DOCSLIB.ORG

A Bibliography on the Agriculture of the American Indians

Total Page：16

File Type：pdf, Size：1020Kb

Download full-text PDF Read full-text
A Bibliography on the Agriculture of the American Indians ClimMit tutfior enfri (7 rtif/ ft 1 UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE MISCELLANEOUS PUBLICATION NO. 447 Washington, D. G. Issued January 1942 A BIBLIOGRAPHY ON THE AGRICULTURE OF THE AMERICAN INDIANS Compiled by EVERETT E. EDWARDS and WAYNE D. RASMUSSEN Bureau of Agricultural Economics Historic, archived document Do not assume content reflects current scientific knowledge, policies, or practices UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE MISCELLANEOUS PUBLICATION No. 447 Washington, D. C. Issued January 1942 A BIBLIOGRAPHY ON THE AGRICULTURE OF THE AMERICAN INDIANS Compiled by EVERETT E. EDWARDS and WAYNE D. RASMUSSEN Ml Bureau of Agricultural Economics UNITED STATES GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE WASHINGTON : 1942 For sale by rhe Superintendent of Documents, Washington, D. C. Price 15 cents CONTENTS Pag« Preface v Introduction 1 Comprehensive histories 7 Agriculture of the American Indians: Comprehensive references 14 Agriculture of particular regions and tribes 24 Specific crops and animals 45 Agriculture on Indian reservations in the United States 64 «=r Uncultivated plants used by the American Indians: Food and industrial plants 78 w Medicinal plants 89 1 Index 97 CO riU- W '£ PREFACE The scope of this bibliography is delineated in the table of contents. The section of comprehensive references on the pre- Columbian agriculture of the American Indian is of special interest to the general reader. The section on the centers of advanced agricultural development supplies references for the research worker who wishes to know about the methods used by the Indian in terrace farming, irrigation, conservation, and other evidences of progress beyond primitive cultivation. The section on the particular crops domesticated and raised by the Indian will, it is hoped, be helpful to the scientist in carrying on research incident to the history and improvement of these crops. The section on the agriculture of the reservations in the United States provides selected references on recent and present-day problems of irrigation, conservation, forestry, and land use. The sections on food and medicinal plants used by the Indian are of similar import for the scientist who seeks new sources of food and drugs. In view of the fact that the Indians constitute a large share of the populations of the New World countries other than the United States and Canada, the bibliography may also contribute to a better understanding of the culture of these countries and therefore to closer relations between North and South America. The bibliography is comprehensive insofar as practicable. It includes the references that appear in the publication entitled "Agriculture of the American Indians; A Classified List of Anno- tated Historical References with an Introduction" which was issued in mimeographed form as U. S. Department of Agricul- ture Library Ribliographical Contributions 23 (ed. 1, May 1932; ed. 2, June 1933). To insure completeness, the following indexes have been consulted: Agricultural Index, 1916-1939; Annual Magazine Subject Index, 1908-1938; Industrial Arts Index, 1914-1939; International Index to Periodicals, 1920-1939; Poole's Index to Periodical Literature, 1882-1906; Readers' Guide to Periodical Literature, 1900-1939; Readers' Guide to Periodical Literature Supplement, 1907-1919; and Writings on American History, 1906-1935. BIBLIOGRAPHY ON THE AGRICULTURE OF THE AMERICAN INDIANS Compiled by Everett E. Edwakds and Wayne D. Rasmussen x Bureau of Agricultural Economics INTRODUCTION If the Western Hemisphere had. been unoccupied by an aboriginal people, the story of its conquest by Europeans would have been quite different. Although the American Indian was the cause of the red line of conflict on the frontier, he made many contributions to our 2 present civilization (48 ). Not the least of these were his agricultural plants, methods, and processes. It has been estimated that four- sevenths of the total agricultural production of the United States, measured in farm values, consists of economic plants that were domesticated by the Indian and taken over by the white man (10-1— 105). The extent of the debt to the Indian for his work of domesti- cation is emphasized when we recall that the white man has not reduced to cultivation a single important staple during the 400 years that he has dominated the New World. In taking possession of the continents of the Western Hemisphere, among the first lands utilized by the Europeans were the clearings made by the Indians for their crude farms (315, 317-318). The whites attempted to use their European crops and methods but found it necessary to adopt many of those in use among the Indians. Out of the union of American Indian and European farming came the first solution of the food-quest problem of the colonists and the beginnings of modern American agriculture. Herein lies the reason that, in any adequate study of the history of agriculture in the United States, the agriculture of the Indians cannot be ignored. Anthropologists tell us that the remote ancestors of the American Indian came from Asia some 10.000 or more years ago, while in the Neolithic stage of development. At that time they had no food supply in the form of domesticated plants and animals, nor did they know how to use metals. Their only implements were bows and arrows, stone axes, and knives. The same was true of the tribes that remained behind in the Eastern Hemisphere. Eventually, each group developed a stable food supply from the plants and animals at hand, entirely ignorant of the way the other was solving the same problem (23, 105, 109). In this connection H. J. Spinden's chron- ological and economic diagram of the parallelism between the de- velopment of the civilization of the Eastern and Western Hemispheres is of interest (104). 1 Anne C. Chew has aided throughout the preparation of this bibliography. a The numbers in parentheses refer to the corresponding items in the bibliography. 2 MISC. PUBLICATION 4 4 7, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE For a long time the descendants of these first immigrants to Amer- ica knew nothing of agriculture, but eventually tribes in the high- lands of Mexico and Central America began the practice of protecting the plants relied on as their main source of food. Then, perhaps considerably later, they began to weed and, in a crude way, to culti- vate them. Still later, they undertook systematic gathering of seeds and roots for planting in protected areas. This invention of agri- culture in the Western Hemisphere, which occurred thousands of years ago, made possible noteworthy advances in human culture. The flowering of the Mayan civilization—which began about 1000 B. C.—was based upon the economic conquest of the humid tropics. The Mayas not only modified the old series of plants to meet wet- land conditions but also domesticated indigenous plants. The cacao plant, representations of whose pods appear as details of several sculptures at Copan dating from the fifth century A. D., was tended, and chocolate was prepared from its seeds. Other plants were also brought under cultivation, among them the papaya, the anona, the avocado, and the zapote (198, 201, 205-206, 208) As a result of the gradual spread of the cultivation of maize, beans, and squashes to the north and south, agriculture came to be practiced in widely scattered parts of the Western Hemisphere. The process of distribution was slow, for gradual acclimating of the cultivated plants to localities farther and farther from their original tropical or subtropical homes required many centuries. To supplement these nonindigenous plants, however, local plants were brought under culti- vation in the several regions. In South America the most important indigenous plant was the potato, a native of the Andes (446). In the Amazon Valley, the manioc, the sweetpotato, the pineapple, and the peanut were developed as sources of food. For North America, above Mexico, the indigenous food plants similarly utilized were lim- ited to the Jerusalem artichoke and the strawberry. Had it not been for their natural abundance, it is probable that the blueberry, the cranberry, and wildrice would have been domesticated. Paramount among the food plants domesticated and developed by the Indian and given directly or indirectly to the white man is corn, or maize. The white potato was destined to become one of the world's greatest food staples, along with wheat, rice, and corn. Tobacco is one of the most important of our present-day cash crops. Other plants originally used by the Indian are agave, alligator pear or avocado, arrowroot, barnyard grass, the many varieties of kidney and lima beans, cacao, capsicum or chili pepper, cashew nuts, cherimoya, cocoa, cotton (Gossyrriunb harbadense L.), gourds of all kinds, guava, Jeru- salem artichoke, madia, manioc or cassava, mate or Paraguay tea, oca, papaya, peanut, pineapple, pricklypear or Indian fig, pumpkin, quinoa,s, squash, star-apple, sweetpotato, and tomato (23, 65). The adaptation of European methods to American conditions proved a problem of extreme difficulty. For several years after their foun- dation the first colonies faced starvation and survived only because of the supplies they received from the mother country and the food they bought or took from the Indians. The permanence of the colonies was assured only when they were established agriculturally, and this came after the crops and tillage methods of the natives had been adopted. Governor William Bradford told how Squanto came to the . BIBLIOGRAPHY ON THE AGRICULTURE OF THE AMERICAN INDIANS 6 relief of the Pilgrim Fathers, "showing them both ye maner how to set it [corn] and after how to dress & tend it. Also he tolud them excepte they gott fish & set with it (in these old grounds) it would come to nothing." The entire "maize-culture complex"—to use a term of the anthropol- ogist and the sociologist—was taken over by the white man (402).
Load more

Recommended publications
  • Crop Histories
    Crop Histories by Raoul A. Robinson Second edition, revised Sharebooks Publishing © Raoul A. Robinson, 2000, 2004, 2005, 2007. Permission to Reproduce. Any person, library, or organisation may download, print, photocopy or otherwise reproduce this book for purposes of private study, and do so free of legal or financial liability. However, this book is copyrighted and may not be reproduced in any form for purposes of financial gain without prior permission in writing from the publisher, except by a reviewer who wishes to quote brief passages in connection with a review for inclusion in a journal, magazine, or newspaper. If a copy of this book is given free of charge to a third person then it must contain this copyright notice in full. This book is also available as shareware: anyone may download it, and may make an entirely voluntary contribution, by way of compensation to the author and publisher, via www.sharebooks.ca on the internet. Library and Archives Canada Cataloguing in Publication Robinson, Raoul A. Crop histories / by Raoul A. Robinson. -- 2nd ed., rev. Also available in electronic format. ISBN 978-0-9783634-5-1 1. Crops--History. 2. Agriculture--History. I. Title. SB71.R63 2007 630.9 C2007-905620-2 List of Contents 2 The Wild Ecosystem..................................................................................... 12 The Importance of Grass........................................................................... 13 The Carrying Capacity of the Environment.............................................. 14 Three Brutal
    [Show full text]
  • Historiographies of Plant Breeding and Agriculture LSE Research Online URL for This Paper: Version: Accepted Version
    Historiographies of Plant Breeding and Agriculture LSE Research Online URL for this paper: http://eprints.lse.ac.uk/101334/ Version: Accepted Version Book Section: Berry, Dominic J. (2019) Historiographies of Plant Breeding and Agriculture. In: Dietrich, Michael, Borrello, Mark and Harman, Oren, (eds.) Handbook of the Historiography of Biology. Springer. ISBN 9783319901183 (In Press) Reuse Items deposited in LSE Research Online are protected by copyright, with all rights reserved unless indicated otherwise. They may be downloaded and/or printed for private study, or other acts as permitted by national copyright laws. The publisher or other rights holders may allow further reproduction and re-use of the full text version. This is indicated by the licence information on the LSE Research Online record for the item. [email protected] https://eprints.lse.ac.uk/ Historiographies of Plant Breeding and Agriculture Dominic J. Berry London School of Economics There are unique opportunities that plant breeding and agriculture offer the historian of biology, and unique ways in which the historian of biology can inform the history of plant breeding and agriculture (Harwood, 2006. Phillips and Kingsland, 2015). There are also of course questions and challenges that the study of agricultural sites share with the study of other biological sites, such as those in medicine (Wilmot 2007. Woods et al. 2018), the environment (Agar and Ward 2018), and non-agricultural industries (Bud 1993). Indeed, in some instances the agricultural, medical, environmental, and biologically industrial will be one and the same. This is to say nothing of what agricultural sites share in common with histories of science beyond biology, but that is a broader discussion I can only mention in passing (Parolini 2015).
    [Show full text]
  • The Origin of Agriculture.Pdf
    The Origin & History of Agriculture 5. The realization of choice plants growing near camp could have led to experimental “farming”. With more and more successes they could have cultivated more and more plants. From earliest times human distributions have been correlated with the distribution of plants. The history and development of agriculture is intimately related to the development of civilization. For last 6. They became increasingly dependent on such activities. Staying in one place also meant fewer 30-40,000 yrs (advent of cromagnon) very little physical evolution is evident in fossil record but there hazards, more leisure time, greater population size and a much more sedentary lifestyle. has been tremendous cultural evolution. The advent of stationary human societies and consequent development of civilization were possible only after the establishment of agriculture. Humans did not 7. Such sedentary lifestyle would have promoted other important changes: the accumulation of “put down roots” and remain in one place until they learned to cultivate the land and collect and store material goods, a division of labor, not everyone needed to be farmers, people became agricultural crops. The origin of agriculture provided “release time” for the development of art, specialists as potters, weavers, tanners, artisans and scholars writing, culture and technology. 8. Biological evolution was supersceded by “cultural” evolution; advanced civilizations rapidly Hunter Gatherers evolved The earliest humans lived in small bands of several families (up to 50 or so). For over a million years Earliest Agriculture (paleolithic or old stone age) humans obtained food by hunting wild animals and gathering plants. They depended almost completely on the local environment for their sustenance.
    [Show full text]
  • The Moche Lima Beans Recording System, Revisited
    THE MOCHE LIMA BEANS RECORDING SYSTEM, REVISITED Tomi S. Melka Abstract: One matter that has raised sufficient uncertainties among scholars in the study of the Old Moche culture is a system that comprises patterned Lima beans. The marked beans, plus various associated effigies, appear painted by and large with a mixture of realism and symbolism on the surface of ceramic bottles and jugs, with many of them showing an unparalleled artistry in the great area of the South American subcontinent. A range of accounts has been offered as to what the real meaning of these items is: starting from a recrea- tional and/or a gambling game, to a divination scheme, to amulets, to an appli- cation for determining the length and order of funerary rites, to a device close to an accountancy and data storage medium, ending up with an ‘ideographic’, or even a ‘pre-alphabetic’ system. The investigation brings together structural, iconographic and cultural as- pects, and indicates that we might be dealing with an original form of mnemo- technology, contrived to solve the problems of medium and long-distance com- munication among the once thriving Moche principalities. Likewise, by review- ing the literature, by searching for new material, and exploring the structure and combinatory properties of the marked Lima beans, as well as by placing emphasis on joint scholarly efforts, may enhance the studies. Key words: ceramic vessels, communicative system, data storage and trans- mission, fine-line drawings, iconography, ‘messengers’, painted/incised Lima beans, patterns, pre-Inca Moche culture, ‘ritual runners’, tokens “Como resultado de la falta de testimonios claros, todas las explicaciones sobre este asunto parecen in- útiles; divierten a la curiosidad sin satisfacer a la razón.” [Due to a lack of clear evidence, all explana- tions on this issue would seem useless; they enter- tain the curiosity without satisfying the reason] von Hagen (1966: 157).
    [Show full text]
  • Calendrical Calculations: the Millennium Edition Edward M
    Errata and Notes for Calendrical Calculations: The Millennium Edition Edward M. Reingold and Nachum Dershowitz Cambridge University Press, 2001 4:45pm, December 7, 2006 Do I contradict myself ? Very well then I contradict myself. (I am large, I contain multitudes.) —Walt Whitman: Song of Myself All those complaints that they mutter about. are on account of many places I have corrected. The Creator knows that in most cases I was misled by following. others whom I will spare the embarrassment of mention. But even were I at fault, I do not claim that I reached my ultimate perfection from the outset, nor that I never erred. Just the opposite, I always retract anything the contrary of which becomes clear to me, whether in my writings or my nature. —Maimonides: Letter to his student Joseph ben Yehuda (circa 1190), Iggerot HaRambam, I. Shilat, Maaliyot, Maaleh Adumim, 1987, volume 1, page 295 [in Judeo-Arabic] If you find errors not given below or can suggest improvements to the book, please send us the details (email to [email protected] or hard copy to Edward M. Reingold, Department of Computer Science, Illinois Institute of Technology, 10 West 31st Street, Suite 236, Chicago, IL 60616-3729 U.S.A.). If you have occasion to refer to errors below in corresponding with the authors, please refer to the item by page and line numbers in the book, not by item number. Unless otherwise indicated, line counts used in describing the errata are positive counting down from the first line of text on the page, excluding the header, and negative counting up from the last line of text on the page including footnote lines.
    [Show full text]
  • History of Agriculture.Pdf
    Origin of Agriculture for over 1 M years (paleolithic or old stone age) from earliest times human distributions have been humans obtained food by hunting wild animals and correlated with the distribution of plants gathering plants the history and development of agriculture is depended almost completely on the local environment intimately related to the development of civilization such hunter gathering societies existed extensively until 10,000 yrs ago for last 30-40,000 yrs (advent of cromagnon) very !a few isolated groups continue to this day little physical evolution is evident in fossil record Paleolithic cultures were nomadic by necessity but tremendous cultural evolution wandered as small family groups in search of the advent of stationary human societies and game and edible plants consequent development of civilization were meat was their primary source of protein possible only after the establishment of agriculture sugars & many vitamins were provided by fruits & humans did not “put down roots” and remain in berries one place until they learned to cultivate the starches from roots and seed land and collect and store agricultural crops oils and vitamins from nuts the origin of agriculture provided “release time” for as seasons changed, nomadic peoples moved on the development of art, writing, culture, followed game, gathering plants available technology, etc Origin & History of Agriculture Hunter Gatherers agriculture seems to have arisen in temperate regions the earliest humans lived in small bands of several before it showed up in the tropics families (up to 50 or so) ! no shortage of food in tropics Human Ecology: Agricultural Resources; Ziser Lecture Notes, 2009 1 Human Ecology: Agricultural Resources; Ziser Lecture Notes, 2009 2 most ancestors of domesticated crops come from 3.
    [Show full text]
  • Culture Box Aims to Provide Resources for Approaching Mexico in a Multidisciplinary Way, Featuring Items That Tell Stories of Mexico’S Past and Present
    MEXICO INTRODUCTION: Mexico is the large country that shares a common border with the United States about 2,000 miles long. Ancient ruins such as Teotihuacan (Aztec) and Chichen Itza (Mayan) are scattered throughout the country. This culture box aims to provide resources for approaching Mexico in a multidisciplinary way, featuring items that tell stories of Mexico’s past and present. WHAT THIS BOX INCLUDES: 1. Copper Plate 2. Mexican Peso, Woven Coin Purse 3. Miniature Tamale 4. Miniature Indigenous Women 5. Game – Loteria (2) 6. Muñeca Maria 7. Spanish Vocabulary Cards 8. La Virgen de Guadalupe 9. Oaxacan Crafted Turtle 10. Clay Pendants 11. Aztec Calendar 12. Tablitas Mágicas 13. Maracas 14. Spin Drum Culture Box: Mexico COPPER PLATE DESCRIPTION This copper plate features the Aztec calendar. This sort of plate is sold in gift shops and can be used as decoration. The Aztec calendar is the system that was used by Pre-Columbian people of Central Mexico, and is still used by Nahuatl speaking people today. There are two types of Aztec calendars: the sacred calendar with 260 days (tonalpohualli in Nahuatl); and the agricultural calendar with 365 days (xiuhpohualli in Nahuatl). The tonalpohualli is regarded as the sacred calendar because it divides the days and rituals between the Aztec gods. According to the Aztecs, the universe is very delicate and equilibrium is in constant danger of being disrupted, and the calendar tells how time is divided between the gods. Culture Box: Mexico MEXICAN PESO, COIN PURSE DESCRIPTION The Mexican Peso is one of the oldest currencies in North America.
    [Show full text]
  • University of Groningen Mind and Soil Rosales Carreón, Jesus
    University of Groningen Mind and soil Rosales Carreón, Jesus IMPORTANT NOTE: You are advised to consult the publisher's version (publisher's PDF) if you wish to cite from it. Please check the document version below. Document Version Publisher's PDF, also known as Version of record Publication date: 2012 Link to publication in University of Groningen/UMCG research database Citation for published version (APA): Rosales Carreón, J. (2012). Mind and soil. University of Groningen, SOM research school. Copyright Other than for strictly personal use, it is not permitted to download or to forward/distribute the text or part of it without the consent of the author(s) and/or copyright holder(s), unless the work is under an open content license (like Creative Commons). Take-down policy If you believe that this document breaches copyright please contact us providing details, and we will remove access to the work immediately and investigate your claim. Downloaded from the University of Groningen/UMCG research database (Pure): http://www.rug.nl/research/portal. For technical reasons the number of authors shown on this cover page is limited to 10 maximum. Download date: 23-09-2021 Mind and Soil Knowledge Aspects of Sustainable Agriculture Jesús Rosales Carreón Publisher: University of Groningen Groningen, The Netherlands Printer: Ipskamp Drukkers B.V. Enschede, The Netherlands ISBN: 978-90-367-5558-0(book) 978-90-367-5559-7 (e-book) © 2012 Jesús Rosales Carreón All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system of any nature, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying or recording, without prior written permission of the author.
    [Show full text]
  • 150 Years of Research at the United States Department of Agriculture
    United States Department of Agriculture Agricultural Research Service 150 Years of Research at June 2013 the United States Department of Agriculture: Plant Introduction and Breeding I Cover photo: The stately building that once housed the U.S. Department of Agriculture in Washington, D.C., ca. 1890. (This photo is preserved in the USDA History Collection, Special Collections, National Agricultural Library.) II United States Department of Agriculture Agricultural Research Service 150 Years of Research at June 2013 the United States Department of Agriculture: Plant Introduction and Breeding R.J. Griesbach Griesbach is Deputy Assistant Administrator, Office of Technology Transfer, USDA, Agricultural Research Service, Beltsville, MD. i Abstract Griesbach, R.J. 2013. 150 Years of Research at the While supplies last, single copies of this publication United States Department of Agriculture: can be obtained at no cost from Robert J. Griesbach, Plant Introduction and Breeding. U.S. Department USDA-ARS, Office of Technology Transfer, 5601 of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service, Sunnyside Avenue, Room 4-1159, Beltsville, MD Washington, DC. 20705; or by email at [email protected]. The U.S. Department of Agriculture celebrated its Copies of this publication may be purchased in various 150th anniversary in 2012. One of the primary formats (microfiche, photocopy, CD, print on demand) functions of the USDA when it was established in 1862 from the National Technical Information Service, 5285 was “to procure, propagate, and distribute among the people new Port Royal Road, Springfield, VA 22161, (800) 553- and valuable seeds and plants.” The U.S. Government first 6847, www.ntis.gov. became involved in new plant introductions in 1825 when President John Quincy Adams directed U.S.
    [Show full text]
  • Selling Mexico: Race, Gender, and American Influence in Cancún, 1970-2000
    © Copyright by Tracy A. Butler May, 2016 SELLING MEXICO: RACE, GENDER, AND AMERICAN INFLUENCE IN CANCÚN, 1970-2000 _______________ A Dissertation Presented to The Faculty of the Department of History University of Houston _______________ In Partial Fulfillment Of the Requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy _______________ By Tracy A. Butler May, 2016 ii SELLING MEXICO: RACE, GENDER, AND AMERICAN INFLUENCE IN CANCÚN, 1970-2000 _________________________ Tracy A. Butler APPROVED: _________________________ Thomas F. O’Brien Ph.D. Committee Chair _________________________ John Mason Hart, Ph.D. _________________________ Susan Kellogg, Ph.D. _________________________ Jason Ruiz, Ph.D. American Studies, University of Notre Dame _________________________ Steven G. Craig, Ph.D. Interim Dean, College of Liberal Arts and Social Sciences Department of Economics iii SELLING MEXICO: RACE, GENDER, AND AMERICAN INFLUENCE IN CANCÚN, 1970-2000 _______________ An Abstract of a Dissertation Presented to The Faculty of the Department of History University of Houston _______________ In Partial Fulfillment Of the Requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy _______________ By Tracy A. Butler May, 2016 iv ABSTRACT Selling Mexico highlights the importance of Cancún, Mexico‘s top international tourism resort, in modern Mexican history. It promotes a deeper understanding of Mexico‘s social, economic, and cultural history in the late twentieth century. In particular, this study focuses on the rise of mass middle-class tourism American tourism to Mexico between 1970 and 2000. It closely examines Cancún‘s central role in buttressing Mexico to its status as a regional tourism pioneer in the latter half of the twentieth century. More broadly, it also illuminates Mexico‘s leadership in tourism among countries in the Global South.
    [Show full text]
  • Measuring the Passage of Time in Inca and Early Spanish Peru Kerstin Nowack Universität Bonn, Germany
    Measuring the Passage of Time in Inca and Early Spanish Peru Kerstin Nowack Universität Bonn, Germany Abstract: In legal proceedings from 16th century viceroyalty of Peru, indigenous witnesses identified themselves according to the convention of Spanish judicial system by name, place of residence and age. This last category often proved to be difficult. Witnesses claimed that they did not know their age or gave an approximate age using rounded decimal numbers. At the moment of the Spanish invasion, people in the Andes followed the progress of time during the year by observing the course of the sun and the lunar cycle, but they were not interested in measuring time spans beyond the year. The opposite is true for the Spanish invaders. The documents where the witnesses testified were dated precisely using counting years from a date in the distant past, the birth year of the founder of the Christian religion. But this precision in the written record perhaps distorts the reality of everyday Spanish practices. In daily life, Spaniards often measured time in a reference system similar to that used by the Andeans, dividing the past in relation to public events like a war or personal turning points like the birth of a child. In the administrative and legal area, official Spanish dating prevailed, and Andean people were forced to adapt to this novel practice. This paper intends to contrast the Andean and Spanish ways of measuring the past, but will also focus on the possible areas of overlap between both practices. Finally, it will be asked how Andeans reacted to and interacted with Spanish dating and time measuring.
    [Show full text]
  • Louisiana State University LSU Digital Commons LSU Doctoral Dissertations Graduate School 2003 Pollen Dispersal and Deposition in the High-Central Andes, South America Carl A. Reese
    Louisiana State University LSU Digital Commons LSU Doctoral Dissertations Graduate School 2003 Pollen dispersal and deposition in the high-central Andes, South America Carl A. Reese Louisiana State University and Agricultural and Mechanical College Follow this and additional works at: https://digitalcommons.lsu.edu/gradschool_dissertations Part of the Social and Behavioral Sciences Commons Recommended Citation Reese, Carl A., "Pollen dispersal and deposition in the high-central Andes, South America" (2003). LSU Doctoral Dissertations. 1690. https://digitalcommons.lsu.edu/gradschool_dissertations/1690 This Dissertation is brought to you for free and open access by the Graduate School at LSU Digital Commons. It has been accepted for inclusion in LSU Doctoral Dissertations by an authorized graduate school editor of LSU Digital Commons. For more information, please [email protected]. POLLEN DISPERSAL AND DEPOSITION IN THE HIGH-CENTRAL ANDES, SOUTH AMERICA A Dissertation Submitted to the Graduate Faculty of the Louisiana State University and Agricultural and Mechanical College in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in The Department of Geography and Anthropology by Carl A. Reese B.A., Louisiana State University, 1998 M.S., Louisiana State University, 2000 August 2003 Once again, To Bull and Sue ii ACKNOWLEDGMENTS First and foremost I would like to thank my major professor, Dr. Kam-biu Liu, for his undying support throughout my academic career. From sparking my initial interest in the science of biogeography, he has wisely led me through swamps and hurricanes, from the Amazon to the Atacama, and from sea level to the roof of the world with both patience and grace.
    [Show full text]