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American Science, the Department of Defense, and the Unlikely Invention of the War on Drugs, 1945-1980

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American Science, the Department of Defense, and the Unlikely Invention of the War on Drugs, 1945-1980 ‘You Can’t Fool the P Test’: American Science, the Department of Defense, and the Unlikely Invention of the War on Drugs, 1945-1980 By Justin Wade Hubbard Dissertation Submitted to the Faculty of the Graduate School of Vanderbilt University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY in History August 31, 2019 Approved: Arleen M. Tuchman, Ph.D. Sarah Igo, Ph.D. Laura Stark, Ph.D. To my wife, Dr. Nona Lu, And our lap warmer, And the 2017 Philadelphia Eagles. Go Birds. !ii Acknowledgements I’d like to thank the following friends, family, and colleagues for making graduate school enjoyable in Nashville, Richmond, Philadelphia, Washington, D.C., and beyond. In no particular order, Jesse McCarthy, Sebastian Ramirez, Dave Thomas and Dyana Herron, Jason Chernesky, Meredith Hohe, Matthew Ivey, Jason Turi, T.J. Ivey, Steven Seaman and Monica Rettenmeier, Ashley Drake, Fernanda Bretones Lane and Max Deardorff, Kris Baker, Tom and Kristen Mathews, Tim Livedalen, Zach Loeb, Andrew and Alex Vessels, Jesse Jarvis, Roy Rogers, Henry Randolph, Mr .William, Ms. June, Dan Genkins, Dan Miller, Asif Charania, and Mike Cary. Obviously, working with archival materials means incurring professional debt to the librarians at your research sites. I’m horrible with names, but thank you to the archivists at the National Archives - II, especially the military archivists, as well as the librarians and student assistants at Vanderbilt University and the University of Pennsylvania for scanning all those journal articles. Thank you to the Vanderbilt history department, for five years of support. Thomas Schwartz deserves special credit here, for being the professor for whom every grad student dreams of t.a.’ing. Thank you to the Department of the History and Sociology of Science at the University of Pennsylvania for the opportunity to teach, build a community, and earn an income when my wife and I moved back to Philadelphia. Similarly, thank you to the National Science Foundation and the Graduate School at Vanderbilt University for their help in funding conference presentations and research trips. To the Military History Conference, Policy History Conference, Sigerist Circle, and the American Association for the History of Medicine Conference, as well as !iii Vanderbilt’s Americanist Seminar and History of Science, Technology, and Medicine working group; thanks for the opportunities to share various stages of this and related projects. History classes don’t prepare you to navigate the procedural rigamarole of graduate school. Heidi Welch and Susan Hilderbrand demystified Vanderbilt’s graduate school, and made it a lot less stressful. To the Center for Teaching, and my Graduate-Teaching-Fellow colleagues, Ami Thurber, Sara Beck, and Kylie Korsnack. Thanks for a funding a year to help other graduate students learn to teach, and improve my own teaching. I learned so much about becoming an effective teacher by working alongside Ami, Sara, and Kylie, each of whom is an exceptional instructor in her own right. Thank you to Chip Chapados, Richard Elmore, and Adolph Reed. Each of them was patient enough to answer as many of my questions as they could about heroin, the Army, and Fort Bragg in the 1970s. Thank you to Jordan Maneval for giving a dude a place to sleep while he sweated away May and June in College Park. Thank you to my cousin Lauren Gaster and now cousin-in-law, Ryan, for giving me a place to sleep in between Nashville, Richmond, and D.C., and for being genuinely rad family. And, thank you to my aunt, Connie Meadows, for giving your nephew a bed to crash on, and having a pitcher of tea and a bucket of chicken waiting on him in Fayetteville. I fondly remember smoking cigarettes and talking North Carolina politics in your living room. !iv Thank you to my committee members, Sarah Igo, Laura Stark, Caroline Acker, and Nancy Campbell. You each deserve so much more than this acknowledgement accomplishes for your willingness to seriously engage with my million ideas, see the bigger picture, and help me write the history that I wanted to write. This is a dream team of historians of science and medicine, and I relish the opportunity I’ve had to learn from each of you. A special thank you to my chair, Arleen Tuchman. Being a chair is so much more than just giving feedback, and writing job recommendation letters. Thanks for the perfect advice when I needed it the most. Maybe all of us are just average. More special thank y’alls to Juliet Larkin-Gilmore and Greg Decker, and Alex and Adri Jacobs. It pays to have good buddies and fellow travelers, and these four folks are the best for which you could ask. Juliet and Alex are my colleagues by blood. You’ve let me complain about the price of buffet foods, the heat and humidity in Nashville, and the constant uncertainty of working in academia for almost seven years. Thank you for reading my work, giving me advice, and being enviable models of good scholarship and even better friends. And, if that weren’t enough, their spouses — Greg and Adri, respectively — are two of the raddest, smartest people I know; so it’s double-happiness that they’re married into Vandy’s department. The last special thank you goes to Cong Lu and Rongbin Cai. You’re a constant example that life is for enjoying, and, if the WeChat logs are any evidence, that family is the foundation of that joy. I’m so stoked to be a part of your family. An extra-extra special thank you to my parents, Rose and E.W. “Chip” Hubbard, III. Thank you for indulging me from an early age with frequent trips to Civil War battlefields, and still listening to my scatterbrained discoveries and interests some twenty-five years later. To my mom, those !v pecan chews are my dream…and my nightmare. Keep them coming. To my dad, thank you for sharing your own stories about safety meetings in the Army and at Fort Bragg. It always helps to have an informant. The largest, grandest thank you goes to Dr. Nona Lu, for making Bastille Day the best day of the year. You make me laugh every day, even if I don’t want to laugh, and your collection of Clarks is unrivaled. You’re the Connie to my Bobby, and the human compass I’ll follow anywhere. Goblins care about income inequality, too, Nona. Lastly, and with a lump in my throat, I want to acknowledge my grandfathers, Charley Ivey and E.W. “Wade” Hubbard, Jr. I regret that they aren’t here to read this dedication. One of these days we’ll all go fishing together. !vi Table of Contents Page Dedication……………………………..………….………………………..…….………………ii Acknowledgements…………………………………………………………………………..….iii List of Illustrations……………………………………………………….………………..……x List of Abbreviations…………………………………….……..……………………………….xi Introduction: A Cup of Pess(imism)………………………………………………………………1 The Army Goes Reefer Mad: The Origins of a Drug War in Vietnam……………………………………………………..……..3 The Cold-War Roots of Vietnam Drug Policy: The Army’s Early Interest in the Problems of Narcotics; or, the Army and Narcotics before and after 1971……..10 The World the Machines Made: Defense Technology and the Promises and Limits of Drug Control………………….…..………….……………………15 Roadmap………………………………….……………………………………..……….18 Chapter Page 1 Toxic Correlations: The Armed Forces Institute of Pathology and the Origins of Operation Golden Flow………………………………………………………………20 Introduction: February 1971……………………………………………………………..20 “A True Academic Environment for the Future”: The Armed Forces Institute of Pathology and the Organization of Medical Innovation in the Cold War, 1950-1960………………………………………………………..28 Leo Goldbaum and the Instruments of Chemistry: The ROY G. BIV of Toxicology, 1945-1970………………………………………………………………………..34 Adverse Drug Reactions, the Registry of Tissue Reactions to Drugs, and the Chromatographic Regulation of Pharmaceuticals, 1960-1975……………..……44 !vii Operation Golden Flow and Its Discontents: February to August, 1971 and Beyond…..54 Conclusion……….………………………………………………………………………63 2 Kennels of Control: Military-Science-Industry Collaboration, the Invention of Drug-Sniffing Dogs, and the Brittle Narco-State, 1962-1973………………………….……….66 Introduction: Making Scents of the Past…………………………………………….…..66 Finding a Home for Detector Dogs: Sensory Research on Canines in the Age of Counterinsurgency, 1960-1965…………………………………………………73 “We Are Built to Predict and Control”: Researchers, the DOD, and the Institutionalization of Experimental Sensory Research, 1945-1975…………………………….……………………………….85 Up in Smoke: The Army’s First Dope Dogs and the Elusive Military-Science-IndustryComplex, 1969-1973…………………………..……101 Conclusion…………………………………………………………………………..…112 3 “You Just Puke and Earn Points”: Treating Heroin Addicts at Fort Bragg, NorthCarolina, 1970-1971………………………………………………..……………….……115 Introduction: On the Origins of a Social Medicine…………………………………..…115 A “Sudden, Fantastic Increase”: The Social Setting of Medical Alternative’s; or, Tolson’s Dilemma……………………………….…………………………..….118 “Crews’s Pad”: The Work of the Clinic……………………………………………..….133 Recovery from What?: Patients Describe Their New Lives as Addicts………………..147 Diagnostic Legitimacy in Institutional Context: Challenges to Medical Optimism and the End of the Clinic………..………………………155 Conclusion: About Face? Says Who?…………………………………………….….…163 4 The Many Lives of Drug Facts: The Burdens of Knowing in an Information Revolution; or, The Information-less Society?…………………………………………………………..…..165 Introduction: Talking Dope……………………………………………………………..165 !viii Paper Wars: Drug-Use Surveys in an Age of Paperwork………………………….……171 Into the Data Hopper: Crime
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