THE MAYAN AND OTHER ANCIENT PDF, EPUB, EBOOK

Geoff Stray | 64 pages | 16 Oct 2007 | Wooden Books | 9781904263609 | English | Powys, United Kingdom The Mayan | Calendars

Four days per month were dedicated to Mazda and seven were named after the six Amesha Spentas. Three were dedicated to the female divinities, of religion and personified conscious , yazata of fortune and Arshtat justice. The Parthians Arsacid dynasty adopted the same calendar system with minor modifications, and dated their from BC, the date they succeeded the Seleucids. Their names for the months and days are Parthian equivalents of the ones used previously, differing slightly from the names used by the Sassanians. When in April of AD the Parthian dynasty fell and was replaced by the Sasanid, the new king, Ardashir I , abolished the official and replaced it with the Zoroastrian. This involved a correction to the places of the gahanbar , which had slipped back in the since they were fixed. These were placed eight months later, as were the epagemonai , the 'Gatha' or 'Gah' days after the ancient Zoroastrian hymns of the same name. Other countries, such as the Armenians and Choresmians, did not accept the change. Toghril Beg , the founder of the Seljuq dynasty , had made Esfahan the capital of his domains and his grandson Malik-Shah was the ruler of that city from Other leading astronomers were also brought to the Observatory in Esfahan and for 18 Khayyam led the scientists and produced work of outstanding quality. During this Khayyam led work on compiling astronomical tables and he also contributed to in Cowell quotes the Calcutta Review No When the Malik Shah determined to reform the calendar, Omar was one of the eight learned men employed to do it, the result was the Jalali era so called from Jalal-ud-din, one of the king's names - 'a computation of time,' says Gibbon, 'which surpasses the Julian, and approaches the accuracy of the Gregorian style. Khayyam measured the length of the as Two comments on this result. Firstly it shows an incredible confidence to attempt to give the result to this degree of accuracy. We know now that the length of the year is changing in the sixth decimal place over a person's lifetime. Secondly it is outstandingly accurate. The Greeks, as early as the time of Homer , appear to have been familiar with the division of the year into the twelve lunar months but no intercalary month Embolimos or day is then mentioned. Independent of the division of a month into days, it was divided into periods according to the increase and decrease of the moon. Thus, the first day or new moon was called Noumenia. The month in which the year began, as well as the names of the months, differed among the states, and in some parts even no names existed for the months, as they were distinguished only numerically, as the first, second, third, fourth month, etc. The ancient Athenian calendar was a with day years, consisting of twelve months of alternating length of 29 or 30 days. To keep the calendar in line with the solar year of See also: Athenian Calendar. A reconstruction of the is given by Academy of Episteme. In addition to their regular, "festival" calendar, the Athenians maintained a second, political calendar. This "conciliar" calendar divided the year into " prytanies ", one for each of the " phylai ", the subdivisions of Athenian citizens. The number of phylai, and hence the number of prytanies, varied over time. Until BC, there were 10 phylai. After that the number varies between 11 and 13 usually Even more confusing, while the conciliar and festival years were about the same length in the 4th BC, such was not regularly the case earlier or later. Documents dated by prytany are frequently very difficult to assign to a particular equivalent in the . The Greek calendars were greatly diversified by the Hellenistic period , with separate traditions in every Greek state. Of primary importance for the reconstruction of the regional Greek calendars is the calendar of Delphi , because of the numerous documents found there recording the manumission of slaves, many of which are dated both in the Delphian and in a regional calendar. The Roman Republican calendar numbered years based on the sitting consuls. It was called a nundinum or 'nine-day' in inclusive counting. The months of these calendars begin on the day with the new moon, with 12 or 13 months lunations in a year. The intercalary month is placed at the end of the year. It follows the rules of Zhuanxu's calendar, but the months order follows the Xia's calendar. Timekeeping was important to Vedic rituals, and Jyotisha was the Vedic-era field of tracking and predicting the movements of astronomical bodies in order to keep time, in order to fix the day and time of these rituals, [16] [17] [18] which were developed around the end of 2nd millennium BC as mentioned in "Sathapatha Brahmana". The Jyotisha text Brahma-siddhanta , probably composed in the 5th century AD, discusses how to use the movement of planets, sun and moon to keep time and calendar. Water clock and sun dials are mentioned in many ancient Hindu texts such as the Arthashastra. Modern , sometimes referred to as Panchanga , is a collective term for the various lunisolar calendars traditionally used in Hinduism. They adopt a similar underlying concept for timekeeping, but differ in their relative emphasis to moon cycle or the sun cycle, the names of months and when they consider the New Year to start. The Hindu calendars have been in use in the Indian subcontinent since ancient , and remain in use by the Hindus in India and Nepal, particularly to set Hindu festival dates. Early Buddhist and Jain communities of India adopted the ancient Hindu calendar, later Vikrami calendar and then local Buddhist calendars. Buddhist and Jain festivals continue to be scheduled according to a lunar system in the luni-. The old Roman year had days divided into 10 months, beginning with March. However the ancient historian Livy gave credit to the second early Roman king Numa Pompilius for devising a calendar of 12 months. The extra months Ianuarius and Februarius had been invented, supposedly by Numa Pompilius, as stop-gaps. The system remained in use during the early Middle Ages until the widespread adoption of the Dionysian era in the Carolingian period. The seven-day week has a tradition reaching back to the ancient Near East, but the introduction of the "planetary week" which remains in modern use dates to the Roman Empire period see also names of the days of the week. It contained both pagan and Christian festivals. The oldest extant manuscript of the early Christian calendar is the so-called Calendar of Filocalus , produced in AD A more extensive martyrology was compiled by Jerome in the early 5th century. Jean Mabillon published a calendar of the church of Carthage made in ca. AD The is introduced in the 6th century. Hieronymo superpositis, ad explorandum Septimanae Diem, et Lunae Aetatem investigandam in unoquoque Die per xix Annos. In the 8th century, the Anglo-Saxon historian Bede the Venerable used another Latin term, " ante uero incarnationis dominicae tempus " "the time before the Lord's true incarnation", equivalent to the English "before Christ" , to identify years before the first year of this era. The Icelandic calendar was introduced in the 10th century. While the ancient Germanic calendars were based on lunar months, the new Icelandic calendar introduced a purely solar reckoning, with a year having a fixed number of weeks 52 weeks or days. This necessitated the introduction of "leap weeks" instead of the Julian leap days. In , the medieval scientist Roger Bacon stated the times of full moons as a number of hours, minutes, seconds, thirds, and fourths horae , minuta , secunda , tertia , and quarta after noon on specified calendar dates. Rival calendar to Anno Domini remained in use in Christian Europe. For chronological purposes, the flaw of the Anno Domini system was that dates have to be reckoned backwards or forwards according as they are BC or AD. According to the Catholic Encyclopedia , "in an ideally perfect system all events would be reckoned in one sequence. The difficulty was to find a starting point whence to reckon, for the beginnings of in which this should naturally be placed are those of which chronologically we know least. The is based on the prohibition of intercalation nasi' by Muhammad , in Islamic tradition dated to a sermon held on 9 Dhu al-Hijjah AH 10 Julian date: 6 March This resulted in an observationally based shifting relative to the seasons of the solar year. The Haab is a day solar calendar which is divided into 18 months of 20 days each and one month which is only 5 days long Uayeb. The calendar has an outer ring of Mayan glyphs pictures which represent each of the 19 months. Each day is represented by a number in the month followed by the name of the month. Each glyph represents a personality associated with the month. The Haab is somewhat inaccurate as it is exactly days long. An actual tropical or solar year , the time it takes Earth to orbit the Sun, takes about It is a day calendar with 20 periods of 13 days, and it is used to determine the time of religious and ceremonial events. The days in each period are numbered from one to Each day is also given a name glyph from a sequence of 20 day names. The Long Count is an astronomical calendar which is used to track longer periods of time. The Mayans believed that the universe is destroyed and then recreated at the start of each universal cycle. This belief caused the phenomenon described above, and it still inspires a myriad of prophecies about the end of the world. The ancient Egyptians, Chinese, and Babylonians all tried to make sense of the year. But it fell to the later Mesoamerican Maya to create a series of calendars that could be cross referenced. In doing so, the Maya discovered many strange numerical harmonics. Their lunar calendar was extremely accurate—far more The study of heavenly cycles is common to most ancient cultures. Their lunar calendar was extremely accurate—far more so than the Greek . They tracked Venus to an accuracy of less than a day in five hundred years, and their tables could have been used to predict eclipses seven hundred years into the future. Providing a much-needed compact guide to the Mayan calendar systems, this book also covers the essentials of calendar development throughout the world. Get A Copy. Hardcover , 64 pages. Published November 6th by Bloomsbury first published October 16th More Details Original Title. Wooden Books. Other Editions 1. Friend Reviews. To see what your friends thought of this book, please sign up. Lists with This Book. Community Reviews. Showing Average rating 4. Rating details. More filters. Sort order. May 23, Patrick rated it liked it Shelves: non-fiction. A concise summation of various ancient calendars and the cycles they measured. Goes into more detail on the Mayan calender, but does a good job of presenting it with only a nod or two to "what's going to happen at the end of the cycle". A good surface level quick reference for the ancient calendars. Jan 06, Reiden rated it it was amazing Shelves: nonfiction. The Mayan Calendar

Finally, after about a third of the book, he gets to his main title group, the Mayans. He gives a brief history of the Mayans; he explains their base twenty counting systems and their idiosyncrasies; and then uses the counting to lead to the calendars. The Mayans had many calendar cycles, including an unusual ritual day year, and the complex cycles of cycles of cycles led to consideration of incredibly long time periods. Stray goes into much detail, both numerical and cultural—so much that it becomes overwhelming! In addition to a main text, Stray includes a useful glossary and additional material on calendars, month names, eras, calendar conversions, and special dates. Perhaps the most crucial date is 21 December , which he reports to be the end of a major Mayan calendar cycle and—perhaps—the end of time!! Lawrence Shirley Towson Univ. Skip to main content. The Long Count date comes first, then the Tzolkin date, and last the Haab date. A typical Mayan date would read: The Haab is a day solar calendar which is divided into 18 months of 20 days each and one month which is only 5 days long Uayeb. The calendar has an outer ring of Mayan glyphs pictures which represent each of the 19 months. Each day is represented by a number in the month followed by the name of the month. Each glyph represents a personality associated with the month. The Haab is somewhat inaccurate as it is exactly days long. An actual tropical or solar year , the time it takes Earth to orbit the Sun, takes about It is a day calendar with 20 periods of 13 days, and it is used to determine the time of religious and ceremonial events. The days in each period are numbered from one to Each day is also given a name glyph from a sequence of 20 day names. The Long Count is an astronomical calendar which is used to track longer periods of time. The basic structure of the Mayan calendar is common to all calendars of i. Learn More in these related Britannica articles:. It consists of a ritual cycle of named days and a year of days. These cycles, running concurrently, form…. It is their intellectual life that established the cultural superiority of the Maya over all other American Indians. Much of this was based upon a calendrical system that was partly shared with other Mesoamerican groups but that they perfected into…. Leap days were not intercalated. History at your fingertips. Sign up here to see what happened On This Day , every day in your inbox! Email address. The Mayan and Other Ancient Calendars by Geoff Stray

Ceh In contrast to the Tzolkin dates, the Haab month names changed every 20 days instead of daily; so the day after 4 Zotz would be 5 Zotz, followed by 6 Zotz The days of the month were numbered from 0 to This use of a 0th day of the month in a civil calendar is unique to the Maya system; it is believed that the Mayas discovered the number zero, and the uses to which it could be put, before it was discovered in Europe or Asia. The Uayeb days acquired a very derogatory reputation for bad luck; known as "days without names" or "days without souls," and were observed as days of prayer and mourning. Fires were extinguished and the population refrained from eating hot food. Anyone born on those days was "doomed to a miserable life. The length of the Tzolkin year was days and the length of the Haab year was days. If a day is, for example, "4 Ahau 8 Cumku," the next day falling on "4 Ahau 8 Cumku" would be 18, days or about 52 years later. Among the Aztec, the end of a Calendar Round was a time of public panic as it was thought the world might be coming to an end. When the Pleaides crossed the horizon on 4 Ahau 8 Cumku, they knew the world had been granted another year extension. Although there were only days in the Haab year, the Mayas were aware that a year is slightly longer than days, and in fact, many of the month-names are associated with the seasons; Yaxkin, for example, means "new or strong sun" and, at the beginning of the Long Count, 1 Yaxkin was the day after the winter , when the sun starts to shine for a longer period of time and higher in the sky. When the Long Count was put into motion, it was started at 7. The available evidence indicates that the Mayas estimated that a day year precessed through all the seasons twice in 7. We can therefore derive a value for the Mayan estimate of the year by dividing 1,, by , subtracting 2, and taking that number and dividing 1,, by the result, which gives us an answer of This apparent accuracy could, however, be a simple coincidence. The Mayas estimated that a day year precessed through all the seasons twice in 7. These numbers are only accurate to digits. Suppose the 7. In ancient times, the Mayans had a tradition of a day year. But by the 4th century B. They maintained three different calendars at the same time. In one of them, they divided a day year into eighteen day months followed by a five-day period that was part of no month. The five-day period was considered to be unlucky. Calendars exhibit Webexhibit. A page from the "Calendars" exhibit El Castillo. Chichen Itza, Yucatan, Mexico. . What is the Long Count? When did the Long Count Start? I have come across three possible equivalences: The date What is the Tzolkin? The Tzolkin date is a combination of two "week" lengths. They evolved over the centuries, but month names changed little until now. The unified Achaemenid Empire required a distinctive Iranian calendar, and one was devised in Egyptian tradition, with 12 months of 30 days, each dedicated to a yazata Eyzad , and four divisions resembling the Semitic week. Four days per month were dedicated to and seven were named after the six Amesha Spentas. Three were dedicated to the female divinities, Daena yazata of religion and personified conscious , Ashi yazata of fortune and Arshtat justice. The Parthians Arsacid dynasty adopted the same calendar system with minor modifications, and dated their era from BC, the date they succeeded the Seleucids. Their names for the months and days are Parthian equivalents of the Avestan ones used previously, differing slightly from the Middle Persian names used by the Sassanians. When in April of AD the Parthian dynasty fell and was replaced by the Sasanid, the new king, Ardashir I , abolished the official Babylonian calendar and replaced it with the Zoroastrian. This involved a correction to the places of the gahanbar , which had slipped back in the seasons since they were fixed. These were placed eight months later, as were the epagemonai , the 'Gatha' or 'Gah' days after the ancient Zoroastrian hymns of the same name. Other countries, such as the Armenians and Choresmians, did not accept the change. Toghril Beg , the founder of the Seljuq dynasty , had made Esfahan the capital of his domains and his grandson Malik-Shah was the ruler of that city from Other leading astronomers were also brought to the Observatory in Esfahan and for 18 years Khayyam led the scientists and produced work of outstanding quality. During this time Khayyam led work on compiling astronomical tables and he also contributed to calendar reform in Cowell quotes the Calcutta Review No When the Malik Shah determined to reform the calendar, Omar was one of the eight learned men employed to do it, the result was the Jalali era so called from Jalal-ud-din, one of the king's names - 'a computation of time,' says Gibbon, 'which surpasses the Julian, and approaches the accuracy of the Gregorian style. Khayyam measured the length of the year as Two comments on this result. Firstly it shows an incredible confidence to attempt to give the result to this degree of accuracy. We know now that the length of the year is changing in the sixth decimal place over a person's lifetime. Secondly it is outstandingly accurate. The Greeks, as early as the time of Homer , appear to have been familiar with the division of the year into the twelve lunar months but no intercalary month Embolimos or day is then mentioned. Independent of the division of a month into days, it was divided into periods according to the increase and decrease of the moon. Thus, the first day or new moon was called Noumenia. The month in which the year began, as well as the names of the months, differed among the states, and in some parts even no names existed for the months, as they were distinguished only numerically, as the first, second, third, fourth month, etc. The ancient Athenian calendar was a lunisolar calendar with day years, consisting of twelve months of alternating length of 29 or 30 days. To keep the calendar in line with the solar year of See also: Athenian Calendar. A reconstruction of the Attic Calendar is given by Academy of Episteme. In addition to their regular, "festival" calendar, the Athenians maintained a second, political calendar. This "conciliar" calendar divided the year into " prytanies ", one for each of the " phylai ", the subdivisions of Athenian citizens. The number of phylai, and hence the number of prytanies, varied over time. Until BC, there were 10 phylai. After that the number varies between 11 and 13 usually Even more confusing, while the conciliar and festival years were about the same length in the 4th century BC, such was not regularly the case earlier or later. Documents dated by prytany are frequently very difficult to assign to a particular equivalent in the Julian calendar. The Greek calendars were greatly diversified by the Hellenistic period , with separate traditions in every Greek state. Of primary importance for the reconstruction of the regional Greek calendars is the calendar of Delphi , because of the numerous documents found there recording the manumission of slaves, many of which are dated both in the Delphian and in a regional calendar. The Roman Republican calendar numbered years based on the sitting consuls. It was called a nundinum or 'nine-day' in inclusive counting. The months of these calendars begin on the day with the new moon, with 12 or 13 months lunations in a year. The intercalary month is placed at the end of the year. It follows the rules of Zhuanxu's calendar, but the months order follows the Xia's calendar. Timekeeping was important to Vedic rituals, and Jyotisha was the Vedic-era field of tracking and predicting the movements of astronomical bodies in order to keep time, in order to fix the day and time of these rituals, [16] [17] [18] which were developed around the end of 2nd millennium BC as mentioned in "Sathapatha Brahmana". The Jyotisha text Brahma-siddhanta , probably composed in the 5th century AD, discusses how to use the movement of planets, sun and moon to keep time and calendar. Water clock and sun dials are mentioned in many ancient Hindu texts such as the Arthashastra. Modern Hindu calendar , sometimes referred to as Panchanga , is a collective term for the various lunisolar calendars traditionally used in Hinduism. They adopt a similar underlying concept for timekeeping, but differ in their relative emphasis to moon cycle or the sun cycle, the names of months and when they consider the New Year to start. The Hindu calendars have been in use in the Indian subcontinent since ancient times, and remain in use by the Hindus in India and Nepal, particularly to set Hindu festival dates. Early Buddhist and Jain communities of India adopted the ancient Hindu calendar, later Vikrami calendar and then local Buddhist calendars. Buddhist and Jain festivals continue to be scheduled according to a lunar system in the luni-solar calendar. The old Roman year had days divided into 10 months, beginning with March. However the ancient historian Livy gave credit to the second early Roman king Numa Pompilius for devising a calendar of 12 months. The extra months Ianuarius and Februarius had been invented, supposedly by Numa Pompilius, as stop-gaps. The system remained in use during the early Middle Ages until the widespread adoption of the Dionysian era in the Carolingian period. The seven-day week has a tradition reaching back to the ancient Near East, but the introduction of the "planetary week" which remains in modern use dates to the Roman Empire period see also names of the days of the week. It contained both pagan and Christian festivals. The oldest extant manuscript of the early Christian calendar is the so-called Calendar of Filocalus , produced in AD A more extensive martyrology was compiled by Jerome in the early 5th century. Jean Mabillon published a calendar of the church of Carthage made in ca. AD The Anno Domini epoch is introduced in the 6th century. Hieronymo superpositis, ad explorandum Septimanae Diem, et Lunae Aetatem investigandam in unoquoque Die per xix Annos. In the 8th century, the Anglo-Saxon historian Bede the Venerable used another Latin term, " ante uero incarnationis dominicae tempus " "the time before the Lord's true incarnation", equivalent to the English "before Christ" , to identify years before the first year of this era. The Icelandic calendar was introduced in the 10th century. While the ancient Germanic calendars were based on lunar months, the new Icelandic calendar introduced a purely solar reckoning, with a year having a fixed number of weeks 52 weeks or days. This necessitated the introduction of "leap weeks" instead of the Julian leap days. In , the medieval scientist Roger Bacon stated the times of full moons as a number of hours, minutes, seconds, thirds, and fourths horae , minuta , secunda , tertia , and quarta after noon on specified calendar dates. Rival calendar eras to Anno Domini remained in use in Christian Europe. For chronological purposes, the flaw of the Anno Domini system was that dates have to be reckoned backwards or forwards according as they are BC or AD. According to the Catholic Encyclopedia , "in an ideally perfect system all events would be reckoned in one sequence. The difficulty was to find a starting point whence to reckon, for the beginnings of history in which this should naturally be placed are those of which chronologically we know least. Geoff Stray starts with astronomical cycle statistics and reports on the bigger cycles when solar and lunar patterns match. Then, still in an introductory mode, he describes the calendars of several ancient civilizations in words, numbers, and diagrams. Finally, after about a third of the book, he gets to his main title group, the Mayans. He gives a brief history of the Mayans; he explains their base twenty counting systems and their idiosyncrasies; and then uses the counting to lead to the calendars. The Mayans had many calendar cycles, including an unusual ritual day year, and the complex cycles of cycles of cycles led to consideration of incredibly long time periods. Stray goes into much detail, both numerical and cultural—so much that it becomes overwhelming! In addition to a main text, Stray includes a useful glossary and additional material on calendars, month names, eras, calendar conversions, and special dates. Perhaps the most crucial date is 21 December , which he reports to be the end of a major Mayan calendar cycle and—perhaps—the end of time!!

Maya calendar - Wikipedia

Pax 5. Tzec Zac Kayab 6. Xul Ceh In contrast to the Tzolkin dates, the Haab month names changed every 20 days instead of daily; so the day after 4 Zotz would be 5 Zotz, followed by 6 Zotz The days of the month were numbered from 0 to This use of a 0th day of the month in a civil calendar is unique to the Maya system; it is believed that the Mayas discovered the number zero, and the uses to which it could be put, centuries before it was discovered in Europe or Asia. The Uayeb days acquired a very derogatory reputation for bad luck; known as "days without names" or "days without souls," and were observed as days of prayer and mourning. Fires were extinguished and the population refrained from eating hot food. Anyone born on those days was "doomed to a miserable life. The length of the Tzolkin year was days and the length of the Haab year was days. If a day is, for example, "4 Ahau 8 Cumku," the next day falling on "4 Ahau 8 Cumku" would be 18, days or about 52 years later. Among the Aztec, the end of a Calendar Round was a time of public panic as it was thought the world might be coming to an end. When the Pleaides crossed the horizon on 4 Ahau 8 Cumku, they knew the world had been granted another year extension. Although there were only days in the Haab year, the Mayas were aware that a year is slightly longer than days, and in fact, many of the month-names are associated with the seasons; Yaxkin, for example, means "new or strong sun" and, at the beginning of the Long Count, 1 Yaxkin was the day after the winter solstice, when the sun starts to shine for a longer period of time and higher in the sky. When the Long Count was put into motion, it was started at 7. The available evidence indicates that the Mayas estimated that a day year precessed through all the seasons twice in 7. We can therefore derive a value for the Mayan estimate of the year by dividing 1,, by , subtracting 2, and taking that number and dividing 1,, by the result, which gives us an answer of This apparent accuracy could, however, be a simple coincidence. The Mayas estimated that a day year precessed through all the seasons twice in 7. These numbers are only accurate to digits. Suppose the 7. In ancient times, the Mayans had a tradition of a day year. But by the 4th century B. They maintained three different calendars at the same time. In one of them, they divided a day year into eighteen day months followed by a five-day period that was part of no month. The five-day period was considered to be unlucky. Calendars exhibit Webexhibit. A page from the "Calendars" exhibit El Castillo. Chichen Itza, Yucatan, Mexico. Aztec Calendar. What is the Long Count? The calendar has an outer ring of Mayan glyphs pictures which represent each of the 19 months. Each day is represented by a number in the month followed by the name of the month. Each glyph represents a personality associated with the month. The Haab is somewhat inaccurate as it is exactly days long. An actual tropical or solar year , the time it takes Earth to orbit the Sun, takes about It is a day calendar with 20 periods of 13 days, and it is used to determine the time of religious and ceremonial events. The days in each period are numbered from one to Each day is also given a name glyph from a sequence of 20 day names. The Long Count is an astronomical calendar which is used to track longer periods of time. The Mayans believed that the universe is destroyed and then recreated at the start of each universal cycle. This belief caused the phenomenon described above, and it still inspires a myriad of prophecies about the end of the world. A date in the Mayan calendar is specified by its position in both the Tzolkin and the Haab calendars. It consists of a ritual cycle of named days and a year of days. These cycles, running concurrently, form…. It is their intellectual life that established the cultural superiority of the Maya over all other American Indians. Much of this was based upon a calendrical system that was partly shared with other Mesoamerican groups but that they perfected into…. Leap days were not intercalated. History at your fingertips. Sign up here to see what happened On This Day , every day in your inbox! Email address. By signing up, you agree to our Privacy Notice. Be on the lookout for your Britannica newsletter to get trusted stories delivered right to your inbox.

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