ' Physical Education (Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, Inc., Ï97ÏT: ^William Johnson (ed.), Physical Education Around the World, Monograph No. 1 (1966), No. 2 (1968), No. 3 (1969), No. 4 (1970), No. 5 (1971) (Indianapolis: Phi Epsilon Kappa). ^M. Nakamura et al., "World Wide Survey on Sports and Physical Education in Colleges and Universities," Proceedings of the Inter national Seminar for Study of University Sports (Tokyo: Kohen Printing Co., 1968).

United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Association, The Place of Sport in Education— A Comparative Study (Paris, Prance: UNESCO, 1956). 6council for Cultural Cooperation of the Council of Europe, Physical Education and Sport (Strasbourg, Prance: libraire Berger- Lewault, 1964).

8 6 87

In order to demonstrate the extent of government involvement

In sport as related to highly conpetitive aspects, attention was given to the following categories:

1 Conpetition;

II Coaching Programs;

111 Facilities— Training Centers;

17 Research and Sport Medicine.

A brief statement on each of these program areas of involve ment for many of the countries selected follows. However, in some instances, e.g.. East Germany and the U.S.S.R., little or no infor mation was obtained by means of the study questionnaire. In other instances, e.g., Colombia, Czechoslovakia, and Poland, questionnaire information was lacking for certain program areas. For the U.S.S.R., other source material has been used (see Bibliography).

COMPETITION

Participation by a country's athletes in national and inter national sports conpetitions is largely the responsibility of that

country's "umbrella" multiple sports governing body or the individual

sports bodies. However, the national and in some cases provincial governments give assistance (generally financial) towards the staging

of the conpetitions i^hemselves or the travel expenses of the athletes;

and in a number of countries the government is much more directly

involved in its athletes' participation in conpetitions. The

following exanples indicate in a few instances no financial assistance

involvement, and in others, financial assistance primarily; still other 8 8 governments, by the use of terminology such as "approves," "auth orizes," "handles," "supervises," indicate that they are directly involved in international competition.

Argentina

The preparation of teams for international competition is handled by the Argentine Olympic Committee and the Argentine Sports

Confederation, with assistance from the government.

Australia

The Australia Olympic Committee is a body set up to direct and administer Australia’s preparation for and participation in

Olympic and Commonwealth Games. Australian sporting associations are represented on this body. Financial assistance is the only government

aid provided to the Federation.

Austria

The Federal Ministry for Education is responsible for the

promotion of sports events which are of international and All-

Austrian importance. The sports associations and the Austrian Olympic

Committee also aid in the preparation of Austria's international teams.

The Austrian Olympic Committee is not an agency— it is estab

lished on the basis of an association and its duties are performed

by honorary officers subsidized by the Federal Ministry for Education

and assisted by allowances from the football pool.

Brazil

One of the duties of the National Sports Council, a 89 government agency, is to decide as to the participation of delegations of national sports in the international games. When the participation of the country in an international competition has been decided by the National Sports Council, neither the federations nor the entities which may be directly or indirectly affiliated to them will be allowed to abstain from it.

In order to carry out international conpetition within the country, the National Sports Council will be allowed to requisition any sports ground belonging to the Union, to the states or to the municipalities as well as to the sports entities which may be directly or indirectly affiliated to it.

According to the edict establishing the basis of organization of sport in Brazil, the National Sports Council has a large part in determining the guidelines of conpetition, right down to the housing of athletes and policing of games within the countiy.

The Brazilian Olynpic Committee, which represents all the ■ amateur sports confederations, confines its activities to the preparation of the national teams for the Olympic and Pan American

Games.

Canada

Federal as well as provincial and municipal assistance is given to international competition projects to assist Canadians in representing their country. Grants are given to such multiple games agencies as the British Empire and Commonwealth Gaiæs Association of

Canada, the Canadian Amateur Sports Federation, the Canadian Olynpic 90 Association, and the Pan American Games Committee, to aid their work in preparing Canada’s teams for international conpetition.

Colombia One of the functions of the Colombian Youth and Sport Institute

(a government agency) is to handle the financing and organization of national and international competitions to take place in Colombia and to handle official participation by Colomibia teams. All this is done in cooperation with the Colombian Olympic Committee and the sports organizations.

Cuba

The Sports Committees under INDER (the sports agency for the government) develop national participation in their particular sports. Registration for conpetition and preparation for the Olynpics, the Pan American Games and World Conpetitions is done by INDER as well, through the National and International Relations Division, aided by

Volunteer Committees. The Cuban Olynpic Committee is an autonomous, non-goveinmental organization which helps in selection of the Olynpic team.

C zechoslovakia

All preparations for national and international sports conpe titions are handled by the Czechoslovak Union for Physical Training

(a government agency) and the Czechoslovak Olynpic Committee.

England

The government, through the United Kingiom Sports Council, gives 91 financial aid towards expenditures on participation of British teams in international events and for the holding of world chanpionships and events of similar inportance in Britain.

The various sports governing bodies group into several fede rations (e.g., British Amateur Athletic Board) which represent the several conprehensive sports associations within the United Kingdom for international conpetitions by British teams. Others are:

British Olynpic Association— to organize Olynpic Games

Conmonwealth and Ekipire Games Association — to organize Commonwealth Games

International Committee for— to organize Stoke Mandeville Games Stoke Mandeville Games- (Paraplegic)

British University Games — to organize British University Federation Games

The Sports Council has an International Committee which deals with governmental interest in matters affecting British participation in overseas events, arrangements for holding world and other chanpionships of outstanding inportance in various forms of sport in the country.

Grants are provided on the following basis:

(a) Travel costs of teams and managers or coaches for approved international events overseas arranged by governing bodies of sport for full international, youth and "under-23" teams, and by national schools’ sports organizations.

(b) Travel costs of delegates, coaches and technical officials in attending international conferences. 92 (c) Special events overseas, such as Olynpic, Commonwealth, paraplegic and world student games.

(d) Accommodation of overseas corrpetitors and administrative costs for world and commonwealth events or events of similar out

standing Importance staged in Britain.

(e) International conferences organized by governing bodies

in Britain on behalf of international federations.

These grants also include aid to the British Olynpic Associ

ation and the Commonwealth Games Council.

Finland

The Finnish Central Sports Federation is responsible for

international athletic activity; it is an independent multiple sports

governing body which receives financial assistance from the government.

The Finnish Olympic Association handles Finnish participation

in the Olympic Games.

France

The government gives the sports governing bodies financial

assistance and the power to organize sports conpetitions.

The Department of Sports Activities for the State Secretariat

for Youth and Sport supervises preparations for the Olynpics in

cooperation with the sports governing bodies.

The National Technical Director is a top sports technician,

appointed by the Secretary of State for Youth and Sports, and

attached to a sports federation. His principal mission is managing

France's teams; he is in fact responsible for all technical aspects of 93 sports governed by his federation and he must plan and organize the finding of prospective athletes among the masses, and the progress and perfecting of the best athletes as well as the training of new staff.

Germany (West)

The federal government supports those West German teams which will conpete internationally. The official representation of Germany in international sports events takes place throu^ the respective areas of involvement of the sports governing bodies and the National

Olympic Conmittees for Germany.

Hungary

The Hungarian government gives only financial support towards conpetitions by way of grants to the sports bodies.

The Hungarian Olympic Committee coordinates the preparations for the Olynpic Games which are otherwise handled by the sports clubs nAich also arrange national and regional conpetitions and World

Conpetitions.

Italy

In Italy, amateur sport conpetitive programs are handled by the

Italian National Olynpic Committee (CONI).

As the "Federation of Federations", CONI supervises the pre paration and training of the Italian National Team in view of the

Olynpic Games and other international sports events; finances for this undertaking come from CONI as well. 94 CONI can be considered the coordinating center for the many activities building toward International conçetltlon which go on In the sports federations and sports clubs. CONI takes care of relation

ships with public authorities3 the government and, of course, the

International Olynpic Committee.

Japan

The Japan Athletic Association promotes International sports projects with some government assistance, mostly financial. National

athletic meets are organized jointly by the Japan Athletic Association

(a juridical foundation), the State and the prefectural governments

v M c h host them.

New Zealand

The government gives no financial assistance towards national

or International conpetitions. In major sports, while each administers Its own affairs,

coipetltors to represent New Zealand at Olynpic or Commonwealth Games

are selected by the Olynpic Committee made up of representatives of

the various sports.

Norway The Norwegian Sports Confederation, made up of the major sports

federations, and In particular, the Norwegian Olynpic Committee, Is

Involved in preparation, training, etc., of Norway’s International

teams, with help from the government In the form of financial

assistance. 95 Scotland

The government gives financial aid to the sports governing bodies which handle all matters concerning national and international conpetition. For the Olynpics, the British Olynpic Association is responsible for representative teams from Scotland.

South Africa The Government cooperates with the sporting associations in their arrangements for overseas tours by South African athletes; the government has a set sports policy on the standards for qualifications on an international team. The South African Olynpic and National Games Association handles the arrangements for international compétition by the South

African National Team.

Sweden With the aid of financial support from the government, the

Swedish Sports Federation and its special associations organize the teams for national and international sports competitions.

Union of Soviet Socialist Republics

Basic to the program of competition in the U.S.S.R. is the uniform rating system established in the thirties. Standards of the sport rating system now include some fifty sports and in addition there is a junior rating system. This classification system, coupled with the G.T.O. (Ready for Labour and Defense) fitness program for ages thirteen to nineteen or older, has been considered the key to 96

Soviet athletic success.

The basis of the sport structure is the Kollektin, a primary level in physical culture, while the basis of competition according to Sturzebecker is sport societies across all fifteen republics.? The seven major societies that form the competition

structure are Spartak, Eynamo, Burevestnik, Locomotive, Vodnik, Trud .

and Taska. Most of these societies are set up either according to

district or place of work. In addition, every Union Republic has its . rural sports society.

National chanpionships are organized in which the individual

chanpions of districts, cities, regions. Republics, and the U.S.S.R.

as a whole, are determined. Team conpetition is organized in which

the standings of teams representing factories, collective farms,

district, regions. Union Republics, and sport societies are determined.

In addition, several sports events on a nation-wide basis known as

spartakiads are held in pre-Olynpic years. These are contests of

teams representing the Union Republics and those of Moscow and Lenin

grad, usually involving more than twenty sports; the first was held

in 1956.

United States

The United States government is not involved in competitive

sport and does not provide financial assistance.

?Russell Sturzebecker, "Physical Education and Sports in Russia," Physical Education Around the World, Monograph No. 5 (Indianapolis: Phi Epsilon Kappa, 1971) p. 79. 97 All aspects of administration, financing, team and coach selection, and publicity, etc., for teams for international conpetition are handled by the-United States Olympic Committee, to which the national sports governing bodies are affiliated.

Yugoslavia

The Yugoslav Federation of Organizations for Physical

Culture (a government agency) is responsible for establishing the principles governing the international policies of associated sport organizations and approves their international programs of

•conpetition.

The Yugoslav Olympic Committee, which comprises all sports

federations, makes decisions regarding participation of Yugoslav

contestants in the Olynpics and handles preparation, equipment, and

travel arrangements for the team.

COACHING PROGRAMS

For the most part, any training programs for coaches are

carried on with the nation's top athletes in mind. Althou^ in some

cases physical education teachers have access to these coaching

schools and courses, the majority of those who attend do so with the

objective of becoming a national coach.

These programs are generally managed by the sports governing

bodies with financial and advisory assistance from the government.

Some are carried on in federal and private sports institutes. 98 Argentina Government assistance is given to programs for training coaches lAich are run by the sports governing bodies.

Australia State governments do not support courses or clinics for the

training of coaches and officials, except when a small grant may be

given throu^ a State National Fitness Council for this purpose.

State, regional, or local sporting bodies initiate this kind

of training, instruction being given by voluntary officials or others

qualified to instruct, such as physical education lecturers.

Depending on the State and the sport in question, there are

schemes which develop coaches and officials through a series of graded training courses until they have achieved qualifications by

which they are recognized as official coaches or unpires, etc., in the sport in question. This system of development is not, however, to

be found in the development program of all sports. Training usually

coimiences at local levels with the appropriate State body concerned

with qualifications which, for exanple, enable a coach to be

recognized as approved by the State Association or, in the case of

referees or unpires, corrpetent to handle senior events.

No national certification plans for coaches and/or officials

operate. Coaches or referees who are developed through State associations may be granted Australian ratings by particular sports.

The National Fitness Councils in each State sponsor training courses for voluntary leaders, the number depending on the demands

of each State. 99 Austria

The federal institutions for physical education In Vienna, Graz and Innsbruck have all types of sports under their care. State- qualified coaches and sports teachers are trained In accordance with special training and examining regulations. In 1968, 400 courses with a total participation of 8,000 people were held at the federal institutions for physical education in forty different kinds of sport.

Prom time to time, the Federal Institute for Physical Education in Vienna— Division for the Training of Austrian Sports Teachers— In cooperation with the Austrian Association of Track-and-Pleld

Athletics and the Federal Ministry of Education conducts a Training

Program for Austrian Coaches of Track-and-Fleld Athletics (TPACTFA) whenever the need arises. These programs receive financial assistance from the government.

Brazil

Coaching activities are at present under the Confederations

and Federations, while the National Sports Council (a government

agency) helps them obtain financial aid when they present programs In

this field.

Canada The need for Increasing resources for trained leadership and

coaching has been constantly stressed under the government program

and as much enphasls as possible Is given to these activities In

making grants to national organizations. Most national sports governing bodies are being assisted In Improving Instructional . 1 0 0 standards; until recently, cooperative financial arrangements with the provinces assisted also in inprovement of opportunities for training in a wide range of sports across Canada.

Ihe program requires a constantly increasing number of professionally qualified physical and recreation educators; from its outset it has provided for aid to students in this field.

Three types of grants-in-aid for professional post-graduate study have been provided. It is expected that the National Coaching

Association of Canada, initiated by the National Health and Welfare

Department, will greatly assist in this area.

Colombia

The Colombian Institute of Youth and Sports, a government

agency, channels all its aid through the National Sports Associations which are in charge of giving the training courses for coaches.

Specialized coaches have been hired to train the team which

Colombia will enter into the next Pan American Games to be held in

Cali, Colombia. Up to this time, one athletic trainers’ course has

been given, and, at a later date, other courses will be given in other

sports specialties.

Cuba

INDER (a government sports agency) develops and implements

training programs for coaches, teachers and other sports personnel

through the Volunteer Committees.

The ’’Commander Manuel Fajardo” Superior School of Physical

Education is an advanced school qualified for the preparation and 1 0 1 training of teachers. Instructors, and coaches in the field of physi cal education and sports. It is under INDER's supervision.

Czechoslovakia

The Czechoslovak Union for Physical Training (a government agency) is responsible for the coaching programs within the country, both organizing and financing them.

The work of the instructors and coaches is supported by the publication of various methodological textbooks and sixteen Journals published monthly, from which information can be drawn for their work.

The organization has worked out a conplete system of physical

training and sports courses for various sport events. The basis of

this system is courses at the club level, with more advanced courses

at the district and regional levels. The Central Committee of the

Czechoslovak Union for Physical Training has organized a special

school, which takes care of the education of instructors and coaches

at the highest level. Besides this, coaches can study physical

training in special courses (similar to courses by mail but including

personal consultation with the teachers as well as lectures) organized

by the top institution in the country— the Institute of Physical

Training in Prague or Bratislava.

England

Many sports governing bodies have various coaching programs

which are in part financed by the Government through the Sports

Council’s Development and Coaching Committee— which deals with the

formulation of policy as regards the encouragement and development 1 0 2 of sport and the related subject of coaching. This conmittee has

carried out a survey of the work of all the governing bodies of

sport, aiming at a five year program of development over the widest

possible field, including the build-up of coaching facilities as may

be appropriate.

Courses for the training of voluntary sport leaders are

'..organized by the Government but the Central Council for Physical

'Recreation (CCPR), an organization technically independent of the

Government but almost wholly financed from government sources, does

: organize coaching training:

(a) by CCPR in conjunction with governing

bodies, or by governing bodies themselves;

(b) by moral support and financing of the

CCPR, direct grant to governing bodies;

helping to plan the syllabus;

(d) qualifying coaches— approved by the

sport concerned.

Teachers qualifying for the Physical Education Diploma take

courses involving the coaching of sport. Further education classes of

instruction for teachers, coaches and youth leaders are organized by

education authorities. There are no specific courses for the training

of administrators but conferences and annual courses are arranged

by CCPR and sports governing bodies.

Finland

The instruction of coaches for various forms of sport at the 103 Helsinki University Institute of Physical Education is arranged

Jointly with special branches of the Finnish Central Sports Federation.

It is voluntary study.

Sports leadership and coaching programs of various durations are held at the sports institutes and course centers in Finland.

Ihese institutes are supported largely by State aid.

France

In France there are youth and sport establishments at national and regional levels. Their number and functions are laid down in a decree of 1953, relating to the organization of the educational services of the Directorate General of Youth and Sport. Teachers of sport and physical education are trained in the two hi^er training colleges.

The National Sports Institute acts as a center for scientific and experimental research into sports techniques, as a national college for hi^er education in sport and for advanced training to create hi^er quality in teachers and athletes.

The National Skiing and Climbing School trains competition teams and prepares students for the State Skiing Instructors Diploma and the Mountain Guide Certificate.

The regional centers act as training colleges for leaders

(sports and physical education teachers and assistant instructors) and as centers for elementary and advanced training in physical education, sport, popular education and youth activities.

The Regional Institutes for Physical Education attached to some 1 0 % medical faculties provide training for teachers, prepare medical students for certificate of hi^er medical studies in physical education and carry out research.

The State has appointed a number of technical sports consultants. Regional and departmental technical consultants for the different sports disciplines work closely and constantly with the departmental assistant who is in charge of the coordination of their activities. In each department these technicians, in collaboration with the club trainers, work at the selection of the best sports prospects. They also organize instruction courses for voluntary trainers.

The regional technical consultants work in the Academies of the Department of Youth and Sport. They are specialized in one sport discipline and they play a major role in the liaison between the administrative services and the regional committees of the sports governing bodies. They play a role of motivation on the level of the masses, as well as that of the elite, and encourage the formation of leadership. They must coordinate the initiatives of the various departmental sectors. They also provide leadership for the area athletic instructors’ clinics in the regional Physical Educational

Sports Training Centers. Within the Technical Committee of the League

or the Regional Committee, they ensure the application of the directives

given by the national sports governing bodies.

The work done by all these departmental and regional authorities

is supervised and controlled by national trainers, who are charged with

the application of the national doctrine and with the maintenance of 105 unity. To this end, they make tours throu^out France and direct national sports training sessions with various establishments such as the National Sports Institute, the National Ski and Mountai neering School, etc.

Heading the trainers and technical consultants is the

National Technical Director. He is an outstanding sports technician appointed by the Secretary of State for Youth and Sport and placed with one sports governing body. His main objective is the direction of the national team and he is responsible for all technical aspects of the sports directed by his sport governing body. He must anticipate and organize mass participation, as well as the training and advancement of the top sport, and the formation of new leadership.

He must work out expansion programs and also make sure that they are being implemented, coordinating the work of his national, regional and departmental colleagues.

Germany (West)

The government encourages and gives financial support to coaching programs offered by the sports organizations.

A central and controlled training program for full-time, and part-time sport leaders has not yet been set up. The German Sport

Federation has, however, considered this problem for some time. They plan to establish their own leadership academy simultaneously and within the framework of the construction of a "House of Sport"— the first building-phase of which will be started during the current year.

The coaches and instructors of training programs have, like- 106 wise, varying training requirements. Each type of sport provides, as a rule, the training of coaches— recruited from the reserve of active sportsmen— who are required in its field of activity, by setting up appropriate courses.

Some provinces have provincial sport schools at their level.

They are supported regionally by the provincial sport associations existing at the provincial level or by financially strong sport associations (e.g., the football federations). A provincial sport federation is roughly equivalent to the German ^ort Phderation at the federal level.

University training, leading to a sport teacher's degree

(diploma), is provided by the German Sporthochschule in Cologne •

(Sport University), the Institute for Physical Training at the Univer sity of Mainz, the Bavarian Sport Academy in Mmchen-Grunwald.

The responsibility for conducting all planned training and advanced training programs— for both coaches and leading personnel— rests with the sport organizations themselves.

Hungary

There is training and retraining for sport organizers

(trainers, umpires, etc.) according to their specialization. The organizations dealing with their training are different institutes of the state educational system and of the sports clubs. They are supported financially by the government.

The sport teachers' training is done on the State level at the

Hungarian College of Physical Education and at four teachers' colleges. 107 The Hungarian College of Physical Education trains the secondary school sport teachers in four years (eight semesters) and' they have only one subject. • The teachers' colleges train teachers for the elementary schools also in four years but they have two subjects. The

Hungarian College of Physical Education trains also the hipest qualified trainers and sport organizers in four years by correspondence courses.

The sport organizers are trained and retrained (except the highly qualified level) in the regional levels of the sport association, partly by correspondence, partly by full time courses. The sport leaders having elementary training work in the different levels of the sport association and in sport clubs without remuneration. The central school of the HPTSA deals with the further training of the sport leaders doing medium level tasks. The elementary education of the trainers takes place at the regional organs of the sport association. The medium and high level education is given by the Hungarian College of Physical Education.

There are four degrees of trainers: assistant trainer, trainer,

specialized trainer, and master trainer.

According to a general principle, the elementary and further training of sport leaders doing their work without remuneration is, in financial matters, supported by the organizing bodies. The same applies to the training of unpires.

Italy

Each National Sports Federation organizes methodological and 1 0 8 technical courses for the training of instructors and coaches, at the end of Tjhich, after an examination, it awards a certificate. In 1966, the Italian National Olynpic Committee created the

Central School of Sport which, has its headquarters in Rome within the Sports Center of Acqua Acetosa.

This School, although not yet officially recognized by the

Ministry of Education, can be considered as the University of Sport.

In fact, this School is structured on three-year courses, at the end

of viiich a Certificate of Sports Master is awarded.' Here all subjects

concerning sport are tau^t and each student achieves a technical

specialization in a particular Olynpic discipline.

The %)orts Master, as well as technical sports training,

receives a specific training in national and international sports

organization and,"therefore, in the general management of sport.

Unlike the technical coaches trained by the various National Sports

Federations, the Sports Masters achieve a conplete competence in the field of sport, as they obtain a sports technical training as well as

training for sports officials.

Japan

Under the direct supervision of the Japan Athletic Association

(committee for inproving the calibre of performance in athletic sports)

courses are conducted to train sports leaders while the respective

sports organizations offer leadership training programs. There are

also courses for training voluntary leaders of the sporting boy scouts. 109 The government provides financial aid and the use of sports facilities.

The Japan Ski Federation has a system for certifying instructors who give lessons in the basics of skiing and are qualified to award proficiency ratings. The other sports organizations have similar plans for certifying referees and judges.

All the courses sponsored by the Japan Athletic Association, respective sports organizations, and sporting boy scouts are organized systematically, with trainees advancing step by step from the lower to hi^er level. At the lower stages, they receive their training in the prefectures (including major cities), while at the advanced

stages the training takes place at the center of sports activity

(Tokyo).

New Zealand

The New Zealand National Council of YMCA’s plays the leading

role with eiiphasis pn indoor basketball, volleyball and gymnastics.

Various national sports bodies conduct annual coaching schools and

provide both equipment and attire.

The government’s participation is limited to financing the

National Youth Council to which it recently granted NZ$18,000 per annum

for it to disperse to those youth organizations (including sports) with

nominated annual projects. Where sports groups are concerned, monies

may only be granted during the initial period of their establishment

(since 1968, only the New Zealand Volleyball Association and the New

Zealand Federated Canoe Clubs have been recipients). Two other sports 1 1 0 organizations have also received funds from this source for staging a coaching school. However, the overall amounts concerned are small, and over the past three to four years would not exceed NZ$1,200. The National YMCA in New Zealand has successfully conducted annual Voluntary Youth Leadership Courses— each participant being required to undertake a progression of courses and extramural training exceeding two years to graduate. Throu^ this scheme, 641 candidates have graduated in the past four years. The National Youth Council also conducts a professional Youth Leadership Diploma Course (four years) which may be undertaken on a six months per year full-time basis (two blocks of three months), for full-time church, YMCA, or

YWCA sports officials. Coaches, referees, etc., of such voluntary bodies as rugby, soccer, surf and life saving, cricket, hockey, swimming, squash, badminton, tennis, golf, gymnastics, and athletics also attend occasional coaching clinics. Foundations such as Rothmans and McKenzies, and the MacArthur Trust Fund Grants, have also played an increasingly inportant part in financing such sports clinics over the past ten to twelve years.

Norway Instruction and education in sports are initiated not only by the Norwegian Confederation of Sports (Norges Idrettsforbund) but also by the thirty-four federations affiliated with the Confederation. There

are four stages or courses:

Stage 1 (elementary or basic course) requires seventy hours and

is divided into thirty-five hours of practical and thirty-five hours Ill of theoretical work. The Confederation assumes the responsibility of organizing Stage 1 in all of its thirty-one districts by providing booklets and panphlets, etc., to its paid district enployees and district offices and by setting the examination papers for the course's theoretical segment. It is the Confederation's district office which initiates and arranges Stage 1 sports clinics and seminars, usually bn weekends. Instruction in the practical segment is provided either by the present staff or former graduates of the Norwegian Sports

College or by persons who have a background of international sports competition. Stage 2 (junior course) is organized in the thirty-one sports districts by the thirty-four federations affiliated with the

Confederation. The federations themselves design the junior course

in their particular field of sports and it must be checked and receive prior approval from the Confederation. The same method of obtaining

instructors is used as in Stage 1. Stage 3 (intermediate course) is also organized by the feder

ations in their own particular field of sports. Approval of course hours and content must be obtained from the Confederation. While

some Stage 3 courses are run in districts, many of them take place

over weekends and during holiday periods in Oslo where facilities and

staff of the Norwegian Sports College, Norges Idrettsforbund, and the

many sports stadia are utilized for Instruction.

Stage 4 (senior course) is organized by federations and course • hours and content must receive prior approval from the Confederation. 1 1 2 These senior courses are always held in Oslo using the facilities and • staff noted in Stage 3 as well as instructors with a background of international sports conpetition.

Although there are exceptions, voluntary club leaders and voluntary Junior instructors in Stages 1 and 2 are recruited from graduates of Stages 3 and 4.

Scotland

All training and coaching programs in Scotland are initiated by each governing body of sport to meet its particular requirements.

The costs of a coirprehensive approved coaching scheme are eligible for grant money from the government. The salary of a full time national coach is eligible for grant-in-aid of seventy-five percent of the cost subject to a maximum of LI,500. The administration of a comprehensive coaching scheme is also eligible for a grant of seventy-five percent, up to a maximum of L600.

Coaching courses are entirely a matter for the governing body. The instructors are either paid or voluntary coaches of the governing body. Courses are systematically organized by the governing bodies to have the maximum beneficial effects. Brphasis is placed on coaching of coaches. There is no national certification plan for coaches as such thou^ many governing bodies do issue certificates on successful completion of courses. The tern© of employment of national coaches are at present being considered by all concerned with a view to improving the quality of coaching. 113 South Africa

Coaching programs are run by sports governing bodies In collaboration with the liaison officers of the Department of Sport and Recreation. The government has an organizational, administrative, and financial role, up to a point.

These programs are offered for professionals, voluntary coaches, and teachers. Each body Is responsible for Its own system of certification.

Sweden

Swedish Sports Federation Initiates the following kinds of courses for the training of voluntary coaches and officials:

1. Central courses for the training of the youth sports leaders, who already have attended regional or local courses.

2. Courses for the training of leaders of sport-for-all activities.

3. Courses for the training of administrators of sports clubs and other sports organizations.

4. Courses for the training of leaders of "testing," that

Is, measuring the physical conditions of sportsmen and sportswomen.

The regional organi.zatlons of the Swedish Sports Federation

Initiate the same kind of courses as the Swedish Sports Federation but within their region or district.

The different sports associations, for Instance, the Swedish

Football Association, the Swedish Swimming Association, Initiate mainly two kinds of courses, courses for the training of coaches 114 and courses for the training of such leaders as referees and control

lers and leaders of conpetitions. These courses are organized locally as well as regionally and centrally.

The government3 throu^ the Ministry of Education, grants money to the courses for training of youth sports leaders. Other kinds of courses also have financial support from the state.

Within the Swedish Sports Federation, the Council of the

Training of the Sports Leaders is responsible for the courses men

tioned above, with the exception of courses organized by the different

sports associations themselves.

Union of Soviet Socialist Republics

The sports education system embraces every Union Republic and

includes eighteen physical culture colleges, sixty-three physical

education faculties at teachers' training colleges and universities,

fourteen specialized physical culture secondary schools and, as well,

a number of trainer's schools. A number of refresher courses are

currently being offered for sports instructors. The sport institutes which train sport and physical education

instructors are entirely government-supported and supervised. The

three major institutions are: Moscow Institute of Sport and Culture,

Lesgaft Physical Culture Institute in Leningrad, and the Sports

Institute in Kiev. While the Moscow Institute is the largest and most

advanced, most of the specialized coaches are trained in Leningrad.

United States The government has no involvement in coaching programs. These 115 are operated by the various sports governing bodies with some aid and

supervision from the United States Olynpic Committee. Many of the high level coaches are the product of university physical education degree programs.

Yugoslavia

The Yugoslav Federation of Organizations for Physical Culture

(a government agency) establishes general principles governing the

creating of training capabilities, and coordinates the distribution

of these activities among the sports federations.

FACILITIES— TRAINING CENTERS

Government funds are available in nearly all the countries

studied for facilities construction; in fact, there has been a considerable increase in funds budgeted for the purpose in the last

few years. A particular feature of some countries is federally supported sports institutes for sports training and research; top

athletes gravitate towards these centers.

Argentina

The government gives financial assistance to facilities construction.

Australia The Commonwealth Government, apart from assisting State

National Fitness Councils with capital grants which may be used for

the provision of sports facilities, does not assist in the provision 1 1 6 of amateur sport facilities.

In certain States, State Government does make special grants for the construction of community swimming pools and ovals, but there is, on the whole, no regular pattern of assistance to sports bodies.

Austria

%ecial studies in the field of sports building constructions are made by the Austrian Institute for School and Sports Building II Construction (OISS) with its central office in Vienna and its present branch offices in Graz and Innsbruck. It is intended to establish branch offices in all provinces.

The OISS has prepared a basic plan of sport facilities in

Austria which aims also at the construction of still missing adequate sport areas. The government gives financial assistance for facilities construction.

Brazil

The whole national network of sports facilities, including stadiums, swimming pools, gymnasiums, and tracks for athletics, belongs almost in its entirety to the clubs (or associations), while the governments (federal and State) have contributed financial aid for construction. In the State of Guanabara, there is the Maracana Stadium

(with athletic track and gymnasium) built and administered by the State

Government; in Sao Paulo, the Pacaembu Stadium and Ibirapuera

Gymnasium, built and administered by the Municipality of Sao Paulo; and in Belo Horizonte (Minas Gerais), the "Mineirao" or Magalhaes Pinto 117 Stadium, for football only, built and administered by the State

Government. In Brasilia, the National Stadium belongs to the Brasilia

Sports Federation (for football only); and in Sergipe (Aracaju), the

State Stadium (for football) opened in 1969, has a capacity of 80,000 spectators, and is also the property of the State Government. Mean while, the National Sports Council has it in mind to use a large part of the proceeds of the sports lottery, to be launched next year

(1970), for the development of such facilities throughout the country.

Canada

Federal aid may be provided for the construction of regional or provincial training centers, under the Fitness and Amateur Sport

Act. To date, facility construction has been limited to the sites of Canada Games and international games of significance.

Colombia .

The Colombian Institute of Youth and Sports (a government agency), through the provincial Administrative Departments and the

Commissions of the special District of Bogota, has developed a construction plan and facilities as well for suitable training and practice sessions in the different fields of sport.

Cuba

Many facilities, such as stadiums, sport fields, etc., are built by the Ministry of Construction which has a separate budget.

All sport fields, stadiums, gymnasiums, are for public use. Training

centers form part of the national patrimony. 1 1 8 Czechoslovakia

The State, in support of the mass development of physical

training and sports, grants considerable sums of money towards invest ments for the construction and maintenance of sports facilities in

the country.

The relation of the citizens towards physical training can be

seen in their voluntary help in the construction and maintenance of

the large number of facilities they use. The Czechoslovak Union for

Physical Training operates an estate, the total value of which is

about 5,000 million crowns.

England

The government does not directly undertake responsibility for

providing facilities. It helps financially by grants to sports clubs

setting up playing facilities and indirectly through the grants made

to local authorities to help their expenditure (which includes sports

expenditure). The government also provides wholly, or in part, the

finance required to establish National Sports Centers which are

administered by the Central Council for Physical Recreation.

The only centers which come within this framework where direct

governmental help is made available are the national sports centers

organized and run by the CCPR:

Bisham Abbey . (General and River)

Lillieshall Hall (General)

Plas-y-Brenin (Mountaineering)

Crystal Palace (General) 119 Cowes (Sailing)

Cardiff (General)— now being built

Holmeplerpolnt (Rowing, Canoeing and Water Skiing)— now in planning. The whole cost of maintaining these centers and of running them (subject to contributions from the trainees which pay for the accommodation costs— approximately) Is met by the CCPR (but In effect

Is financed wholly by government). Crystal Palace and Cardiff and

Holmepierpolnt (when finished) will be exceptions to this principle, because the Greater London Council (for Crystal Palace), the local councils In South Wales (for Cardiff) and the Nottin#iamshlre County

Council (for Holmepierpoint) have agreed to contribute to the running costs of these three centers.

Mention should be made here of a Technical Unit for Sport, comprising a small number of professionally qualified staff, such as architects, planners, engineer, quantity surveyor, which was estab lished In 1968 for the purpose of providing objective advice to local authorities and governing bodies on the design and scope of important

sports projects, with the object of ensuring that best value Is

obtained for the money expended. For example, the Unit is expected to

produce a report shortly, calling attention to the factors which influence the cost of swimming pools and outlining a ’best buy’ pool

of twenty-five metres In length. The Unit Is at present part of the

Department of Education and Science because It was set up vlien the Minister with responsibility for sport was a member of that Department.

Steps are now being taken to transfer It to the Ministry of Housing 1 2 0 and local Government.

All this is done with the cooperation of the Sports Council which has the Facilities Planning Committee— the whole field of development of physical facilities for sport and physical recreation, including in particular the very large (and in practice difficult) field of regional planning of facilities larger than can be expected to be undertaken by a single city or town community.

The National Playing Fields Association (NPFA) helps in the provision of playing fields, playgrounds and sports .centers by publicity and technical assistance; financial assistance is obtained chiefly through private donations.

Finland

State aid granted for the building of public sports facilities is financed by profits derived from betting. The State also places funds through the National Board of Schools, the Department of Housing

Construction and the armed forces, and total investments in the last few years have amounted to sixty to seventy million marks annually.

Building aid funds from betting profits are distributed in conpliance with regulations approved for this purpose. The size of a grant is determined on the basis of the estimation of costs, the extent to which the building will be used for sport (if other activities are held in it), and the advantages of the site from an economic point of view. A maximum grant of twenty to fifty percent of the cost is then awarded, mainly on the basis of these considerations. A particular feature of Finnish sporting life is the sports 1 2 1 académies, planned and financed by the organizations of amateur sport, county and communal committees, with considerable aid from the foot ball pools. They are usually situated by a lake in woods and invariably have the Finnish sauna and swimming pool. There are fifteen of these, five of which are open in summer only.

These academies pro^/ide a variety of courses for the training of leaders and club officials and games are organized for young

leaders and athletes in training. The two largest academies run two-year courses for sports administrators, who are trained for employ ment with sports clubs, schools, local authorities and large business

firms.

France

After 1958, the French government took an active part in plans for modernizing and constructing new facilities on a five-year-

plan basis.

The French Government, by means of the Secretariat of State

for Youth and Sports, has also initiated the development of the

recreation facilities in urban areas.

A new category of facilities called "Urban Sports and Recreation

Centers" is in the process of being formed among larger agglomerations.

These have been begun to meet the needs of the population and to give

the school-going youth use of their sports afternoons under favourable

conditions. It is planned that they can be used to occupy any free

time during weekends and short holidays. They consist of a complex

containing all elements vidch will permit simple relaxation and out 1 2 2 door activities, as well as a variety of sports and social educational activities.

The Secretariat of State for Youth and Sport has facilitated the construction of open air and recreation bases which offer possibilities for outdoor recreation. In addition, national training centers are established in different areas of the countiy.

Germany (West)

For years, the federal and provincial governments have funded considerable grants to encourage the building of sports facilities.

The federal funds are allocated on the basis of "top financing", i.e., the federal share amounting, as a rule, at the most to twenty percent of the entire building cost. The above mentioned federal assistance for the construction of general sports facilities will, however, be phased out during the next few years, on the basis of agreements between the federal government and the provinces and a fiscal reform bill, clearly defining the .areas of responsibility.

The "Golden Plan", announced in 1959 and developed by the

German Olynpic Society, is a fifteen-year plan for the financing of the construction and provision of sports facilities. It was devised to close the gaps in provision of training facilities caused by the

Second World War.

Hungary

The cost of building new sport grounds, stadiums and swimming pools is partly or fully covered by the State, if it is necessary. In practice the state budget agencies in the towns often support the new 123 constructions. The national sport centers are generally built vjith state resources.

Italy The government does not participate financially in the building of sports facilities. The Communes, when a sports facility is built within their area, grant free land and a small financial contribution. % to now, many of these facilities have been built by the Communes at their own expense. The running of the sports facilities is generally carried out by the Communes.

The Italian National Olynpic Committee bears, within its budget, the building costs of facilities for those sports viiich do not gain incomes from attendance of spectators.

Japan

Nhen local governments (prefectural or municipal) build sport facilities, such as swimming pools, gymnasiums, judo and fencing halls, outdoor playing fields or facilities, ski junping platforms, and skating rinks, the national government furnishes subsidies covering r o u ^ y one-third of the required outlay. Training centers operated by the National government:

1. Education Ministry Mcuntaineering Training Center.

2. Sugadaira Takahara Physical Training Center.

Special public corporations supported by government funds:

3. Sports Training Center at the Olynpic Memorial Combined Youth Center.

4. Ihe National Athletic Stadium Sports Training Center. 124 New Zealand

Facilities for conpetition or training are not provided by

the central government but by the local municipality.

Norway

The State Office for Youth and Sports acquires land for sports

and recreational facilitiesj according to a law of October 23, 1959.

Throu^ its activities the Office aims to provide the best possible opportunity for the development of sports for children and

youth. This includes provision for physical education in schools so that physical education may have its deserved position in the school

program. I M s is accorrplished throu^ the construction of gymnasium and sports facilities in connection with the schools, through the

training of physical education teachers, and throu^ inspection of

the provisions for physical education in the schools.

The Office aims at improving the bathing facilities through

out the country throu^ the construction of saunas (Finnish baths)

and public baths. The Office aids the construction of community

centers by submitting proposals for state support of these projects,

îhe technical, organizational and financial plans for conminity centers

are inspected by the Office. It provides norms and standards and gives

advice in the preparatory phase.

Scotland ^ Government, aid to national facilities construction projects

is available throu^ grants to local sport organizations. There are

two National Recreation Centers administered, by the. Scottish Council 125 of Physical Recreation; Glenmore Lodge, specializing in training for outdoor activities, and Inverclyde, inhere activities are largely centered on training and coaching courses designed to meet the needs of governing bodies and colleges of education.

South Africa

At present there are no funds available for capital works, but municipalities, sports clubs and private organizations are assisted with technical advice.

Sweden

Nowadays almost all sport facilities in Sweden are financed, built and administrated by the local government.

For sport facilities owned by sport organizations and facilities belonging to the local government, financial support can be received from governmental resources. In 1968 the total amount was about

4 million Sw. crowns.

Union of Soviet Socialist Republics

The government finances the construction of facilities. '

Generally, facilities development and planning is a centralized opera tion. The plan is to build more than 15,000 stadiums and large sports grounds by 1970 and over 13,000 gymnasiums. A special government decision stipulates that every urban district with a certain population have the basic facilities, such as a stadium, gymnasium, swimming poo]. 126 and shooting gallery.^ There are no private or commercial sport facilities; all are sponsored by either the government, municipalities.

Industries, educational Institutions, trade unions, or the anned forces.

United States

Although there Is no government agency directly assisting In sport facility construction, many of the present athletic training facilities In schools and universities are subsidized through the educational budgets of various levels of government.

Yugoslavia

The government helps subsidize the construction of sport facilities, keeping up a continual survey of the number of sports centers and facilities available. In the last few years there has been a steady Increase In the number of winter sports halls and swimming pools.

RESEARCH AND SPORTS MEDICINE

Research Is carried out largely In universities with the aid of government grants. Some countries are much more Involved In sport research than others. This Is an area In which umbrella organizations and state agencies are Involved, not the sport governing bodies. Some

®U.S.S.R., Questions and Answers (Moscow: Novostl Press Agency Publishing House, n.d.), p. 454. 127 exanples are given of the type and extent of involvement.

Argentina The government gives financial assistance to research work in connection with sports physiology. The involvement, however, has been very recent, and detailed information is not yet available.

Australia There is no direct government participation in research as it applies to amateur sport.

Some research, which involves physical performance, is done in universities, usually in Physical Education Departments. Funds for this research would normally come from university funds. No significant research in specific areas directly related to amateur sport has been undertaken.

Austria Research orders are placed with graduates and students about different sports. The foundation of a special Institute for Sport

Medicine is in the course of formation in cooperation with the Federal

Ministry for Social Welfare, viiich will undertake a series of medical checks, their evaluation, and some research work. At the moment these tasks are still performed by sport-medical research departments.

Brazil

Research activities are at present under the Confederations and

Federations, while the National Sports Council helps them obtain financial aid when they present programs in this field. 1 2 8

Canada

Limited grants are made to research workers who wish to investigate fields related to the general areas of fitness. These m i^ t include studies of sports, recreation or fitness programs of other countries, sports sciences, the effects of various psychological or physiological factors on athletes, motivation in sports and fitness activities. Centers for some of these studies had been established at three Canadian universities. • These Fitness Research Units at the Universities of Alberta, Montreal and Toronto employed full time experienced research workers and technicians and graduate assis tants for intensive studies in fitness fields.

Cuba

In general, the Cuban government participates through all its

departments in research connected with sports. The departments

specifically in charge of research work at the Higher School of

Physical Education and the Sports Medicine Institute, in which profes

sorships carry on all kinds of research connected with sports. This

research work is regularly published in the Scientific-Technical

Bulletin and in the magazines El Déporté (Sports) and "PVS." The

Academy of Sciences and, in general, other State Departments also

do research work.

England

The Research and Statistics Committee of the Sports Council

operates mainly through the services of experts serving both the main .129 committee and subsidiary working groups. It has sociological study groups to advise on general strategy for research.

The main emphasis of research sponsored by the government on the recommendation of the Sports Council has been concerned with exercise physiology and facility provision.

In the field of exercise physiology the Government, on the advice of the Sports Council, has supported research into the effects of altitude on performance, exercise regimens for the middle-aged and the detection of anabolic steroids.

In the field of facility provision, several national surveys have been mounted on the demand for swimming pools, indoor sports centers, golf courses and water recreation facilities, together with studies on the characteristics of users of these different facilities.

The %)orts Council also works closely with other government agencies which have responsibilities for provision of facilities for recreation. In particular, the Council includes the Countryside

Recreation Research Advisory Group and has joined with other statutory bodies in this organization in mounting research projects, e.g., a national angling survey and a camping and caravanning survey..

Some grants are given by the Sports Council towards studies and research into those physiological problems related to sports and the athlete.

Finland

Research is mainly supported by state grants. The Finnish

Association of Sports Medicine’s members are physicians interested in 1 3 0 physical education research and . in practical problems related to the medical care of athletes. At present they total about 200. The members mainly carry on independent research work with the financial aid of grants made by the government or allotted from different foundations. . Members of the Association are usually affiliated with the major athletic associations in the capacity of private physicians.

Ihe Sports Research Station began operating in 1956. The staff consists of a doctor, a nurse and a laboratory assistant. They are doing medical research connected with top athletes and fitness training and are examining athletes to determine their physical fitness and are providing athletes with medical care.

The purpose of the Finnish Society for Research in Sports and

Physic^ Education, is to promote physical education research. Its aims are achieved throu^ the arrangement of lectures and the form ation of working teams which deal with problems in this field and

TflMch follow up new ideas. The devising of a unified research program for the whole country is a further aim. The Society has professional connections with foreign investigators and associatior^.

The Society also organizes research work, althou#i this is

limited, since the majority of members are employed by the universities,

institutions or associations mentioned earlier. On the initiative

of the Society, papers on research in the field of physical education

are published in Finnish along with articles and reviews about studies

and books published abroad. The total membership is about 190. This

includes representatives of sociology, physiology, psychology, medicine. 131 physical education, general education, coaching sports philosophy and history, as well as the press. The activity of the Society is mainly State-aided.

France

Constantly guided by the concern for economy in the construc tion and greater use of equipment, the Secretary of State for Youth and %iort has oriented experimental research in several directions: year round swimming pools, giant-sized sports halls twice the size of the classical gyms, etc. Research on all-weather grounds and on other materials has caused France's production to progress in giant steps in a few years.

Studies are conducted, on one hand on the technical level, and on the other on the level of steadily spreading industrialization, in order to obtain systematic functioning of sports equipment at lower cost.

Gennany (East)

The Sports Medical Service was set up in I9 6 3 . This is a

specialized institution within the State system of public health, whose

task it is to deal with all medical issues connected with sport and

also to see to it that means and possibilities of physical culture and

sport are more and more integrated into prophylaxis, therapy, and

rehabilitation within the State system of public health. Thus, sport is

offered medical care adapted to its particular needs, while public

health, on the other hand, can make use of the basic scientific 132 findings in sport for its work. Organizing and assuring health protection at all larger sports events, e.g., the Germn Sports and Gymnastics Festivals or the

Children’s and Youth Spartakiads of the German Democratic Republic, is a major task for the Sport Scientific Service.

Germaoy (West) The federal government sponsors research projects in the field of sport science by providing financial assistance as long as these are

inportant to competitive sports. The grants are awarded, as a matter

or principle, via the German Sport Federation and its Central Committee

for Research Inc., respectively, to the individual research agencies (sport science institutes at universities), accoixiing to certain

specifications which have been defined in special priority programs.

The main focus of attention lies in the area of sport medicine.

Hungary Scientific research work about sports is mainly performed by

the Scientific Research Institute of the Hungarian College of

Physical Education. The Research Institute works in two fields. One

of them is research concerning the methodological and pedagogical

aspects of the school physical education. The other field is research

about the increasing of the sportman’s capacity. Besides the College of Physical Education each inportant

university, high school, or their physical education professorates, do scientific research work about sport history, sport physiology and 133 increasing of capacity.

The coordinating agency for the scientific research of the different institutions is the Physical Education Scientific.Council which consists of the best scientists and sport scientists of the different research areas. In all enquiries the research principle is followed according to which any inportant thesis is dealt with from the point of view of all the sciences concerned. As well as conplex research there is individual research dealing with particular enquiries of the branch of sport concerned. The state grants inportant financial support for the research program and it has been considerably increased during the last two years. The fact that the most outstanding specialists, scientists, university professors, participate in the research work, and that the state grants full support to the realization of the program is assurance of effective utilization of the results of the research in

Hungarian sport life.

Italy

In 19^8, a Research Center was established with the purpose of promoting studies, research, and experiments on sporting installa tions and equipment. As such, it offers its advice and collaboration to central and peripheral public administrations, to sports clubs and to private individuals for the study and solving of problems relating to sports installations as well as for the suitable placing of these in general and territorial urban planning. Furthermore, it diffuses technical information on sports installations and cooperates with 134 similar centers abroad with which it exchanges ideas, studies and experiments.

From 1948 to 1957, CONI availed itself of the Center for the planning of construction of an inportant series of prototype installations, as well as for the Olynpic Stadium in Rome and the

Olynpic installation at Cortina. CONI set up the Institute of Sports

Medicine in 1961 for the purpose of scientific research in the field of physiology applied to sports as well as to the study of physio- pathological events linked to them.

Therefore, within the framework of the Institute, in view of the interest shown in the specialized branches of sports medicine, various experimental and clinical aspects of this field of research are studied. Furthermore, the Institute of Sports Medicine is proceeding towards the functional evaluation of athletes of national interest and of very young athletes for training centers, and it supervises the specialization of doctors and technicians as well as the training of masseurs.

Japan

Research in amateur sport is being undertaken at the amateur

sport research facilities of the Physical Education Department of the

Tokyo University of Education, the Physical Education Laboratories of

the College of Education of Tokyo University, and similar institutions

of other universities and by the Committee on Sport Sciences of the

Japan Athletic Association. The national government supports such

research through providing direct outlays for the necessary funds 135 involved and for covering the cost of facilities and personnel expenses and throng other forms of assistance. New Zealand

Research into problems directly related to sports is at present being conducted at the University of Otago School of Physical

Education, at Canterbury University College and at a number of

Teachers' Colleges within New Zealand. In the main, this research is financed from departirental funds within these institutions and in direct coiipetition with all the many and varied demands made on such funds.

A small amount of financial assistance has been received

from one local sporting organization (Otago Centre of New Zealand

Amateur Swimming Association) for the conducting of a research project in swimming. It is hoped that further centers and national

associations can be encouraged to support sports research in the üiture.

Norway

The State Officer for Youth and Sports has developed several

research projects and has given support to others. In the field of

sports medicine, special interest has been given to sports injuries

and to problems concerning human development and age in connection

with physical activities. Sociology and psychology have also been

applied to sports problems in a conprehensive study of participation

in sports and youth work. Support has been given to physiology and psychology applied to physical education and sports as a basis for 136 thé development of a research center in connection with the Norwegian

College for Physical Education. The results of the different studies have been published by the State Office.

South Africa

The government subsidizes universities and research centers to assist students and other researchers with projects relating to physical education, sport and recreation.

Many universities have their own research centers vdiere valuable work is being done; for exanple, at the Potchefstroom

University a Heart Clinic has been established where valuable research into heart diseases and their treatment is taking place.

The South African National Fitness Council has also been government aided to assist with the work it is doing in relation to fitness tests and testing.

Sweden

Gymnastik-och Idrottshogskolan University (GIH) in Stockholm is the center of the direct sport research work in Sweden. In 1969, the State granted about 600.000 Sw.Cr. for this work. The research has mainly been carried out at the Department of Physiology, GIH.

Some research work has also been done at Arbetsmedicinska institutets. arbetsfysiologiska avdelning.

Union of Soviet Socialist Republics

There are sports research institutes in Moscow, Leningrad and Tbilisi. Scientific research of sports is also conducted at various faculties of colleges of physical culture and at a number 137 of other scientific establishments, such as the medical colleges, and institutes of the U.S.S.R., such as the Academy of Sciences, the

Academy of Medical Sciences, and the Academy of Pedagogics. Research is carried on in the Sport Institutes in three main areas, psychology, . physiology, and sports medicine, under government supervision and support.

United States

At present, much of this program area is supported by private and public institutions. A number of research projects are indirectly

supported by grants from government agencies.

Yugoslavia

Institutes for physical culture are independent institutions

financed by the government, and have the following basic tasks:

1. study of the influence of physical training on health, physical development, physical potential, and education of a person;

2. organizing and conducting physiological, medical, biochemical, psychological, sociological and other research in the

field of physical culture;

3. study of ideal attitudes, organization, content and methods

in physical culture work from the point of view of socio-economic

conditions and its adaptations to the .needs and faculties of citizens;

4. development and Implementation of plans and programs of

physical training in schools and organizations;

5. study and working of problems related to the development

of projects, construction, use and maintenance of facilities for

physical culture; 138 6. study ■ of questions regarding the production of equipment and materials for physical training;

7. gathering and sorting of reference material, documentation and literature in the field of physical culture; etc.

SUMMARY

The four program areas reviewed further indicate the nature and extent of government involvement in sport. Although there are a number of similarities in program areas among the political systems previously identified, where there is direct programing by the government, distinct areas of eirphasis are highlighted. This is most apparent for unitary governments. In their conpetitive sport they feature a mass conpetitive program culminating in a national demonstration event. Usually, coaches are employed by the government agency concerned for sport. The most' outstanding program emphasis is in the area of facilities which are made available to a great nuiiiber of the populace. The structure of sport is more readily identifiable, thus providing the top athlete with such services as research and medical supervision of his training and competitive program. CHAPTER VI

NATIONAL GOVERNMENT'S SUPPORT TO SPORT

Fimncial support by government to sport is analyzed as to source, eitphasis and method of distribution. For a financial conparison, the author has reviewed primarily the year 1968 for the countries selected since it is the year of the most recent Olynpic conpetition.

A limitation has been inposed on this aspect of the study by lack of detailed response by a majority of the non-constitutional regimes

(see classification in Table' 8). As a result, Czechoslovakia and East

Germany are not referred to here and only general information is given for several others of the non-constitutional regimes. The analysis has been considered from the points of view of source of funds and, where possible, machinery of distribution.

There are three principal sources of revenue for amateur sport

in the countries studied. They are revenue received from betting pools

or lotteries, which may be state approved or state organized and run;

revenue from public funds, which essentially takes the form of govern

ment grants to various sports programs and associations; and revenue from the operation of sports facilities and programs, which generally

has little government involvement.

rfethod of distribution of funds varies from country to country.

The decision process for government grants may vary according to the

amount of control that government exercises over the sports bodies and 139 140 their prograins and the degree of Independence of local government or co-ordinating sports agencies.

Ultimately, the government agency responsible for amateur sport decides on the distribution of funds for amateur sport; this is true of the actual government budget and also o f . the betting pools as most of them are state controlled. Depending on the amount of control the federal or central government has over sport, the local levels of government and sports governing bodies have a degree of power in designating how funds will be allotted; in the constitutional regimes, the sports bodies handle the funds granted to them. The figure in brackets represents the amount in United States dollars.

Argentina Revenue for amateur sport is derived from public funds and from bonds and raffles organized by sport institutions and others— super vised by the Secretary of State for the Promotion of/and Assistance to the Community. In 1970, 3,000,000,000 pesos ($8,610,000., U.S.) was budgeted by the State to sports exclusively.

A National Sports Fund exists, which is assigned to sports activities. How this works is not clear, but it is understood that the Fund is made up of public funds, and that the funds involved in grants given by the government nay come out of it. In any case, it is up to the Secretary of State for the Promotion of/and Assistance to the Community to supervise the application of all funds with the assistance of the Permanent Sport Committee. I4l Australia

The main source of sport revenue is public funds; the total government expenditure in 1968 was approximately $414,000., U.S.

An analysis of this distribution is as follows:

State National Fitness Councils $224,908 State Education Departments 34,000 Universities 24,800 Australian Recreation Leadership Course 4,000 Total allocation to State agencies $287,708

Central Administration 6,792 Australian Capital Territory Grant 5,500 Capital Works 66,000

Surf Life Saving Association 24,000 Royal Life Saving Association 24,000

TOTAL ■ $414,000 (U.S.)

Finance for capital work is provided on the basis of $1.

Commonwealth to $2. State for approved National Fitness projects.

The Commonwealth National Fitness Advisor is the officer in

the Department of Health, whose duties consist of administering the

National Fitness Movement at Commonwealth level. He is secretary of

the Commonwealth Council for National Fitness.

At Commonwealth level, funds are made available to State National Fitness Councils. Portions of these funds are used to provide

training courses for coaches and conpetitors. Certain services, such

as libraries, are provided for amateur sports groups.

Through the Prime Minister's Department, grants of $24,000 per annum were made to both the Surf Life Saving Association and to the 142

Royal life Saving Society in the period under review, to assist these bodies in carrying out their services to the comnunity.

In the Australian states, there is no direction by government of amateur sport. There is, however, the assistance which is given to sporting bodies throu^ National Fitness Councils which receive state funds in addition to Commonwealth support. This assistance has been outlined above.

In all states, state governments make grants towards the activities of certain sporting bodies. In most cases these are relatively small, up to $5»000. In many cases the grants are made in conjunction with national chanpionships being staged by the particular sporting body. In certain states, state government grants have been made towards the building of swimming pools or sports arenas.

In 1968-69, the Commonwealth government contributed $60,000 towards the cost of sending conpetitors to the Olympic Games. The balance of funds was to be found by public subscription. State governments also contribute proportionately. Administration and leadership training is the responsibility of national or state sporting bodies which are run by honorary officials.

Austria

Funds come from public funds and football pools. The total

government expenditure for 1968 was 70 million schillings ($2,692,200.,

U.S.). The distribution of these funds is as follows:

(1) Direct assistance to sports (federal allowances for sport

performances and buildings), 25 million schillings ($961,500., U.S.). 143

Allocations to Sports Federations Percent Austrian Soccer Union 38

General Sports Federation of Austria l4 Austrian Works’ League for Sports and Physical Fitness 14 Austrian Gymnastics and %)orts Union 14

Austrian Olympic Committee 4

%ecialized Sports Federations 16

100

Of the specialized Sports Federations, those for handball, skiing, track and field, swimming and gymnastics get about double the assis tance given to many other federations.

(2) Indirect promotion of sports (establishment and mainten ance of federal institutions, physical training and fellowships),

45 million schillings.

(3) The football pool, which is state controlled, was estab lished by the gamble-monopoly law in 1948. The gross proceeds in

1968 were 54 million schillings. From this amount, ten percent of the first 15 million schillings and twenty percent of the sum exceeding this figure passes to the central government. The remainder goes to Austrian sport and physical recreation and is distributed by the Federal Ministry of Education.

Brazil

Revenue is wholly from public funds ; the total sum is part of the Republic's annual budget. Total government expenditure is in the 144 form of annual grants, which in 1968 totalled 3,278,861 new cruzelors

($1,026,600., U.S.).

These funds are directed towards purchase of sports equipment, expenses for international teams, national chanpionships, and facilities construction.

The federal government grants (Ministry of Education) are given throu^ the National Sports Council (government agency) and the

National Congress (parliament). The grants are distributed to the sports governing bodies (confederation) which distribute the funds in turn to their subsidiary organizations (federations, leagues and clubs).

State and municipal governments give assistance independent of federal grants and this money is distributed by the Secretariats of

Education or Departments of Physical Education.

Canada

Expenditure of funds for sport for 1968 was approximately

$4 ,606,5 0 0 ., U.S., allocated as follows:

Special Projects $1,080,000 Sports 2,000,000 Federal-Provincial Program 1,000,000 Scholarships 300,000 Research 300,000 Educational Materials 300,000

The federal program is divided into four main parts:

1. direct grants to national organizations or for purposes of nationwide interest such as research or national games;

2. fellowships, scholarships or bursaries for professional

study; lH5 3 . grants to the provinces, for support and development of activity at the provincial and community levels;

H. services provided by the Department of National Health and Welfare, largely in the form of technical advice and training and promotional aids.

The Fitness and Amateur Sport Directorate decides on the grants to be assigned.

Federal grants to some fifty national sports governing bodies, and other agencies operating nationwide programs or programs of national service, amount to more than 2 million dollars a year.

The need for increasing resources for trained leadership and coaching has been constantly stressed under the government program and as much enphasis as possible is given to these activities in making grants to national organizations. Most national sports governing bodies are being assisted in inproving instructional stan dards and, throu^ co-operative arrangements with the provinces, in the inprovement of opportunities for training in a wide range of

sports across Canada.

Grants for international competition, in addition to those for training and the holding of competitions in Canada, assist Canadians

in representing their country abroad, at the Olympic, Pan American and British Eiipire and Commonwealth Games, and at competitions

sponsored by other countries or by the International Sports Governing

Bodies.

Administrative grants are provided to sports governing bodies which qualify for and need them. Assistance to organizations 146 concerned primarily with the non-competitive aspects of sport and fitness activities is largely for extension and inprovement of existing services and for fact finding and research projects.

Aid has also been provided both directly for the holding of conpetitions at the national level and, through grants to the provinces, within the province and community.

Colombia

Revenue for sports comes from public funds in the form of government grants. The Colombian Institute of Youth and Sports is an official agency recently created. The budget allotted for 1967 and

1968, however, was the responsibility of the Ministry of Education, an agency of the National Government which had jurisdiction over all territory of the country, and over the Sports Associations themselves.

The 1969-70 sports budget was $2,500,000., U.S. A part of this went to construction of facilities and other preparation for the 1971

Pan American Games to be held in Cali, Colombia.

The National government through the Colombian Institute of

Youth and Sports, develops and assists sports through recreational activities within the national territory. To this end, grants are allotted to National Sports Associations which meet certain require ments of the Colombian Institute of Youth and %)orts.

Cuba

Revenue is derived from public funds and distributed by the

State towards various sports projects. The total amount invested by the Revolutionary Government in sports activities cannot be accurately 1 4 7 adjudged ftom the INDER budget since inany facilities of inaj’or scope, such as stadiums, sports fields, etc., are built by the Ministry of

Construction vM c h has a separate budget. Similarly, the Ministry of Education invests part of its budget in physical education, which is offered at all educational levels in the Republic. INDER is assigned a set amount by the state from the national budget and channels these funds where they are required by voluntary

Committees for various sports projects. For the year 196?, the INDER budget was $19,008,066., U.S.

England

In England, the bulk of revenue for sport comes from public funds; the total amount spent in 1968 by central and local governments was approximately L28 million. Central government expenditure in 1968 was L2,343,127 ($5 ,623,500., U.S.) in the form of direct grants.

The direct grants are over and above provisions for sports facilities to schools and many from local authorities. Estimated capital expenditure by local authorities in the same year was t9,990,000. A large part of local government spending goes towards sports facilities (in 1968, LIO million). Various types of direct grants are:

1. grants for administration, coaching activities, etc., of governing bodies of sport, made directly to the governing body; 2. grants towards the capital cost of sports facilities owned by local sports clubs and similar bodies, made directly to such bodies;

3 . grants towards research and/or statistical services, made 148 to the bodies undertaking such work, e.g.. Medical Research Council,

Royal College of Physicians, university teams, private researchers, and so on; 4. grants towards the e:q)en8es of national teams (adult, youth, and school) undertaking conpetitive events overseas, or towards the cost of staging world chanpionships or events of similar standing in the United Kingdom, made to the governing bodies of sport who undertake the organization of such events. This applies also to grants to assist sports representatives to attend international conferences, coaching conferences, etc.

All these grants are made on the advice of the Sports Council or regional sports councils, or in accordance with guidelines estab lished by the Sports Council. Under existing law, the primary responsibility for financing the provision of facilities for sport and physical recreation required by the residents in any area falls on the loc^ government authority which administers the area. A substantial proportion of the total local authority expenditure is net from central government resources in the form of a "rate support grant," i.e., a contribution from central government to local authorities to help administer their areas (at present the rate support grant represents fifty-three percent of the expenditure of local authorities). But the actual expenditure of a local authority qualifying for a grant is not itself a direct factor in the calculation of the amount of grant which any individual authority receives from the Exchequer. Direct government financial help is restricted to grants to 149 voluntary bodies under the Physical Training and Recreation Act 1937, grants in respect to research projects, and financial aid to British teams taking part in international conpetitive events.

Finland

Some revenue comes from public funds but the bulk of govern ment aid comes from betting pools xdiioh are state controlled. The total government expenditure in I968 was 1 7 ,050,000 in new marks

($4 ,059,6 0 0 ., U.S.). :

From the gross income of football pools, forty-five percent

(approximate) is returned to subscribers in prizes and a direct tax

is also levied by the government. By statute, fifty percent of the net proceeds must be provided for sports and physical training as part of the state budget and the remainder goes to schooling and hospitalization.

In 1967, forty-five percent (approximate) of the sports funds went to sports buildings— 6,200,000 Ito: the sports organizations

received forty percent of the budget; third was Sports Institutes,

with 8.6 percent— all others were minor grants.

Applications for grants' are received in the office of the

Ministry of Education which handles sports and youth work. Following

this, the Finnish Research Council for Physical Education and Sports

or, in some cases, the National Board of Schools, makes its comments.

The final decision is then made by the Ministry of Education.

The Sports and Youth Work office channels its financial

assistance to the County and Communal sports committees on the basis 1 5 0 of a national plan, i.e., the local agencies have the responsibility for inplementing and managing the funds allocated for sports promotion and construction of sports facilities within their respective juris dictions . In addition, state funds, derived principally throu#i the football pools, are funnelled to non-govemmental sports organizations; for instance, the Finnish Central %)orts Federation receives nearly half of its total budget from the state and in 1969 the Finnish

Olympic Committee was granted F Mks. 326,000 by the Sports and Youth

Work Office. Other recipients of state aid for the promotion of sports are universities, school boards, and even the armed forces.

It is provided by statute that sixty percent of the net pro ceeds received by the state controlled betting agency, Oy Veikkaus- toimisto Ab, may be used for sports and physical training. This means that the proceeds must be transferred to state funds, and the Ministry of Education must distribute them in various ways for the advancement of sports and physical training, subject to parliamentary approval, as part of the state budget. In addition, the state is permitted by a special law to give financial support to the activities of sports institutes and to aid such bodies as schools in the building of facilities and in physical education work. Many facilities have also been built for the armed forces, which include physical education in their program of activity.

France

In 1968, the national government granted the following amount to sport governing bodies appearing on the Olympic program, i.e.. 151 $2,758,700., U.S., with a total sport budget of 70,699,000 francs

($1 6 ,260,8 0 0 ., U.S.). A breakdown of the budget would not be repres entative because of considerable construction costs and a departure from normal methods of distributing financial assistance resulting from the hosting that year of the Olynpic Winter Games.

Germany (West)

The following outline gives a breakdown of the budget for

1969:

1969

1. Grants towards Sport and Physical Education 9,360,000 D.M.

2. Preparation for a Docu mentation Center of Sport 20,000

3 . Grant for the Olympic Games in Munich 2,000,000

4. Facilities and equipment for the top conpetitive sports 38,000,000

5 . Construction of facilities for the Olynpic Games in Munich 19,000,000

Total: 6 7 ,280,000

($1 6 ,820,0 0 0 ., U.S.)

The Federal funds which are available are, as a rule, advanced

directly to the eligible senior sport federations, without the part

icipation of other agencies. The provinces act accordingly within

their area of conpetency.

Federal funds for the promotion of sport are only made avail

able to the German Sport Federation, the National Olynpic Committee 152 and the Federal Sport Leagues (e.g., the German Athletics Federation

(track and field), German Gymnastics Federation).

Grants in aid are devoted entirely to sport at the highest level: for instance, to help teams from the Federal Republic to participate in the Olympic Games, in World or European Championships, or in major international events in Germany or abroad. Other areas lAich are eligible for federal financial assistance include the participation of German representatives at scientific or other Congresses connected with sport, central courses for the development of conpetitive or recreational sport, research projects in the sphere of sports medicine, pedagogics of sports, the construction of sports establishments, scientific publications, central teaching aids, and so on. Recent additional items included the remuneration of about thirty full time trainers, grants towards the construction of special centers for particular branches of sport, and also a certain amount of equipment provided for centers run by the federal committee for the improvement of top sport in Freiburg, Cologne, Haiiiburg and

Berlin. The federal money is channelled throu^ the federal fund for sports (Bundessportfonds).

The assistance for sport provided by the provincial govern ments takes the form of a lunp sum allocated to each provincial sports federation from a provincial sport fund. Grants from the States take the form of sustaining grants— that means they cover the maintenance of sports schools run.by the provincial sports federations. They also help toward the cost of training and remunerating instructors, the purchase of sports equipment, the establishment of new sports clubs. 153 guarantees to cover financial losses in case of sporting events being

cancelledj subsidies for sport accidents, insurance, aid for sport

establishments owned by clubs, and so on. In almost every province, the provincial Soccer Associations receive special additional grants

from the proceeds of the Federal Soccer Pool and the National

Lottery. These monies are mainly used to maintain the Soccer Sports

Schools.

The assistance of the local government to sports clubs

consists mainly in making available to them municipal or district

facilities in return for moderate rental charges or in many cases no

charge at all. In addition, sports clubs are helped with grants in

aid for various purposes including the remuneration of training

instructors.

Hungary

In Hungarian sport, state support is mainly granted for the

Hungarian Physical Training and Sport Associations. The National

Council of the HPTSA prepares its annual budget on this basis. No

personal remunerations are mentioned there. The sport clubs and the

regional agencies of the HPTSA are financially supported through the

National Council budget. The amount budgeted for a sport club

depends on staff numbers, on its effectiveness, and on regional needs.

Italy

The Italian National Olynpic Committee finances itself

throu^ the income of Totocalcio (Football Pools) and does not 154 receive any contribution from the State, but the pools are state controlled.

There is no item "Sport" in the State and iVIinistries budgets.

CONI devotes all its resources to amateur sport. In 1968, CONI financed national amateur sports activities awarding a sum of about

17 thousand million lire ($27,200,000., U.S.). Expenditures included the contributions of the National Sports Federations, mass sports activities, funds for Olynpic Games participation, sports activities in schools, universities, aimed forces, the building and management of sports facilities, and the youth sports centers. The Italian

National Olynpic Committee, as an institution established by law, is under the supervision of the Ministry of Tourism, v M l e the control of accountancy is exercised by the College of Auditors which also includes menhers appointed by the Treasury and the Ministry of

Finance. CONI distributes the funds it receives among its member organizations, the major sports governing bodies of Italy. The government is not officially involved but the Auditors' College of

CONI is selected by the Ministry of Finance to which it must submit its

annual report. The Sports Fund Institute was set up jointly between CONI and

the Banca Nazionale del Lavoro which has the purpose of granting to ■public bodies who intend to build or equip sports installations loans

repayable in fifteen years as well as sums contributed on loans agreed

to by the Institute or by other banking institutions. 155 Japan

The Ministry of Education provides the main source of revenue for sport in Japan, In addition, the Prime Minister's office.

Ministry of Health and Welfare, Ministry of Labour and Ministry of

Construction each has a separate budget of its own for promotion of amateur sport.

The fiscal year 1968 budget (Ministry of Education) for physical education, sports, and Olynpic preparation totalled

3 ,066,994,000 Yen ($8 ,520,100., U.S.).

The budget of the Physical Education Bureau is allotted to other levels of government as well as to the Japan Athletic Associ ation for development of amateur sport programs. The national government gives advice to the prefectural, municipal and local governments on matters relating to the promotion of amateur sport and, at the same time, provides them with financial aid.

The assistance provided by the prefectural, municipal and

local governments takes the form of: inproving and developing amateur

sports facilities and services; giving guidance, advice, and financial aid to amateur sports organizations; and organizing amateur sports

events and programs, such as athletic meets and sports clinics.

The Japan Athletic Association has a number of programs and

projects which it carries out with government assistance. These

include: encouraging the growth of activities of its affiliate

organizations; promoting international sports projects, such as the

Olyirpics; organizing national athletic meets; promoting programs for 156 raising the level of conpetitive performances in athletic sports ; promoting the growth of sporting boy scouts; and promoting medical and scientific research in amateur sport.

New Zealand

The government has little involvement in financing amateur sport. Government expenditure in recent years has concerned only one grant j to the New Zealand Amateur Athletic Association for a coaching school. The Youth Services Branch of the Department of Internal

Affairs is responsible for any grants.

The sports governing bodies rely on private sources or public canpaigns for their funds. They do not, in fact, ask for government financial assistance.

The government occasionally makes grants to sporting and recreational associations from the profits of government lotteries but only where there has been a substantial degree of self help. As a policy, no grants of any kind are made where the project could be carried out without government assistance; in other words, grants are made as a last resort.

Norway

Revenue for amateur sport in Norway is derived from two sources: public funds issued in government grants, and state- controlled football pools.

In the Ministry of Church and Education, the total budget for youth and sports work and community centers in 1968 was kr.2,545,000 157 ($356,300., U.S.). This figure can be broken down into the following sub-divisions : (kr.)

Norges Idrettsforbund 400,000 Health Control for Sportsmen 300,000 Community Centers 650,000 Youth Work 1,035,000 Nat'l Council for School Sports 100,000 Nat'l Association of Youth Hostels 60,000

Setting up the football pool has solved the financial prob lems connected with providing first class sports facilities. Half of itstotal stakes are allotted to prizes; the remainder ofits profits in 1968 were apportioned thirty-five percent to sports and sixty-five percent to scientific research. In the twenty years (1948-68) that this football betting pool has been operating, it has provided kr.210,210,000 (^prox, $29,236,000 U.S.) for the financing of

Norwegian sport. This money has been used as follows:

Canadian $ (approx.)

Sports Establishments, (i.e. indoor or outdoor construction)$16,987,576

Administration 1,248,636

Sports Consultants, etc. 1 ,678,636

Norwegian Sports Colleges 3,432,576

Norwegian Confederation of Sports (NIF) 8,502,576

Total $31,850,000 ($29,236,000. U.S.) 1 5 8 While the lion's share of the money for sports facilities

(hallsJ stadiums, playing fields, swimming pools, community centers, etc.), sports training and equipment, etc., is derived from the profits of the weekly betting pools, some money for sports is also provided directly throu^ the budget of the State Office for Youth and Sports in Norway. A further source of income for sports is the sports committee in each of the country's twenty counties; they are financially responsible for the maintenance and current operation of sports facilities and community centers. It should also be noted that when a community center is built most of the money comes from the state and from the profits of the betting pools; nevertheless, municipal support is also required throu^ locally-raised loans, donated labour, and donated material.

Poland

The General Committee for Sport and Tourism handles the funds to be distributed to the sports organizations on the advice of the

Sub-Committee for Physical Culture.

Sports facilities and equipment are built from state funds,

the resources of social organizations and from the profits of the

national sports sweepstake. A total of 4,200 million zloties were

to be spent on such projects between 1950 and 1970, excluding school

investments and military sports facilities. The value of sports

facilities built in voluntary free-time exercises, a traditional form

of social activity in Poland, exceeded 500 million zloties in 1966

and 1967 alone. 159 Scotland

In Scotland, public funds are the basic source of revenue.

The total government expenditure in 1957-68 was £.369*000 and in

1968-69, £=647,000 ($1 ,552,800., U.S.), the increase being due to the

British Coiranonwealth Games held in Edinburgh in 1970. The funds available to sport are disbursed by the Scottish Education Department as advised by the Sports Council for Scotland.

The types of grants which are available from central govern ment funds are those to national voluntary sports organizations, towards their expenditure on administration and coaching, and to local voluntary sports organizations and district councils, towards capital expenditure on new or inproved facilities. Grants are also available to the national governing bodies, towards expenditures on international events and conpetitions. District councils are the only local authorites in receipt of direct grant from central funds; town and country councils are not eligible for such assistance.

The purpose of the grants is to encourage the development of sports by enabling local voluntary sports organizations to provide new facilities or to inprove existing facilities. The grants, which are made under Section 3(1)(a) of the Physical Training and Recreation

Act, 1937, are available to organizations concerned either with a variety of sports or with one particular form of sport. They may be allowed in respect of capital expenditure on the following:

purchase of land and buildings;

erection of new buildings; 1 6 0 înproveraents and extensions to existing buildings for the purpose of providing better facilities and/or facilities for greater numbers of participants in the sport or sports concerned;

professional fees;

equipœnt for new facilities.

Up to half the cost of approved projects may be offered, subject to a maximum grant of 1,10,000. The need for the proposed facilities, the probable extent of their use, and the relationship between their cost and the number of persons likely to use them will be important factors in determining the amount of grant offered. Town, county or district councils have power, under the

Physical Training and Recreation Act, 1937, to make grants towards the provision or maintenance of recreational facilities by voluntary organizations. They also have power under the Physical Training and

Recreation Act, 1958, to make loans for the same purpose. Education, authorities have power, under the Education (Scotland) Act, 1962, to assist voluntary organizations to provide or maintain recreation facilities. Grants or loans to help with small playing field or sports pavilion projects are available from the National Playing

Fields Association (Scottish Branch).

South Africa In the Republic of South Africa direct financial assistance for sport from the Central Government is very small. The Department of %)ort and Recreation, lAich is nainly a service department and provides technical assistance for all population groups, operates on I6l an annual budget of approxiiately R340,000 ($476,000., U.S.).

The main governmental assistance for sport is obtained from the various Provincial Administrations which are responsible for schools and teacher training collets, the Departments for the non- v M t e population groups, namely the Department of Bantu Administration and Development, the Department of Bantu Education, the Department of

Coloured Affairs, the Department of Indian Affairs and, finally, the

local authorities. The Mining Industry also provides splendid

sporting facilities for its personnel.

Sweden

Parliament makes an annual grant based on recommendations of

requirements by the counsel of the Swedish National Amateur Athletic

Federation based on the needs of the various federations.

Sweden has had football pools (under state control) since

1934; the government determines how much of the pool revenue will go to sport and recreation. In addition, public funds are used in

government grants towards amateur sport.

The total federal government expenditure for I968-69 was

38,000,000 Sw.kr. ($7j345j400., U.S.). Grants to the Swedish National

Amateur Athletic Foundation totalled 18,500,000 Sw.kr. Of this,

gymnastics received the largest grant, 900,000 Sw.kr., followed by

soccer and track and field, 600,000 Sw.kr. each. On the average, other

sports received, each, less than 300,000 Sw.kr. Grants for construc

tion and maintenance of facilities (which includes further lesser

grants over and above the initial sum set by parliament) totalled 1 6 2 4,164,800 Sw.kr., and grants for research, 600,000 Sw.kr.

Union of Soviet Socialist Republics

Details regarding the financing of sport in the U.S.S.R. have not been made public. The State Coirmittee operates on a budget, with" the trade unions also budgeting large amounts towards sports. It is estimated that a sum of 200 million roubles ($222,280,000., U.S.) is allocated to sport by the government agency. ■

United States

The budget for the President's Council on Physical Fitness and Sport indicates the extent of financial assistance provided indirectly by government to amateur sport. The Council's budget in 1969 was $315,000 distributed for administrative and clinic promotion projects. It is difficult to determine the involvement of the different government agencies, particularly in facility construction, such as municipal stadiums, or university facilities, where funds are appropriated from a number of levels of government as well as being provided by private source.

Yugoslavia Amateur sport receives revenue from the following sources:

budgets of socio-political associations (in federation, republics, provinces, cities, municipalities);

funds of republics', provincial, city and municipal educational bodies; 163 revenues from sports lotteries;

business and syndicate contributions;

canpaign actions for the construction of projects, and

revenues of sports organizations themselves (business activities, festivals, voluntary contributions and membership fees).

The total government expenditure (federal, republic, provincial, city and municipal) in 1968 was 156,195,427 dinars ($12,495,634., U.S.). An analysis of the distribution of funds for the development of physical culture, outside of schools, follows:

1968 (dinars)

Amounts received from budgets 156,195,427 Federal Budget 11,283,780 ($902,700., U.S.)

Amounts received from business and syndicates 44,171,000

Canpaign actions • 32,637,532

%)ort lotteries 29,222,075

Own revenues (of sports governing bodies) 153,364,000

Total, Yugoslavia 415,590,034

The Yugoslav Federation of Organizations for Physical Culture,

throu^ the Republican, Provincial, Urban and Municipal, Federations

of Organizations for Physical Culture, is responsible for the

distribution of funds and how they will be spent. 164

SUMMARY

Among the countries investigated., it would ^pear that about half have significantly higher sports budgets than that of the

Government of Canada. The figures used are recent and are based on the current rates of exchange for the years mentioned.

In many countries, funds for sports are channelled chiefly to facilities and to the national sport federations for the development of their respective sports. Althou^ the machinery for distribution differs among countries, unitary government agencies directly dis tribute funds, or, in the case of betting pools, stipulate the distribution. In a number of countries where there are established sport federations, the central government uses the federation as the distributing agency. As expected, those countries characterized by federal systems decentralize their financial assistance on a proportioned basis. CHAPTER VII

PROPOSAL FOR IHE DEVELOPMENT OF GOVERNMENT SPORTS POLICY FOR CANADIANS IN INTERNATIONAL SPORTS

At the beginning of the 1900's Canadian government involvement in physical activity centered around physical training for national defense. The Strathcona Trust Fund was established in 1908 to develop

a spirit of patriotism through a system of physical training in the

school in a cadet environment. During the 1930's, the Youth Training

Act was essentially an euployment program in cooperation with the provinces. In 19^3, the National Physical Fitness Act was passed as

a war-time measure to promote physical fitness.

The present Fitness, and Amateur Sport Act, enacted in I9 6 1 ,

in effect has as its broad objectives the encouragement, promotion

and development of fitness and amateur sport.^ The first stated

objective was to " . . . provide assistance for the promotion and

development of Canadian participation in national and international

sport. "2

The following developments have indicated the direction and

nature of Canadian government involvement in recent years. Two sports.

Ifhe House of Commons of Canada, An Act to Encourage Fitness and Amateur Sport (Ottawa: Queen's Printer and Controller of Stationery 1961) pp.^21-i|2ir.

2lbid p. 421. 165

-4. 1 6 6 hockey and skiing, have adopted the concept of national teams where team members train and conpete together over the entire season of the sport.

In July, 1 9 6 8 , at the request of Prime Minister Trudeau, a

Task Force was established to investigate sports in Canada. The members of the Task Force coirprised W. Harold Rea, Chainnan, Miss

Nancy Greene, and Dr. Paul DesRuisseaux. Following a period of six months' intensive study and investigation, the Task Force reported to the Honourable John Munro in February, I9 6 9. Its wide-ranging report covered nearly eveiy segnent of sport in Canada and contained fifty-eight specific recommendations. Nearly all of the recommen dations have since been acted upon or are currently under study preparatory to possible action.

A year or so later the government commissioned the management consulting firm of P.S. Ross and Partners to undertake a national study in the areas of physical fitness, recreation and amateur sport.

Due to the report of the Task Force on Sports, the greater part of the

P.S. Ross report was devoted to the study of fitness and recreation, especially physical recreation.

The final report was presented in two volumes. Volume I contained a description of the total system for recreation, fitness and amateur sport. Volume II dealt with the future, beginning with a discussion of trends, proceeding to questions of needs and finally sketching out the philosophic framework within lAich the total system might operate and ending with reconmendations concerning the federal gpvemment and the Fitness and Amateur Sport Directorate. 167 One of the recommendations in the Task Force Report was that where possible the concept of national teams be encoura^d.^ The

P.S. Ross Report also recommended that one of the national objectives for Canada should be the development, in national and international competition, of a level of perfoimance which would contribute to national unity and international prestige.

Recently, the Piinister^ of National Health and Welfare expressed, in a proposed sports policy, a conmitment to a program for the pursuit of excellence at the national and international level, viiile at the same time encouraging mass participation in sport.

One of the proposals in the policy statement is provision of grants-in-aid to a limited number of Canadian athletes of inter national calibre who are pursuing or who wish to pursue a post

secondary educational program. Participation in intercolle^ate

athletic programs will have no bearing on receiving or retaining

such an award.

A nuirber of national events further focus the attention

amateur sport is receiving from the federal government. The Canada

Games, alternating between summer and winter games every four years,

indicate through the slogan adopted at the first games in I967 in

Quebec— Unity throu#i Sports— a nationalistic socializing purpose.

3canada, Task Force Report for Canadians (Ottawa:Queen’s Printer, 1969).

^Canada, A Proposed Sports Policy for Canadians presented by the Honourable John Munro, Minister of National Health and Welfare, March 20, 1970. (Ottawa: Department of National Health and Welfare). 1 6 8 The First Canada Summer Games v M c h were hosted by Halifax and .

Dartmouth, Nova Scotia in 1969j were most successful. There is no doubt that they considerably enhanced the Canada Games concept and significantly contributed to its national presti^. Some 2100 athletes from every province and territory competed in the fifteen scheduled sports.

The establishment of Hockey Canada two years ago, was recommended by the Task Force. Hockey Canada is an "umbrella" type organization. Its board and council have representation from the government, the Canadian Amateur Hockey Association the Canadian

Intercollegiate Athletic Union, the National Hockey League, the

Player's Association, and the public generally. Hockey Canada has two distinct purposes: to find and ice a national team for inter national play; and to develop and inprove the game across Canada.

The present position in regard to international conpetition is withdrawal from World and Olympic conpetition until Canada can play any Canadian player.

"Hockey Canada" envisages one of the most important roles of

Canada's national hockey team overseas as one of political signifi cance in shaping a Canadian image and that nothing rouses a sense of nationhood and self-identity for Canadians more than hockey does.

The Administrative Centre for Sport and Recreation, recently established in Ottawa and providing full time administrative services to over twenty-eight national associations, will affect the structure of amateur sport development in Canada. The Centre eases the burden of day to day administration, stimulates growth by providing a forum 169 for the exchan^ of ideas, ^ves status, recognition and awareness to

Canadian sport and recreation associations, and frees the voluntary executives of national associations from the routine of daily administration, thereby permitting them to devote their time to planning and development.

In addition, the hosting of such sports events as the 1967 Pan

American Games in Winnipeg, world fencing, wrestling and rowing

championships, the application for both summer and winter 1976

Olympic Games and subsequent acceptance for the 1976. Summer Olympics, have aided in focusing national attention on government involvement

in sport.

Still more recently in a speech^ to the National Advisory

Council on Fitness and Amateur Sport the Minister of National Health

and Welfare indicated federal government recognition of two major

areas of involvement, namely, sport and recreation.

It is the intention to develop two separate Directorates in

the Department of National Health and Welfare. One will be known as

the Sport Canada Directorate; the other, the Canada Becreation

Development Directorate. These two Directorates will remain as in-

house government organizations. Each will relate to its own specific

and, in most cases, distinct clientel. The Sport Canada Directorate

will be primarily concerned with participation in organized competitive

sport at both the national and international levels.

^Canada, Sport Canada— Recreation Canada presented by the Honourable John Munro, Minister of National Health and Welfare, May 7, 1971 (Ottawa: Department of National Health and Welfare). 170 The historicalj geographical, economic, and social influences

have all had an effect on sport life in Canada. Then, too, such

specific factors as regionalism, fragmentation of objectives, the

influence of the United Kingdom and the United States, and of heavy

European immigration have helped to shape the Canadian viewpoint.

As Howell & Howell state: "As it has done from the very beginning,

/ plays an inportant part in Canadian life.

. ■■■'. -■ "T . ; Divergent views have come to be held on the role and philosophy

■: ■ sport in Canadian society arising from the aforementioned elements.

'■ Increased government involvement has resulted in a desire to focus

attention on and direct resources to such immediate areas of national

concern as unity and identification.

As shown in the previous sections, this changing emphasis and

trend towards increased government involvement will affect the future

direction of sport. The sports policy objectives adopted will deter

mine the role and influence of this involvement.

Sports can serve as a significant but useful instrument of

international politics and can play a role in our external relations.

The incidents briefly related below are examples of how a complex

international process can begin between sport and politics:

(a) the withdrawal of Communist China from the 1956 Olympic

Games when the Chinese nationalistic flag was raised;

^N. Howell and M. Howell, Sports and Games in Canadian Life - 1700 to the Present (Toronto: the Macmillan Company of Canada, 1969), p T 3 ^ 171 (b) several Arab nations refusing to participate against

Israel, Britain and Prance because of the invasion by these three countries of the Suez Canal; (c) several European nations refusing to coirpete against

Russia in 1956 because of the Russian invasion of Hungary;

(d) a protest by Communist and Afro-Asian nations forcing the rejection of South Africa from the last Olyirpic Games;

(e) more recently the visit to China of the United States table tennis team i M c h has opened a new page in Sino-U.S. relations.

Little attention and research have been given to an exploration of the inter-relationship between sport and the social institution of

gpvemœnt. A few researchers, namely, Nixon,7 Meynaud,^ and SeurinS have attenpted to define specific reasons and motives for government involvement in sport. More recently, Semotiuk in an examination of

Canadian sources indicated three dominant purposes underlying

Canada's federal involvement in sport, namely, an individualizing purpose, a national prestige purpose, and a socializing (or nationalizing) purpose. In addition, the international goodwill

function was also considered to be a motivating factor.Stem

TVendien and Nixon, the World Today in Health, Physical , Education and Recreation, p. 4?. ^Msynaud, Sport et Politique, p. 126.

9seurin, "Comparative Study of the Organization of Physical Education and Sports in Western Countries," p. l42.

lOSemotiuk, "the Development of a theoretical Framework for Analyzing the Role of National Government Involvement in Sport and Physical Education and Its Application to Canada" p. 74. 172 sug^sts that sports- and recreation probably affect most the three political factors: nation building, political socialization and political integration.il

The conparlson of the selected countries' involvement in sport made in the study, substantiates that changes in political orientation will effect program orientation and program enphasis in sport.

It has been reported by the consultant study that Canada as a nation has no comnon objective in sport to which all Canadians can subscribe. Objectives are important where action must be persuasive lather than authoritarian and viiere many agencies can exert influence in the attainment of those objectives. All levels of government should be considered to have a responsibility to the nation in respect of programs for sport. The federal government, for example, should be recognized as having specific obligations to national and international components of any sports policy. The very nature of international sports competition and the significance attached to Canadian performance ata?oad requires the federal government to develop an international sport policy.

In a recent External Affairs publication, the government of

Canada has developed its national aims as embracing three essential

concepts: that Canada continue to secure its independence; that

Canadians enjoy enlarging prosperity in the widest possible sense; and that Canadians should contribute to humanity something worthwhile

^%arry Stem, "Socialization and Political Integration through Sports and Recreation", Physical Educator, (October, 1968), p. 129. 173 preserving in identity and purpose. 12

The present International sport scene with its enphasls on representation of countries is dynamic, and is consistent with the reality of the times. National policies, whether they are applied internationally or domestically must take into account this dynamism and enphaslze national policy themes such as: the enhancement of the quality of life; the safeguarding of Canada's sovereignty and independence. 13

One of the main conclusions of the government's policy review is that Canada's foreign policy is oriented positively in the direction and support of national aims. Canada's present sport policy advocates, among other things, that Canada should develop a level of performance in national and international conpetition vMch will contribute to national unity and international prestige. As

Russell states: "Today on both the Canadian and international scene, it is nationalist sentiment of one kind or another #iich appears most frequently as an ingredient of popular political ferment."!^ So it is possible that the powerful appeal of nationalism can be used to foster an expansion of sport within Canada's borders.

Canadian nationalism can find a useful outlet in an active sport internationalism. To this end, it is inportant that the federal government identify its objectives, develop its organizational and

12DepartnBnt of External Affairs, Foreign Policy for Canadians (Ottawa, Queen's Printer, 1970).

13ihid, p. 14.

l^eter Russell, (ed.). Nationalism in Canada, (Toronto: McGraw Hill Conpany 1966) p. ix. 174 administrative structure ^ as well as expand its present program and bring its sports budget to the level necessary to bring Canada in line, for example, with Ehgland and France where there have been inportant budgetary increases in recent years. Since sport already contributes to two of the present external policy themes, quality of life and

Canadian identity, sport in Canada can undoubtedly be further utilized effectively as a supportive instrument for the achievement of national goals.

Three agencies primarily concerned with public policy at the federal level in Canada are: the Department of National Health and

Welfare, the Department of External Affairs and the Office of the

Secretary of State.

By an international sport policy is meant the development of a

federal government policy to finance, encourage and deploy sport in

support of Canada's national goals. Such a policy presupposes a recognition of sport as a powerful social influence in many of the

aspects of national life— cultural, social, health and political— which, until recently, did not benefit from such awareness or pers

pective .

In the political systems characterized by central authority,

one finds that the administrative structure of sport is concentrated

in a similar manner. Sports are used to promote aspects of political

development and achieved through such events as national ^raes and

demonstrations and through interaction between different social,

ethnic, and occupational groups. There is an attenpt to integrate the

elite-mass gap, at the same time uniting separate units or regions into 175 a conmitiient to a l a r ^ r central political system. In Canada, at present, there is evidence of interaction between government and sport.

The field is a relatively new one, especially for those

countries characterized by a democratic-federal system of government.

It is apparent that a good deal of searching, experimentation, and

evaluation must taice place in those countries,- particularly where

there is not an awareness of conrnon national goals between government

and sport. Government as an institution has the momentum to initiate

leadership and coordination in this area.

Many of the countries reviewed have established the role of

sport in society especially as it relates to culture, recreation

and education, often in the form of a declaration, manifesto or a

position document. Although patterns of organizational and adminis

trative structures for sport vary, enphasis is placed on sub-sections

and agencies dealing specifically with international sports development

and Olynpic preparation in a co-ordinating role.

A number of countries reviewed have established a core of

highly technical selected sport individuals, responsible for the

technical aspects of sport as it relates to conpetitive programs,

coaching training and standards, the grading of officials, and as

technical advisors and consultants. Large expenditures of fhnds by

government have been contributed towards facility construction and in

tte area of individual sport training centers. The regional training

center concept appears to best meet the ^ographic conditions of

Canada.

Educational institutions as well as medical schools are 176 involved in research and sport medicine in many of the countries reviewed. In some instances, the sites are centralized and deal mainly with medical care of athletes, research into sport techniques and functional evaluation of the top athlete.

The umbrella sport organizations in a number of countries have assisted greatly the development of sport. In Canada, the structure of sport is fragnented and is in need of administrative structure as well as identifiable levels or channels of conpetition.

In cœsidering the wide rang^ of sport development in Canada, the author considers it advisable that only those sports conducive to the Canadian milieu and with an established standard of performance be selected, through the national team concept for events of inter national significance.

In view of this investigation, the following reconmendations

are offered: 1. The Government of Canada, particularly the three mentioned

departments, together with the identifiable sports conraunity, by

means of a sport congress, draft and adopt an international sport

policy. 2. The Government of Canada further sub-divide the Sport

Canada a^ncy into domestic and international divisions for organiza

tional and administrative purposes. 3. The Government of Canada continue to provide assistance

towards international conpetition on a priority basis to those sports

who through their level of performance enhance the image and presti^

of Canada. 177 4. The Government of Canada develop programs of assistance to up grade the standard of coaching throu^ the establishment of full time technical co-ordinates to assist sport associations.

5 . The Government of Canada, throu^ a cost sharing program for facility construction at national games sites encourage the development of regional training centers of an international standard.

6. The Government of Canada, through an advisory body, identify those areas of need in research and sport medicine, and provide funds for related contract research projects.

7 . The Government of Canada co-ordinate and continue to centralize the structure of sport in Canada.' 8. The Government of Canada provide fifteen million dollars over the next two years in keeping with the government expenditure for sport of other countries investigated in this study. CHAPTER VIII

SUMMARY

The purpose of the study was to investigate government involve ment in sport in selected countries with reference to an international sports policy for Canadians. The problem, briefly, was the lack of national objectives for

Canada in this area, and the developing of a national policy in a federal system of government. Several hypotheses were examined within the study, the central thread being the assunption that nationalistic elements in inter national caipetitive sport are more strongly represented in unitary or totalitarian countries than in decentralized established democracies.

The main investigative procedures were a review of the pertinent literature related to government programs and international sport; a questionnaire, on the type and scope of government involvement, sent to Canada's embassies in selected countries; and the author's study-lnterview-travel with knowledgeable domestic and international individuals. Where applicable, the conceptual framework developed by recent researchers assisted in interpreting and conparing a number of developed nations during a recent period of extensive government

178 179 involvement. Specific attention was given to enphasls on modem or international sport.

The first section analyzes Canadian performance in World and

Olynpic conpetition from the fifties to the present and depicts the most extensive growth of national government involvement in sport.

In the next section, a framework was applied to assess the nature and scope of national government involvement in a number of

selected countries. Four areas of analysis were included: objectives,

organization and administration, programs, and central government

financial support. The objectives as indicated by official sources

or legislation were reviewed within the categories of a political

classification system. The organizational and administrative struc

ture of government agencies was examined with attention to such areas

as ministry involved, supporting administrative agencies, their

relationship with other levels of government and sport organizations.

A section on programs gives specific attention to conpetition,

coaching; facilities, research and sport medicine, as they relate to ■

the development of the top athlete for international conpetition.

An analysis of government support was made as to source of

revenue and method of distribution in a number of countries.

The final section of the study develops a proposal for a

policy in international sport for Canadians.

In sumnary, the investigator concludes that the expansion of

international sport participation by a number of countries is related

to the political enphasis and related government involvement policy. .

Differences in the political system affect the program orientation 180 and enç>hasls. Generally, strong central governments have, inten tionally and perhaps effectively, utilized sport as an instrument for the achievement of national goals. APPENDIXES

181 1 8 2

APPENDIX A

. QUESTIONNAIRE ON GOVERNMENT INVOLVEMENT IN AMATEUR SPORT

The purpose of this enquiry Is to obtain specific Information relating to the type and extent of government involvement In amateur sport.

I ADMINISTRATION OF AMATEUR SPORT

1. The name and address of the Ministry or Department responsible

for amateur sport.

A brief list of Government personnel and their titles Involved

In sport at central government level.

2. A statement of Its purpose and main functions.

3. A copy of the legislation or the Regulations pertaining

to Government Involvement In amateur sport.

4. A concise financial statement for the year 1968-69,

Indicating:

(a) Total Ministry or Department budget.

(b) Where the Ministry or Department has other responsi

bilities (e.g.. Education) the percentage of Its budget

allocated to amateur sport.

5. An organizational chart of the Ministry/Department. 183

6. A brief description of the channels throu^ which assistance

is provided to amateur sport.

Note : If the national government provides financial assistance but leaves the administration of amateur sport to state or provincial governments, please outline.)

(a) The structure of the state or provincial government

department responsible for amateur sport, including

an organizational chart.

(b) The formal relationships existing between the national

government and the provincial or state government.

assistance to amateur sport.

(d) The kinds of amateur sport programs or projects which

receive government assistance (e.g., administration,

national and international competitions, leadership

training, etc.)

II ORGANIZATION OF AMATEUR SPORT

1. A brief description of how amateur sport is structured in

the country including:

(a) Structure of national sports governing bodies.

(b) Formal relationships betvreen these bodies (e.g.,

national federations, councils, etc.).

2. A list of multiple sports governing bodies in the country,

(e.g., Olympics).

3. An outline of government assistance, other than financial,

which is available to these organizations. 184 III TRAINING OF VOLIMTARY SPORTS LEADERS

1. An outline of the kind of courses or clinics organized for

the training of voluntary, part time coaches and officials,

including:

(a) How initiated and by whom?

(b) Role of Government.

(d) Who instructs?

(e) Are these courses systematically organized in any way

from beginners through to advanced levels of coaching

and officiating?

2. An outline of any national certification plan for coaches

and/or officials and the sports involved.

IV FACILITIES

1. The kind and extent of government involvement in providing or

assisting in the provision of amateur sport facilities (e.g.,

stadia, arenas, playing fields, etc.).

2. Government involvement in national sports training centers

exclusive of universities. (A list of names and addresses

of any such centers would be most helpful.)

V RESEARCH IN AMATEUR SPORT

1. A brief description of government participation in research

as it applies to amateur sport throu^:

Universities, Research Centres, Contract Research, Other. 185 2. An outline of the problem areas in which research has been

undertaken.

VI AWARDS Government involvement in national awards in amateur sport

including: (a) lype of award, (b) Criteria for selection, (c) Frequency of award.

VII PUBLICATIONS

1. Name and address of the main national publication produced

on a regular basis which is devoted to amateur sport.

2. Its circulation policy (e.g., free to anyone, limited to

members of sports governing bodies, on sale to the public,

etc.). 1 8 6

APPENDIX B

EMBASSIES PARTICIPATING IN THE INVESTIGATION

ARGENTINA Canadian Embassy, Beunos Aires

AUSTRALIA Office of the High Commissioner for Canada, Canberra

AUSTRIA Canadian Ehibassy, Vienna

BRAZIL Canadian Embassy, Rio de Janeiro

COLOMBIA Canadian Embassy, Bogota

CUBA Canadian Embassy, Havana

CZECHOSLOVAKIA Canadian Embassy, Prague

ENGLAND Office of the Phgh Commissioner for Canada, London

FINLAND Canadian Eiribassy, Helsinki

FRANCE Canadian Embassy, Paris

GERMANY (WEST) Canadian Bribassy, B o m

HUNGARY Office of the Canadian Consul, Budapest

ITALY Canadian Bribassy, Rome

JAPAN Canadian Bribassy, Tokyo

NEW ZEALAND Office of the High Commissioner for Canada, Wellington

NORWAY Canadian Bribassy, Oslo

POLAND Canadian Bribassy, Prague 187

SCOTLAND Office of the High Commissioner for Canada, London

SOUTH AFRICA Canadian Bnbassy, Pretoria SWEDEN Canadian Einbassy, Stockholm

UNITED STATES Canadian EMoassy, Washington YUGOSLAVIA Canadian Einbassy, Belgrade 188

APPENDIX C

FOREIGN INDIVIDUALS CONTACTED AND/OR INTERVIEWED

Mr. G.A. Bell, Director, National Documentation Gentre for Sport, Physical Education and Recreation, The Queen's University of Belfast, 7 University Terrace, Belfast BT7 INP, Northern Ireland.

Mr. Roger Coulon, President, General Assembly of the International Sports Federation, Valmont 12, 1010 Lausanne, Switzerland.

Mr. Richard Dunham, United States Olynpic Committee Staff, 57 Park Ave-., New York, N.Y. Mr. S. Hirsch, „ Director ofthe-.Zentralstelle fur Wissenschaftliche, Information und Dokumentation, Leipzig, German Democratic Republic.

Mr. Nicholas Rodis, Special Assistant, Athletic Programs, United States Department of State, Washington, D.C., U.S.A. Major Raoul Mollet, Secretary General, International Committee Military Sports (C.I.S.M.), Belgium. 189

Mr. R.P. Osbome, Chairman, Pan American Games Committee, Vice-President, Canadian Olympic Association, c/o School of Physical Education, University of British Columbia, Vancouver 8, B.C. Mr. Howard Radford, Past President, Canadian Olympic Association, Olympic House, Cite du Havre, Montreal 104, P.Q. Mr. Harold W. Rea, Past Chairman, Task Force on Sport for Canadians, 44 King St. West, Toronto 1, Ontario.

Mr. Frank Shaughnessy, Vice-President, Canadian Olympic Association, Chef-de-Mission, Canadian Team, Olympic House, Cite du Havre, Montreal 104, P.Q. Mr. Allan J. Simpson, Executive Director, Canadian Wheelchair Sports Association, 825 Sherbrooke Street, Winnipeg, Manitoba.

Mr. James Worrall, Past President, Canadian Olympic Association, 365 Bay Street, Suite 906, Toronto 1, Ontario.

Mr. Harold M. Wright, President, Canadian Olympic Association, 110 West Pender St., Vancouver 1, B.C. 190

APPENDIX D

FOREIGN GOVERNMENT AGENCIES CONTACTED AND/OR INTERVIEWED

ARGENTINA Prof. Miguel A. De Vita Secretary of State for the Chief of the Sports Division Promotion of/and Assistance to the Coimiunity

AUSTRALIA Mr. J. H. Morey, Conmonwealth Secretariat for Conmonwealth National the National Fitness Fitness Advisor Movement

AUSTRIA Dr. Heinz Pruckner Federal Ministry of Education Chief of Section IV

BRAZIL National Sport Council

COLOMBIA Hjrriberto Zuluaga, M., Colombian Institute of Executive Director Youth and Sports CUBA National Institute of Sports, Physical Education and Recreation

CZECHOSLOVAK!^ ErT^chard Nijezchleb Czechoslovakia Union for Chairman Physical -S’aining (CSTV)

MGLAND Mr. Dennis Howell, Ministry of Housing and Former Joint Parliamentary Local Government Under Secretary

FINLAND Mr. Heikki KLemola, Sports and Youth Work Chief Office

FRANCE M. François Missoffe Ancien ministre des sports

HUNGARY Hungarian Physical Training and Sports Association 191 ITALY Glullo Onestl, CONI President

NEW ZEALAND Youth Services Branch

NORWAY Mr. Magnus Nilsen, State Office for Youth and Director Sport in Norway

POLAND Wlodzimierz Reczek, State Committee for Physical Chairman Culture and Tourism

SCOTLAND Mr. J. Kidd, Scotland Education Department Head of Division IV

SWEDEN Mr. Henry Allard (Speaker of Swedish %)orts Federation the Lower House of Parliament) Executive Chairman

UNITED STATES Mr. John P. Wilbem, President’s Council on Administrator Physical Fitness and Sports 192

APPENDIX E

CANADIAN AÎ4ATEUR SPORT INDIVIDUALS AND ASSOCIATIONS CONTACTED AND/OR INTERVIEWED

Col. John Daviesj C.D., President, British Commonwealth Games Assoc, of Canada, 3449 Vendôme Ave., Montreal, 260, Quebec. Dr. Max Howell, Professor, Physical Education Department, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta.

Mr. John Hunnius, President, Canadian Amateur Sports Federation, 4877 Montclair Ave., Montreal, P.Q. Mr. Donald Goodwin, c/o T.V. Sports, P.O. Box 500, Terminal "A", Toronto, Ontario. Mr. William H. McGovern, President, Federation of the Silent Sports of Canada Inc., P.O. Box 369, Mississauga, Ontario. Mr. John McLeod, Chief Project Officer, P.S. Ross Management Consultants, 90 Sparks Street, Ottawa, Ontario. 193

APPENDIX F

NATIONAL SPORTS GOVERNING BODIES FOR CANADA

Federation of Canadian Archers

Canadian Badminton Association

National Federation of Amateur Baseball

Canadian Amateur Basketball Association

Canadian Amateur Bobslei^ & Luge Association

Canadian Tenpin Federation

Canadian Amateur Boxing Association

Canadian Canoe Association

Canadian Cricket Association

Canadian Curling Association

Canadian Cycling Association

Canadian Diving Association

Canadian Fencing Association

Canadian Women's FielcTHockey Association

Canadian Field Hockey (Men's)

Canadian Figure Skating Association

Royal Canadian Golf Association

Canadian Ladies Golf Association

Canadian Gymnastics Federation

Canadian Amateur Handball Association 194 Canadian Team Handball Association

Canadian Amateur Hockey Association

Canadian Kodokan Black Belt Association

National Karate Association

Canadian Lacrosse Association

Canadian Lawn Bowling Association

Canadian Lawn Tennis Association

Canadian Association of Amateur Oarsmen

Canadian Sport Parachuting Association

Canadian Rugby Union

Shooting Federation of Canada

The Federation of Silent Sports Inc.

Canadian Amateur Skiing Association

Soaring Association of Canada

Canadian Soccer Football Association

Canadian Amateur Softball Association

Canadian Amateur Speedskating Association

Squash Racquets Association

Canadian Amateur Swimming Association

Canadian Amateur Synchronized Swimming Association

Canadian Table Tennis Association

Canadian Track & Field Association

Canadian Volleyball Association

Canadian Water Polo Association

Canadian Water Ski Association

Canadian Weightlifting Association • 195

Canadian Amateur Wrestling Association

Canadian Yachting Association BIBLIOGRAPHY

196 BIBLIOGRAPHY

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197 1 9 8

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Meynaud, Jean. Sport et Politique. Paris: Payot Publishers, 1963.

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PERIODICAL LITERATURE

Allardt, Erik. "Basic. Approaches in Corrparative Sociological Research and the Study of Sport,"'International Review of Sport Sociology, II (1967), 89-107. Altman, R. "The Political Horizon of Sport," Das grosse Spiel, 1965, pp. 34-43. Analysis 65, "Politisation of Sports," Sport 65, 4:3%, 36, 1965. Anthony, Don. "Physical Education as an Aspect of Coirparative Education," Gymhasion, III, 2 (Summer, I966), 3-6.

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Canadian Olympic Association. Record, I, 4 (December, 1970), 20-21.

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Fisher, Douglas. "The Cult of Sport and Health in Canada," The Journal of the Canadian Association for Health, Physical Education and Recreation, XXX (October-November, 1963), 6-8. Prenkin, A. "Sport and Politics," Sport za Rubezom, 4 (l4) (I963), 2-6.

______. "Sport and Peaceful Co-existence," Theorie und Praxis der Korperkultur, Xlll, 5 (1964), 396-403.

Guttraan, Ludwig. "The Stoke Mandeville Games," Abbottemp, 111 (1967), 227. Karbe, Wolfgang. "Physical Education and Sports in East and West Germany," Physical Educator, XIX (October, 1962), IO8-II3 .

Kramer, Martin. "Socialist Democracy in Sport," Sports in G. D. R., 2 (1970), 1-5. La Marsh, Judy. "A Federal Philosophy on Recreation," The Journal of the Canadian Association for Health, Physical Education and Recreation, XXXII (April-May, 1966), 7, 38-39. Lerch, G. "International Recognition of D. D. R. Sport," Deutsche Aussenpolitik, Xlll, 8 (I968), 929-936. 200

L'Heureux, William. "Sport in Mo d e m Canadian Culture," The Journal of thé Canadian'Association foi* Health, Physical Education and Recreation, XKIV CApril-May, 1963), 7-10.

Luck, P. "European Sport— a Concept," Europa, XIX, 2, (1968), 42.

Lunn, Sir Arnold. "Sports and Politics," Quest, Monograph No. 1 (December, I963), pp. 33-36.

Luschen, G. "The Sociology of Sport," Current Sociology, XV, 3 (I967), l40 pp.

Meyer, M. "Despoiled Laurels; the Sportsimn Caught Between Spectacle and Politics," Die Zeit, XXII, 17 (1967), 27.

Miyahata, T. "General Organizations of Physical Education and Sports in Japan with Annotations Regarding Other Countries in Asia," Federation Internationale d*Education Physique Bulletin, III-IV (1962), 14-23. Nakamura, M., et al. "World Wide Survey on Sports and Physical Education in Colleges and Universities," Proceedings of the Inter national Seminar for Study of University S^rts, 1968.

National Olyirpic Committee of the German Democratic Republic. Bulletin, XVI, 1, 1971.

Noel-Baker, Phillip. "Sport and International Understanding,"' Coaching Review, IV, (March, 1967), 1-2..

Onesti, G. "L'Etat et le Sport," Sport International, XXVIII (July-September, 1965), 4-8.

Patterson, M. R. "International Organization of Sports," Boletin Cientifico-Tecnico, (Cuba), No. 3 (1968), 97-107.

Pavel, 0. "Where is the Sport Heading To?," Kult Tsorba, XV, 5 (1967), 3-4. Scheuer, J. "First International Congress on Sports Law," Sport (Belgium), (1969), 22. Seraotiuk, D. "An Examination of the Role of Sports in Canadian Society," Gymnasion, 'VII (Summer, 1970), 16-21.

Seurin, Pierre, "Coiiparative Study of the Organization of Physical Education and Sports in Western Countries," Federation Inter national d*Education Physique Bulletin, III-IV (1962), 139-171. 201

Stem, Harry. "Socialization and Political Integration Through Sports and Recreation," 'Physical Educator, (October, 1968), 129.

Sturzebecker, Russell, L. "Comparative Physical Education," Gymnasion, IV (Autumn-Winter, 196?), 48-49-

. "Physical Education and %iorts in Russia," Physical Education Around the World, Monograph No. 5, 1971.

Todorov, S. "The Gold War in Sports," Comité Olympique Bulgare, 1 (1962), p. 27. ühl, H. G. "The Army in International Sport," Truppenpraxis, Sondem, Sport (1965), pp. 15-19. Washbum, J. M. "Sport as a Soviet Tool," Foreign Affairs, XXXTV (April, 1965), 490-499. Wenkart, S. "The Meaning of Sports for Contemporary Society," ■Journal of Existential Psychiatry, III (Spring, 1963), 397-404.

Ziemilski, A. "A Sociological Essay on the Bourgeois Scepticism in Sport," Theorie und Praxis der Korperkultur 13 (3), Supplement (September, 1964), 17O-I78.

PUBLICATIONS OF THE GOVERNMENT, LEARNED SOCTETTES AND OTHER ORGANIZATIONS

Austria. Sport Organizations in Austria. Austrian Documentation and Information Service for Physical Education, Vienna: I965. . Britain. Sport in Britain. London, British Information Services : 1970. ______. The i^orts Council. A Review, 1966-69, Tonbridge, Britain: 1969. Canada. Annual Reports of the Fitness and Amateur Sport Program (1961-62, 1962-63, 1963-64, 1964-65, 1965-66, 1966-67, 1967-68, 1968-69). Ottawa: Department of National Health and Welfare. . Canadian Documentation Center Bulletin. Ottawa: Fitness and Amateur Sport Directorate, 1969. . Foreign Policy for Canadians. Ottawa: Department of External Affairs, 1970. 2 0 2

Physical Ediicàtlori. and Recreation In Europe. Ottawa: The Fitness and Amateur Sport Directorate, 1965.

. A Program 'for Everyone. Ottawa: Department of National Health and Welfare, 1967.

. A Proposed Sports Policy for Canadians, presented by the Honourable John Mmro, Minister of National Health and Welfare, March 20, 1970. Ottawa: Departoent of National Health and Welfare.

■Report of the Task Force on Sports for Canadians. Ottawa: Department of National Health and Welfare, 1969.

. Sport Canada— Recreation Canada, presented by the Honourable John Munro, Minister of National Health and Welfare, May 7, 1971. Ottawa: Department of National Health and Welfare.

Calvert, J. S., Morgan, R. E., Sayer, C., Physical Education and Sport in the Soviet Union. Reprinted from the University of Leeds, Institute of Education, Researches and Studies, No. 21, September, 1961.

Comitato Olinpico Nazionale Italiano. II C.O.N.I. e le Federazioni Sportive. Roma: 1967.

Czechoslovakia. 20 Years of Czechoslovak Physical Training, 1945-1965. Prague: Sport and Tourism Publishing House, n.d.

Council for Cultural Cooperation of the Council of Europe. Physical Education and Sport. Strasbourg, France: Libraire Be:^'-Levrault, 1^

Department of Education, Sport *68, Yearbook, Linz, Austria: 1969.

Department of Physical Education, University of Birmin#iam, Britain in the World of Sport. The Physical Education Association of Great Britain and Northern Ireland. London: 1956.

Department of State Publication Background Notes, Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office. A series of publications about various countries.

Finnish Society for Research in Sports and Physical Education, Physical Education and Sports in Finland, Helsinki: Wemer Soderstrom Osaykeyhtio, 1969.

France. Essai De Doctrine Du Sport. Haut-Comité des Sports. Paris: 1965. 2 0 3

Sport dé 'France. L ’Iiiçierimerie de France. Paris: 1968.

. Spori: îri France. Press and Information Department of the French Embassy. Series A/72/2/70

German Sports Federation. Year Book of Sports, 1969/70, Frankfurt: Wilhelm Linpert, 1969.

Hanna, ¥. A. The Politics of Sport. (Southeast Asia Series, 10). Washington, D.G.: American Universities Field Staff, 1962.

■ The House of Commons of Canada. An Act to Encourage Fitness and ' Amateur Sport. Ottawa, Canada: Queen's Printer, 1961.

Intemational Council for Sport and Physical Education. Declaration on Sport. Paris: UNESCO, 1964.

Intemational Federation of University Sport. ~ Statutes. Internal • Regulations and Pattern Organization of the Universiades. Louvain, Belgium: I960.

Intemational Olympic Committee, The Olympic Games. Lausanne, Switzerland: Campagne Mon-Repos, 1967.

Japan. Physical Education and Sports in Japan. Ministry of Education, Tokyo: 1970.

Jemigan, Sarah Staff. An Intemational Study of Olympic Development Programs in Sports of a Few Selected Countries. New York: United States Olympic Committee, 1965.

Johnson, William, (ed.). Physical Education Around the World. Monograph No. 1. Indianapolis: Phi Epsilon Kappa, 1966.

______. ■ Physical Education Around the World. Monograph No. 2, Indianapolis: Phi Epsilon Kappa, 1968.

______. Physical Education Around the World. Monograph No. 3, Indianapolis : Phi Epsilon Kappa, 1969.

______. Physical Education Around the World. Monograph No. 4, Indianapolis: Phi Epsilon Kappa, 1970.

Molyneux, D. D. Central Government Aid to Sport and Physical Recreation in Countries of Western Europe. Blrmin^iam, England: University of Birmingham, 1963.

Norway. Sports and Athletics in Norway. The Norwegian Confederation of Sports, n.d. 204

• Thé State Office for* 'Youth and Sports In Norway. Responsibilities and Activities. Oslo: Royal Ministry of Church and Education, State Office for Youth and Sports, 1968.

Republic of South Africa. Report of the Department of Sport and Recreation. Pretoria: The Government Pointer, R.P. No. 44, 1968.

Seppanen, Paavo. "Sports Achievement and the Type of Culture." Proceedings of thé First Intemational Seminar on the History of Physical Education^d Sport. Wingate Institute for Physical Education, Israel: 1968.

Soviet Sports Handbook. "Soviet News" Booklet No. 2, 1957-

The Swedish Amateur Athletics Federations. Annual Report Stockholm: Riksidrollsfürbundet, 1968.

United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization. The Place of Sport in Education. A Coirparative Study. Paris: U.N.E.S.C.O., 1956.

The United States Olyirpic Development Committee. Proceei^ngs of the National Conference oh Olynpic Development, May l8-l6, 1966. Washington: American Association for Health, Physical Education and Recreation, 1967.

U. S. S. R. Questions and Answers. Moscow: Novosti Press Agency Publishing House, n.d.

Vemet, Paul. L’Intervention de L'Etat Dans le Sport. Paris: Commissarie a la Jeunesse et aux sports, 1963.

Wolfenden Committee. Sport and the Comnunity. London: Central Council of Physical Recreation, I960.

MISCELLANEOUS UNPUBLISHED MATERIALS

Arctic Winter Canes Handbook. Yellowknife: Arctic Winter Games Corporation, 1969.

Bennett, Bruce L. "General Bibliography for Corrparative Physical Education," Colombus: The Ohio State University, 1970.

Canada Games Handbook, An Outline of Policies and Organizational Procedures! Ottawa, Canada Games Council, 1958.

Howell, Maxwell L. "Sources for Corrparative Physical Education and Sport," Edmonton: University of Alberta, Canada 1967. Unpublished monograph. 205 Mordy, Margaret. "Bibliography" Mimeographed, Colombus: The Ohio State University, unpublished n.d.

Physical Culture and Sport in the Polish People’s Republic. Mimeographed n.d.

Semotiuk, Darwin. "Some Selected Historical Sources for Coirparative and Intemational Sport and Physical Education,". Columbus : The Ohio State University, unpublished bibliography, I969. Tottossy, M. and Wettan, R. "The Cold War and the Olynpic Games," A speech presented at the 1970 Annual Convention of National College Physical Education Association, Portland, Oregon, December, 1970.

REFERENCES TO THESES AND DISSERTATIONS

Agbogun, Jacob B. "A History of the British Commonwealth Games." Unpublished M.A. thesis. University of Alberta, 1968. Dekoff, Irving. "The Role of Government in the Olynpics." Ed.D. dissertation, Columbia University, 1962.

Ehiery, C. R. "The History of the Pan American Games." Ed.D. dissertation, Louisiana State University, 1964.

Foster, Yvonne. "A Conparison of the -Programs in Physical Education in the United States of America and the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics," Unpublished M.A. thesis, Springfield College, 1967. Geyer, H. "Mass-sport and its Political Functionalization in the Power System of Soviet Occupational Zone." Unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, Fhee University of Berlin, 1955. Lucas, John A. "Baron Pierre de Coubertin and the Formative Years of the Modem Intemational Olympic Movement, I883-IB96." Doctoral dissertation. University of Maryland, 1962.

Moldovanyi, Stephen I. "Suggested Principles and Procedures for the Organization of Intemational Competition," Unpublished M.S., thesis, Springfield College, 1963.

Semotiuk, Darwin. "The Development of a Theoretical Framework for Analyzing the Role of National Government Involvement in Sport and Physical Education and Its Application to Canada." Unpublished Ph.D. dissertation. The Ohio State University, 1970.