Projectile Point Fragments As Indicators of Site Function

Journal of California and Great Basin Anthropology Vol. 13, No. 2, pp. 180-193(1991).

The Diamond Lil Site: Projectile Point Fragments as Indicators of Site Function

J. JEFFREY FLENNIKEN, Lithic Analysts, P.O. Box 684, Pullman, WA 99163.

J. HE Diamond Lil archaeological site (35LA However, savanna and prairie, not coniferous 807) located on the western slopes of the forest, was the vegetation zone of the hills Cascade Range, is situated on a ridge approxi bordering the Willamette Valley in the pre- mately one kilometer from, and 277 m. above, Euroamerican environment. This environmental the Middle Fork of the Willamette River near zone dominated the Middle Fork of the Willam Oakridge, Oregon (Fig. 1). Fifty contiguous 1 ette River drainage below 683 m. elevation such X 1-m. excavation units yielded over 20,000 as High Prairie (Fig. 1), an area of approxi lithic artifacts and nearly 800 bone fragments, mately 4.8 km.^ of tableland on the east side of mostly (52%) identified as medium-sized mam the North Fork of the Middle Fork of the Wil mal remains. A technological analysis of all lamette River above the present town of Oak formed artifacts (n=147) and a representative ridge (Patterson 1857). A mixed-conifer forest sample of the debitage (65%) indicates that this has gradually replaced what was once prairie unlikely site location was intensively utilized for and scattered trees. a short period of time relatively late in pre Periodic, noncatastrophic fires were com history. Ethnographic data, environmental in mon in this area before modern fire suppression formation, and a site structural analysis of the techniques were employed, which suggests the spatial distribution of bone and debitage, suggest possibility of intentional underburning by ab that the site location was employed to process original peoples. In a study of the ecosystem deer and manufacture/rejuvenate flaked stone dynamics in the foothills surrounding the Wil tools. However, experimental and archaeologi lamette Valley, Cole (1977:184) found that fre cal data involving projectile point rejuvenation quent aboriginal burning acted as a "regular and breakage suggest the site served also as a environmental input, to which both tree density deer kill location. Furthermore, the site assem and species composition were in adjustment." blage, dominated by projectile point rejuvena Several studies of aboriginal burning in tion debitage and fragments of lanceolate, dart, northern California and western Montana (Lewis and arrow points, is interpreted as representing 1973; Barrett 1980) document the intentional a multiple weapons system technology utilized burning of low elevation forest and grasslands in a communal hunting situation. primarily in the fall to stimulate a new growth of browse for big game, to enhance the growth ETHNOGRAPfflCALLY DOCUMENTED of woody food plants and berries, or to aid in USE OF THE ENVIROrVMENT gathering food or concentrating game in desired Between approximately 183 and 1,067 m. areas. According to an early Oregon settler: above mean sea level in the central western Fire was the agency used by the Calapooia tribes Cascade Range, the natural vegetation is gen to hold their camas grounds and renew their erally classified as part of the Tsuga hetero- berry patches and grass-lands for game and the phylla Zone (Franklin and Dyrness 1988). millions of geese, brants, cranes and swans THE DIAMOND LIL SITE 181 w

Fig. 1. The location of the Diamond Lil site, 35LA807.

which wintered in Westem Oregon ... On the high degree of habitat diversity (Boyd MS; Das- west face of the Cascades the Molallas claimed man 1964). It is not clear to what extent the dominion, and fire was their agency in im white-tailed deer inhabited the Middle Fork of proving the game range and berry crops [Minto the Willamette River drainage, but they may 1908:152-153]. have ranged as far as the Oakridge area (Wink Before their range was restricted following ler 1988). The riparian areas and grassy flats Euroamerican settlement, herds of white-tailed along the Middle Fork of the Willamette River, deer and elk congregated on the prairies of the especially around Oakridge, remain prime elk Willamette Valley, especially during the winter winter range and were hunted there in proto-his- months (Zenk 1976). The valley landscape, toric and historic times (cf Grayson 1975:500). composed of open prairie, concentrations of These species, as well as the black-tailed deer, oaks, fir groves, and riparian zones of ash and utilized the forage and cover provided by the alder bound by mixed conifer forest, provided a forest-grass ecotone. Black-tailed deer was the 182 JOURNAL OF CALIFORNIA AND GREAT BASIN ANTHROPOLOGY

most common species identified among elk, nature of prehistoric activities performed at the black bear, and mountain lion remains at Baby Diamond Lil site. These data, however, suggest Rock Shelter and at Rigdon's Horsepasture Cave that the Diamond Lil location is advantageous (Olsen 1975; Baxter et al. 1983). Mule deer, as for procurement and processing of deer, season well as several other small mammals, were also ally available in large numbers. Furthermore, identified from faunal remains at these sites ethnographic information indicates that aborig (Olsen 1975; Baxter et al. 1983). inal peoples used the area for deer hunting and Adapted to a bulky diet of herbs and artificially enhanced the resource through inten browse, deer and elk require forage with a high tional burning practices. nutritional content. As the growing season pro DIAMOND LIL SITE STRUCTURE gresses, the maturing plants' nutritive value decreases and thus, these ruminants move up Spatial patterning within the Diamond Lil ward in elevation and to cooler and shadier cultural deposit was examined during excavation environments in search of vegetation in imma and analysis phases of the project (Flenniken et ture stages of growth (Nelson 1974:89-90) al. 1990). Concentrations of functionally dis which may contain up to 15-20% protein (Chad- tinct artifacts are good indicators of activity wick 1983:79). Social behavior is adapted to areas. Two such concentrations were distin this need; these animals disperse as individuals guished during the analysis of artifacts re or small herds in search of favored habitats as covered from the site. A concentration of bone spring and summer progress. With the onset of fragments and an adjacent concentration of lithic winter and snowfall, ungulates respond by mi debitage were isolated through spatial analysis grating to areas with accessible forage, often within the excavation block (Fig. 2). A stan following the same routes year after year and dardizing equation was used to make frequen coalescing into large herds. White-tailed deer, cies of bone and debitage comparable across the black-tailed deer, and elk congregated in large block regardless of the excavated volume and to herds in the prairie environments of the Willam express the density as a number per cubic meter ette River drainage before Euroamerican settle measure. ment, especially during the winter months and The bone concentration was found to be the fall breeding season (Zenk 1976:64-66). highly localized in five contiguous excavation Complex, diverse habitats with relatively stable units (U4, U7, U8, U23, and U25) near the resource availability, such as those found in center of the block (Fig. 2). The concentrations mountain foothill environments along the Middle of bone fragments within these units ranged Fork of the Willamette River, support high den from 153/m.^ to 396/m.' with an average of sity deer populations (Mackie 1983:112-115). 275/m.^ in the five units. The average concen Late fall is thus the first high density co tration for the rest of the block is 26/m.' with alescence of ungulates after two seasons of dis the expected fall-off pattern surrounding the persal. This is also the time of year for peak fat high concentration. Five of the units (U33, stores; male deer lose 10-15% of their body U35, U36, U37, and U38) in the extreme south weight during the fall rut (Speth and Spielmann west corner of the block and three of the units 1983:3) while females reach peak fat stores in (U45, U46, and U50) in the extreme northeast November and December (Wallmo and Regelin corner of the block did not contain any bone. 1981:396). The bone concentration is interpreted as a Environmental and ethnographic data do not butchering center where meat was removed provide an adequate basis to determine the from the bones of the deer. Alternatively, the THE DIAMOND LIL SITE 183

30 29

28 2 7 «7 4 e 49 5 0

26 2 5 4 3 4d 45 4 b

4 ? 4 1 24 2 3 4 3 2 ' 4 0 39 : 2 21 8 7 « i

32 31 20 1 8 12 1 \ 1 0 9

3 4 3 3 1 9 17 1 6 1 s 1 4 1 3 " 3S 3 B 3 7

w+V

iS) Bone t 1 Debitage

35LA807

Excavation Units

Fig. 2. The spatial distribution of bone and debitage within the block excavation at the Diamond Lil site. bone concentration may represent a bone proces flakes/cores). The bone is very poorly pre sing (e.g., marrow extraction) location or a sec served at the Diamond Lil site and does not lend ondary discard location for bone waste. The itself to analysis of the degree of processing to butchering center interpretation is favored here which it has been subjected. because of the close association of the debitage The lithic debitage recovered from the site concentration containing the majority of the was more evenly distributed across the block lithic debitage from the manufacture of butch excavation, although a clear concentration was ering tools (microblades/cores and bipolar discernable around the southeastern periphery of 184 JOURNAL OF CALIFORNIA AND GREAT BASIN ANTHROPOLOGY

the bone concentration (Fig. 2). The highest Shasta, Wintu, Maidu, and Nisenan of northeast debitage concentrations were recovered from California (Voegelin 1942:73) and for five seven excavation units (Ul, U2, UU, U14, Northern Shoshoni bands in the Great Basin U15, U18, U20) that are not contiguous but (Steward 1943:315), although Steward (1943: rather are all immediately peripheral to the bone 273) interpreted its use as introduced from concentration (Fig. 2). The debitage densities in tribes east of the Rocky Mountains. Ishi, a these seven units range from 2,036 to 3,329 member of the Yahi tribe of northern Cali flakes/m.' and are connected by units (U7, U8, fornia, apparently used two weapons systems. U12, U16, U21, U22, U39) containing only He made arrow and spear points of different slightly lower concentrations (ranging from sizes and proportions, depending upon the game 1,421 to 1,998 flakes/m.'). This group of 14 which they were intended to bring down, but contiguous units averages 2,079 flakes/m.^ while they were always at the extreme of delicacy and sharpness for their particular size and purpose the remaining 36 units average 1,005 flakes/m^ [Kroeber 1961:184]. The spatial analysis suggests that the Diamond Lil site was intensively utilized to An example of the use of both weapons systems process deer, and to manufacture and rejuvenate is given in describing an incident in which Ishi broken or dulled flaked stone tools (Flenniken et was charged by a bear. al. 1990). Unfortunately, the spatial data and Fortunately, before it closed with him, he had faunal analysis do not indicate whether primary time to get in one shot which penetrated the or secondary butchering activities occurred, nor heart region. For the coup de grace he used a short obsidian-bladed spear of the kind which he whether the animals were killed at the Diamond ordinarily carried . . . [Kroeber 1961:195]. Lil location or some other location. The use of the spear is noted by Curtis as he MULTIPLE WEAPON SYSTEMS described the surround hunting technique used Native American use of multiple weapon by the Northwest Coast Indians. systems for large game hunting was widespread ... a party of hunters, ten or perhaps thirty even though actual documentation of such use is men strong, would form at daylight a scattering quite rare. For the Indians of North America: line in the thicket at the base of a long, open slope, thus cutting off the usual retreat. At each The bow and arrow was almost everywhere the end of the line a few men made a detour for the chief weapon used. The thrusting lance was purpose of tuming the animals back toward the likewise nearly universal . . . The spear- hunters. Then the main party crept forward up thrower is reported by European observers only the slope. Not only were the more distant deer in the far north and extreme south . . . [Driver driven back by the two parties of beaters, but 1969:85]. any that were started up by the main body would usually dash along the line and attempt to escape On the Plateau, the Lower Chinook, Klickitat, into the gully, thus passing between two hunters, Kalispel, Chilcotin, and Coeur d'Alene report at least one of whom had a chance to hurl his spear [Curtis in Anell 1969:24-25]. edly used the spear for hunting or stalking (Ray 1942:117, 152). The Klamath spear was "a Thus, in addition to the bow and arrow, short, stabbing lance, four to six feet long, most Native American tribes also employed a bearing a large obsidian blade" (Spier 1930: thrusting or throwing spear, depending upon the 196). Among Northwest Coast Indians, spears hunter's circumstances and the type of game were reportedly used to kill hibernating bears by being hunted. The prehistoric use of the atlatl the Bella Coola, Kwakiutl, Tsimshian, Haida, in the Cascade Mountain range as an additional and Tlingit (Drucker 1950:174). Thrusting weapon system to the bow and arrow and the spears are reported for the Klamath, Modoc, spear probably lasted several thousand years as THE DIAMOND LIL SITE 185

indicated by the co-occurrence of dart points, and discard of exhausted, but more or less arrow points, and lanceolate points in stratified complete, points, 24 of which were recovered archaeological assemblages (cf. Connolly and during excavations (Flenniken et al. 1990). Ex Baxter 1986; Daugherty et al. 1987a; Baxter hausted points (Figs. 3, 4, and 5) are those that 1989:116-124). have been slightly broken for the last time in their use-lives during hunting activities. Also as PROJECTILE POINT ASSEMBLAGE a result of the refurbishment of the hunting tool The above brief discussion concerning site kit, projectile point bases (n = 26) broken in the function, distilled from Flenniken et al. (1990), haft (cf Flenniken and Raymond 1986; Flenni serves to isolate possible prehistoric activities ken 1985) were discarded and replaced with that may have occurred at the Diamond Lil site functional points (Figs. 6 and 7). Broken basal on the basis of peripheral evidence. This evi point fragments adhering to the foreshaft were dence provides information common to "lithic most likely retrieved after the kill because of the scatter" site interpretation. However, in this potential reuse of the point as well as the fore- situation, an important activity that took place at shaft. the site could not be identified by these rigorous In addition to these complete points and traditional analyses alone. The analysis of the point bases, 45 point tips and midsections (in projectile points and fragments provided the cluding margin spalls and point barbs) were additional data necessary to identify, perhaps, recovered from the Diamond Lil site (Figs. 8, the most important function of the Diamond Lil 9, and 10). These specific point fragments are site. indicators of hunting activities where these Experimental data concerning the fracture events occurred, and were the result of impact patterns and rejuvenation of projectile points damage. Projectile points were broken on im used in simulated hunting situations are well- pact with inanimate objects (missed targets) or established in the archaeological literature (cf. inside animals (Flenniken 1985). Because of Flenniken 1985; Flenniken and Raymond 1986; their small, unusable condition, tips and mid Titmus and Woods 1986; Woods 1988; Towner sections were not retrieved and, therefore, and Warburton 1990). Excavation of the Dia remained at kill sites. Alternatively, these mond Lil site produced 95 projectile points and fragments may have been deposited at the butch fragments exhibiting fractures characteristic of ering camp where the fragments were returned impact damage as documented in the above ex in the dispatched animals. perimental studies. For the entire assemblage of projectile The analyses of these projectile points, point points and fragments recovered from the Dia fragments, as well as debitage, indicate that two mond Lil site, the ratio of bases and complete activities may have occurred. The primary use points (indicative of rejuvenation and weapon of the projectile points was to kill deer at the repair) to tips and midsections (indicative of site location. Reusable projectile points were hunting activity) was found to be almost exactly then rejuvenated and badly broken points were one to one (Table 1). This ratio is nearly iden discarded and replaced. Association of remains tical to ratios of complete exhausted points/bases from both of these activities in the same location to tips/midsections found at other sites in the indicate that repair of the tool kit likely occurred Cascade Range functionally identified as pri in conjunction with kill and butchery. mary butchery locations or kill sites such as Projectile point rejuvenation occurred at the Layser Cave (45LE223; Daugherty et al. 1987a) Diamond Lil site resulting in the replacement and Judd Peak Rockshelters (45LE222; Daug- 186 JOURNAL OF CALIFORNIA AND GREAT BASIN ANTHROPOLOGY

Fig. 3. Selected dart points from the Diamond Lil site.

Fig. 4. Arrow points from the Diamond Lil site. THE DIAMOND LIL SITE 187

Fig. 5. Lanceolate points from the Diamond Lil site. m m. 1ft A Jl

Fig. 6. Projectile point bases from the Diamond Lil site. 188 JOURNAL OF CALIFORNIA AND GREAT BASIN ANTHROPOLOGY

Fig. 7, Impact fracture on a lanceolate point fragment from the Diamond Lil site.

I A

Fig. 8, Projectile point tips from the Diamond Lil site. THE DIAMOND LIL SITE 189

m M- CM

Fig. 9. Projectile point mid-sections from the Diamond Lil site.

Fig. 10. Projectile point margin spalls from the Diamond Lil site. 190 JOURNAL OF CALIFORNIA AND GREAT BASIN ANTHROPOLOGY

Table 1 PROJECTILE POINTS AND FRAGMENTS FROM CASCADE RANGE SITES

Diamond Lil Layser Cave Judd Peak Rigdon's Cave Warehouse Gate Creek No. {%) No. (%) No. (%) No. (%) No. (%) No. (%)

Point Tips/ 45(47%) 45(49%) 121(49%) 78(22%) 2 (25%) 0 (0%) Midsections

Point Bases/ 50(53%) 47(51%) 124(51%) 281(78%) 6(75%) 5(100%) Exhausted Points

Totals 95 (100%) 92 (100%) 245 (100%) 359 (100%) 8 (100%) 5 (100%) herty et al. 1987b). By contrast, other exca Once the deer reached the ridge, they were vated sites in the Cascade Range have projectile driven uphill toward the kill site. The ridge or point base/complete point to tip/midsection potential "drive lane" was narrow and provided ratios of four to one or more. For example, a constricted travel route up to, and through a sites with ratios of four to one include Rigdon's narrow "chute" in the basaU cliff onto the flat Horsepasture Cave (35LA39; Baxter et al. 1983) kill area (the site proper). The narrow ridge and the Warehouse site (35LA822; Flenniken et may have been improved as a drive lane by the al. 1989). Both the Gate Creek (35LA295; use of a drift fence made of vegetation piled in Flenniken et al. 1990) and Packwood Lake sites a linear fashion parallel to the ridge sides. (45LE285; Markos 1990) have ratios that ex After the deer were on the ridge and within the ceed four to one. These sites have been iden drive lane, pressure in the form of increased tified as base camps or task specific sites but noise and commotion, panicked the deer to run none are primary butchery or kill sites. uphill through the chute. The hunters with bows and arrows and atlatls and darts were hid RECONSTRUCTION OF A KILL EVENT den by blinds made of vegetation (Fig. 11), and The following model was developed as a re ambushed the deer. Nets may have been used to sult of the analyses of the ethnographic and contain the animals within the area during the archaeological data as well as the topographical final stages of the kill (Fig. 11). Injured and information associated with the Diamond Lil site net-trapped deer were dispatched by other hunt area. The deer, ultimately killed at the Diamond ers with spears tipped with lanceolate projectile Lil site, were "gathered" from the Middle Fork points used as bayonets. When the hunt ended, of the Willamette River Valley near the present numerous deer, perhaps 20, 30, or more ani town of Oakridge, the Salmon Creek Valley, mals, had been dispatched at Diamond Lil. and from the High Prairie area, and with light After the animals were collected and the pressure in the form of noise and commotion, hunting equipment secured, the deer were were pushed and herded toward the Burnt butchered and processed at the site of the kill. Bridge Creek Valley (Fig. 1). At locations Expedient tools were manufactured and used in where the deer may have had the opportunity to butchering, and hunting equipment was stray from the intended route, fences, nets and repaired. Projectile points and fragments left at people aiding the hunters, kept them "in route" the site provided evidence for interpretation of on the desired path to the Diamond Lil site. kill events that occurred there. THE DIAMOND LIL SITE 191

Fig. 11. Reconstructed depiction of the Diamond Lil site features.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS REFERENCES Anell, B Thanks are due to Terry Ozbun, Cathy Fulker 1969 Running Down and of Driving Game in son, and Carol Winkler, co-authors of the original North America. Studia Ethnographica research report for the Willamette National Forest. Upsaliensia XXX. Lund, Sweden: Ber- Specific thanks are expressed to Terry Ozbun for all lingska Boktrycheriet. of his help with this article. I am grateful to Carl Barrett, Stephen W. Davis, Willamette Forest Archaeologist, who helped 1980 Indian Fires in the Pre-Seulement Forests with this project from start to finish. of Westem Montana. Paper presented at 192 JOURNAL OF CALIFORNIA AND GREAT BASIN ANTHROPOLOGY

the Fire History Workshop, University of Drucker, Phillip Arizona, Tucson. 1950 Culture Element Distributions: XXVI Northwest Coast. University of Cali Baxter, Paul W. fornia Anthropological Records 9(3). 1989 Archaic Upland Adaptations in the Central Oregon Cascades. Ph.D. dissertation. Flenniken, J. Jeffrey University of Oregon. 1985 Stone Tool Reduction Techniques as Baxter, Paul W., Richard D. Cheatham, Thomas J. Cultural Markers. In: Stone Tool Analy sis: Essays in Honor of Don E. Crab Connolly, and Judith A. Willig tree, M. G. Plew, J. C. Woods, and M. 1983 Rigdon's Horse Pasture Cave: An Up G. Pavesic, eds., pp. 265-276. Albu land Hunting Camp in the Western Cas querque: University of New Mexico cades. University of Oregon Anthro Press. pological Papers No. 28. Flenniken, J. Jeffrey, and Anan W. Raymond Boyd, Robert 1986 Morphological Projectile Point Typology: MS Patterns of Aboriginal Burning in the Willamette Valley. MS on fde at the Replicative Experimentation and Tech Lowell Ranger District, Willamette Na nological Analysis. American Antiquity tional Forest, Lowell, Oregon. 51(3):603-614. Flenniken, J. Jeffery, Terry L. Ozbun, Ann C. Chad wick, D. H. 1983 A Beast the Color of Winter. San Fran Fulkerson, and Carol J. Winkler cisco: Sierra Club Books. 1990 The Diamond Lil Deer Kill Site: A Data Recovery Project in the Westem Oregon Cole, David L. Cascade Mountains. Report on file at the 1977 Ecosystem Dynamics in the Coniferous State Historic Preservation Office, Salem, Forest of the Willamette Valley, Oregon, Oregon. U.S.A. Journal of Biogeography 4:181- 192. Franklin, Jerry F., and C. T. Dyrness 1988 Natural Vegetation of Washington and Connolly, Thomas J., and Paul W. Baxter Oregon. Corvallis: Oregon State Univer 1986 New Evidence on a "Traditional" Topic sity Press. in Pacific Northwest Prehistory. In: Contributions to the Archaeology of Grayson, Donald K. Oregon, 1983-1986, K. H. Ames, ed., 1975 Recent Archaeological Surveys in the pp. 129-146. Portland: Association of Westem Cascade: Prehistory and Con Oregon Archaeologists Occasional Papers servation Archaeology. In: Archaeo No. 3. logical Studies in the Willamette Valley, Oregon, C. M. Aikens, ed., pp. 495-503. Dasman, R. F. University of Oregon Anthropological 1964 Wildlife Biology. New York: John Papers No. 8. Wiley and Sons. Kroeber, Theodora Daugherty, Richard D., J. Jeffrey Flenniken, and 1961 Ishi in Two Worlds: A Biography of the Jean M. Welch Last Wild Indian in North America. 1987a A Data Recovery Study of Layser Cave Berkeley: University of California Press. (45-LE-223) in Lewis County, Washing ton. Portland: USDA Forest Service, Lewis, Henry T. Pacific Northwest Region, Studies in 1973 Pattems of Indian Burning in California: Cultural Resource Management No. 7. Ecology and Ethnohistory. Ballena Press Anthropological Papers No. 1. 1987b A Data Recovery Study of Judd Peak Rockshelters (45-LE-222) in Lewis Minto, John County, Washington. Portland: USDA 1908 From Youth to Age as an American. Ore Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Region, gon Historical Quarterly 9:127-172. Studies in Cultural Resource Management Nelson, J. R. No. 8. 1974 Forest Fire and Big Game in the Pacific Driver, Harold E. Northwest. Proceedings of the 14th An 1969 Indians of North America. 2d rev. ed. nual Tall Timber Fire Ecology Confer Chicago: University of Chicago Press. ence, pp. 85-102. Tallahassee, Florida. THE DIAMOND LIL SITE 193

Olsen, Thomas L. Fracture Pattems. Journal of California 1975 Baby Rock Shelter. In: Archaeological and Great Basin Anthropology 8( 1): 37-49. Studies in the Willamette Valley, Oregon, Towner, Ronald H., and Miranda Warburton CM. Aikens, ed., pp. 469-494. Univer 1990 Projectile Point Rejuvenation: A Techno sity of Oregon Anthropological Papers logical Analysis. Journal of Field Ar No. 8. chaeology 17:311-321. Patterson, A. W. Voegelin, Erminie W. 1857 Cadastral Survey Map T20S, RIE. Re 1942 Culture Element Distributions: XX North port on file at the Bureau of Land Man east California. University of California agement Archives, Portland. Anthropological Records 7(2). Ray, Vem F. Wallmo, Olaf C, and Wayne L. Regelin 1942 Culture Element Distributions: XXII 1981 Rocky Mountain and Intermountain Hab Plateau. University of California An itats. In: Mule and Black-tailed Deer of thropological Records 8(2). North America, O. C. Wallmo, ed., pp. Speth, John D., and Katherine A. Spielmaim 387-398. Lincoln: University of Nebras 1983 Energy Source, Protein Metabolism, and ka Press. Hunter-Gatherer Subsistence Strategies. Winkler, Carol J. Journal of Anthropological Research 2:1- 1988 Test excavations at the Diamond Lil Site 31. (35LA807): A Determination of Eligibil Spier, Leslie ity to the National Register of Historic 1930 Klamath Ethnography. University of Cal- Places. Report on file at the State Histor ifomia Publications in American Archae ic Preservation Office, Salem, Oregon. ology and Ethnography 30. Woods, James C. Steward, Julian H. 1988 Projectile Point Fracture Pattems and 1943 Culmre Element Distributions: XXIII Inferences About Tool Function. Idaho Northern and Gosiute Shoshoni. Univer Archaeologist Il(l):3-7. sity of California Anthropological Records Zenk, Henry B. 8(3). 1976 Contributions to Tualatin Ethnography, Titmus, Gene L., and James C. Woods Subsistence and Ethnobiology. Master's 1986 An Experimental Study of Projectile Point thesis, Portland State University.