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Home , Bioconservatism, Wisdom of repugnance

Łukasz Perlikowski Faculty of Political Science and International Studies Nicolaus Copernicus University in Toruń

Axiology of the Right-wing Bioluddism

15/2013 Political Dialogues

Keywords: bioluddism, , Francis Fukuyama, Michael Sandel, , President’s Council on , Factor X, , ethics of giftedness

Summary Revolution of XIX century resulted in the growing importance of economic issues; The main purpose of this article is to de- Cultural Revolution of the second half of scribe and elaborate an axiology of new XX century focused on moral questions; political movement named bioluddism or Biotechnological Revolution, which takes . We are going to focus place before our very eyes, causes a new on the right wing of biolludism, which dimension of dispute named Biopolitics. embraces ideas and theories such au- An approach to the is the thors as John Kass, Francis Fukuyama rudimentary question in the context of and Michael Sandel. The background of our work is biopolitical litigation be- on opposition between transhumanists tween bioluddists and transhumansists and bioluddists – battle between pro- which takes place in contemporary USA. gressiveness and tradition transferred to Common point to this theories is a crypto the new area of investigations. Francis -religious character of theirs argumenta- Fukuyama – one of the most famous bio- tion. In conclusion we are going to show skepticists put the question: “What is it the value of this kind of in that we want to protect from any fu- the contemporary political and ideologi- ture advances in ? - and cal context. he answered - “we want to protect the Introduction full range of our complex, evolved na- - Left Wing and Right Wing dichotomy has tion. We do not want to disrupt either appeared in the beginning phase of the the unity or the continuity of human French Revolution. The cause of this di- nature, and thereby the human rights vision was solely the coincidental place- that are based on it.” (Fukuyama 2002, ment of political parties in the National p. 172). But on the other hand we can Assembly. This division has survived mu- tatis mutandis until the present time and character of biotechnological progress. Transhumanists have high hopes for pejorative designation, or axis of litiga- biotechnology, which could provide the tion between political parties. This dispu- higher level of development. And contem- te has gained a new dimension during porary human nature does not deserve last two hundred years. The Industrial for attention from this point of view – in

28 opposite to the conservative standpoint. portant plot from the perspective of bio- politics, which is linked with human en- Bio-political issues embrace strict hancement consists in the extraordinary political problems, for example the distri- progress of . From butive justice problem, which leads to the this point of view, reproduction is one of next split. Hence, we can observe a split the main problems. Eugenics – usually to right-wing trans-humanism (liberta- linking with the Nazi regime – nowadays rian) and left-wing trans-humanism (de- goes on the new way. We can now di- mocratic). Bioconservatists, also known stinct the old eugenics, free-market eu- as Bioluddists are divided into right-wing Bioluddism, which concern traditional is prima facie differs from others because values, and left-wing trans-humanism, it was a coercive procedure, but the re- which belief in supremacy of nature and cent circumstances lead us to reconsider is related to ecology movements (Hughes certain individual rights, like for example 2004). To investigate the axiology of the reproductive freedom (Robertson 2003, right-wing bioluddism is the main goal of p. 439-87). this article. For this issue we will choose three representatives of this standpoint: Within the above framework the- Leon Kass - chairman of the President’s re is dispute between representatives of Council on Bioethics, Michael Sandel, bio-politics parties. It is worth noticing a member of this council and political certain characteristic points and concep- philosopher related to communitaria- tual framework. The term of Bioluddist nism is related to the nineteenth-century mo- vement of Luddism, which in a radical Characteristic of Standpoint and the vein was opposed to industrialisation General Context and technological development. James The context of the above consideration Hughes put this term as pejorative (lud- is the dispute regarding human enhan- dism as anachronistic and radical idea). cement. This enhancement concerns the The equivalent term for bioluddism is a biological dimension of human life, and bio-. Within this standpoint it is caused by the development of bio- we can deal with the next split into the and medical science. The di- left-wing (linked to ecological, egalitarian scovery of the role of neurotransmitters and neoluddism movements) and right in human body functioning has allowed -wing. Right-wing bioluddism consists the development of neuropharmacology in respect for the ethical dimension of and the growth of pharmacology market. Psychotropic medications or other con- (eudajmnonia), responsibility, liberty. troversial drugs like Ritalin has forced There is a strong predilection to the ca- - tegory of nature as well, but it is under- gorization of health and disease on me- stood in different ways. The of dical science grounds and on the other Bioluddists is based largely on the the- hand, in political regulation, in the sphe- ory of natural law, perfectionist ethic and re of distributive justice, availability, and . For analysis purposes we going legality of these substances. Another im- to focus on this particular element of the

29 the Bioluddist’s theories. ing which has capacity for feeling. In the light of this theory not every human is Francis Fukuyama – Factor X a person, and the person does not have The Idea of Factor X is at the central core to be a human. In Francis Fukuyama’s of Francis Fukayama’s bio-political the- opinion, human species is equipped ory. Let us now reconstruct his thinking with a factor which has special charac- process. In his opinion the most impor- ter. “What the demand for equality of tant philosophical question, from begin- recognition implies is that when we ning the philosophy, is the question abo- strip all of a person’s contingent and ut human nature. He has analyzed the accidental characteristics away, there ideas of human nature and its , remains some essential human quality and on that basis he has assumed the underneath that is worthy of a certain minimal level of respect--call it Factor “human nature is the sum of the X. [...] But in the political realm we behavior and characteristics that are are required to respect people equal- typical of the human species, arising ly on the basis of their possession of from genetic rather than environmen- Factor X. You can cook, eat, tortu- tal factors.” (Fukuyama 2002, p. 130). re, enslave, or render the carcass of any creature lacking Factor X, but if there are typical species traits in repre- you do the same thing to a human sentatives of specie. Differences between being, you are guilty of a “crime aga-

individuals are results of complicated re- inst humanity.” (Fukuyama 2002, 149- lationship between human and environ- 150). To make it clear, the author signals ment, but there is a range of traits strict that there is analogy between factor X related to species. In this perspective a and Kantian theory of practical . typical species traits is that men are tal- In the other vein it could be held in the ler than women. The category of natu- religious perspective as the exceptionali- re, which was mentioned above, occurs ty of the human species; created by the God, in his similarity and predestined for not determine individuals in the genetic special purposes. Factor X has a synergi- dimension, but it sets down the species cal character – it’s separate parts means traits. The criterion of personhood ba- less then as a unity. What is the political sed on categories of human species is meaning of Factor X? “If the question criticized by Richard Dawkins (Dawkins of equality in a future biotech world 2011) and Peter Singer (Singer 1996) as threatens to tear up the Left, the Right so-called speciesm. Species chauvinism will quite literally fall apart over qu- is understood by analogy to be or estions related to human dignity. In , transmitted to the area of rela- the United States, the Right (as re- tion between species. An alternative way, presented by the Republican Party) is which is proposed by the above authors divided between economic libertarians, is so-called Personhood theory. From who like entrepreneurship and tech- this point of view, dignity is entitled to nology with minimal regulation, and a person, understood as a conscious be- social conservatives, many of whom are

30 religious , who care about a range of cessity. In their opinion we should be issues including and the fa- concerned with Traditional Ethics inste- mily. The coalition between these two ad of creating New Ethics. In response groups is usually strong enough to to the question about the essence of tra- hold up during elections, but it papers ditional approach, Leon Kass says: “The over some fundamental differences in outlook” (Fukuyama 2002, p. 177). And here is where our failure begins.” Thus, Francis Fukuyama thinks that we (Kass 1997, p. 6). In this perspective should defend, care for something that the subject receives the moral contents could be designated by everything – all by the moral sense, which means that and nothing. The clue of the factor X is some moral assertions are impossible unavailable to articulate, and we can ask to justify. However, it constitutes a wis- if it could be thought. But it is agreed dom. This approach could be prima fa- that we can feel this factor, that leads to cie ascribed to natural law theory, but link this theory to the emotivism1. In this the wisdom which Leon Kass describes point we can catch a conspicuous discre- belongs to different kinds of theories. In pancy that leads to paradox. Fukuyama this perspective the wisdom consists in invoking McShea’s thought experiment things which we cannot do, this which argues that DNA has no such meaning. invoke aversion, atrocity – this is the wis- In consequence he should agree with dom of repugnance. So the base of this conclusion that to hurt a chimpanzee, kind of ethics is not the aim to which which has DNA similarly to the human, our actions should gain, but the proper is in fact the “crime against humanity”, reaction for , or wrong conduct. The as the author mentioned above. author writes a lot about the role of the nature, but we should underline that his Leon Kass – Wisdom of Repugnance theory has a negative character – nega- Peter Singer – author who was mentio- tive principles of natural law. The chair- ned above – said that we should shift our man of President’s Council of Bioethics ethical approach from Traditional Ethics elaborates on the meaning of wisdom of to the New Ethics. Representatives of ri- repugnance: „In crucial cases, however, ght-wing bioluddism do not see this ne- repugnance is the emotional expression of deep wisdom, beyond reason’s power 1 Fukuyama use the Robert j. McShea’s thought fully to articulate it. Can anyone really experiment: “Suppose you met two creatures on a give an argument fully adequate to the desert island, both of which had the rational ca- horror which is father-daughter incest pacity of a human being and hence the ability to carry on a conversation. One had the physical (even with consent), or having sex with form of a lion but the emotions of a human being, animals, or mutilating a corpse, or eating while the other had the physical form of a human being but the emotional characteristics of a lion. murdering another human being? [...]. On Which creature would you feel more comfortable the contrary, we are suspicious of those with, which creature would you be more likely to who think that they can rationalize away befriend or enter into a moral relationship with?” R. J. McSchea, and Human Nature: A New our horror, say, by trying to explain the Route to Ethical Theory, Philadelphia 1990, p. 77. F. enormity of incest with arguments only Fukuyama, op. cit. p. 169. 31 about the genetic risks of inbreeding.” emphasizes the ethical dimension of (Kass 1997, p. 6). This line of argument the problem. leads to a certain inconsistency. While Considering the problem of doping in he criticizes an approaches to the pro- sport and eugenics issues he observed blem of cloning (meliorist, liberal, techni- that prima facie this practice is without cal), he then emphasizes that: „The tech- objection from an ethical point of view. nical, liberal and meliorist approaches Constraining the sportsman in this area all ignore the deeper anthropological, - social and, indeed, ontological meanings dary between legal and illegal doping is of bringing forth new life” (Kass 1997, p. in many instances blurred. Which inge- 8). Leon Kass claims that his theory is adequate and that it touches the deeper should be prohibited? On the higher level dimension: anthropological, social and ontological. Let us put that question in such constraints. There occurs another this point: which dimension is related to controversial point when Sandel moves the wisdom of repugnance? Theories of his investigation to the area of Eugenics. natural law have an ontological core, for He has distinct coercive Eugenics (The Old Eugenics), free-market Eugenics and so it can pass for universal theory – valid liberal Eugenics. Now we have to face the semper and ubique. But wisdom about question how far parents could intervene repugnance is on a major scale, determi- into baby‘s life. Sandel shows that entire- ned by the social condition and cultural ly conventional methods of enhancement context. Kass doesn’t care about the cul- child’s life could essentially consist in tural plots, because he want to gain an constraining freedom and could lead to rudimentary aversion, fundamental re- the ceasing of growth. The development pugnance. It is impossible to claim the of medical sciences entails the child desi- universality of this assertion. Sensuality gning problem. In this point we are going is strictly attached to subjectivity and to focused on the core of Sandel’s theory repugnance is impossible to measure. – ethic of giftedness. From the beginning Meanwhile theories of natural law derive we should make a general notice. The from fundamental principle, which could main condition of such concepts existing be recognized by reasoning. At the end of as responsibility is a non-determinism the quoted essay we can read: „The good assumption, which could be named a things that men do can be made comple- demand for ignorance. Isaiah Berlin in te only by the things they refuse to do.” introduction to Four Essay on Liberty (Kass 1997, p. 19). There occurs a real (Berlin 1990) criticizes a determinism by doubt if aversion could have give a positi- using an argument which is embedded ve contribution to proper acting. So the rather in practice than in philosophy. objection is that wisdom of repugnance He uncovers lack of consequence in de- has a pseudo-universal character. terminism ideas. If it was be true, than it would change daily life of societies. Michael Sandel – Ethics of Giftedness Existing in an area of human action, The author of The Case Against Perfection which imposes the possibility of free

32 choice, is a condition sine qua non mo- num. The questions which were mentio- rality as such. Bio-politics changes the ned above (cloning, genetic engineering, level of consideration on determinism. - The cosmic perspective is replaced by crum are, but in the contemporary secu- genetic perspective. In Sandel’s opinion, larized reality they came to the subject assumption, that a human’s birth is cau- of political, bioethics, scientist conside- sed by the God, nature or fortune, is pos- sible because we can hold an equilibrium the hybris argument. We should try to between issues for which we can be re- assess its value in isolation from the sponsible and these for which we cannot theological attitude. We have to face the be responsible (Sandel 2007, p. 8). In doubt of whether in fact this argument the context of bioethics we should notice has any power in public sphere investi- that development of genetic engineering gation. The practice of arguing has cru- leads to change in view. Deterministic cial meaning in the political dimension. threat for morality has been changed to A very important element of arguing is a so-called explosion of responsibility. wisdom The author shows an example: „Today of repugnance argument, the scope of when the basketball player misses a re- - bound his coach can blame him for be- mited a priori. Leon Kass excludes some ing out of position. Tomorrow coach may - blame him for being too short” (Sandel disputable, elements of his theory are a 2007, p. 87). However the ethic of gifted- main advantage in his opinion. There is ness aims to emphasize the role of life similar approach in Francis Fukuyama’s as the gift, in contrast to designing life. theory – factor X is an axiomate which is This thesis assumes necessity of concern used as an element of a theorem – hen- on growth and respect for life. Hence, in ce it is not predestined for public sphere Sandel’s opinion the category of health deliberation. Michael Sandel was facing is an autotelic value. This is the crucial another problem; the assumption abo- issue in the context of bio-politics. There ut giftedness, and our qualities being are rivals ideas, like for example Julian understood as gifts, entails existing the Savulescu’s theory of health as instru- giver, what could be received as a crypto mental value, that could lead us to a -theology assertion. The author didn’t re- solve this problem (Sandel 2007, p. 94). the core of any bio-political standpoints. Right-wing bioluddist’s values Conclusions are contrary to the catalogue of liberal values. This is an obvious sentence if we In sum, axiology of right-wing bioluddism focus on Sandel’s works, which are re- consists in the opinion that we should cognized as some of the most interesting work against so-called hybris – the sin of critics of liberal doctrine (Sandel 1998). vanity. Since the ancient times touching - the god’s era, transgression was under- conservative institution. Also Francis stood as wrong, because it was crossing Fukuyama is recognized as an author of boundaries between sacrum and profa- American conservative doctrine. So, this

33 standpoint has a clear position – it is in Bibliography opposition to left-wing liberalism sensu Berlin I. (1990). Four Essays on Liberty, largo and to left-wing standpoints on Oxford University Press, the bio-political dimension. Right-wing Dawkins R. The Tyranny of the as religion doctrines. The Idea of neutral Discontinuous Mind [in:] „New worldview as principle of state and limits Statesman”, the Christmas issue for in public sphere excludes right-wing bio- 2011. luddist’s arguments. But there occurs a set of question: Are the right-wing bio- Fukuyama F. (2002). Our Posthuman luddist in fact hiding the theological or Future. Consequences of the Biotechnology religion assumption behind the new the- Revolution, Farrar, Strauss and Giroux, ories? Are there any possibilities of con- New York. struing non-theological anti-liberal ar- Hughes J. (2004). Citizen Cyborg. Why guments? For the answer we can merely Democratic Societies Must Respond to the claim that the metaphysical question re- Redesigned Human of the Future, Basic mains the core of political litigation. Books. Micheal Sandel, whilst resigned from resolving the giver problem has claimed Kass L. R. The Wisdom of Repugnance that this kind of problem has a longer [in:] New Republic, Vol. 216, Issue 22, history in western political thought. For (June 2, 1997). he invokes Jurgen Habermas Morality and and John Locke ideas, in which we can McSchea R. J. (1990). Human Nature: A New Route to Ethical observe the crossing controversial qu- Theory, estion – human rights and metaphysical Philadelphia. issues. The conclusion is that the critic Robertson J. A., Procreative Liberty in the of liberalism cannot escape from the me- Era of Genomics [in:] American Journal of taphysical dimension. In the context of Law & , No. 29, Boston 2003, p. bio-politics we have to understand that 439-87. radical change of political debate shape forces us to transform our previous opi- Sandel M. (1998). Liberalism and the nions and principles in order to provide Limits of Justice, Cambridge University rational political solutions. Press.

Singer P. (1996). Rethinking Life and Death: the Collapse of Our Traditional Ethics

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