AEMI JOURNAL • VOLUME

AEMIJOURNAL Volume 10 • 2012

10 • 2012

www.aemi.dk Association of European Migration Institutions AEMIJOURNAL

Volume 10 • 2012

Special Issue on

‘Migration History Matters’

Editor Hans Storhaug

Association of European Migration Institutions www.aemi.dk

AEMI Journal Editor

Hans Storhaug

Editorial board: Brian Lambkin, Mellon Centre for Migration Studies at Ulster- American Folk Park, Omagh, Northern Ireland Maddalena Tirabassi, Centro Altreitalie, Torino, Italy Layout and design: Hans Storhaug

The Association of European Migration Institutions - AEMI, founded in 1991, is a network of organisations in Europe concerned with the documentation, research and presentation of European migration.

AEMI board: Hans Storhaug, Chairman Maddelena Tirabassi, Vice-chair Sarah Clement, Secretary Eva Meyer Jens Topholm Adam Walaszek

Manuscripts and editorial correspondence regarding AEMI Journal should be sent by e-mail to [email protected]. Statements of facts or opinion in AEMI Journal are solely those of the authors and do not imply endorsement by the editors or publisher.

Published in September 2012 © AEMI ISSN 1729-3561 AEMI - Secretariat, Arkivstraede 1, Box 1731, DK - 9100 Aalborg, Denmark Phone: + 45 99314230 Fax: + 45 98102248 E-mail: [email protected] Internet: www.aemi.dk

Printed in Norway by Omega Trykk, Stavanger Contents

5 From the Editor

6 Protocol of the AEMI 2011 meeting in Aalborg, Denmark

12 Chairman´s Report 2010 - 2011

28 Remarks by Ambassador Laurie S. Fulton, AEMI Dinner, September 29, 2011, Utzon Center, Aalborg, Denmark

30 Bente Jensen: ‘Foreigners in Denmark-Danes Abroad’ - Reflections on Results and Method in a Project about Migration and Identity

37 Henrik Bredmose Simonsen: Migration History with a New Focus - Values and Identities of Grundvigian Danish-Americans Today

49 Nonja Peters: Selling a Dream - Expectation versus Reality - Post War Dutch and Other Migrations to Australia 1945-1970

64 Metka Lokar: Hat or Cap...Does it Matter? The Case of Kosovo Albanians in Slovenia

75 Janja Žitnik Serafin: Louis Adamic´s Role in the Prehistory of Multiculturalism

82 Dietmar Osses: Polish Immigrants in Westphalia - A European Case Study of Integration

89 Maria Beatriz Rocha-Trindade: Brazil and France An Historical Overview of the Two Main Flows in the Portuguese Diaspora

99 Snježana Gregurović and Dubravka Mlinarić: The Challenges of Migration Policies in Croatia: Migration History, Trends and Prospects

114 Brian Lambkin: Irish Migrants and an Irish Migrant Object aboard ‘Titanic’

126 Hans Storhaug: Norwegian Immigration Policy and the 22 July 2011 Terrorist Attacks in Oslo From the Editor

This year I am particularly proud to present to you our tenth volume of the AEMI Journal. On this occasion it may be suitable to remind you of the words of our long-serving past Chairman Brian Lambkin, who in the introduction to the first volume expressed his hope that the AEMI Journal might succeed its aim of promot- ing communication and co-operation between members of the Association and of raising public awareness of the activities of the Association and its members. The fact that we have succeeded in organising our annual meetings and publishing ten volumes of the Journal proves indeed that we have managed to bring that hope to fruition. The tenth volume of the AEMI Journal is dedicated to the theme Migration His- tory Matters. In addition to the reflections of the American Ambassador to Den- mark, Laurie S. Fulton, on what it is like to be Danish- American today, the Journal contains ten articles more or less reflecting on how the lives of immigrants of the past have strong relevance for the understanding of multicultural Europe today. In this regard I would like to draw your attention in particular to Bente Jensen´s article ‘Foreigners in Denmark-Danes Abroad’ - Reflections on Results and Method in a Project about Migration and Identity, in which she tells us how stories of Danish emigrants´ experiences became an eye-opener and starting point for self-reflection among immigrants in Aalborg city in the 1990s. Nonja Peters´ article Selling a Dream - Expectation versus Reality - Post War Dutch and Other Migrations to Australia 1945-1970 problematizes Dutch new- comers apparently rapid assimilation to Australia´s Britishness, making them ‘invis- ible’ and developing a ‘closet culture’ and causing their children´s loss of language which prevented many from being able to communicate with sick, ageing parents. Also Janja Žitnik Serafin, who at the annual meeting in Stavanger in 2002 made the proposal of making a Journal for the documentation of our work, has an article on Louis Adamic´s Role in the Prehistory of Multiculturalism. Here she documents Adamic’s continuous work for equality on behalf of marginalized groups, and rec- ogntion of their languages, religion, values and cultural patterns in the United States without threatening the dominant culture. Adamic´s ‘recipe’ from the 1930s is well worth re-consideration as we seek to meet the challenges of migration in Europe today.

Hans Storhaug, Editor The Association of European Migration Institutions Protocol of the Annual Meeting

28 September - 2 October 2011 Aalborg, Denmark

Members of the Association of European Migration Institutions (AEMI) and other migration researcher met for a three day conference at the Utzon Centre in the city of Aalborg, Denmark. The conference was hosted by the Danish Emigration Archives.

Wednesday, 28 September 2011 - Why does migration history matters? Conference members met at the Danish - What is going on in your migration in- Emigration Archives for registration and stitutions that we should know about? an informal get-together. - What would you like AEMI to do in the next three years? Thursday, 29 September 2011 Chairman of association gave a short Welcome speeches by Deputy mayor of introduction to the history of AEMI, the city of Aalborg, Helle Fredriksen, focusing on three key questions: Manager at the Utzon Centre, Anni AEMI annual meeting 2011, aalborg, denmark 7 Walther, Director of the Danish Em- Trine Lund Thomsen, Return of the Pol- igration Archives, and Chairman of ish peasant AEMI marked the official opening of Martin Bak Jørgensen, Representations annual conference. that travel - How Turkish migrants have been preceived in Denmark The whole day was devoted to papers Bente Jenssen, Foreigners in Denmark and discussions as follows: Maddalena Tirabassi, Migration and the Brian Lambkin, Introduction to foundation of the Italian state Migration History Matters Maria Beatriz Rocha-Trindade, Brazil Torben Tvorup Christensen, Digital and France: A historical overview of the Migration- digitizing the past in order to two main Portuguese Migratory Flows understand the present Nina M. Ray, Standing on the family Henrik Bredmose Simonsen, Migration farm in Tysvær: How did “Kallekodt” be- History with a new focus come “Thompsen”? Cathrine Kyøl Hermansen and Susanne Snjezana Gregurovic and Josip Jensen, Exhibiting Danish Immigration Kumpes, Immigration, integration and Hans Storhaug, Migrapedia the attitudes of Croatian citizens towards Mathias Nilsson, Archival newcomers - immigrants new in inner Scandinavia Brian Lamkin, Irish Emigrants on the Anton Gammelgaard, World migration Titanic Laurie S. Fulton, USA, Denmark and Hans Storhaug, Norwegian Migration migration Today

The day was closed with a guided tour Saturday, 1 October 2011 at Utzon Center, Irish migration music, The morning was devoted to the AEMI and official dinner at the Utzon Center business meeting. At noon the Danish hosted by the Danish Emigration Ar- Emigration Archives organised an ex- chives. cursion to Rebild Bakker (Rebild Hills), since 1912 a gathering place for Dan- Friday, 30 September 2011 ish-Americans celebrating the American The whole day was devoted to further Independence Day 4 July. papers and discussions. Nonja Peters, Selling a dram - expecta- The General Assembly of the tion versus reality - postwar Dutch and Association of European Migration other migration to Australia 1945-1970s. Institutions (AEMI) Metka Lokar, Hat or cap ... does it mat- ter? The case of Albanians in Slovenia Minutes of Meeting Janja Zitnik Serafin, Louis Adamic´s role The General Assembly 2011 was called in the prehistory of multiculturalism to order Saturday 1. October 2011 Dietmar Osses, Polish immigrants in at 10.00 am. by the Chairman Brian Westphalia - A European case study for Lambkin. integration? 8 AEMI JOURNAL 2011 1. Attendance Register and Apologies - The Dunbrody and Ros Tapestry Chairman Brian Lambkin conveyed Project, Dunbrody Famine Ship, New apologies from Snjezana Gregurovic, In- Ross, Ireland, represented by Mr. Sean stitute for Migration and Ethnic Stud- Reidy ies, Zagreb, Croatia and Carlo Stiaccini - The Slovenian Migration Institute, and Fabio Capocaccia, CISEI, Genoa, Ljubljana, Slovenia, represented by Janja Italy. Zitnik Serafin and Metka Lokar It was noted that the following rep- - The Center of Migration Studies resentatives of 19 member institutions and Intercultural Relations Universi- were present: dade Aberta, Portugal, represented by - Génériques, Paris, France, repre- Prof. Maria Beatriz Rocha -Trindade sented by Ms. Sarah Clément - Altreitalie Center on Italian Migra- - The Centre for Documentation of tions, Turin, Italy represented by Prof. Human Migration (CDMH), Dudel- Maddalena Tirabassi ange, - The North Frisian Emigrant Ar- Luxembourg, represented by Mr. chive, represented by Dr. Paul-Heinz Dario Cieol Pauseback. - LWL Industrial Museum Hannover - The Institute of Diaspora and Eth- Colliery – Westphalian State Museum nic Studies, Jagiellonian University, of Industrial Heritage and Culture, Bo- Krakow, Poland, represented by Prof. chum, Germany, represented by Dr. Di- Adam Walaszek etmar Osses - The Danish Emigration Archives, - The Center for Intercultural Stud- Aalborg, Denmark, represented by Mr. ies, Johannes Gutenberg-Universität, Jens Topholm and Mr. Torben Tvorup Mainz, Germany, represented by Ms. Christensen Heike Sabri - The Danish Immigration Museum, - The Directorate for Relations with Denmark, represented by Ms. Cath- Basque Communities Abroad, Basque rine Kyø Hermansen and Ms. Susanne Country, represented by Mr. Benan Krogh Jensen Oregi Inurrieta - The Centre for Migration Stud- - The Åland Islands Emigrant Insti- ies at The Ulster-American Folk Park, tute, Mariehamn, Åland, represented by Omagh, Northern Ireland, represented Ms. Eva Meyer by Dr. Brian Lambkin - The Norwegian-American collec- - The Migration, Ethnicity, Refugees tion, National Library of Norway, Oslo, and Citizenship Research Unit, Curtin represented by Ms. Dina Tolfsby University, Perth, Australia, represented - The Norwegian Emigration Center, by Dr. Nonja Peters Stavanger, represented by Mr. Hans Storhaug The Chairman then moved that Pro- - The Swedish American Center, Karl- fessor Adam Walaszek be elected Pre- stad, Sweden, represented by Mr. Mathias siding Officer of the General Assembly. Nilsson and Mr. Erik Gustavson The motion was agreed and Professor Walaszek took the chair. AEMI annual meeting 2011, aalborg, denmark 9 2. Minutes of Annual General Assembly major four issues he had focused on. of AEMI 2. October 2010 at Euskalduna The Chairman thanked all the Board Congress Palace, Bilbao, Basque Country, members for their work during the years Spain in benefit of AEMI. The Minutes of the General Assembly The Presiding Officer thanked the at Euskalduna Congress Palace, Bilbao, Chairman for his presentation and Basque Country, Spain 2. October 2010 moved the adoption of the report. The were approved as accurate records. meeting adopted the motion. http://www.aemi.dk/publications/Min- utes%20of%20the%20AEMI%20 4. Secretary’s Report, 2010-2011 annual%20meeting%202010.pdf Secretary Jens Topholm noted that AE- MI’s secretary in 2010-11 had commu- 3. Chairman’s Report, 2010-2011 nicated messages to and from members Referring to the full text at the AEMI and research institutions on the topic of website http://www.aemi.dk/publications/ Migration. He could also confirm that Chairmans%20Report%202010%20 AEMI has received no new membership 2011%20Final.pdf, the Chairman applications. noted that it was a long report, due to Regarding AEMI website the secre- the fact that he was stepping down tary has communicated with the com- and wanted to give a historical resume. pany that developed the website. The In his presentation Brian Lambkin fo- clear advice was to create a complete cused on four major issues: new platform. The secretary could ad 1) The initiation of the AEMI Journal that facebook, twitter etc. are social in Stavanger 2002 to keep and promote media that has to be part of AEMI plans the records and presentations of the An- for new ways of communication. nual Meetings. This was followed by a At the AEMI board meeting April special thanks to Hans Storhaug. 2011 in Aalborg Jens Topholm stated 2) The need to upgrade and reconstruct that he will retire as sectary this year. the AEMI website Due to that it seemed sensible that the 3) The idea of creating portals like Mi- ongoing work with the construction of grapedia and Migraport new communicative platforms will be 4) The project Migrations Heritage part of the new sectary’s job. Routes, including thanks to Antoinette The AEMI website.dk will be archived Reuter and a general focus on interna- as PDF files, so that the many docu- tional networking and collaboration ments can be preserved for further use with Unesco and other associations on and historical research on the work of the theme migration. AEMI. Brian Lambkin concluded that the The Presiding Officer thanked the AEMI annual meetings all had played Secretary for his report and moved the a strong role and held high standards. adoption of the report. The meeting He also noted that there is still a lot be adopted the motion. done and new challenges relating to the 10 AEMI JOURNAL 2011 5. Treasurer’s Report: Financial statement 8. Journal Editor’s Report, 2010-2011 and accounts, 2010 Hans Storhaug, Editor of the AEMI Treasurer Eva Meyer introduced the Journal, presented the new journal 2010 AEMI subscriptions paid and the ac- and noted that 7 presentations out of 15 counts 2010 http://www.aemi.dk/publi- in Bilbao were in the Journal. It would cations/Account%202010%20and%20 be possible to have more presentations Budget%202012.pdf. from the Aalborg meeting in the Jour- The Auditor Erik Gustavson con- nal, and Hans Storhaug had also talked firmed that he was satisfied with the with the American Ambassador Laurie Accounts for 2010 and had signed S. Fulton about giving a paper. The call them. There were no further comments for papers for the next year’s Journal is no and questions. The Presiding Officer later than 15. December 2011. The Pre- thanked the Treasurer for her presenta- siding Officer thanked the Editor for his tion and moved the adoption of the presentation and moved the adoption of Treasurer’s Report. The meeting adopted the Editor’s report. The meeting adopted the motion. the motion.

6. Appointment of Auditor for 2011-2012 9. Admission of New Members Mr. Erik Gustavson was proposed as There had been no new official applica- Auditor of AEMI 2011-2012. The ap- tions for membership. Sarah Clément pointment was adopted unanimously. mentioned new possibilities in Berlin The Chairman Brian Lambkin thanked and Benan Oregi Inurrieta in Spain. Erik Gustavson for his work in the year Heike Sabri noted an institute in Beirut past. and Adam Walaszek a new museum in Poland – all possible new members. 7. Proposed Budget 2012 (Treasurer) Treasurer Eva Meyer proposed a budget 10. Election of new Board 2011-2014 for 2012 http://www.aemi.dk/publica- Hans Storhaug was elected as new tions/Account%202010%20and%20 chairman, Maddalena Tirabassi as new Budget%202012.pdf vice-chairman and Sarah Clément as new There were questions to the web-page secretary. Eva Meyer and Hans Storhaug cost and the amount to create a new web- continue as treasurer and editor and Jens site. It was noted that is very difficult to Topholm will be board member 2011-12 be completely precise. There were several as host of the 2011 Annual Meeting. suggestions from the assembly to make All elections were unanimously accepted new incomes like raising the annual sub- and applauded by the members. scription, pay for AEMI Journals, and The new chairman gave a short speech introduce a fee for participation in the confirming that he, as one of the found- annual conference. With these remarks ing fathers, would represent continuity. to be considered by the new board the He also advocated new ideas, focusing Presiding Officer moved the adoption of on a broader European perspective and the Treasurer’s Proposed Budget 2012. more digital communication between The meeting adopted the Budget. board and members. AEMI annual meeting 2011, aalborg, denmark 11 11. Members projects 14. Any Other Businessess Member projects had been discussed at Sarah Clément suggested that next the first day of the Annual Meeting in year’s annual meeting should be filmed the member’s workshops and plenum at and presented at the internet and Benan the Danish Emigration Archives. Oregi Inurrieta suggested that AEMI should work for new funding. These 12. Review of Annual Meeting 2011 were the last businesses announced. There was general satisfaction with 2011 Janja Zitnik Serafin expressed the mem- meeting, the organization, facilities, the bers thanks to Brian Lambkin for his a program, the combination of the Utzon work as chairman, and Brian Lambkin Center and the Danish Emigration Ar- thanked all the AEMI colleagues and chives – and the weather! The members the Danish Emigration Archives staff supported the new idea of workshops for this year’s Annual Meeting, which and there were suggestion to upgrade was concluded at 11.30 am. member workshops and also consider the possibility of a preconference on specific topics.

13. Venue, Date and Agenda of Annual Meeting 2012 Regarding the AEMI Conference 2012 Chairman Brian Lambkin reported that The Institute of Diaspora and Eth- nic Studies, Jagiellonian University, Krakow, Poland represented by Prof. Adam Walaszek had made an invitation to hold AEMI’s Annual Meeting 2012 in Krakow. The invitation was unani- mously accepted. It was also noted that Wolfgang Grams had made a special invitation to AEMI members to join the Queen Mary 2 from Hamburg to New York and Brian Lambkin recommended the members to consider this fine offer from Routes to the Roots. http://www.aemi.dk/publications/ QM2%20Info%20AEMI.pdf

The Association of European Migration Institutions, Chairman´s Report 2010-2011

Chairman Brian Lambkin, flanked by Secretary Jens Topholm and Adam Walaszek, Presiding Officer of the General Assembly meeting at the Danish Emigration Archives in Aalborg, Denmark 1 October 2011.

Ladies and Gentlemen: It is my privilege to be reporting to you Having reminded us of the origins as Chairman for the ninth year in succes- of the Association – the initial meet- sion, and since this is the final occasion ings in Aalborg and Stavanger in 1989 on which I shall do so, I should like to and 1990 and the first formal meeting, begin by recalling the words of our pre- now twenty years ago, in Bremerhaven vious Chairman, Knut Djupedal of the in 1991, he set out the philosophy by Norwegian Emigrant Museum, when which he had sought to guide us dur- he handed over to me at our Annual ing his period of office. Our concern, Meeting in 2002 in Stavanger, Norway. he said, is with ‘one of the central as- chairman´s report 2011 13 pects of the human condition: the thanks largely to the hard work of its movement of individuals and groups, founding Editor, Hans Storhaug. and the consequent meeting of peoples After that meeting in Lisbon last of different races, languages, cultures year, a small group representing AEMI and social organizations. Coming as we travelled to northern Portugal to lend do, he said, from Finland to Portugal our support to Dr Miguel Monteiro and from Croatia to Iceland, speaking and his colleagues in the municipality twelve different native languages, and of Fafe who were planning a Museum coming from countries which occasion- of Emigration, building on the town’s ally have had rather frosty relations, it particularly strong historic connection has been important for us to spend time with Brazil, evident in its architecture ‘getting comfortable with each other’, of where the ‘Brazilian Houses’, built by and to keep in mind that a fundamen- returned emigrants, are a special feature. tal basis of the Association is ‘friendly communication across boundaries, the In 2004 we met in Växjö, Sweden, counterweight to angry communication hosted by Dr Per Nordahl and his col- through violence’. leagues at the Swedish Emigrant Insti- We met the following year in Lisbon tute. in 2003, hosted by Professor Armando I reported that although the Board Oliveira and Professor Maria Beatriz had not met face-to-face in the course Rocha-Trindade and their colleagues in of the year, our effort had been mainly the Open University there. I reported directed towards three main objectives: that the Board had met three times that completion of an application for the year in Luxembourg, including a trip European Migration Heritage Route to Strasbourg to make a presentation Project to the European Union-funded to the Council of Europe. I should like Culture 2000 programme, which was to pay tribute in particular to the gen- done in November 2003; preparation erous support and work of Antoinette for a pilot European Migration Heritage Reuter and her colleagues in the Centre Week programme in October 2004; and des Documentations in Dudelange, not production of the second issue of the least for putting us in touch with Michel AEMI Journal. The anticipated results Thomas-Pennette, Director of the Eu- of the European Migration Heritage ropean Institute of Cultural Routes Route project were: (http://www.culture-routes.lu ) and his • Enlargement the Association of colleagues in Luxembourg . European Migration Institutions In Lisbon, we were on the verge of to include one member institution submitting a major application to the in each European state and the- EU Culture 2000 programme for the reby a more inclusive and effective ‘European Migration Heritage Route’ project, which became a major topic trans-European network focused on for discussion amongst members. Also migration heritage in Lisbon we celebrated the appearance • Value added to European Migra- of the first edition of the AEMI Journal, tion Heritage through development 14 AEMI JOURNAL 2011 of a new on-line ‘European Migra- pean Itinerary of Migration Heritage’ tion Heritage Resources Portal which showcased the achievements of • Enhanced awareness of European the Cultural Routes programme of the Migration Heritage through esta- European Institute of Cultural Routes. blishment of a new, annual ‘Euro- If we needed any further convincing, this excellent conference impressed pean Migration Heritage Week’ upon us how successful the European (October), including an events Institute of Cultural Routes has been in programme, advertised and co-or- promoting a huge range of ‘routes’ or dinated by the enlarged Association ‘itineraries’, and how important it was of European Migration Institutions for us to make sure that the theme of Network migration was well represented. • Improved access to European A most pleasant and very exciting oc- Migration Heritage through esta- casion during that year was the official blishment of a new ‘European opening of the new Emigration Mu- seum in Bremerhaven, Germany – the Migration Heritage Route’ Deutsches Auswandererhaus – on Mon- day 8 August. I was delighted to be there As it turned out, we were not successful on behalf of the Association along with with the funding application. Neverthe- our immediate past Chairman Knut less, through the experience of putting Djupedal, Antoinette Reuter and Wolf- together our application we learned a gang Grams. The Association received great deal about ourselves as an Asso- distinguished mention in the speeches. ciation and our capacity and appetite So did our long-standing member Jür- for delivering such an ambitious pro- gen Rudloff and his colleagues of the gramme and these remained our strate- Förderverein Deutsches Auswander- gic goals. ermuseum. It must have been be par- In Växjö we welcomed several new ticularly gratifying for them to see their members, launched the second issue of dream realised in such an impressive our AEMI Journal, heard many interest- new building. We should remember here ing papers on the theme of ‘Connecting with gratitude that it was Jürgen and his Contemporary Migration with the Past’ colleagues who hosted the meeting in and engaged in discussion. 1991 at which the decision was taken When we met in Paris in 2005, hosted to formally launch our Association. We by Driss El Yazami and his colleagues in should also remember them hosting our Generiques, in the splendid setting of Annual Meeting Bremerhaven in 2000 the House of Europe, I reported that the when the announcement of funding Board had had one face-to-face meeting for the new museum was made. Those in the course of the year, in Luxembourg, of us who were in Växjö may well also thanks again to Antoinette Reuter and remember the presentation of the new her colleagues, as part of a seminar and museum given to us by Simone Eick and major conference organised by the Cen- her assurance that even though building tre des Documentations on ‘The Euro- had not even begun at that stage that it chairman´s report 2011 15 would be ready to open in August 2005 few weeks later – a powerful reminder of – as indeed it was! what can happen when migration policy does not work. What I said at the time of the opening This completed my first three-year was that ‘members of AEMI through- term as Chairman. out Europe and beyond will be thrilled that this project has come to such suc- In 2006 we were in Trogir, Croatia cessful fruition and it will be a great for our Annual Meeting, hosted by Silva encouragement to them. It is difficult Meznaric and her colleagues at the Insti- to think of more pressing challenge in tute for Ethnic and Migration Research, Europe today than that presented by Zagreb. The venue for the Annual Gen- migration. What we know from history eral Meeting that year was most un- is that rapid social change rarely takes usual. In keeping with our theme, the place painlessly and there needs to be se- whole meeting was truly migratory, be- rious investment in education if people ginning in the beautiful mainland town are to adjust smoothly to new circum- of Trogir and then moving to the island stances. Making the link between Eu- of Vis on board the ‘Adriatic Paradise’, rope’s long tradition of emigration to its with the Annual General Meeting being ‘New World’ and current immigration held on the return journey, against the is vital to our future well being and this noise of the ship’s engines. new museum is a splendid example of I reported that it had not proved investment that helps us to make that possible for the full Board to have a link. … We look forward to working face-to-face meeting that year bu that with this excellent new institution in Hennig Bender, our then Secretary and taking a leading role in the development Treasurer and I had been able to meet, of migration studies world-wide.’ once more at a seminar in Luxembourg, In Paris we welcomed several new which included a series of papers on members, launched the third issue of Migration Database, thanks to the Cen- our AEMI Journal and heard many tre des Documentations in Dudelange. interesting papers on the theme of One important development that I was ‘Cinema, Literature and Migration’. I able to draw attention to was the publi- remember in particular the guided tour cation of the ‘Migration Heritage Map we had round the Palais de la Porte of Germany’ by the German National Doré, which was under renovation as Tourist Office (www.cometogermany.com) the site of the new national museum of with the assistance of Wolfgang Grams, immigration history, Cité de l’histoire de which has since provide an inspiration l’immigration, which was due to open in and model to others. Another useful April 2007. I also recall the fascinating model was the migration tour of Paris tour of Paris by bus, designed by the and associated brochure developed by staff of Génériques, based on the theme Génériques. of migration and our visit to the Bel- I also reported that just as we had leville district, which was to feature so been delighted the previous year to wel- prominently in the news after riots there come as new members the Museum of 16 AEMI JOURNAL 2011 Emigration and Communities in Fafe, volving collaboration primarily between Portugal, represented by Miguel Mon- Stavanger, Norway and Liverpool, Eng- teiro, and the Kinship Center, Karlstad, land, in which Hans Storhaug took a Sweden, represented by Erik Gustav- leading role. Our colleagues in Dudel- son, we were now pleased to welcome ange were also then planning an impor- intentions to apply for membership tant migration project for 2007 when from representatives of the Cité natio- Luxembourg would be European Cap- nale de l’histoire de l’immigration, Paris ital of Culture. and the Association pour la Maison de la Memoire de l’emigration des Pyre- In 2007 the Annual Meeting took nees at du Sud-Ouest de la France, and place in Finland for a second time, also to receive an application for asso- kindly hosted in Turku once more by ciate membership from the Lower East Olavi Koivukangas and his colleagues at Side Tenement Museum, New York. It the Institute of Migration in their splen- was also a special pleasure to welcome did new premises. Benan Oregi from the government of I reported that the Board had held the Basque country who had visited sev- one face-to-face meeting during the year eral member institutions, including my 2-3 July in Aalborg, Denmark, thanks own, that summer. to the hospitality of the Secretary and I also said that the opening of a na- Treasurer, Henning Bender. There we tional museum concerned with migra- reviewed our Strategic Plan, noting that tion in France in April 2007 would be since the Annual Meeting in Portugal a major development in our field, like (2003), the Association has gained 7 the opening of the German Emigrant new members (in Croatia; in Germany Museum in August 2005. I said ‘all the (Ballinstadt); in Italy (Genoa); in Portu- indications are that migration will re- gal (Fafe); in Scotland (Scots Abroad); main an issue at the top of the political in Sweden (Kinship Center and Im- agenda for all the countries of Europe migrant Institute). Regrettably, we had for the foreseeable future, whether as also lost 4 members in Iceland; Ireland mainly receiving countries or sending (Dunbrody); in Germany (Hamburg); countries, and the force of the argument in Italy (Rome); in Denmark (Farum). for more investment in migration stud- We also noted that some member in- ies of all kinds is increasingly apparent. stitutions had paid subscriptions con- The better we understand our migration sistently but never managed to send a heritage, the more likely we are to make representative to an Annual Meeting, good decisions about current migration and we discussed possible ways of en- policy and respond well as citizens to couraging them to do so. the challenges that current migration We also discussed the conference brings’. on Migration Museums that was held One major project that several of our 23-25 October 2006 in Rome, jointly member institutions were then engaged organized by UNESCO and IOM with in exemplified this well. This was the the objective of exchanging information Youth and Migration Project 2008, in- on the role of migration museums in chairman´s report 2011 17 promoting migration integration pol- leagues in Luxembourg in working icies and cultural diversity. This was a closely with the European Institute of major new initiative in our field and Cultural Routes. four of our member institutions were Another highlight that year was the represented at the conference (Maria official opening in July 2007, immedi- Beatriz Rocha-Trindade and Miguel ately after the Board meeting in Den- Monteiro from Portugal, Miguel Benito mark, of the Museum of Emigation and from Sweden and Agnès Arquez-Roth Communities in Fafe, Portugal. I am from France). glad to have been able to attend that In Finland we noted with pleasure the occasion on behalf of the Association at announcement in May that Simone Eick the invitation of Miguel Monteiro and and her colleagues at the German Emi- his colleagues. As I have already men- gration Center, Bremerhaven had been tioned, after the Annual Meeting in awarded the title of European Museum Lisbon 2003, hosted by Maria Beatriz of the Year, 2007. Another gratifying de- Rocha-Trindade, some of us made the velopment in July that year was the offi- journey north to the town of Fafe to be cial opening in Hamburg of BallinStadt shown the ambitious plans for this new – ‘Port of Dreams – Emigrant World museum. Some of us wondered if they Hamburg’, and we were delighted that were not being overly ambitious, requir- Ursula Wöst from BallinStadt was there ing as they did the full backing of the with us in Finland to give a first-hand municipal authority. What impressed account of the project. me especially at the splendid opening So far as the work of the Association was how wholeheartedly not only the as a whole was concerned, the main municipal authority but also the na- highlight of the year was the news from tional government was supporting this Antoinette Reuter in Luxembourg that imaginative project that daringly in- our ‘Migration Heritage Route’ had corporates the evidence of migration been officially approved by the Council that is to be found in the townscape, in of Europe in April, and that there was to buildings such as the so-called ‘Brazil- be a formal presentation of the charter ian’ houses. at a special ceremony to be held in Lux- One of the benefits of attending the embourg on October 5th at which the opening of the new museum in Fafe, Por- ambassadors of all our countries would tugal, was the opportunity to meet with be present. Luc Gruson and Agnès Arquez-Roth of As Antoinette frequently reminded the Cité Nationale de l’histoire de l’im- us in those years, the main activity as- migration, Paris, and also Carine Rouah sociated with the ‘Migration Heritage of UNESCO who was also in attend- Route’ was ‘Migration Heritage Week’, ance. Carine was one of the main organ- which we designated as 4-14 October. isers of the Rome conference and I am That we have got as far as we did with delighted that she has been able to come this project, I need hardly remind you, to address us here in Finland about her was largely thanks to the initiative and project. In choosing to focus on ‘muse- hard work of Antoinette and her col- ums’, I said that I believed that this wel- 18 AEMI JOURNAL 2011 come initiative may be missing a trick: most impressive’. We were glad to have ‘A main strength of our Association has Benan Oregi at our meeting in Finland been the vision of its founders in seeing to tell us about plans for the Basque Mi- the need for all institutions concerned gration Archives project. with the documentation, research and In Finland I also noted that the Mu- presentation of migration to come to- seums Association would be debating at gether. As we know, migration, relative- its annual conference later that month ly-speaking, is an ‘artefact-poor’ area of in Glasgow ‘Does the UK need a migra- human experience (unless we are pre- tion museum?’, and we looked forward pared to take the imaginative ‘outdoor’ to the official opening of a new national approach of our colleagues in Fafe) and migration museum in France on 10 Oc- our understanding of migration has to tober. rely on the collections of libraries and archives as much as on those of muse- In 2008 the Annual Meeting was in ums. We see this, for example, in the Italy, hosted by Fabio Capocaccia and way that Bremerhaven avoids the exclu- Silvia Martini and their colleagues at sive description of itself as a museum, the International Centre of Italian Em- calling itself the Deutches Auswander- igration Studies (CISEI) in Genoa in erhaus or German Emigration Center, the splendid setting of the Palazzo San incorporating not only a museum but a Giorgio, where the modern system of migration archive that supports family accounting was developed. No doubt history research. many of us who were there have recalled Nevertheless, I urged that we should it to mind in thinking about what has listen carefully to what Carine Rouah been happened subsequently to the had to say to us about how she saw world banking system! things developing and that ‘we should I reported that Fabio and Siliva had be open to new initiatives and propos- not only hosted a visit by Henning als from whatever direction they come, Bender on behalf of the Association in bearing in mind the strategic objectives October 2007, as agreed at our meeting that we have set ourselves’. in Turku, but also a meeting of the Board I was also privileged that year to be in Genoa in April 2008 – both indica- invited to speak about the work of the tions of the commitment of CISEI in Association at the Fourth World Con- bringing AEMI to their new institution. gress of Basque Communities Abroad in The Board meeting in Genoa was par- Bilbao, Euskal Herria, 9-13 July 2007. ticularly valuable because we were able And I reported that ‘if European coun- to bring Carine Rouah from Rome to tries are looking for models for develop- meet with us and continue the very im- ing the way in which they engage with portant discussion that we had begun their diasporas they could hardly do in Turku in 2007 about possible coop- better than to take a close look at how eration between AEMI and the new- our Basque colleagues manage this issue. ly-formed International Network of The level of investment which goes into Migration Museums of which Carine this and the results that are achieved are was the volunteer Project Manager. As chairman´s report 2011 19 an initiative of UNESCO, originating lections of migration records (especially in a conference held in Rome in Oc- passenger lists, letters, photographs, oral tober 2006, the International Network histories, published autobiographies and of Migration Museums aims to offer a biographies) as well as museum collec- Web interface to assist the growth of tions of migration-related objects. The the international network of migration migration museum is a new kind of in- institutions, to support the activities of stitution that should embody the idea of migration museums and to facilitate the partnership between museums, librar- interactions among them. ies, archives and research or study cen- The main concern of the Board at our tres. Your Board argued that it would be meeting in Genoa was to clarify the rela- unfortunate if the name of International tionship between membership of AEMI Network of Migration Museums were to and membership of the International give the impression that museums were Network of Migration Museums. Some being privileged to the detriment of li- but not all AEMI members were already braries, archives, heritage centres and members of this new Network. The research and study centres which share question to be clarified was whether all the objectives of this Network. A pow- AEMI members were eligible for mem- erful way of signalling that this Network bership of the Network. This is an im- is concerned to include all relevant insti- portant issue because AEMI includes, as tutions, we suggested, would be simply its name is intended to indicate, various for it to change its name. I was pleased types of migration institutions as mem- to report that the Network was in the bers: museums, libraries, archives, herit- process of changing its name to the In- age centres and research institutions or ternational Network of Migration Insti- study centres, whereas the name of In- tutions, with the explanatory strap line ternational Network of Migration Mu- – ‘promoting the public understanding seums suggests that it has an exclusive of migration’, see: (http://www.migration- focus on migration museums, as dis- museums.org/web/index.php?page=home). tinct from other types of migration in- Members may recall how I wrote after stitution. Carine Rouah explained that that meeting urging all AEMI members so far as membership of the Network that, given this clarification, we should was concerned it was intended that the all consider joining the International term ‘museum’ should be interpreted Network of Migration Institutions. inclusively rather than exclusively. In- In Genoa we also discussed with Car- stitutions which are not strictly speak- ine how this network might grow over ing museums are already members. All the next five to ten years and it seemed members of AEMI would therefore be likely that in expanding it would need welcome to join the International Net- to develop a regional structure. Insti- work of Migration Museums. tutions in different regions (such as We found ourselves in agreement that North and South America and Austral- the special nature of migration museums asia where there are already important is such that they depend for their success groupings) may find it more practical to on developing archive and library col- come together for face-to-face meetings 20 AEMI JOURNAL 2011 annually - as AEMI does at present in research and study centres which share Europe. A meeting of the global net- the objectives of this Network. A pow- work may then be practical only every erful way of signalling that this Network 3-5 years. is concerned to include all relevant in- Finally, we discussed how we might stitutions, we suggested, would be sim- mitigate the clash in dates of the AEMI ply for it to change its name. I reported Annual Conference in Genoa and the that the Network was in the process of International Conference organized by changing its name to the International Museo de Historia de la Inmigración Network of Migration Institutions, with de Cataluña that was planned to gather the explanatory strap line – ‘promoting members of the International Network the public understanding of migration’, of Migration Museums in October see: (http://www.migrationmuseums.org/ 2008 in Barcelona, Spain, and how best web/index.php?page=home). Members may to promote European Migration Her- recall how I wrote after that meeting itage Week 2008. Unfortunately it did urging all AEMI members that, given not prove practicable to arrange a video this clarification, we should all consider link-up for the programmes of our two joining the International Network of conferences. Migration Institutions. What we managed to agree in princi- In Genoa we also discussed with Car- ple was that instead of having two sepa- ine how this network might grow over rate conferences the following year, the the next five to ten years and it seemed International Network would co-oper- likely that in expanding it would need to ate with AEMI in its Annual Meeting develop a regional structure. Institutions in 2009. in different regions (such as North and We found ourselves in agreement that South America and Australasia where the special nature of migration museums there are already important groupings) is such that they depend for their success may find it more practical to come to- on developing archive and library col- gether for face-to-face meetings annually lections of migration records (especially - as AEMI does at present in Europe. A passenger lists, letters, photographs, oral meeting of the global network may then histories, published autobiographies and be practical only every 3-5 years. biographies) as well as museum collec- Finally, we discussed how we might tions of migration-related objects. The mitigate the clash in dates of the AEMI migration museum is a new kind of in- Annual Conference in Genoa and the stitution that should embody the idea of International Conference organized by partnership between museums, librar- Museo de Historia de la Inmigración de ies, archives and research or study cen- Cataluña that will gather members of tres. Your Board argued that it would be the International Network of Migration unfortunate if the name of International Museums in October 2008 in Barce- Network of Migration Museums were to lona, Spain, and how best to promote give the impression that museums were European Migration Heritage Week being privileged to the detriment of li- 2008. Unfortunately it has not proved braries, archives, heritage centres and practicable to arrange a video link-up chairman´s report 2011 21 for the programmes of our two con- A second development that year was ferences but I trust that there will have initially less happy. Members will recall been some communication between the urgent appeal to the scientific com- Genoa and Barcelona during these days munity and general public made in July to our mutual benefit. by colleagues in the Institute for Mi- What we have managed to agree in gration and Ethnic Studies in Zagreb, principle is that instead of having two Croatia, who kindly hosted our Annual separate conferences next year, the In- Meeting in 2006. This concerned the ternational Network will co-operate manner of the appointment of their with AEMI in its Annual Meeting in new Director and I believe it is a case 2009. It remains to be determined by that illustrates the importance of the our Annual Meeting where exactly our Association. Were our own institutions meeting will take place. As last year in to be faced with a similar situation, to Turku we are in the happy position of whom could we turn? The fact that the having received firm offers from two Institute was prepared to send our old member institutions to host our next friend Ruzica Cicak-Chand to attend meeting in 2008, both in Germany: the our meeting in Genoa as its represent- German Emigration Center in Bremer- ative we took as a good sign that things haven and BallinStadt in Hamburg. I there were on the mend. have been involved in discussions with The third development was alto- both institutions to see if it may be prac- gether a happy one. I was delighted to ticable to combine in some way in the be contacted in August by another old organisation of the programme so that friend of the Association Jürgen Rud- we may have an opportunity to visit the loff in Bremerhaven. As a result of his splendid new facilities of both. long-time dedication to the initiative Another development that year that of building an international emigra- I reported on was the meeting in Brus- tion museum in Bremerhaven, he was sels on 16 May which Antoinette Reuter awarded a medal by the Federal Presi- kindly invited me to attend in order to dent, Horst Köhler. This was presented discuss the development of the Euro- to him at a ceremony on 5 September, pean Migration Heritage Route. Pres- hosted by the Chief Magistrate of the ent at the meeting was Luc Verheyen, senate of the Free Hanseatic City of representing the Red Star Line project Bremen. in Antwerp, which has ambitious plans I reported that I thought that there for opening a new migration museum were signs generally that there was a there in three or four years time. Subse- growing interest in the work of insti- quently, Luc sent his colleague Torsten tutions such as ours and their relevance Feys on a fact-finding mission to various to the whole question of social integra- other AEMI institutions, including our tion. A number of major conferences I own in Northern Ireland, and I am glad thought bore witness to this. These in- to say that Torsten was able to be with cluded the symposium on Intercultural us in Genoa on behalf of his institution Dialogue in March 2007 at the Cité with a view to joining the Association. nationale de l’histoire de l’immigration, 22 AEMI JOURNAL 2011 Paris, which hosted our Annual Meeting was a remarkably successful effort of in- in 2005. We congratulated colleagues ter-institution co-operation. In moving on their successful opening on 10 Oc- between the two institutions we in fact tober 2007. The launch of the splendid were modelling the idea of a European Youth and Migration website, which Cultural Route based on the theme of many members will recall having seen Migration that has been a central con- demonstrated by Hans Storhaug in pre- cern of the Association in recent years. vious years in its pilot stage of develop- In Bremerhaven and Hamburg we ment, was launched in Norway on 25 were joined by Carine Rouah and col- September as part of a youth conference leagues from the International Network that brought together in a ‘Global Vil- of Migration Institutions (INMI). I lage’ over sixty young people from nine expressed gratitude to Jens and Eva for different countries, within the Stavanger their work in the posts of secretary and 2008 programme as European Capital treasurer that were previously combined of Culture along with Liverpool. There in the person of Henning Bender from was also the conference on ‘Musuems, the establishment of the Association Migration and Interculturality’ taking in 1989 until his retirement the previ- place in Barcelona at the same time as ous year. We were also grateful that our our own in Genoa. Coming up later in Journal Editor had been restored to full October there were major conferences in health, having had to miss the previous Berlin and Bonn that were both addres- year’s meeting and had our Journal back sing the issue of migration museums. on track. This was the year that Henning A continuing issue of concern that Bender tendered his resignation as Sec- year had been future cooperation be- retary and Treasurer of the Association tween AEMI and the International Net- having served in those posts since the work of Migration Museums of which initial meeting in Aalborg in 1989. He Carine Rouah was the volunteer Pro- had retired that year as Director of the ject Manager. As an initiative of UNE- Danish Emigrant Archives in Aalborg. SCO, originating in a conference held We thanked Henning warmly for all his in Rome in October 2006, the Interna- sterling work on behalf of the Associa- tional Network of Migration Museums tion, not least in ensuring in his inimi- was established to offer a Web interface table way that we were all more or less to assist the growth of the international prompt in the matter of our subscrip- network of migration institutions, to tion. support their activities, and to facilitate In 2009 the Annual Meeting took the interactions among them. In order place unusually in two venues in Ger- to signal more clearly that the Network many. We were kindly hosted by Si- welcomes to membership not only mu- mone Eick and Aislinn Merz and their seums but also libraries, archives and colleagues at the German Emigration research centres, it had been re-named Center in Bremerhaven and Maja Ber- Network of International Migration ends and her colleagues at the BallinStadt Institutions. I said that at that meeting Emigration Museum in Hamburg. This that ‘I think it is fair to say that we have chairman´s report 2011 23 a shared understanding that the special Spain -another iconic port city of trans- nature of migration museums is such formation. There we were hosted kindly that they depend for their success on de- by Benen Oregi and Andoni Martin and veloping archive and library collections colleagues. of migration records (especially passen- I reported that apart from meeting in ger lists, letters, photographs, oral his- Bilbao immediately before the General tories, published autobiographies and Meeting in the grand surroundings of biographies) as well as museum collec- the Guggenheim Museum, the Board tions of migration-related objects, and had not met together face to face that that the ‘migration museum’ is a new year and I warned that: kind of institution that should embody while this may be economical in the idea of partnership between archives, terms of saving on travel expenses, it libraries, museums and research or study is not a good policy in the long term. centres. We hope therefore that ‘migra- If your Board hopes to give strate- tion institutions’ in both our names will gic direction to the Association be- help to promote this inclusive approach yond the organisation of the Annual and spirit of collaboration’. Meeting and production of the next It was with great regret that year that issue of the Journal, it is important I had to decline kind invitations from that they come together to reflect on Erik Gustavson at the Swedish Amer- progress to date and plan for further ican Center in Karlstad, to attend not development. The value of face-to- one but two splendid events. Neverthe- face meeting is apparent each year at less the Board was at least represented our Annual Meeting where friend- on the first occasion by our Secretary ships are formed and the mutual and Treasurer. I did represent the Asso- trust necessary to sustain common ciation and speak about its work at two projects developed. Therefore I hope conferences in October last year, the that your Board will meet at least first in Berlin on ‘Migration in Muse- once in the coming year, probably in ums – Narratives of Diversity in Europe’ January or February because as we (23-25 Oct) and the second in Bonn approach our twentieth anniversary where the Metropolis included a section year, for there is much to consider. on ‘Mobility, Integration and Develop- I am pleased to be able to report that ment in a Globalised World: Migration your Board did indeed manage to meet Museums’ (27-31 Oct), to which Car- face to face this year in Aalborg, about ine Rouah also contributed. which more later. A particular pleasure that year was The fiftieth anniversary celebration the other half of Ireland was once again of the Swedish-American Center, Karl- represented in the Association by Seán stadt and the fifth anniversary celebra- Reidy, director of the Dunbrody and tions of the German Emigration Center, Ros Tapestry Projects of the JF Kennedy Bremerhaven in 2010 were greatly en- Trust. joyed by the members who were able to In 2010 our Annual Meeting took attend. place in Bilbao in the Basque Country, A matter of regret was that the year 24 AEMI JOURNAL 2011 did not see much progress by way of include a vice-Chair who would in closer cooperation between AEMI and due course serve a term as Chair. the International Network of Migration Institutions (INMI). Nevertheless, a I then quoted an old Basque saying, good sign of growing contact between zenbat buru, hainbat aburu (there are migration institutions within and be- as many options as people) to make the yond Europe was the welcome presence key point: in Bilbao of colleagues from the United we have an Association with con- States and Australia, as also were the siderable achievements to its name strong connections with institutions in in its twenty-year life, thanks largely South America evidenced by our Basque to the foresight and positive spirit and Portuguese colleagues. of its founders, which we plan to celebrated in the next issue of our I concluded my report by saying: Journal. As we contemplate the next There is little doubt that AEMI twenty years, and as our delibera- has the potential to grow into a large tions here have shown, we continue organization. Our association con- to be ambitious in our aspirations tinues to welcome small, medium for the public understanding of mi- and large-sized institutions but the gration mediated through our dif- onus in expanding the Association ferent kinds of member institutions must necessarily fall on the larger in- - museums, libraries, archives and stitutions, which have the resources university-based research centres. better able to support the kind of work involved. As in previous years, Having been indulged this far by your I would again urge members to patience in this review of the work of consider that a sign that that our your Board over the last nine years, I Association will have made the shift turn finally to what we have been doing from a medium-size organisation to over this last year since we met in Bil- a large one will be when the general bao. expectation is that the Chairman of As I mentioned, the Board met this the Board will not normally serve year face-to-face in Aalborg on 4-5 April more than one three-year term. 2011, thanks to the hospitality of Jens Your present Board has one more Topholm and his colleagues. As well as year to run before its three-year helping Jens to plan the programme for term is complete, and also my third this meeting, we gave some thought to term as Chairman and now is the the composition of the new Board to be time to consider urgently how best elected at this Annual General Meet- to bring on new talent while main- ing and the desirability of designating taining some continuity. One way the post of Vice-Chair, which will be of doing this may be to extend the proposed in due course. We also gave membership of the Board (bearing consideration to the strategic aims that in mind the need to achieve a good we are bequeathing to the new Board. gender and geographical balance) to Apart from the Journal, which I hope all chairman´s report 2011 25 agree has been a most worthwhile initia- Albert) to refugees (Ralf Dahren- tive and one to be maintained, our stra- dorf, Isaiah Berlin). It is rarely no- tegic objectives remain threefold: ticed on the migration balance sheet, but our science, philosophy, critical 1. Promotion of the ‘European and spiritual life has been repeatedly Migration Heritage Route’ as shaped and reshaped by newcomers. Cultural Route 2. Development of a new on-line I take this to be a sign of the urgent ‘European Migration Heritage need, not just in Britain, for each coun- Resources Portal’ try to have a ‘focal point’ for the issue 3. Enlargement of the network of migration, such as Ellis Island has of the Association of European become for the United States, Pier 21 Migration Institutions to include for Canada, and our own institutions, at least one member institution to a greater or lesser extent in our coun- in each European state tries – the need for an institution that will promote the public understanding The event that brought home to me of migration in a globalising world that, this year the importance of the work one way or another, makes migrants of that we are about, summed up in the us all. theme of our meeting ‘Migration His- In closing my final Chairman’s report tory Matters’ was receiving an invita- I would like to return to the words of tion to attend a seminar on ‘Migrants the Association’s first Chairman, with and Intellectual Life’ in London on 13 which I opened. Our concern as mem- July in the London School of Econom- bers of the Association of European Mi- ics, organised by those who are promot- gration Institutions is indeed with ‘one ing the idea of a Migration Museum of the central aspects of the human con- for Britain. Amongst the distinguished dition: the movement of individuals and speakers was Sir Harry Kroto, who won groups, and the consequent meeting of the Nobel Prize for Chemistry in 1996. peoples of different races, languages, cul- This is how the seminar was introduced tures and social organizations’ and the (http://www.migrationmuseum.org/2011/05/ fundamental basis of the Association in- early-evening-seminars/) deed remains ‘friendly communication across boundaries, the counterweight Migrants are often presented as a to angry communication through vio- burden, but no one can deny the im- lence’. It has been a great privilege for pact they have had on Britain’s intel- me to have been your Chairman over lectual life. One quarter of Britain’s the last nine years. In commending to Nobel Prize winners in science were you the work of your Board over the last born abroad. Our religious, philo- year I would like to thank you all for sophical and ideological heritage has the confidence you have placed in me often been inspired by migrants, from and for the support that you have given royal patrons (Prince Rupert, Prince to the work of the Association. I believe there is no doubt about the continuing 26 AEMI JOURNAL 2011 importance of the Association in its vital work of promoting the public under- standing of migration; and in carrying that work on I can only wish that you continue to give incoming Board, and the new Chair in particular, the kind of support that will enable the Association to go from strength to strength. Thank you.

Brian Lambkin Chairman, AEMI 22 September 2011 chairman´s report 2011 27

Site of the AEMI conference 2011: The Utzon Center in Aalborg, Denmark. It was the last building to be designed by Jørn Utzon, the architect behind the Sydney Opera House. In collaboration with his son Kim he planned the centre as a place where students of architecture could meet and discuss their ideas for the future. Located on the Limfjord waterfront in the city where Utzon spent his childhood, the building was com- pleted in 2008. (Source:Wikipedia. Photo: Hans Storhaug) Remarks by Ambassador Laurie S. Fulton, AEMI Dinner, September 29, 2011, Utzon Center, Aalborg, Denmark

It is a privilege and honor for me to be businesses. At the time of his death, he with you tonight. I am not a migration had two businesses on Main Street in expert or scholar, but I am pleased to Madison, South Dakota. I know from have this opportunity to meet with those conversations with my Danish relatives of you who are. Many thanks to Dan- that to them, he was the rich American ish Emigration Archives for inviting me uncle. He did well financially, but by to speak at your conference today and American standards, he was solidly mid- to share with you tonight a few remarks dle class. based upon my personal experience and He learned English on-the-job. I observation. never heard him speak Danish except Emigration – immigration is a con- for a simple question and answer when tinuum. One hundred and two years we grandkids begged him: Kan du snak ago, my grandfather emigrated from Danske? Jo, kan du? He returned home Denmark to the United States. His par- to Denmark twice to visit and check on ents and siblings all remained in Den- his family, once after his service in U.S. mark. My grandfather traveled initially Forces Europe in World War I and an- to where his uncle and cousins lived in other after World War II. Minnesota. He followed his American But did he cease to consider him- Dream, owning farms and then small self to be Danish when he became an ambassador laurie s. fulton 29 American citizen? My mother, his old- from faraway countries. est child, grew up feeling a strong con- When one emigrates, she leaves her nection to Denmark. She was a pen home country behind; she immigrates pal with one of her cousins. When we and becomes a citizen of the new host were children, she read us Hans Chris- country. As an American, I know that tensen Andersen stories. We received my country benefitted from the know- Christmas boxes from Danish relatives ledge, cultures and ideas of those who for many years, and we treasured every migrated to our shores, and that the yarn elf, silver spoon, and book about diversity within the melting pot has the royal princesses. I am here in Den- enriched our nation. I observe new cit- mark today as U.S. Ambassador because izens embrace and thrive in American of my grandfather’s migration and the culture, but I also observe -- and ap- pull of this Danish connection. preciate -- that they preserve traditions, I consider myself a Danish-Amer- foods, and songs from their home coun- ican even though by bloodline, I am tries. Perhaps we might consider that one-quarter Danish. If you ask my chil- the emigration-immigration continuum dren, they will also consider themselves lasts into the next generation. My wish to be ‘Danish’ because of the strength of is that others can enjoy the pride in their the familial bond and because as teenag- heritage that I find in considering my- ers and near-adults, I brought them to self to be a Danish-American. visit their Danish relatives. Recently I met a young Dane who Background was born here, speaks perfect Danish, Laurie S. Fulton was sworn in as an U.S. Ambas- sador to Denmark on July 15, 2009. Before being considers himself Danish although his appointed, MS. Fulton was a Partner at Williams & parents were born in Pakistan, where Connolly LLP, where she had a national practice in some of his extended family lives. He complex litigation, internal investigations and white collar criminal defense. In 2004, she was named on asked me a very tough question. Refer- of ‘Washington´s Top Lawyers’ by the Washingto- ring to all the ‘hyphenated Americans’ nian Magazine. – like Danish-Americans, Indian-Amer- Ms. Fulton has co-chaired the Criminal Litigation icans, Asian-Americans –he asked why Committee of the Section of Litigation of the Amer- ican Bar Association. She was appointed and con- he couldn’t be a ‘hyphenated’ Paki- firmedU .S. Senate to serve on the Board of Directors stani-Dane. He questioned why he of the United States Institue of Peace from 2004 to should deny his Pakistani heritage just 2008, and serves as Co-Chair of USIP´s International Advisory Council. She has been active in non-profits because he is Danish. and community organizations such as Bright Begin- As one who is proud of her Danish nings, Inc., Girl Scouts Women´s Advisory Board, heritage, I had to agree with his point. Alumni Admissions Interview Program at George- town Law School and the South Dakota Farmers Un- My understanding of the emigra- ioin Foundation. Priot to entering the field of law, tion-immigration continuum has been Ms. Fulton worked on Capitol Hill and as Executive broadened by my experience as U.S. Director of Peace Links and Access, A Security Infor- Ambassador to Denmark, both from mation Exchange. Ms. Fulton holds a B:A. from the University of Ne- my personal familial experience and braska at Omaha and a J.D., magna cum laude from from my interaction with young Danes Georgetown University. whose families immigrated to Denmark ‘Foreigners in Denmark – Danes Abroad’ - Reflections on Results and Method in a Project about Migration and Identity

Bente Jensen

Introduction the meeting with a foreign culture, and This article presents the results and the alterations and changes in the im- method of the project; ‘Det fremmede migrants’ identities in the meeting with i det danske - det danske i det fremmede’ Danish culture. At the same time the (Foreigners in Denmark – Danes Abroad.) process and the outreach of the project The project was conducted in 2001 by constituted a cultural meeting place. The Danish Emigration Archives and The project ‘Foreigners in Denmark – Aalborg City Archives. It was a part of Danes Abroad’ was conducted in 2000 a nationwide culture ministry project: and 2001 by The Danish Emigration Danish identity in the Past, Present, Archives and Aalborg City Archives. But and Future. Interviews were undertaken why present and discuss a ten year old with Vietnamese, Palestinian, and So- project? The two archives wish to claim mali immigrants in Aalborg. The groups that it is still possible to learn from the represent three waves of immigration in project and discuss the methods used in the 1970s, 1980s and 1990s and with this field of work and last but not least: Danish emigrants in the area outside the archives were happy to share the Malaga, Spain’s Costa del Sol from the results and the perspectives of the pro- same period. The groups were asked ject at the AEMI conference 2011 as a identical questions about their meeting possible inspiration for similar projects with a new culture. Focus was on how where emigration and immigration are the respondents related to the ‘other’ researched together as ‘migration’ with a culture. Archives were also collected focus on identity as a point of departure. from the societies of the various groups. The aim of the project was through the gathering of new knowledge and in ‘Foreigners in Denmark – Danes the processing and dissemination to be Abroad’ co-creator of a new culture, where values​​ The project ran for six months and focus meet or encountered against each other. was on the experience of moving to a Focus was on documenting the altera- foreign culture during the last 30 years. tions and adaption of Danish identity in Among the themes were the change and Bente jensen 31 adaption of a new identity and on the The project was a part of a nationwide participation and the integration of dif- project supported by the Danish Minis- ferent groups in their new home coun- try of Culture: ‘Danish Identity in the try in general. Past, Present, and Future’. Other themes Four groups were selected: Vietnam- in the project framework were: Changes ese, Palestinians, and Somali immi- in local identity and national identity grants/refugees meetings with Aalborg regarded within Denmark. and Danish emigrants at the Costa del The aim of the project of Aalborg Sol and their meetings with the Spanish City Archives and the Danish Emigra- Society. tion Archives was through the gather- The first three groups represent three ing, processing and dissemination of waves of immigration to Denmark in new knowledge to be co-creator of a the 1970s, 1980s, and 1990s. At the new culture, where values ​​meet or en- same time a considerable number of counter each other. Focus was on docu- Danes emigrated from Denmark to the menting the alterations and adaption of area outside Malaga, the ‘Sun Coast’ of Danish identity in the encounter with Spain. The groups were asked identical foreign cultures, and the alterations and questions about their meetings with a changes in the immigrants’ identities in new culture. Focus was on how the re- the encounter with Danish culture. spondents related to the ‘other’ culture. At the same time the process and the Beside from interviews the meeting was outreach of the project constituted a documented in photos and video. Tra- cultural meeting ground, which meant ditional archival material (documents, not only the results but also the process letters, diaries, photographs etc.) were played an important and integrated part also collected from the societies of the in the project. various groups. Background The inspiration came from everyday ob- servations at the archives connected to the junction between emigration and immigration. On one hand it seemed that the stories about the ‘classical’ Dan- ish emigrants’ experiences from USA, Australia, and New Zealand, in the 19th century and onwards served as an ‘eye opener’ for the immigrants in Aalborg in the 20th century. The encounter with the past served to initiate a discussion, and history functioned as an initiator for thoughts about one´s own identity. The Danish Church near Malaga under construction Parallel development and differences in 2001. Photo: Anna Ørnemose Rasmussen across time and space created debate. 32 AEMI JOURNAL 2011 Many foreigners came forward with their and nostalgia, to more general cultural own immigrant experience triggered by aspects and topics - topics that make the images of the emigrant ship, passen- the history and the archives relevant to gers on the third class, the long queues groups not familiar with Aalborg from at the reception station, Ellis Island, in childhood. New York and the reports of the expec- tations for life in a new country from Theory the letters and diaries in the Danish Em- The theoretical assumption behind the igration Archives. project was that there is not only one The stories of foreigners’ experiences way to be Danish, Spanish, Somali, in Aalborg over the last 150 years had etc. but a wide range of ways - and the same effect. It was important for consequently also many ways to relate new immigrants to obtain the knowl- to society in the country you live in. edge that they are not the first to immi- The encounter with a foreign culture grate to Aalborg. It gives a perspective is tackled quite differently even within in life as an immigrant or refugee in an- the different ethnic groups. other country to know that you are part The aim of the project ‘Foreigners of a long string of immigrations and in Denmark – Danes Abroad’ was to meetings between cultures in a Danish focus on Danish identity by illuminat- provincial town as Aalborg: In the 19th ing the diversity of Danish values and century German glassworkers and their foreign values. One central question was families arrived to work on the local glass the importance of migration in self-un- work and in other trades and industries derstanding. Focus was on changes and which required special knowledge as adjustments in the Danish identity in for example photography, that Roman the encounter with a foreign country Catholics immigrated in the 1890s and as Spain and the foreigner adjustments established their own church, hospital, and changes in the meeting with Aal- and school in Aalborg, and that in the borg. Culture meetings are the same middle of the 19th century there was private, institutional, and between sub- a major Jewish congregation in town - cultures. For that reason it is interest- just to mention some examples from the ing to look at the cultural encounters, past 150 years. to look at the individual emphasis, and This notion also had conse- which cultural codes are highlighted as quences on how the archives strange or foreign. Some differences are communicate their holdings: based on other cultural identities than The meeting with groups with a high just nationality and ethnicity, for ex- percentage of immigrants and refugees ample play gender, social status, class in combination with many Danish new background, and age an import role.The comers from other parts of Denmark to point has been to communicate similar- Aalborg makes it​​ necessary to a much ities and differences in how respectively greater degree than before to move the the Danes, in southern Spain and three focus of outreach and public program- groups of foreigners in Aalborg expe- ming from family history, recognition, riencing the encounter with another Bente jensen 33 culture. What happens to people’s na- lack of prior knowledge about Den- tional identity? In which situations play mark: notion that can offer a corrective cultural differences a role, and in which to many Danes’ perception of Denmark situations does it not matter? as the center of the world. For the immi- In 45 interviews with selected indi- grants it might not be the most obvious viduals from the four nationalities, we base for warm feelings towards the coun- found statements about the encounter try: for example - ‘I only knew Lurpak with another culture. An important smør (Danish butter)’ - and television premise was that the four groups had news story about Tivoli and Danish left their home countries for very differ- football (Palestinian man) or ‘My dad ent reasons. The selected foreign groups had a big business in Mogadishu, where in Denmark have fled their homelands: there were some items that said’ Made The Vietnamese boat refugees who ar- in Sverige. I once asked my dad what rived in Aalborg in 1979, Palestinians ‘Sverige’ was? And he told me that it is from the 1980s and the largest immi- a country in Europe. From that day on grant group in Aalborg today, the So- I knew that there was something called mali, who arrived in town during the Europe’ (young Somali man). 1990s, are all forced out because of con- Life in Spain was a contrast for most flict and civil wars in their homelands. Danes, a positive choice which can be In many ways it is a coincidence that it changed if the individual wishes. Many was Denmark, they came to. are old, retired, and not active at work, The randomness was reflected in the but in good financial standing and at

From the documentation of Vietnamese immigrants to Aalborg. Photo: Anna Ørnemose Rasmussen. 34 AEMI JOURNAL 2011 the same time independent of Spanish dency for younger people to emigrate to society. A number of Danes live in Spain the Spanish Costa del Sol to work. Some in winter and in Denmark in the sum- bring their family and children, while mer and stay only half a year in a foreign others travel alone: culture, ‘the so-called migration birds.’ ‘we just took the plunge and Furthermore, the vast majority of Danes went down here, I think we lacked can at any time return to Denmark, al- challenges. We have never dis- though some are forced to remain in cussed the possibility of return- exile because of the economic develop- ing to Denmark, although it ment that has made the cost of living was difficult in the beginning.’ in Spain close to the Danish in 2000. For most of the group the good climate Despite significant differences in mi- played an important role in the decision gration background the interviews have to live permanently in southern Spain: shown that the Danes, Vietnamese, Pal- ‘…we spent some time here when estinians, and Somalis had many con- it was really hot in August ... we could siderations that seem very similar when even tolerate that. So we said to each it comes to meetings with a foreign cul- other - imagine if we could live down ture. Considerations that center around here when we become pensioners. That US and THEM. At home Danes are US, was why we moved down and bought in Spain the group become THEM. Im- a house’ (Danish pensioner living in migrant Groups are defined as THEM Spain). - they are forced away from a country In recent years there has been a ten- where they were part of a national com-

Exhibition at the Danish Emigration Archives 2001, cultural meeting: Woman from Afghanistan listens to the life stories of Danes who have emigrated to the Spanish Coast outside Malaga. Photo: Bente Jensen Bente jensen 35 munity. We find some topics that are land. It was possible to test your knowl- repeated in life stories of the groups. edge in a migration quiz, to view the They are considerations about very basic videos and photos from the project and aspects of life which are put into play listen to life stories from the four groups in the meeting with a foreign culture, – all combined with information about whether the country is called Denmark migration history and archives. or Spain. Examples are the contact with the host population, the interaction in Perspective one’s own group, language, the future of The idea to mirror the immigrant’s reac- the children and last very basically the tions to being a minority in Denmark, perception of time. Some concrete ex- with the Danish reactions to being a mi- amples are unfolded in an article about nority in Spain had an impact on both the project from 2002 unfortunately Danes and foreigners. The experience of only in Danish. the study trip in Spain was continuously I stated earlier that outreach was an told in relationships with foreigners in integrated part of the project. It was also Aalborg and worked as a somewhat lib- a precondition to get in contact with the erating reflection of the fact that Danes various groups. Another crucial point also form associations, build churches was to inform that the archives were a and choose to live close to each other democratic institution for everybody. abroad. The archives had to combine traditional The exhibition at the archives illus- archival and historical methods with trated some of the thoughts which all ethnographic methods and ethnological groups had at home and abroad. The life story interview techniques. The pro- idea behind the project was to get people ject also focused on the use of all senses, in Aalborg in particular, but also others of sound, pictures, food, and tactile ele- to reflect on what it means to be Dan- ments as the immigrants group did not ish and focusing on variation in identity have Danish as their first language. and culture. The role of the Danes in One of the meeting places of the pro- Spain served mostly as a mirror, but the ject became a festival and an exhibition group was informed about the results of – where the archives communicated the project through articles in the local through exchange of food traditions, magazines. and at the same time collected photos The overall ambition of the project and memories. We created at memory was to illustrate that the Danish culture box, where people could answer the in reality is many different subcultures, questions with a tape recorder. The idea and what is considered as Danish de- of the memory box came from a trav- pends on the person who is asked. The elling exhibition in West Yorkshire Ar- project made a start – that could be con- chives Services around 2000. tinued. More lasting was a for the time a quite ambitious website very much in- spired by the first Moving Here website made by the National Archives in Eng- 36 AEMI JOURNAL 2011 References: Bauman, Zygmundt, Globalization. The Human Consequences, Oxford, 1998 Jensen, Bente, Kærligheden til nye land i: Kærlighed til…, Statens Arkiver og SLA: 30 - 35, Viborg 2001 Jensen, Bente: A part of the migration project was presented at the conference; ‘Biblioteket - porten til det danske sam- fund’ (Libraries as a Gateway to Danish Society) in 2004 : http://www.aalborg- kommune.dk/Borger/Kultur-natur-og- fritid/lokalhistorie/Aalborg-Stadsarkiv/ Sider/Webudgivelser.aspx Larsen, Birgit Flemming, Impressions of Danishness in Chicago and Racine. Selected Results From a Questionnaire in: The Bridge 2001. Danish American Heri- tage Society, Ames. Iowa. Larsen, Birgit Flemming, Kærlighed til Hjemlandet, i: Kærlighed til… Statens Ar- kiver and SLA:11-14. Viborg 2001 Löfgren, Orvar, Att höra hemma - om livet mellan det lokala og globala, manus- cript from the Halmstad Conference: Alt- Ctrl-Delete, 1998 Rasmussen, Anna Ørnemose and Jen- sen, Bente: De fremmede i det danske – De danske i det fremmede, Aalborg City Archi- ves 2001 online: http://www.aalborgkom- mune.dk/Borger/Kultur-natur-og-fritid/ lokalhistorie/Aalborg-Stadsarkiv/Sider/ Webudgivelser.aspx Rasmussen, Anna Ørnemose, Trækfugle og fastboende danskere på Costa del Sol. Seminarrapport. Det danske Udvandre- rarkiv, 2002 Archival material at Aalborg City Ar- chives and the Danish Emigration Ar- chives from the project The website: De fremmede i det danske – De danske i det fremmede, www.identiteter. dk , 2001/2002– out of function in 2012 Migration History with a New Focus - Values and Identities of Grundtvigian Danish-Americans Today

Henrik Bredmose Simonsen

Introduction Melting Pot or Salad Bowl During the first two thirds of the 20th One of the most influential books on century, historians and social scientists ethnic groups in the United States is Be- in the United States expected and pre- yond the Melting Pot by Nathan Glazer dicted a decline of ethnicity, but this and Daniel Patrick Moynihan, which expectation did not hold true. On the appeared in 1963. The main message of contrary, during the 1970s, 1980s, and the book was that for the five main eth- 1990s, a wave of ethnic interest and nic groups in New York City the image identification swept across the United of ‘the melting pot’ did not fit. They States. were rather a sign of a ‘cultural plural- Today, ethnicity in the United States ism’ at work. As Glazer and Moynihan remains a key area for identity. But the wrote in the Introduction to the second image of ethnicity is by no means clear. edition of the book in 1970: The symbolic side of ethnicity is obvi- ous, when you for instance travel across ’The long-expected and predicted the Midwest and see signs like ‘Dan- decline of ethnicity, the fuller accultur- ish Days’ and ‘Æbleskive Festival’ etc. ation and the assimilation of the white But you might also find ethnic groups ethnic groups, seems once again delayed or sub-groups that represent continuity – as it was by World War I, World War over generations. The so-called Grundt- II, and the cold war – and by now one vigian Danish-Americans are mentioned suspects, if something expected keeps here as an example of a sub-group with a on failing to happen, that there may be particular group identity and particular more reasons than accident that explain values, which you might trace by means why ethnicity and ethnic identity con- of interviews and personal narratives. tinue to persist’.1 38 AEMI JOURNAL 2011 Glazer and Moynihan also pointed ‘something you become, or something out, what made the ethnic groups so you do’. 3) At the same time ‘the melt- durable over time: ing pot’ theory was hidden away, while the ‘cultural pluralism’ came into the ’… ethnic groups, owing to the foreground. And a new image – of the distinctive historical experiences, ‘salad bowl’ - was commonly used about their cultures and skills, the times the ever changing demographic compo- of their arrival and the economic sition of the United States. situation they met, developed dis- tinctive economic, political and cul- Personal impressions – meeting tural patterns. As the old culture fell Danish-Americans in 1981 away – and it did rapidly enough – a In 1981, I was in the United States to new one, shaped by the distinctive do research of the history of the Dan- experiences of life in America, was ish-American churches. Before coming formed and a new identity was cre- to the U.S., I had expected to find little ated. Italian-Americans might share continuity among the descendants of precious little with Italians in Italy, Danish immigrants and their churches but in America they were a distinc- and congregations. Most historical tive group that maintained itself, works I had read in Denmark were writ- was identifiable, and gave something ten before books like Beyond the Melting to those who were identified with it, Pot and had a perspective of ‘a decline just as is also gave burdens that those of ethnicity’. in the group had to bear’.2 But during my work in archives and especially going to local communities, I The book Beyond the Melting Pot has became aware of the continuity of cul- had an enormous influence on the per- tural and religious traditions and social ception of ethnicity among historians patterns in the Grundtvigian-oriented and social scientists in the U.S. since communities. I was impressed when the 1960s. You can almost talk about a I attended conversations here, where before and after Beyond the Melting Pot members of Grundtvigian congrega- because the book made people aware of tions talked about family and friends the vigorous ethnicity that was embed- in small towns hundreds of miles away ded in many areas of society. with great confidentiality. There were After 1970, a new wave of ethnic in- clearly still strong ties within this group. terest and identification swept across In the former Inner Mission church en- the United States. Now ethnicity was vironment the image of ‘a decline of also seen as something that is experi- ethnicity’ fitted better. And still, there enced and given meaning through cer- were signs of a new ethnic interest here tain actions, besides being a background also. For instance, at Dana College, a variable or a specific entity. Ethnicity liberal arts college in Blair, Nebraska, began having two meanings - at least: which had formerly been the seminary a) ‘something you are, or have’ and b) of the Inner Mission-oriented Danish henrik bredmose simonsen 39 church you could find folk dancing environment in America. From the around 1980. In the college presenta- 1880s to 1918 about 10 rural colonies tion brochure printed around 1980, were organized and settled with Danish there were numerous references to the immigrants. Some of them, like Tyler Danish heritage of the college. and Askov in Minnesota, Dannevang To make the distinction between in Texas, Solvang in California etc. de- Grundtvigian and Inner Mission un- veloped into communities, where Dan- derstandable, I must briefly introduce ish culture would have a stronghold for the two main Danish Lutheran reli- generations. gious denominations that were brought Strongly opposed to the ideas of main- to America by the Danish immigrants taining Danish language and culture in from the 1870s and onwards. the USA, ministers of the Bible-ori- ented Inner Mission tradition argued Background of the Danish that the Danish immigrant church had Lutheran churches in the U.S. one mission only and that was to preach Ministers and teachers of the Grundt- the Gospel to the scattered Danish im- vigian persuasion – that means they migrants. Topics like the retention of belonged to a religious movement in the Danish language and the cultural Denmark that was inspired by the Dan- heritage of the old country lay in their ish minister and hymn writer N.F.S. view outside the domain of the church. Grundtvig (1783-1872) – were of the The conflict culminated in a split of the opinion that the religious and cultural Danish Church in 1894, and two dif- life of the Danish immigrants in Amer- ferent Danish churches came out of the ica should have the Danish language and conflict. the relations with the Danish people as Meeting the Grundtvigian Dan- its basis. As they saw it, Danes in Amer- ish-Americans was very interesting. ica were part of the Danish people, and These people were fully integrated into the Danish language was their mother a middle-class WASP culture, but also tongue, and this would hold true for the maintained a special Danish-American coming generations as well. social environment based on Grundt- In order to implement their ideas and vigian traditions and values. visions, the Grundtvigians in the United The meeting with these people in States became occupied with the found- 1981, I described in a short paragraph ing of Danish colonies, building schools in the book that came out of my work and folk high schools, running Danish - almost just as an observation that the societies and cooperative enterprises etc. Grundtvigian environment existed.4 I besides the task of founding and main- had no time then or tools, method or taining Danish congregations. theory to dwell on how their environ- Especially, the colonization work of ment had indeed survived, and in many the Danish church and the Grundtvigian ways stood as a testimony to ‘the melt- organization, Dansk Folkesamfund, had ing pot… did not happen’.5 a lasting impact on the Grundtvigian 40 AEMI JOURNAL 2011 A new look at the Grundtvigian Iowa, and at other Scandinavian-Ameri- Danish-Americans in 2010 cans institutions in the U.S. In 2010, I had the opportunity to come to America and study the Danish-Amer- The Danebod Folk Meeting ican history again. One goal was to meet The Danebod Folk Meeting is a good people in the Grundtvigian-oriented en- place to start, if you want to get an idea of vironment almost 30 years after my first what the Grundtvigian environment in encounter. This time my main work tool the United States is today. The Danebod was interviewing. Interviews make it Folk Meeting is an annual 5-day meet- possible to get into personal narratives, ing, which has been held every summer which tell about and put in context since 1946 at the former Danebod Folk identities and values that the informants High School, in the small town of Tyler have experienced and negotiated along in southwestern Minnesota. (See picture with others. below). The mission was also to collect ma- In recent years, about 130 Americans terial about the Grundtvigian Dan- have participated in the meeting. They ish-American environment for an are almost all second, third or fourth exhibition in Denmark to be shown at generation descendants of Danish im- Skanderborg Museum and later at five migrants. Very few of the participants other Danish museums. An American are born in Denmark. Most are aged version is planned to be displayed at the over 60, but some younger participants Danish Immigrant Museum, Elk Horn, bring the average age down. The meeting

The Danebod Folk Meeting is an annual 5-day meeting, which has been held every summer since 1946 at the former Danebod Folk High School, in the small town of Tyler in southwestern Minnesota. henrik bredmose simonsen 41 is open to all interested. But in practice, tures’, which has the explicit intention to virtually all participants are members of clarify and communicate the Grundt- a congregation in the great Evangelical vigian understanding of the human Lutheran Church in America, abbrevi- and the Christian aspects of life. Both ated ELCA. Needless to say, many peo- the Tyler and the Solvang meetings ple travel long distances to come to the have participants from throughout the meeting in Tyler. United States. At both events compe- The program for the 5-day meeting tent and knowledgeable lecturers, often is packed. After starting Wednesday af- recognized researchers or teachers are ternoon and evening, each day has this invited to give their view and insight to program: three lectures - morning, after- the audience. noon and evening, two singing hours, storytelling, devotion, Danish language Family camps classes - and late every evening there is folk dancing. The last evening - on Sat- urday – a music feature or something festive is arranged. The meeting ends on Sunday morning with service in the Danebod Lutheran Church, located be- side the former folk high school, and a finishing lunch.

The West Denmark Parish Hall, which among other things is used in conjunction with the annual family camps.

The former Danebod folk high school in Tyler is also the setting for another important activity within the Grundt- vigian environment in the U.S. It is the so-called family camps, held each Some of the participants at the Danebod Folk Meet- summer over three weeks in June, July ing in 2010. The wooden building in the background and August. Each camp has about has been used for gymnastics and folk dancing for more than 100 years. 150 participants - children, parents and grandparents. The participants are somewhat more mixed than at the In addition to the nationwide meeting Danebod Folk Meeting. There are peo- in Tyler, Minnesota, a similar meeting ple, who have grown up in the Grundt- has been held in Solvang, California, in vigian Danish-American environment, February every year since 1986. It is a and there are people without a Dan- three-day lecture event under the name ish-American background, who have ‘The Farstrup-Mortensen Memorial Lec- 42 AEMI JOURNAL 2011 got an interest in the high school prac- One point where they are similar is that tice established by the family camps. it is difficult to quantify how many peo- The program of an ordinary day at a ple they include. It is not a fixed group family camp includes morning gymnas- with membership cards we’re talking tics, singing, folk dancing, lectures for about, but many forms of affiliation and adults, crafts, musical features, campfire, identification. and late at night, more folk dancing. In There is a nationwide organization in other words, these are the activities that the environment which operates within have characterized the Grundtvigian the Evangelical Lutheran Church in communities over the years. There is no America (ELCA). It is called the Danish professional management of the camps. Interest Conference and was originally They are led by volunteers, where a fam- formed in 1962, when the Grundtvigian ily undertakes the task to run a week of Danish church – (official name: the camp. American Evangelical Lutheran Church In the small community of West (AELC)) - merged with a former Ger- Denmark, Wisconsin, a family camp man, Swedish and a former Finnish has also been organized in recent years. immigrant church and established the It is a three day long camp held each Lutheran Church in America (LCA). summer and with a program which is Later in 1988, the Evangelical Lutheran completely in line with the folk high Church in America (ELCA) was formed school tradition: singing, lectures, folk by the merger of the Lutheran Church dancing, gymnastics, and arts and crafts. in America and the American Lutheran In recent years, about 170 children and Church (ALC). adults have participated in this camp. The monthly magazine, Church and Most participants come from Minne- Life, published by the Danish Interest apolis and other cities in the Midwest Conference, has about 450 subscribers. and have some connection to the con- But as we have seen here, the group of gregation and the community in West people who have some affiliation with the Denmark. But there are also people Grundtvigian environment and tradition from other churches, including a dozen in the U.S. is somewhat bigger than that. Catholics, and a small number of athe- ists or nonbelievers. Some participants Voices in the Grundtvigian envi- are not of a Danish background, but as ronment in 2010 one informant noted: ‘By the time they An interesting question is how Grundt- leave they are!’ vigian Danish-Americans of today would characterize their identity and Membership basic values. To answer this question, The Grundtvigian environment in I interviewed about 25 people in the the United States has similarities with Grundtvigian Danish-American envi- Grundtvigian-oriented environments ronment in 2010, whom I met at the and folk high school environments in Danebod Folk Meeting, at Grand View Denmark, along with many differences. University in Des Moines, and during visits to private homes. henrik bredmose simonsen 43 Several informants told me about the acquaintances – do not always under- importance of belonging to the Grundt- stand what it is all about. As one in- vigian group, while living an ordinary formant says: ’When you explain this American middle class life. An example: (the Danebod meeting; HBS) to some- A middle class woman from Houston, body else, who doesn’t have a clue as to Texas, with a family background in the what this is about. They don’t under- Dannevang community in Texas, tells stand, you know… They’ll think, well, about her relationship with the Dane- it is a church thing… But they don’t bod meeting. She says: ‘You know, Bap- understand’. tists have revivals, and things like that. It Another informant says: ’When I try (the Danebod meeting; HBS) is sort of a to tell my friends back home what I’m Grundtvigian revival! ‘ doing, they will look at me, kind of like: And she goes on: ‘You sing songs ‘You what?’ about peace. In there (in the lecture hall; A third informant talks about the HBS) they are talking right now of the reactions from other congregations to judicial system in the U.S. and what we the Danebod Folk Meeting or family can do to improve it. They talk about camps. They say for example: ’Why the environment… You just get here would a church have a gathering, where with people, who care about the same you sing, and you dance, and you do things you care about… It is a kind of crafts and you don’t study the Bible!’? feeling I hardly get any other place. Es- To this, my informant tells these pecially in Texas…’ wondering people that the Grundt- Almost everyone I spoke to pointed vigian Danish-Americans have really to the community around singing and nothing against the Bible, but that life folk dancing as important. Many of is bigger than that book! This informant the informants have been familiar with also mentions that people from other singing and folk dancing since child- churches are often surprised when they hood, for example, in vacation schools, hear that meetings and camps such as and these two activities still stand as the these are run without professional man- epitome of togetherness in the group. agement, but by volunteers. They are also key activities at the family But there are also members of local camps. Lessons learnt with the body - congregations for example in West Den- such as singing and dancing - apparently mark, who look with scepticism at these sit deep and last long! An informant had meetings and family camps, because in this comment to the importance of sing- their view they confuse church and cul- ing among the Grundtvigians: ‘Singing ture, and therefore do not wish to par- was our first language.’ ticipate in them.

The Grundtvigian group and the What kind of Grundtvigianism do surrounding society we find in the USA? The participants at the Danebod Folk Part of the answer to this question is Meeting and the family camps are aware implied in the following statement: that the surroundings - neighbors and One informant calls herself a Grundt- 44 AEMI JOURNAL 2011 vigian, but with the explicit reference vigianism, but perhaps more through to the Grundtvigianism that has devel- shared experiences and narratives. oped in the U.S. in the small Danish It is important to note, though, that colonies. That is, she is not a Grundt- the Danebod and the Solvang meet- vigian in the sense of being a student ings over the years have had a number of Grundtvig or someone, who has of competent and inspiring people on studied Grundtvig. the lecture podium, who have contrib- The Grundtvigian environment in uted with insights and reflections from the U.S. today has its prominent peo- disciplines such as medicine, social ple like theologians and teachers and has sciences, politics, theology, history etc. previously had some theological heavy- This has undoubtedly helped to give the weights. But as one of my informants Grundtvigian environment openness to said, he knows not a single minister in the modern world that seems to go in the ELCA, who today is occupied with a good hand with the cultural and reli- N.F.S. Grundtvig’s thoughts. Grundt- gious traditions that have developed in vig is not generally known today in the the small Grundtvigian communities. academic, theological world in Amer- But what kind of values do the ica, but is relatively well-known among Grundtvigian Danish-Americans see American educationalist. as the hallmark of their tradition and The Grundtvigianism that existed environment? I have tried to list some within the former Danish Church (of- of the general statements about val- ficial name from 1952: the American ues under the following headlines: Evangelical Lutheran Church) until it The close relationship between the re- merged with other churches in 1962, ligious life and everyday life is clearly was formulated and renewed in a dia- very basic. An informant says about the logue between theologians and laity. But Danebod-meeting: ’…this is part of our after the AELC stopped existing that faith, the way we live out our faith, but year, and its congregations in some cases it is not cloistered in a church or in a merged with other congregations, and particular religion or anything like that. ministers of other national backgrounds It is how we understand the way we live and other theological persuasions be- out our Christianity in that we need to came the norm, the Grundtvigian per- educate ourselves in a wide variety of ception on the human and the Christian ways… That’s why, I love all the variety aspects of life has increasingly been ‘left’ of lectures…’ for retelling and development in forums Someone else says: ‘…we were in- like the Danebod Folk Meeting and the fused with the idea that our whole life annual Solvang meeting both domi- was our faith…. We don’t separate. nated by laity, and in the monthly mag- That’s why we can sing the Danish hik- azine Church and Life. It seems that it is ing songs right next to ‘Gracious and not so much on the basis of theological Mighty God’. studies and scholarly books on Grundt- A third informant says: ‘I’m also vig that the environment in recent years happy with the singing, because all these has developed and renewed its Grundt- Grundtvigian songs are, when it comes henrik bredmose simonsen 45 down to it, about, what life really is.’ Participation in voluntary work - Finally, an informant expressed for the common good his experience with the Grundt- Several informants mentioned the par- vigian Christianity and understand- ticipation in voluntary work as some- ing of life this telling way: ‘We thing integrated into their everyday lived it, we never put it into words.’ lives, something that you do for the common good. An appreciation of ordinary life A statement often heard was: ‘Life is Awareness of nature and good’. Someone even had a cap on his the environment head with this text! It’s about the appre- Several informants worded state- ciation of the beauty and value of ordi- ments like ‘to live in close contact with nary life. An example: One informant nature’ as something that has refer- told me about her grandfather, who was ence to N.F.S. Grundtvig’s ideas. a janitor, and he was appreciated for and loved his work. This is often not the case Politically, the Grundtvigian any longer, because we no longer appreci- environment is overwhelmingly ‘liberal’ ate ordinary things and the ordinary life. Most are Democrats. One informant put it this way, what is probably a common Non-materialistic values ​​- view: ‘The Democrats are not always good as opposed to the materialism of society and right, but they are closer’. Not a few Theses values were worded in different within the environment will be posted ways. An example: It’s different what on the Democratic Party’s left wing. you see as a rich life and society consid- ers a rich life. Society thinks of wealth Finally, tolerance and openness are values ​​ as something you accumulate. We look that are described in several ways. at wealth as something with people and friends, and for instance to help others. Tolerance An example: The question of ordination The importance of education of homosexual ministers in the Evangel- and ‘life-long learning’ ical Lutheran Church in America was in The importance of education has been 2009 the big topic of discussion within a key idea in the Grundtvigian environ- the ELCA. The decision in the form ment since the establishment of the first of a vote by a delegate meeting of the folk high schools in the United States in ELCA fell at the same time the Dane- the 1870s and of Grand View College bod Folk Meeting was held. Therefore, in 1896. The Danebod Folk Meeting is the participants at Danebod followed an excellent example of ‘life-long learn- the vote with great interest directly ing’, which is also highlighted by several via the Internet. When the decision informants. fell and it was a yes to the ordination of homosexuals, it was received with applause and satisfaction with the vast majority of those present at Danebod. 46 AEMI JOURNAL 2011 This reception is in stark contrast to the traditions that has been inherited from reception which the decision was met previous generations, while also being with in a number of congregations in open to new people and new ideas. the ELCA that after the vote in 2009 Awareness of tradition can have many chose to leave the church. different expressions. A few examples: One informant told me that after her Openness to other groups and individuals husband’s death she had installed a bell The Danebod Folk Meeting and the in her Lutheran church in which the family camps at Danebod are open to Grundtvigian key concepts were en- all. The same applies to the annual fam- graved: ‘To the Bath, To the Table, and to ily camp in West Denmark, and there the Word - I call you’. are indeed both Catholics and non-be- Likewise, at the funeral they sang lievers and people of non-Danish back- some of the beloved hymns of N.F.S. grounds present here. But this openness Grundtvig like ‘Built on the Rock the also applies to the social events of the Church doth Stand’. For the fellowship West Denmark congregation from the after the funeral they had to procure same motto that everyone is welcome. food from afar like medisterpølse (Dan- Therefore, one can see Catholics and ish type sausage) that was flown in by air other non-members participate in the from Solvang, California, because there activities of the congregation with the was no one in the area, who could make exception that the Catholics do not medisterpølse. And as my informant participate in church worship services. added: ‘We had to have a Danish meal’.

Openness to change To conclude – different ways of An informant mentions that in the U.S. being a Danish-American… is has become common for people to The Danish-Americans have often marry and adopt children across racial been described as an easily and quickly and other divides. In connection to the assimilated immigrant group in the US. mention of marriage across races this This is true in a lot of respects, when woman refers to her own religious tra- you compare them with other immi- dition, namely the Grundtvigian, and grant groups. 6 And none the less, a then says with emphasis: ’NFS (Grundt- revival of ethnic interest has taken place vig; HBS) would be happy to see people among Danish-Americans in general in exploring greater human limits’. the last 20 or 30 years. Much of it has to do with Danish symbols and in- Awareness of tradition vented Danishness, but the interest and There should be no doubt, however, identification is there! that the awareness of tradition and the Among the former Inner Mission retention of traditions are core values church members, (official name 1945- in the Grundtvigian environment, also 1961: the United Evangelical Lutheran today. This is felt in the entire form and Church), there seems to be little ethnic sentiment at the Danebod Folk Meeting interest and identification. But it must that people appreciate the values and be emphasized that there are no studies henrik bredmose simonsen 47 done of this church environment or its on freedom and democracy etc. and today members’ views on their Danish-Amer- stands as one of the greatest national icons. ican background, or their understanding By telling the story of the Grundt- of ethnicity in general. 7 vigians in the United States and their When you turn to a third group migration, integration and identity for- among the Danish-Americans, namely mation, as well as more ‘familiar’ things the Grundtvigians, the picture changes like the folk high schools, cooperative again. They started out extremely pre- dairies, community halls etc. that were occupied with their Danish language, also brought to the USA, we may un- culture, and religious views brought with derstand better, why immigrants in our them from Denmark. But today the in- own neighborhood cherish and want to terest in things Danish is not very out- maintain and transform their cultural spoken among the Grundtvigians. They and religious heritage. The concepts and cherish their Danish-American tradition, processes of immigration and integration which has developed in the small rural are very much the same as they currently communities and in the congregations in take place just outside our own doorstep the bigger cities of the Midwest. But any in Europe as when our forefathers were direct influence from Denmark has been immigrants in the USA a century or so minimal for decades. The main interest ago. of the Grundtvigians lies in the sense of community among fellow Danish-Amer- Can the American experience with icans and in the shared religious values in ethnicity be used in Europe? the Grundtvigian tradition. There is no doubt that Europeans can learn a lot from the long experience with Why create a museum exhibition ethnicity in the United States. One thing about the Grundtvigians in the U.S. is that we in Europe may avoid doing and their history? as they did in the United States in the One answer is: To let historical experiences first 60 or 70 years of the 20th century, be made useful in the present. And let the namely to expect a ‘decline of ethnicity’. experiences from one country be made Now, perhaps we can see that the useful in another country. ‘melting pot’ theory was very much a By telling a Danish museum audience rhetorical and ideological concept, which about a contemporary Grundtvigian envi- was good to put up on festive occasions ronment in the USA and its preservation and in patriotic speeches to promote a and transformation of social relations and certain American self-understanding, values ​​through generations, you might as and less a description of the real world. a Dane get some useful images and tools So, we should rather try to understand, to understand your own present and your what ethnicity is, what it does to and for own society. people, and that it can have many differ- One must remember that N.F.S. ent forms. Everything seems to show that Grundtvig has influenced Danish society ethnicity as a key area for identification in a number of areas, like for instance re- has come to stay in Europe as well. ligion, church, school, education, views 48 AEMI JOURNAL 2011 Notes: 1 Nathan Glazer and Daniel Patrick Moynihan: ‘Be- yond the Melting Pot. The Negroes, Puerto Ricans, Jews, Italians, and Irish of New York City’. The M.I.T. Press, Second edition, 1970. xxxiii. 2 ibid. 3 In early discussions of the new ethnicity the con- cepts of the traditional ‘primordialist’ under- standing versus an ‘optionalist’ interpretation of ethnicity were introduced. In the ‘optionalist’ interpretation ethnicity was described as ‘…a di- mension of individual or group existence that can be consciously emphasized or deemphasized as the situation dictates’. See for example: Harvard Ency- clopedia of American Ethnic Groups, Ed. Stephan Thernstrom et.al. HarvardU niversity Press, 1980. p. 55. A later two-sided definition of ethnicity, which has been used in this article, is perfectly in line with the one mentioned above: a) the sociological ap- proach – ethnicity has to do with something you are, and b) the social psychological approach – ethnicity has to do with something you become, or something you do. See ‘Leksikon for det 21. århundrede’, ’Etnicitet’ by Dorthe Staunæs, 2005. http://www.leksikon.org/ 4 Henrik Bredmose Simonsen: ’Kampen om dansk­ heden. Tro og nationalitet i de danske kirkesamfund­ i Ameri­ka’. Aarhus University Press, 1990. pp. 231-233. 5 Nathan Glazer and Daniel Patrick Moynihan: op.cit. Preface to the First Edition, 1962, xcvii. 6 Torben Grøngaard Jeppesen: ‘Skandinaviske eft- erkommere i USA. Etniske grupper eller kerneamer- ikanere?’ Forlaget Odense Bys Museer, 2010. pp. 187-189. 7 The description in this article of the former Inner Mission church in America (the United Evangel- ical Lutheran Church) is based on the church’s early tradition of putting very little emphasis on its Danish background and impressions from visits to the United States in 1981 and 2010. But there are to my knowledge no studies done of the eth- nicity the former Inner Mission Danish-American environment. Selling a Dream - Expectation versus Reality – Post-War Dutch and Other Migration to Australia 1945 – 1970

Nonja Peters

Introduction To attract working-age newcomers in Aims and Objectives the colonial period Australia established This paper explores the migration ex- an assisted passage program, offered perience of the 160,000 Dutch who land grants, and invoked a ‘bounty sys- came to Australia following the close of tem’ by which free settlers already estab- the Second World War. It looks at how lished in the colonies could pay for the local, national and global influences passages of relatives and friends to come and social, cultural and economic pol- to Australia. A consequence of this is icies of the day in the Netherlands and that chain migration and assisted pas- Australia, shaped their expectations of sage became fundamentals of Australian the new land and assesses the extent to immigration policy. which their expectations matched the However, Australia’s distance from reality of their experience. Europe and its initial use as a British penal colony virtually precluded it in- Background History itially from sharing in any vast move- Since 1945, natural increase and migra- ment of peoples from the continent tion combined to result in a population of Europe, Asia, America and Africa, rise in Australia from seven (7) million until the 20th century. Aside from dur- to its current 22 and a half million ing the Gold Rushes (from around the plus. Over 6 million of this increase 1850s), which attracted prospectors is directly attributable to immigration. from around the world, until the mid Immigration has fundamentally shaped 1970s, Australia was viewed as a ra- the structure and nature of Australian cially white society, a British outpost in society. Australian immigration has al- outlook, customs and institutions. By ways been driven by the need to attract the time of the Goldrushes, Australia’s enough labour for the developing econ- largely dispossessed Indigenous popu- omy and recruitment policy, procedures lation resided predominantly on native and bi-lateral agreements, continue to settlements on the fringes of towns and heed this imperative. cities or in outback desert camps. 50 AEMI JOURNAL 2011 The Anti-Asian attitudes that had Opposition’s criticism on the change discouraged Japanese, Chinese and Af- in direction of source countries – from ghans from mining during the Gold British to Displaced Persons (DPs), with Rushes and had led to the restrictive leg- an expression of hope that immigration islation commonly known as the White would nonetheless yield ‘ten Britons for Australia Policy, instituted at Federation every migrant of other origin’ to come in 1901, ensured that communities of into the country. However, this target Asian ethnicity would no longer increase would never again be reached although numerically. In addition, the dictation intakes into Western Australia (WA) tests that could be administered in any would remain at about 45.5% British number of European languages kept out well into the 1990s. The smaller intake all considered undesirable. The outcome of British prompted the Federal Govern- of these was that by 1947 just two per ment to robustly promote the doctrine cent of Australian residents were born of assimilation as a way of appeasing outside of Australia, the British Isles locals’ fears about feeling ‘overrun’ by or New Zealand. These acts and pro- ‘foreigners’. Under this doctrine, Eu- cedures, together with the doctrine of ropean migrants called New Australians assimilation also maintained the status were expected to drop past customs and quo during the period of European mi- beliefs and rapidly ‘Australianise’. The gration that followed the war. Although notion that assimilation was possible the preference for Britons remained in- was not revised until about 1966, when tact, recruitment elsewhere became nec- the government also began to liberalize essary as Britain needed its people for the restrictive policy. Prospective mi- post-war reconstruction and in any case grants were then assessed on the basis of they also had a shipping shortage, which their suitability as settlers, their ability precluded them being able to transport to integrate readily, and their possession potential migrants to Australia. of qualifications useful to Australian in- Arthur Calwell, Australia’s first Min- dustry. Migrants were now invited to ister for Immigration, in the portfolio ‘integrate’ into Australian society until created in 1945, countered the (Labor) the early 1970s. Then in 1972, Australians elected their first Labor government since 1948. Al Grassby, Minister for Immigration in this new government, radically changed the official policy. He replaced the quota system, based on country of origin and preservation of racial ‘homogeneity’ with ‘structured selection’. Migrants were now to be chosen according to personal and social attributes and occupational group rather than country of origin. A year later, in 1973, Al Grassby declared Australia now a ‘multicultural’ society in nonja peters 51 which every relic of past ethnic or racial placed Persons. This agreement was discrimination had been abolished. The followed in 1951, with a bilateral agree- Australian Citizenship Act of that year ment between the Netherlands and announced that all migrants were to be Australia to recruit trades and semi and accorded equal treatment. unskilled labour from the Netherlands The main principles of a multicul- and the NEI (Netherlands East Indies). tural society are social cohesion, cultural Later that year agreements were also identity and equality of opportunity. signed with Italy and Germany. The en- Cultural differences were now to be suing mass migration program sought acknowledged and accepted as socially to increase Australia’s population, to enriching. Issues relating to immigrants’ specifically overturn the flagging birth social and economic access and equity rate, for reasons of defence and to fill came increasingly to command the at- employment vacancies in the skilled tention of government and the general trades and semi- and un-skilled labour public alike. This lead to further reforms areas in heavy industry, the burgeoning in immigration selection policy plus the building and construction sectors and introduction, in 1979, of the first nu- public utilities. merical scoring system for migrant se- Prospective Dutch emigrants were lection designed to fit the labour needs lured to Australia at information eve- of the country’s rapidly developing ser- nings organised by the propaganda arm vice and extractive industry economy. The new selection system gave points to prospective migrants based on fac- tors such as family ties and occupational and language skills, which were seen to increase the probability of success- ful settlement. In 1989, points-testing relating to the skilled migration sched- ules was introduced into Australian law. Its aim was to identify ‘objectively’ the ‘characteristics’ prospective migrants would need to possess that would bene- fit Australia and assist with their settle- ment. Current immigration programs use the same criteria for applicants from anywhere in the world. As a result Aus- tralian settlers now come from over 170 countries. The dearth of British emigrants be- tween 1947-1952 was the catalyst that had Australia seek the assistance of the Large Dutch families, among them Nonja Peters`, International Refugee Organisation ready to leave the Netherlands for a prosperous (IRO) to recruit around 200,000 Dis- future ‘Down Under’. 52 AEMI JOURNAL 2011 of the Department of Information in comprised placards, fliers and brochures Australia and the Department of For- produced by the Department of Infor- eign Affairs in the Netherlands. Post- mation depicting Australia as the future, war diasporas out of Europe were at as a country with booming industry, full that time greatly provoked by a num- employment, boundless opportunities ber of Western European countries by and good working conditions, where an ‘overpopulation concerns’ resurrected immigrant could own their own motor specifically to rid themselves of ‘surplus vehicle and a home of their own filled people’. The Dutch Monarchy and Gov- with countless whitegoods. This level ernment were among those utilising this of materialism was unheard of in post- ‘push factor’ to exert pressure on Dutch war Netherlands. Moreover, it could be citizens to register for emigration at one reached with passage assistance! All that of the many offices they had established was required of a prospective emigrant around the country specifically to pro- was that they meet race – the White mote their exodus. Australia policy governed entry require- On the other side were the ‘pull fac- ments - age and health criteria and re- tors’ conceptualised by the Australian main in the type of employment for government. Designed to lure foreign- which they were selected by Australian ers and assist in their integration, these authorities for two years. Emigration- a physical and emotional journey Migration is associated with uprooting the past and confronting an unknown future in a strange land that is a great social, physical, cultural and linguistic distance from the migrants’ country of origin and few Dutch were really aware of the complexity involved. The im- pression of Australia and Australians harboured by most Dutch emigrants de- rived from a government that wanted to get rid of them, a government that was desperate for their labour power and a migration propaganda machine prone to sensationalising. How did the Australian government, ‘who wanted them’, view them? Well, as it stands, their percep- tions were not formulated in isolation of the Dutch Government, which had, well Placards, fliers and brochures, produced by the before war started, been looking for a Department of Information, depicted Australia as home for its surplus-farming sons. Their the land of tomorrow. concerns had, in 1939, occasioned a visit nonja peters 53 to Australia from the Director General of could best earn a living. Dutch Calvin- the Netherlands Emigration Foundation ist and Catholics - the two religions that Mr J.A.A. Hartland and a Netherlands rejected birth control both encouraged Government representative to discuss a emigration. Their clergy assumed that possible intake of Dutch farmers. On Dutch wives would ensure their family’s 5 July 1939 the Sydney Morning Herald successful migration because they would reporting on this meeting noted specif- safeguard their husband’s and children’s ically that the Australian Government spiritual welfare by creating a gezellige saw the proposed migration of Dutch- (convivial) home in Australia, wherever men to Australia as bringing to: the family had to live - reception centres, tents, garages, caravans, verandahs or a … the development of this coun- partly built house. try that remarkable initiative and Although, the outbreak of WWII dis- pertinacity which they displayed in rupted earlier migration plans and the wresting the low-lying lands of Hol- Pacific War and Japan’s Occupation of land from the sea and transform- the Netherlands East Indies (NEI) even ing them into fertile fields. Sharing tarnishing the much espoused idealised our tradition of democracy, and vision of Dutchness. At war’s end the equipped, for the most part with a Commonwealth Government continued knowledge of English, Dutch set- to see the Dutch as potential migrants. tlers could be assimilated easily in Consequently when they could not get Australian communities. In other enough Britons to emigrate, due to Brit- Dominions such as South Africa and ain’s post-war reconstruction program Canada they have proved strong, ad- and a lack of shipping they were quick aptable migrants, succeeding by their to invite the racially similar, blonde, industry and thrift… They are the blue-eyed, Dutch families, and confer qualities inherent in the ‘best type’ surrogate British status on them. How- of modern Netherlanders. Australia ever, their invitation did not extend to could not make a better choice of Dutch from the NEI unless they could immigrants than those men who prove they were 51% White! spring from the same stock as the pi- The focus on assimilation or ‘Anglo oneers who nearly made Terra Aus- conformity’ by this ninety per cent Aus- tralis ‘New Holland. tralian-born and English speaking so- ciety, and the demand that newcomers Netherlanders were wanted for their assimilate quickly and totally to its cul- large families as they would provide ture guaranteed that Australia’s essential many future workforce participants. Britishness would remain and in doing Compared to other ethnic groups, Dutch so inadvertently asserted the superiority migration was overwhelmingly family of Australian culture over that of mi- oriented. Women generally accompa- grants. Australians expected ‘New Aus- nied their menfolk, not always out of tralians’ to become completely absorbed, choice but because it was considered so that it would be as if they had never their duty to go wherever their husbands come at all! 54 AEMI JOURNAL 2011 Dutch Response to Assimilation in this quote became the hallmark of ‘Aanpassen’ (to adjust to) was the way ‘Dutch identity’ in Australia. In the the Dutch responded to this impera- public sphere, de Longh maintains the tive. ‘Aanpassen’, or Dutch assimilation Dutch in Australia, without exception, ideology and practices, are distinctive tried to be more Australian than the because, throughout the assimilation Australians. Van De Berghe associates period, whether they considered them the tendency of an immigrant group to agreeable or not, the majority of Dutch assimilate with the advantages in doing appeared willing to conform to them - so. He claims that one of the conditions at least in the public sphere. Generally which encourages assimilation is an en- in public settings the Dutch appeared to vironment in which ethnic groups are want to get rid of or at least cover-up clearly hierarchical. Perceived from any social characteristics defined as ‘eth- this perspective, Dutch invisibility in nic’ by Australians including language. Australia can in addition be viewed as Anglo-conformity became the hallmark the way they sustained their privileged of ‘Dutch identity’ in Australia. Most second place on the preferential ladder. Dutch postulated that ‘... if people Maintaining this distinctive adaptive come out here to make this their new strategy became even more effective country, they should ... adapt them- when it appeared also to facilitate their selves under all circumstances. ‘When access to the economic benefits of the you are in Rome’ many asserted ‘You Australian market place and to better should do as the Romans do. You must treatment in the work force. Moreover, fit in. After all, if you expect to further so long as the dominion governments yourself economically and this country continued to foster a larger immigra- is prepared to give you a chance, then tion than could be supplied from Brit- you have no right to be different’. These ain alone, the policy would benefit the resettlement patterns, which soon had Dutch who everywhere were rated ‘sec- the Dutch heralded the most ‘assimi- ond best’. lated’ and therefore ‘model migrants’ Explanations by Dutch sociologists also had them labelled ‘invisible’! are equally compelling. They assert that I associate the Dutch promotion of Dutch people’s accomplished manner at ‘aanpassen’ with the socialisation prac- making themselves invisible is a charac- tices of the first generation in the pil- teristically Dutch way of protecting their larized society they left behind. Most ‘inner inviolability’ in a society which had been born into a secular or religious stresses social conformity to institution- pillar (verzuiling). The model of pillars, alised difference. The peculiar mode of with their fairly authoritarian leader- Dutch adaptation that occurred in Aus- ships, relied upon powerful educated tralia included the Dutch norm of civil- elites and provided a strictly monitored ity. Instilled via socialisation practices in cradle to grave schematic. Only the the Netherlands, it positively evaluates a elites interacted across pillars! resolute commitment to hierarchy and Outward conformity to assimila- self possession - particularly the Cal- tionist mandates such as that contained vinist and Stoical values of discipline, nonja peters 55 frugality, industry, responsibility, obe- Although the assimilated Dutch was a dience and indefatigable allegiance to persuasive stereotype not all members leaders regardless of circumstances. It of the Dutch community agreed with was a combination of these socialisation it. Many preferred like the Dutchman practices and assimilationist dictates quoted by The Canberra Times on 13 that eventually led many first genera- May 1978 – to believe that the Dutch tion Dutch migrants into developing were the best [of all migrants] at play- distinct public and private persona as a ing the ‘assimilation’ game’. Their view stratagem for maintaining their cultural is supported by recent research which integrity. This is supported by recent shows that despite the first generation’s research, which shows despite the first zealous ‘Australian imitation’, that they generation’s sedulous Australian imita- remained simultaneously, steadfastly tion that they remained simultaneously, very Dutch in the privacy of their steadfastly very Dutch in the privacy of homes. This peculiar way of maintain- their homes. This peculiar way of main- ing their culture has led some social sci- taining their culture has lead some social entists to speak of the Dutch culture as scientists to speak of the Dutch culture a ‘closet culture’ and describe first gen- as a ‘closet culture’. eration Dutch migrants as having de- veloped a distinctive public and private Dutch Invisibility persona as a strategem for maintaining By the 1970s Dutch invisibility was gen- their cultural integrity. erally the accepted way to view Dutch Can Dutch willingness to play the resettlement in Australia and created assimilation game be related to their some amazing stereotypes. For example, satisfaction with migration? Migration on 2 February 1978, the Adelaide Adver- sets up expectations in all its stakehold- tiser noted: ers - governments, migrants and the mainstream community into which The typical Dutchman who came newcomers are to be absorbed. How to Australia and assimilated for all far did the image that Dutch migrants his individualistic reasons, is a man had gained of Australia and Australians without and out of history. He is before leaving the Netherlands actually ‘strong willed, fast thinking, often correspond with reality? On 28 January stubborn and possessed with a fa- 1950 a reporter from De Waarheid in naticism to succeed’. (1) His migra- an article ‘The false Bait: Australia land tion and assimilation, it seems, are of Tomorrow’ notes after attending one natural expressions of his character. of the information evenings at the local Yet, this same Dutchman has only Labour Office in Amsterdam that: been in Australia since the 1950s: It was the twenty-third evening, and His migration was part of historic the small room was full to overflow- changes happening in both Australia ing. The 500 people present were and the Netherlands, and was nego- seated not only on the seats but also tiated and to a large extent financed on the window ledges, the stairs, by those governments. 56 AEMI JOURNAL 2011 and on tables. Hundreds succeeded also mentioned that they expected ‘wide in obtaining standing room only. open spaces’; ‘an easy uncomplicated At these meetings people are told, lifestyle, warm temperature, no class among other things, how large Aus- distinction, a country with large farms tralia is and how small Holland is. It plenty of sheep and rabbits’. Although is also said our country is too densely De Waarheid also noted ‘in the course of populated. Many of the audience, the evening that emigrants were told of already determined to emigrate the requirements they must fulfil, and of visualise the Australian landscape; the avalanche of paper with which they extensive wide fields, steppes carry- would need to struggle to be considered ing millions of sheep, mountains, for emigration to the ‘great promised primeval forests, and extensive in- land’, that the quality of debate during dustrial centres; skies are blue, clouds the course of the evening remained at a are white, the mountains are purple, very basic level. Moreover, the fact that and the fields green – just as on the people were generally too shy to speak poster. The more the listener hears up in public, gave the propagandists the about this land the more he is lured chance to sum up the discussion on an on by visions of wide-open spaces. enlightened and positive note. Each of the un-or underemployed in In effect, however, the mooted ma- the room hopes to be among those terialism was really hard to come by, if to leave for the vision. only because subsidized Dutch immi- grants were forced to give up everything These views correspond with those they had towards their passage costs. from the respondents of our study who This meant many arrived at their des-

Newly arrived immigrants were often forced to start their life in Australia at one of the Department of Immi- gration accommodation centres in rural or metropolitan WA. Military camps were used because they could be refurbished with minimal recourse to labour and building materials. nonja peters 57 tination virtually destitute, with only the beds were hard with grey blue- landing money (which in 1950 was £10 striped cheap blankets. Privacy was for singles and £20 for a family) and a non-existent as conversations could packing crate of household possessions be heard from one end of the army measuring no more than one cubic hut to the other. metre. These criteria left most Dutch without the collateral they would need The Dutch and Australian govern- to access bank loans or other affordable ments kept pushing the idea that the financial support. ‘right type’ of migrant would make it in The plight of the newly arrived was Australia despite the challenges of reset- exacerbated by Australia’s building tlement; and translated that meant ‘per- material shortage which also forced sons willing to put in the hard yards’. the larger families to start their life in A mass protests about conditions occa- Australia at one of the Department of sioned a visit to Bonegilla camp by Dr Immigration accommodation centres Pieters cultural attaché to the Dutch in rural or metropolitan WA. Military embassy, who (famously) advised: ‘See camps were used because they could be those hills around us? At first the climb refurbished with minimal recourse to la- will be difficult but, once you get to the bour and building materials. top and see the other side, you will be so happy’! The notion of having failed Migrant Camps at migration - and there was little sym- Dutch women traveling on a Nedlloyd pathy for migrants who returned to the or P & O luxury liner such as the MS Netherlands - was also a strong driving Himalaya or the MS Johan van Olden- force. barneveldt describe feeling especially After this debacle the Dutch govern- overwhelmed by the transition from a ment did, however, immediately em- well appointed cabin to a bare cubicle ploy ‘Escort Officers’ on board Dutch at a Department of Immigration accom- ships to handle further enquiries. Mr modation facility in which barracks had H.P. Francissen on the Grote Beer noted: been converted into louse-infected ‘little cubicles, which offered but a semblance In my candid opinion the infor- of privacy since the partitions were only mation these people receive in Hol- man-high, so you shared noises, sounds land is far from satisfactory. They are and smells with everyone else in the bar- entirely without practical knowledge rack!’ A Dutch girl recalls the culture about the country in which they shock of arrival at Bonegilla where the hope to make a new start in life. largest Dutch contingent were accom- modated as: In contrast the response from the then Minister for Immigration Mr Harold From living in a three storey house Holt, which appeared in The Arguson in The Hague, a city of distinction, 4 August 1951, was to instruct his staff to unlined army barracks where walls at the Department of Information to were of Hessian to separate families, 58 AEMI JOURNAL 2011 paint a ‘grimmer picture’ in propaganda had never seriously considered that the booklets about Australia than had been presence of foreigners might necessitate the case in 1950, because it was giving changes in them. As a consequence the people the wrong impression. Leaving dynamics at the interface were, mixed. the camp was especially problematic for Some [Australians] viewed the newcom- larger families, which typified Dutch er’s arrival with suspicion, while others migration, because these found it harder found it exciting that people from half to access housing and their mothers had the countries of Europe were coming to often to resort to living in tents or old live in their midst. tram carriages ‘until the family could af- The expectations of Australia and ford the deposit on a second-hand house the stereotype of Australians emigrants or a block of land. ‘Strapped for cash’ gained from both governments and the the whole family was expected to con- media hardly helped the transition. For tribute their earnings or time, or both, example the Catholic newspaper De on weekends and after work or school, Tijd 1 September, 1950 claimed, cleaning old bricks or making their own from the meagre weekly allocation of Only for the man and woman cement that the building material short- who have given up all ideals of a age allowed. When they had sufficient Dutch home life, and are capable to erect a one-car garage or the back ve- of putting themselves on the level randa of their future home these Dutch of the average Australian, is there a were forced to come up with innovative chance of success. The authorities in ways to cram their many children into Holland should warn migrants that the smallest spaces. on arrival in Australia they have no By this time the myth of finding ‘gold rights but only responsibilities to be- nuggets lying on the streets’ had been come ‘New Australians’ in the short- dispelled, and migrants had come to est possible time. terms with the harsh reality that noth- ing but hard toil would buy them the To take on the banner of a ’New Aus- quality of life and the material posses- tralian one had first to appreciate what sions they dreamed of. being an Australian meant. Migrants formulated their ideas about Australia and Australians from the type of infor- How were these Dutch received by mation contained in information book- Australian society? lets such as - Weg Naar Australië (Way to Moving into Australian society induced Australia). Claiming, incidentally, to be thus a head-on encounter between the bevat geen verhaaltjes maar alleen feiten Australian and Dutch cultures. The (comprised of facts not fiction) and it tensions and conflicts imposed by this notes that: unbidden co-existence, initially shaped both the migrants’ and the Australians’ The greatest part of the Australian perceptions of each other. Until mass population lives in the largest cities. migration commenced most Australians From this it could be said that Aus- nonja peters 59 tralians are city dwellers. That being it is better to live to work than the said the specific traits that we see other way around. Although family as distinguishing city dwellers from life in Australia is not as developed as country folk are not so visible in in the Netherlands, there is noticea- Australia. It could be said in contrast bly little use made of dining-out fa- to the Netherlands that through cilities. Even though the food there their open friendliness, unassum- is excellent and cheap. ing behaviour and dress that practi- cally every Australian man displays The Dutch will also find it strange qualities more often associated with to find Australians begin the day with country folk. On the other hand the such a hefty breakfast. This is not just social class differences that we en- comprised of a rusk or plate of porridge counter in conservative villages and as we do it, but of large pieces of meat, towns in the Netherlands are not fried eggs, a great deal of fruit, quality so discernible in Australian society. fruit of the greatest variety that is also Australians are more laid back, more dirt cheap. Above all they drink unbe- jovial, they gossip less, but swear a lievable quantities of tea. The use of veg- lot more, although this swearing, etables is less. Importantly we find the steeped within the language, is more Australian cuisine unexciting. Vegetables jocular than offensive. The Austral- are cooked until they are almost unrec- ian is not so egotistical, although ognisable and often served up without when it comes to business he prefers being drained first. They do have po- to deal in small circles as opposed tatoes but generally speaking they are to the cosiness we associate with the more expensive than ours. However, larger group. The Australian drinks they eat enormously more sweet foods much, but only before 6 p.m. in than we do. That being said the Dutch the evening, because no liquor can Housewife will have little trouble main- be sold after that time. As a result taining her Dutch menus although she everyone that can afford it, and that will find it cheaper to switch to Austral- is just about the entire male popu- ian cuisine. lation, goes to one or other of the Few Dutch were in a position to note many bars around town, where they the reality or otherwise of this stereo- empty one glass after the other. De- type, which incidentally said as much spite this, one could not say that about what it was to be Dutch as it did Australians love nothing more than about what being Australian meant. to spend all they have and hold on What sort of relationships emerged alcohol. Rather, apart from being between the Dutch and their Australian a good businessman, the Australian hosts in this climate? Australians either can also be said to be decent, de- exploited migrants economically or as- spite his fanatical love of all sports. sisted them in a variety of ways such However, his philosophy on life goes as selling the newcomers properties or something like, live and let live and blocks of land without first exacting a above all he is of the meaning that deposit. Local traders helped by extend- 60 AEMI JOURNAL 2011 ing them the credit they needed to be Dutch Children - able to start their building program. Language and Assimilation However in the early years and really The difficulties in a strange new land throughout their lives in Australia the were different for children and young closest friends of most working class adolescents. As one child migrant notes, Dutch were from the same church, ‘assimilation was the policy and it cer- province or town, or Dutch people they tainly buried many feelings of ‘Dutch- met on the ship coming across. Dutch ness’, which was detrimental.’ Migrant women and men all say they liked talk- children found it most difficult because ing to the ‘Aussies’ and had workmates the ultimate outcome of the ideology as friends but they also say they didn’t was divided values of the old country really mix their friends. The change of and the new country and the veneration culture the environment and traditions of everything Australian and devalua- having been more than many could ab- tion of everything ethnic. sorb. Between these conflicting sources of power the Dutch immigrant child was also forced to make vital decisions about ‘belonging’ and ‘identity’. Fitting-in is

Some Australians took it upon themselves to hasten the migrants’ transition by pressuring them to speak only English. As a result most Dutch failed to pass their language onto their children. nonja peters 61 a difficult task for any novice to a so- ing agency. These were established in the cial group, however it is much worse late 1980s when Dutch ageing started to for postwar migrants who were not ac- become an issue, when it was found that cepted by Australians as an Australian. many elderly migrants revert to speaking Consequently, they were forced into an only the language of origin after serious association with other ‘New Australians’ bouts of illness. This was more drastic who were also labelled inferior. for Dutch migrants because they had Given assurances that the newcomers failed to pass on their language to their would not disrupt the Australian way children. Their language loss prevented of life, some Australians took it upon them from being able to communicate themselves to hasten the migrants’ tran- with their sick ageing parents. After their sition by pressuring them to speak only parent(s) death many also found them- English. Dutch women complain of selves unable to read the correspondence Australians stopping them in the street and documentation left behind much of to admonish them for speaking Dutch which is important to their family’s his- to their children! ‘You shouldn’t, it is tory. Aanpassen’s success is in a certain not good for the children, you should sense, therefore also a tragedy! talk English to them this is the country they have to live in. As a result most Conclusion Dutch failed to pass their language ‘Migration History Matters’, the con- onto their children. And apart from ference at which this paper was pre- the initial years when the children were sented, highlights the impact of the young enough to celebrate St Nicholas, political, social and cultural influences few Dutch invited their children to the of the day in both relinquishing and re- Dutch club. ceiving countries on the experience of Paul Scheffer, in his bookImmigrant immigration as perceived by first and Nation notes, as the most striking detail second generation post-war Dutch who about second generation Dutch Mus- made Australia home between 1949 lims, their lack of explicit ambition to and 1970. Understanding the cultural take charge of the communities to which traditions that dominated their parents’ they’re assumed to belong. I have ob- lives when they left the Netherlands also served similar behaviour among the helps Dutch who came here as children, Dutch Australians whom Scheffer terms or were born here to Dutch parents, the in-between generation (ie born in makes sense of the behaviours their par- country of origin came to Australia as a ent’s expected them take-on board as life child) and among the second generation directions. My research supports the – born in Australia of migrant parents. notion that the heritage of the 270,000 Among the Dutch one could why would Australians who claim Dutch ancestry it be any different given their aban- increasingly ‘matters’ to them and to donment by the first generation! What their progeny as well to their kin in the brings many ‘in-betweeners’ and second Netherlands. Family historians account generation back into the ‘fold’, is care of for more than seventy percent of users ageing parents who need a Dutch speak- of the internet and Family History is 62 AEMI JOURNAL 2011 only just overtaken by pornography as . Wendy Walker-Birckhead, ‘A Dutch home in Aus- tralia: Dutch women’s migration stories’ in N.Pe- the most popular activity on the web. ters (ed) By integrating and preserving migrants’ The Dutch Down Under 1606-2006, (Perth 2006); cultural heritage for posterity, and view- Elich, p. 112. Both religions encouraged the ex- ing it as an ‘…active long-term and odus of large families as these were less likely to return. ongoing contribution to the evolving . Van Campen, Emigratie, 1954, p.132. narrative of Australian identity, Aus- . Wim Willemsen, ‘Breaking Down the White Wall: tralian nationhood and the Australian The Dutch From Indonesia’ in Nonja Peters (ed). The Dutch DownU nder 1606-2006, UWA Press: politic’, we achieve, a ‘right’ of social Perth, 2006, pp.132-149. citizenship following theorist T.H. Mar- Jeannie Martin, The Migrant Presence: Australian shall – ‘to share to the full of the social Responses 1947-1977. Sydney. George Allen & Unwin, 1978. heritage of the country’. This, in turn, . Nonja Peters, ‘Just a Piece of Paper: Dutch Women increases immigrants’ sense of belonging in Western Australia’ Studies in Western Austral- and identity in Australia, and in keeping ian History – August 2000. with the philosophy of Egon Kunz, erst- N.Peters, Just a Piece of Paper. In the intervening years the Netherlands has also while academic and Displaced Person, become a country of immigration. It is was inter- ‘lasting loyalties flow from a deep feeling esting to note, given this change in it’s status and of accepting and being accepted’. the time-lag of 60 years since post-war migration to Australia began, to see Paul Scheffer, in his book Immigrant Nation, Cambridge, 2011, describe the Netherlands of 2011, as still a relatively con- formist country! . Eidheim, H. 1969. ‘When Ethnic Identity is a So- cial Stigma’. In Barth, F. (ed.) Ethnic Groups and Boundaries: The Social Organization of Culture Difference, Oslo: Scandinavian University Books, pp. 41-2. . De Longh is cited in ‘It’s the Dutchness of the Dutch’, The Bulletin, Sydney, 1976. . P. van den Berghe, The Ethnic Phenomenon. New Notes York, 1981, p. 259. At the beginning of September 2011 the resident pop- . J. Wilton & R. Bosworth, Old Worlds and New ulation of Australia was 22,695,356. The number Australia: Post-war Migrant Experience, Sydney, includes around 600,000 humanitarian programs 1984. entrants as displaced persons or refugees. Sociologist Van Den Berghe associates the tendency Federation was the joining of the states in 1901 to of an immigrant group to assimilate with the ad- become the Australian nation. vantages in doing so and one of the conditions http://www.migrationheritage.nsw.gov.au/belong- that he believes encourages assimilation is an envi- ings/about-belongings/australias-migration-his- ronment in which ethnic groups are hierarchical. tory/ Most migrants were unaware that the invitation http://www.immi.gov.au/media/fact-sheets/08abo- by the Commonwealth Government for migrants lition.htm to settle in Australia had ‘conditions’ attached . West Australian Year Books, 1870, 1893/4, 1896/7, in the form of ‘in-built preferences’. Then again 1920, 1968, 1986,1993. when you consider that between 1947 and 1974, . J.H. Elich, ‘Aan de Ene Kant Aan de Andere Kant: 85 per cent of the British were granted passage De Emigratie van de Nederlanders Naar Australië assistance against 60 per cent of the Dutch, Ger- 1946-1986’, Delft: 1987. mans, Maltese, Yugoslavs and Eastern Europeans Nonja Peters, Milk and Honey But No Gold, Uni- and only 34 per cent of Greeks and 20 per cent of versity of Western Australia (UWA) Press, 2001. the Italians, clearly a ranking prevailed. Perceived The Sydney Morning Herald, Newspaper, 5 July from this perspective, Dutch invisibility in Aus- 1939. nonja peters 63

egoïstisch, hoewel hij wanneer het op zaken doen tralia can be viewed as the way the Dutch kept aankomt, zich gaarne in een klein kringetje terug- their privileged second place on the preferential trekt uit de gezelligheid van een grote groep. De ladder, a strategy that also gained them better Australiër drinkt veel, doch alleen voor zes uur in treatment in the Australian market place. de namiddag, want daarna mag geen sterke drank Hendrik K van Leeuwen, ‘A Retrospective on Dutch verkocht worden. Voordien echter gaat iedereen Migration to Australia in the 1950s – a media per- die zich het kan permitteren, en dat is bijna de spective –and the reflections on selected Dutch gehele mannelijke bevolking, naar een van de vele migrants in Victoria’, MA Thesis, School of Visual bars, waar het ene glas na het andere geledigd Performing and Media Arts, Deakin University, wordt. Ondanks dat, kan men weer niet zeggen Victoria, 1995. dat men in Australië liever doen dan hun hebben . Walker-Birckhead, 2006. en houden aan drank opmaken. Integendeel, de . ibid. Australiër is behalve een goed zakeman ook wezen The Adelaide Advertiser, 2 February 1978. een degelijk mens, ondanks zijn fantatieke liefde Walker Birkhead 2006. voor alle mogelijke sport. Maar zijn lijfspreuk is, ‘The false Bait: Australia land of Tomorrow’ De zoiets als, leven en laten leven, en bovendien is hij Waarheid. 28 January 1950. van mening dat het beter is te leven om te arbei- Proposal, Footsteps of the Dutch in Australia, for den dan omgekeerd. the Curtin Research Fellowship Research being Hoewel men in Australië lang niet zo’n ontwikkeld undertaken with the Dutch around Australia by gezinsleven kent als bij ons, wordt er toch merk- Nonja Peters. waardig weinig gebruik gemaakt van restaurants This is also noted by J. Menges, ‘Geschiktheid voor en eetgelegenheden. Niettemin is het eten daarin Emigratie:Een onderzoek naar psychologische uitstekend en goedkoop. aspecten der emigraantbiliteit’, Staatsuitgerverij, Voor de Nederlander zal het wel aanvankelijk vreemd The Hague, 1959, p.1. zijn dat de Australiër met een zo stevig ontbijt Wim Blauw, Explanations of Postwar Dutch Mi- begint. Dit bestaat niet uit een beschuitje en een gration to Australia, in Nonja Peters (ed), in The bordje pap, zoals bij ons, doch uit grote stukken Dutch Down Under 1606-2006, UWA Press: vlees, spiegeieren en veel fruit, fruit dat in de heer- Perth, 2006, pp.168-183. lijkste soorten en spot goedkoop te verkrijgen is. Peters, Milk & Honey. Bovendien worden er ontzaglijke hoeveelheden van Leeuwen, 1995. thee gedronken. Het verbruik van groenten is niet ibid zo hoog. Bovendien is de Australiasche bereiding- ibid swijze voor ons niet zeer aantrekkelijk. De groente The Argus, 4 August 1951. wordt bijna stukgekookt en met veel water opge- Peters, Milk & Honey. Cited by Van Leeuwin, 1995, diend. Aardappelen zijn er wel, doch over het p.44. alegemeen duurder dan bij ons. Daarentegen is Translated from the Dutch in Weg Naar Australië het gebruik van zoetigheden wederom enorm. De (Way to Australia) Dutch Migration Organisa- Nederlandse huisvrouw kan haar eigen Hollandse tion, 1951, which reads: menu gerust aanhouden, doch goedkoper is het Het grootste deel van de Australische bevolking waaneer zij geheel naar de Australische gewoonte woont in de grote steden. Daaruit blijkt dat de overschakelt. Australiër in wezen een stedeling is. Niettemin . H. M., interview 1996. zijn de specifieke trekken, die de stedeling b.v Peters, Just a Piece of Paper. bij ons van een dorpeling of plattelander onde- Peters, Just a Piece of Paper. scheidt, in Australië niet te onderkennen. Door P. Scheffer, p.127). hun hartelijkheid, hun ongedwongen optreden They support an extensive international literature en de verwaarloosde kleding heft practisch iedere with popular journals, such as Family History, Australische man iets van een plattelander. Aan de Family Tree Magazine, Your Family History, as andere kant is het standsverschil, dat men vooral well as Genealogy Blog sites. in ons land in erg conservatief dorpen en steden Kunz, E. 1988. Displaced Persons: Calwell’s New nog veelal aantreft, in het Australische leven lang Australians. Sydney: Australian National niet zo duidelijk uitgedrukt. In Australië is men University Press; Voet, R. ‘Women as Citizens: onverschilliger, jovialer, men roddelt minder, doch A Feminist Debate’, Australian Feminist Studies, vloekt daarentegen weer veel meer, ofschoon dit 1994, p.64). vloeken niet ernstig gemeend is en al bijna tot de omgaanstaal behoort, De Australiër is ook niet zo Hat or Cap … Does It Matter? The Case of the Kosovo Albanians in Slovenia

Metka Lokar

Abstract: The article presents some points of present migration is not always and nec- view on creating (national) stereotypes essarily about politics but rather about which often are generated from a lack of human minds and hearts and feelings knowledge about the culture, language and about what can we learn from it etc. of someone that we consider as the and from each other. Our intention is Other. Sometimes these stereotypes are not to discuss why it is so difficult to a consequence of the public’s relying on accept someone in the neighbourhood some influential attitudes that mostly who is not ‘one of us’ since the answer to originate from politics. This was also this question is far too elusive and mul- the case in the shaping of general Slo- tifaceted for consideration here. Instead, venian view of the Kosovo Albanians the article will try to highlight some in the past. Of course one could easily facts about how easily and how often we find some obvious similarities between create false images about ‘the others’ liv- the two nations that are apparently so ing in our vicinity, and how quickly we different from each other. Nevertheless, make judgments and conclusions about stereotypes on the Kosovo Albanians in them that often rely on the attitude of Slovenia arise even nowadays and they someone else that we trust maybe even are mostly uncritically derived from tra- without a good reason. One very tell- ditional perceptions. ing illustration of the process of making various stereotypes is the story about Keywords: Balkans, Slovenia, Kosovo, relations between two of the so-called Albanians, stereotypes ‘brotherly’ nations of former Yugoslavia: Slovenians and Albanians, more pre- Introduction cisely, the Kosovo Albanians. It tells us An important view which was stated as how sometimes the one that seems more one of the leading points of the AEMI ‘other’ than others is in fact much more annual conference in 2011 entitled ‘Mi- ‘the same’, but we are not always aware gration History Matters’ is that past and of that or we simply do not want to see metka lokar 65 and admit it. spread corruption in the Kosovo society In the framework of former Yugosla- is also a factor that hardly contributes via, Albanians from Kosovo used to be to a more positive general assessment of the largest non-Slavic nation among the Kosovo and its people. Slavs in the country, and therefore by The stereotyped image above (Fig. 1) Slovenians and many others as well was shows something that is of course far perceived as a nation with a completely from reality. Actually, it is quite suit- different language, culture and way able to compare with another image of life. That is why at first glance they (Fig. 2 ) according to which we could seemed more alienated from others than get the impression – wrong again – that anyone else, and the lack of knowledge the ‘typical’ Slovenian is very friendly, about this particular nation was one of eats ‘potica’ (a special cake mixed with the main reasons for creating stereotypes walnuts) and ‘kranjska klobasa’ (a local and images about the Albanians, as for brand of a sausage), and drinks red wine example that they are strange and evil, every day, usually wears the hat on his or that they even nowadays when na- head and walks around with sleepers on tional costumes are long gone in every- his feet. It cannot be seen, but he cer- day life, wear funny white caps, and that tainly listen to popular polka music all they eat burek – salty cheese pies – all day long. Of course it is just a caricature the time. A common notion of wide- suitable for various kinds of manipula- tion.

Fig 1: The Albanian by Anonymous as presented in Fig2: The Slovenian by Alenka Čuk as presented in 1989 in the column ‘Manipulator’ of the Slovenian the chapter ‘Taking Slovenia Home’ of the booklet weekly magazine Mladina. Pocket Slovene (2008). 66 AEMI JOURNAL 2011

Table 1: Population by region/country of birth and sex, Slovenia, 1 January 2011

Total Men Women

Total 2,050,189 1,014,563 1,035,626 Slovenia 1,821,601 883,390 938,211 Foreign Countries 228,588 131,173 97,415 Europe 223,662 128,613 95,049 • Countries of former Yugoslavia 198,242 116,651 81,591 . . . Bosnia and Herzegovina 96,897 60,268 36,629 . . . Montenegro 2,811 1,550 1,261 . . . Croatia 49,158 24,159 24,999 . . . Kosovo 9,350 6,706 2,644 . . . Macedonia 13,658 8,564 5,094 . . . Serbia 26,368 15,404 10,964 • EU Member States 21,182 10,433 10,749 • Other European countries 4,238 1,529 2,709 Non-European countries 4,926 2,560 2,366

Source: SORS

But let us return to the Kosovo Albani- but indirectly and in a passive way’ ans. A great majority of them come to (Šabec 2006: 21). Slovenia as seasonal workers and there Despite that, we can find some exam- are not many of them who have settled ples that show how the difference can permanently; according to official statis- also be taken as an advantage, some- tics (Statistical Office of the Republic of thing that we can learn from, and on Slovenia – SORS) on 1 January 2011, the other hand how similar experiences there were only 9,350 Kosovo-born im- can build bridges between two nations – migrants living in Slovenia out of about between the people who already live in two million inhabitants in total (see the the area for a longer period of time (so table above).1 called ‘native population’) and immi- The fact is that the immigrants from grants. For the start, we can just take a Kosovo (mostly) do not have the ambi- quick look back in time to find out that tion to integrate into the new society.2 Kosovo Albanians and Slovenians have This is again very fertile soil for creat- some historical facts in common. For ing stereotypes, both traditional and instance, Albanians lived in the vicinity contemporary, proving very often how of the Ottoman Empire and were sepa- in modern societies prejudices are ‘ex- rated into four provinces called ‘vilajets’, pressed in symbolic terms in an indirect and the situation of Slovenians was simi- and covered way’, and also, that ‘neg- lar, they lived in the southern part of the ative observations toward the discrim- Habsburg Empire and were divided into inated people are not expressed openly five ‘crown lands’. ‘Since each nation metka lokar 67 lived in a strategically highly important more) by the domestic press which was area on the margin of a large empire, under pronounced influence of the do- one in Austria-Hungary and the other mestic conservative catholic clerical in the Ottoman empire, their political circles. The latter were critical of the leaders (unsuccessfully) tried to attain (Kosovo) Albanians because of their – prior to the onset of the First World predominant religion, Islam, which was War – either autonomy or a union of considered as primitive and dangerous.4 their nation within one province (the For some time Slovenians also saw their vilajet or crown land) within each em- natural allies in the south Slavic nations, pire’ (Lipušček 2008: 393). Albanians especially Serbs and Croats, and since wanted to integrate with the independ- the Albanians are not Slavic people and ent Albania or at least become an auton- since they were in fight with the Serbs, omous region of the Ottoman Empire, the Slovenian public opinion at the time and Slovenians were trying to unite in was understandably pro-Serbian. one joint province called ‘United Slove- The first significant contact between nia’ in the framework of the Habsburg Albanians and Slovenians outside of the monarchy. Neither the Albanians nor political background took place at the the Slovenians had powerful allies that end of the 19th and the beginning of the would support their national claims (as 20th century when some of the leading for instance Montenegrins and Serbs Slovenian linguists – Jernej Kopitar, were supported by Russians), so for Fran Miklošič, and Rajko Nahtigal – both of them these dreams were difficult contributed their expertise to the devel- to capture. The Albanians were the first opment of the standardized Albanian to achieve independence (in 1912, with- language. Nahtigal for instance helped out Kosovo), whereas the Slovenians a well-known Albanian linguist, Gjergj declared independence almost 80 years Pekmezi in 1908 to develop standard later (in 1991). Albanian grammar.5 Nevertheless, dur- ing this period the leading Slovenian Historical background newspapers still ‘only rarely reported The Slovenians became aware of the Al- on events taking place in Albania, and banians (so called ‘Arnauti’) during the if they did, reports were occasionally 1912–13 Balkan wars and the collapse influenced by cultural stereotypes’ (Li- of the Ottoman Empire in the Balkans. pušček 2008: 393). A crucial moment that has been taken Until November 1918, Slovenia was into consideration was the Albanian a part of Austria-Hungary and later declaration of independence (with the became (as Kosovo did) a part of the help of Austria-Hungary) in November first and the second Yugoslavia. This 1912.3 Slovenians lived in the Habsburg fact brought about, as Peter Vodopivec monarchy at that time and their percep- writes, new views and relations: ‘Be- tion of Albania and Albanians was nat- cause of the conflicts and disagreements urally influenced by the official policy which were part of life in the new Yu- of the Vienna court, and also (or even goslavia, the enthusiasm of Slovenians about their southern ‘Yugoslav brothers’ 68 AEMI JOURNAL 2011 rapidly faded away; nevertheless, no- tionem. It is quite intriguing to see how body seriously opposed the opinion that the American-Slovenian publicist Erica Slovenians had been historically and Johnson-Debeljak defines the borders of geographically linked with the Balkans the Balkans in an unorthodox way when for some time. The most renowned Slo- she as a newcomer from the West9 ob- venian geographer of the time, Anton serves the area: Melik adopted at the end of the 1920s a thesis from a leading Serbian geogra- It is sometimes said that the real pher, Jovan Cvijić that in the North- border between Western Europe west the Balkan Peninsula extended to and the Balkans could be drawn the Alps’ (Vodopivec 2008: 397). This along an imaginary line, on one side notion6 came under question especially of which people drink espresso and when the Yugoslav federation was un- cappuccino and macchiato (Italians, able to solve the national question and Spaniards, the French) and on the the process of disintegration started. other side of which they drink Turk- Slovenian politicians, experts, and even ish coffee (the Ottoman hordes). general public realized that the future of Another way to define this same Slovenia was now in Europe rather than border would be to draw a second the Balkans. imaginary line, similar to the first, In this period Slovenian view on only this one would divide the peo- Kosovo and other south Yugoslav re- ple who maintain the Oriental prac- gions was largely marked by Europeism tice of wearing slippers within the as a clear opposition to Balkanism.7 inner sanctum of the home from the Namely, the Balkans was considered people on the other side: the barba- as an underdeveloped area that suffers rous Occidentals who wear shoes or from a lack of culture and order, espe- socks or flip-flops or nothing at all cially working habits, and Slovenians on their feet regardless of whether were happy to believe that they live in they’re inside or outside, in the bed- the civilised Europe, although the truth room or the barroom (Johnson-De- was somewhere in-between; because of beljak 2009: 87). its position Slovenia also became a part of the Balkans at a certain point of its In the first half of the 20th century Slove- history, first on military maps during nians as a small nation eagerly searched the First World War8 and later (during for allies in other Slavic nations, particu- the first and the second Yugoslavia) also larly in Serbia which they consider as the politically. It is the fact that the area of South Slavic Piedmont – which means the Balkans is still not defined in pre- the springboard for the unification of cise terms. A majority of Slovenian South Slavs. It was one of the main scholars and politicians insist that the reasons for the predominantly negative Slovenians belong to Middle Europe Slovenian view on Kosovo Albanians since they were for many centuries part at that time. Slovenians for instance of the Habsburg monarchy, which was also adopted from the Serb national- a central European empire per defini- ists the often heard expression ‘Šiptarji’ metka lokar 69 (‘Shiptars’) for the Albanians, which still 1989, some leading Slovenian political nowadays – with a particular accent – is parties organised on the premises of a not meant to be a very kind and friendly well-known cultural institution, Can- expression. It is also somehow ambigu- karjev dom in Ljubljana, a large public ous. Erica Johnson-Debeljak finds it at gathering at which Slovenians clearly ex- least strange: ‘As to whether the term pressed their strong support for Kosovo šiptar is derogatory or not, the question, and the Kosovo Albanians, and thus be- when I have asked it, has been met with came their official allies. This happened mystification, as if Albanians belong to when Serbian nationalism was most ag- some entirely separate human category gressive and in full force. in which such notions no longer apply’ (Johnson-Debeljak 2009: 106). Reality and prejudices When in the last two decades of the In the recent past, one of the most 20th century it became clear that Yugo- powerful stereotyped images with neg- slavia would not survive as a federation ative influence on Slovenian views of of equal nations and peoples, particu- Albanians in the framework of former larly because of the growing national- Yugoslavia came from the popular cul- ism in Serbia, the political opinion on ture. It was an imaginary picture of a Kosovo in Slovenia radically changed. train representing the federation of the The Slovenians became the most ardent republics: Slovenia as the most devel- supporters of political and cultural as- oped and ‘westernized’ republic was the pirations of the Kosovo Albanians. The locomotive of this train, other republics tendencies of Serbian politicians to cre- – Croatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Ser- ate a unified Yugoslav culture, some- bia, Montenegro and Macedonia – were thing that had never existed before,10 as the railway vehicles, and Kosovo was a cover-up for the domination of Serbia the brake stopping the train. This image in the Yugoslav federation, was particu- has the roots in the fact that Kosovo re- larly strongly opposed to in Ljubljana mained the most undeveloped part not and Pristina because this would require only of former Yugoslavia but also of the disappearance of ethnic cultures and Europe, despite the substantial financial would on the long run lead to the dis- subsidies it got from the central Yugo- appearance of ethnic identities as well. slav government and especially from This has been obviously – and finally the most developed republic of former – a good reason for both Kosovo Alba- Yugoslavia, Slovenia. After Kosovo de- nians and Slovenians to unify against clared independence in 2008, Slovenia Yugoslav (mostly Serb) ultra-national- also became the leading foreign investor ists who tried to change radically the in the new-born country. character of the Yugoslav federation, That is probably why the first thought especially when the Milošević’s regime that occurs to Slovenians when they hear started the so-called ethnic cleansing about the immigrants from Kosovo is in Kosovo and abolished the autonomy that they are poor and that they come to that Kosovo was entitled to according to Slovenia mostly as unskilled construc- the Constitution of 1974. In February tion workers or at most pastry-men, 70 AEMI JOURNAL 2011 fruit and vegetable sellers, bakers, etc. dren around – is their relatively high There are also some well-educated Al- fertility in comparison with the Slove- banians living in Slovenia but Sloveni- nian. Using the 2002 Slovenian census ans hardly notice them because they are data, Damir Josipovič derived a special highly integrated into the mainstream demographic indicator called ‘repro- society. There are some artists, scien- ductive potential’14 to assess the fertility tists, engineers, doctors and successful rates of ethnic groups in Slovenia. The managers etc. who came to Slovenia as indicator of the reproductive potential students years ago, at the time of former of the (native) Slovenian population was Yugoslavia, and stayed there for good. 1.28, while the indicator of the Albani- Some of them, on the other hand, ar- ans’ reproduction potential was 2.64;15 rived only in the last decade or two and only the Roma population in Slovenia also stayed. A general rule that can also had a higher indicator of their reproduc- be observed in Slovenia is: the more ed- tive potential, i.e. 3.72 (Josipovič 2006: ucated the immigrant is, the more easily 141). he/she integrates11 into the society. The age and sex structure of the Al- The number of immigrants from banian population from Kosovo in Slo- Kosovo in Slovenia has been increas- venia in comparison with the (native) ing in the last years, presumably due Slovenian population in the last pop- to the Kosovo socio-political situation ulation census in 2002 was also quite in the recent past, and is now slowing particular. While the graph for the Slo- down. As to learn the language of the venian population (graph 1) shows that host country is sine qua non for them, the population is aging in general, the the migration dynamics can be, among picture for the Kosovo Albanian popu- others, observed also through the enrol- lation is reverse (graph 2); the highest ment of Albanian candidates for Slove- percentage represents the group of peo- nian language courses and exams,12 and ple from 10 to 54 years of age, while the through the number of Albanian chil- group above 55 is hardly represented. dren enrolled in Slovenian primary and Besides, the women of this ethnic group secondary schools. Related to this, the in Slovenia are largely outnumbered by question of the integration of Albanians men. An explanation of this phenome- into the Slovenian society has arisen on non which is for a change much more a more extended basis than ever, and close to the truth than the one about the with it the need to familiarise with them fertility is that Albanian men imm grate closer than before. in much higher numbers than Albanian Despite the efforts to practice con- women due to tradition (and, of course, structive intercultural dialogue there due to the fact that they have higher la- are still some misconceptions, or wrong bour skills than women do). interpretation of the facts. So, one of The case of the integration of the the characteristics of the Albanian pop- Kosovo Albanians into the Slovenian ulation living in Slovenia13 that makes society is rather specific not just because a basis for another stereotypical image of the language-related issues or because of them – families with a bunch of chil- the majority of them, especially men still metka lokar 71 Graph 1: Sex and age structure of the Slovenian Conclusion (native) population; left: men, right: women (Josi- povič 2006: 136). We can assume that since the immi- grants from Kosovo mostly came from the lowest social strata and have only basic education, they are generally more dedicated to traditional forms of life than higher-educated people – and this is not necessarily bad at all. Some of the traces of the canonized Albanian tra- ditionalism and rigorous social norms, which is otherwise quite strange to the Slovenian culture (for instance tribe community, highly patriarchal soci- Graph 2: Sex and age structure of the Albanian pop- ety, inequality of women, pre-arranged ulation in Slovenia; left: men, right: women (Josipovič marriages, living in extended families, 2006: 137). blood revenge, etc.), are to be taken into consideration when we speak about the Slovenian perception of Albanians, especially the clearly defined rule (for instance from Skenderberg’s Canon, compare Berishaj 2004: 149–153), that the guest, even a total stranger, is a highly respected person in the Albanian house. Unfortunately there is a question whether it is the same with the guest in come to Slovenia on short term basis the Slovenian house. (mostly as seasonal workers) but also The fact is that Kosovo as an inde- because they are very traditionally ori- pendent state is nowadays considered ented in terms of their closed patriarchal in Slovenia as somewhat controversial. family environment, which is still a part Slovenians sometimes still believe that of the prevailing lifestyle in Kosovo. We the life of Albanians is full of violence, can imagine that this really is a major primitivism, and archaic forms of so- reason why the Kosovo Albanians, who ciety which have not been civilised to have great respect of their national iden- meet European standards but are much tity, do not integrate easily into the new closer to the wild Balkan mentality. Of society.16 So if we follow a definition of course this is mostly no longer the fact. identity,17 we can say that this deter- In former Yugoslavia, the Albanians al- mines the Kosovo Albanians who have ready developed a modern way of life moved to Slovenia permanently as well; which largely replaced old patriarchal they (often openly) stick to their tradi- forms. tional way of life, even though also in ‘In modern usage, a stereotype is a Kosovo the forms of their traditional life simplified mental picture of an indi- are changing nowadays. vidual or group of people who share a 72 AEMI JOURNAL 2011 certain characteristic (or stereotypical) Ferbežar, Ina (2010): Izpitni center. qualities. The term is often used in a Center za slovenščino kot drugi/tuji jezik: negative sense, and stereotypes are seen Letno poročilo 2010. Ljubljana: Center by many as undesirable beliefs which za slovenščino kot drugi/tuji jezik. 45– can be altered through education and/or 48. familiarisation’ (Stereotype, 2010). The Johnson-Debeljak, Erica (2009): question as to what extent the Kosovo Forbidden Bread: A Memoir. Berkeley: Albanian immigrants living in Slovenia North Atlantic Books. confirm this definition. The immigrants Josipovič, Damir (2006): Učinki who often achieve only basic education priseljevanja v Slovenijo po drugi svetovni and rudimentary knowledge of the ma- vojni. Ljubljana: Inštitut za slovensko jority language are mostly perceived by izseljenstvo ZRC SAZU. the majority society according to cli- Lipušček, Uroš (2008): Slovensko in chés. This situation will not change albansko nacionalno vprašanje med prvo until the immigrants from Kosovo as a svetovno vojno – podobnosti in razlike. group get a higher status in society.18 A Zgodovinski časopis 62/3–4. 393–407. precondition for a more respected treat- Michail, Eugene (2011): The British ment and successful integration is edu- and the Balkans: Forming Images of For- cation. Those immigrants from Kosovo eign Lands 1900–1950. New York: Con- who are educated professionals are more tinuum. respected and less prone to stereotypical Migration, Slovenia, 1 January 2011 judgments. But on the other hand, the – final data, 2011. Ljubljana: Statistični majority population should also become urad Republike Slovenije. http://www. more tolerant and respectful to them stat.si/eng/novica_prikazi.aspx?id=4430 just the way they are. (February 4, 2012). Milharčič Hladnik, Mirjam, and Ma- References rina Lukšič-Hacin: Identitete, pripad- Anonymus (1989): Manipulator. nost, identifikacije.Medkulturni odnosi Mladina 43, 15 December. 12. kot aktivno državljanstvo (eds. Marina ALIČ, Tjaša et al. (2008): Pocket Lukšič-Hacin, Mirjam Milharčič Hlad- Slovene/Žepna slovenščina. Ljubljana: nik, Mitja Sardoč). Ljubljana: Inštitut za Centre for Slovene as a Second/Foreign slovensko izseljenstvo in migracije ZRC Language. SAZU. 31–39. Berishaj, Martin (2004): Skrita moč Social Integration: Approaches and bese: Ženske v imaginariju albanskega Issues, 1994. Geneva: United Na- tradicionalizma. Dodatek: Skenderbegov tions Research Institute for Social kanon. Ljubljana: Založba ZRC, ZRC Development. http://www.unrisd. SAZU. org/80256B3C005BCCF9/(httpAux- Bešter, Romana (2007): Integracija in Pages)/510920DA18B35A6880256B- model integracijske politike. Priseljenci 65004C6A7B/$file/bp1.pdf (February (ed. Miran Komac). Ljubljana: Inštitut 4, 2012). za narodnostna vprašanja. 105–134. Stereotype – Definition, 2010. WordIQ.com. http://www.wordiq. metka lokar 73 com/definition/Stereotype (February 4, Notes 2012). 1 According to SORS, ‘[i]mmigration from abroad, mostly from republics of former Yu- Šabec, Ksenija (2006): Homo Euro- goslavia, was the deciding factor for demo- peus: Nacionalni stereotipi in kulturna graphic and socioeconomic development of identiteta Evrope. Ljubljana: Fakulteta za Slovenia in the last fifty years. Also after the družbene vede. independence of Slovenia the direction of migration flows between Slovenia and abroad Todorova, Maria (1997): Imagining did not change significantly. Migration topics the Balkans. New York, Oxford: Oxford remain closely connected with the territory University Press. of former Yugoslavia. Slovenia was and still is the destination country for numerous people Vodopivec, Peter (2001): O Evropi, from the territory of former Yugoslavia. The Balkanu in metageografiji. In: Maria share of the residents of Slovenia with coun- Todorova: Imaginarij Balkana. Lju- tries of birth from the territory of former Yu- goslavia among all foreign-born residents was bljana: Inštitut za civilizacijo in kulturo. 88.9% in the 2002 Census, and on 1 Janu- 381–401. ary 2011, despite new migration flows from Wachtel, Andrew Baruch (1998): EU Member States and from non-European Making a Nation, Beaking a Nation: Lit- countries, it was still 86.7%.’ (Migration, Slo- venia, 1 January 2011 – final data, 2011) erature and Cultural Politics in Yugosla- 2 Most of new temporary economic migrants via. Stanford: Stanford University Press. from Kosovo are foreigners in Slovenia; only 22% of them have citizenship of the Repub- lic of Slovenia. Men prevail among them (72%) (ibid.). 3 Albania was for a long time terra incognita for other nations, too. For instance, well-known British historian, Edward Gibbon described it in the 18th century as ‘within sight of Italy but less known than the interior of America’ (Todorova 1997: 45). 4 Religion – Kosovo Albanians are mostly Muslims – still plays a significant role in creating stereotypes, especially since the ma- jority of Slovenians are Catholics. Besides, after the 9/11 terrorist attack, Islam became a synonym of backwardness and aggression in Slovenia as well. 5 This was an almost forgotten story which lately became a topic of discussion again, especially after the independence of Kosovo. It brought about the ideas of a revision of written and spo- ken standard language that is in use in Kosovo and is slightly different from the standard lan- guage used in Albania. 6 The dilemma of where the borders of the Bal- kans are was not limited only to the Slovenian scientists and politicians. Some German politi- cians for instance considered as part of the Bal- kans all areas south of Munich, and the British author Archibald Lyall in his 1930s travelogue entitled Balkan Road describes it this way: ‘The Czech would be very angry if anyone suggested they were Balkan; so would the Poles, so would 74 AEMI JOURNAL 2011

the Hungarians – and all of them with reason. 13 The vast majority of the Albanians in Slovenia But almost everywhere east of the lands of solid come from Kosovo. There are also some Albani- German and Italian speech there is a thin whiff ans from Macedonia and only few of them from of the Balkans in the air.’ (Michail 2011: 154) Montenegro and Albania. Because of its negative connotation and ‘ex- 14 The methodology of the derivation and calcu- plosive’ history nobody would like to be linked lation of the indicator is explained in Josipovič with the Balkans, even people living in the Bal- (2006: 118–119). kans itself. 15 Such a high value of the indicator is partly a re- 7 The term Balkanism has been introduced by the sult of lower presence of women in the Albanian Bulgarian-American scientists and writer Maria population of Slovenia (Josipovič 2006: 137). Todorova in her book Imagining the Balkans 16 Social integration is according to UN experts (New York: Oxford University Press 1997). She ‘a complex idea, which means different things introduced the particular pattern through which to different people. To some, it is a positive the Balkans has been viewed, especially since goal, implying equal opportunities and rights the early 20th century in the western world. for all human beings. In this case, becoming 8 The area where the Slovenians were the major- more integrated implies improving life chances. ity has been first put on the geographic map of To others, however, increasing integration may the Balkans by the British General Staff during conjure up the image of an unwanted imposition the First World War. The British military consid- of conformity. And, to still others, the term in ered as Balkans all regions and lands east of the itself does not necessarily imply a desirable or borderline river Soča. undesirable state at all. It is simply a way of de- 9 She moved from New York City to Ljubljana in scribing the established patterns of human rela- 1993. tions in any given society.’ (Social Integration, 10 Andrew BaruchWachtel argues that ‘[i]t is 1994: [5]) But, in any case integration cannot be possible that Yugoslavia could have survived a hidden term for assimilation. as a multinational state had its leaders moved 17 Numerous definitions of identity have been to a multinational cultural policy while simul- elaborated in literature; for our analysis we will taneously democratizing the country and trans- use the one that says that ‘the identity is the forming the basis of Yugoslav identity to an interaction between the individual’s feeling of individualistic-libertarian model. But this would identity, adherence to the group and willingness have entitled a cultural shift of monumental pro- of the group to recognise his/her identity and to portions and it was not attempted in Yugoslavia.’ take it (or not), with attributing him/her to a cer- (Wachtel 1998: 10) tain position. […] In addition, identities which 11 Integration of immigrants into a new society is can be understood as an inherited group iden- a very complex process. It is ‘a process of inclu- tification (ethnicity, gender, race, religion, age, sion and accepting the immigrants to the new so- etc.), which are a more determining factor in the cial environment and adaptation of the existing cultural-social context, have developed alterna- social structures to the new situation which are tives (education, profession, sport), the selection the consequence of immigration. Integration is a of which is left to the individual.’ (Milharčič multipath process which requires mutual adap- Hladnik and Lukšič-Hacin 2011: 31) tation of immigrants and the receiving society. 18 The question is also whether the worsening Immigrants in this process accept certain norms of the world financial and economic situation and rules applicable in the new society, and ma- will result in faster or slower integration of the jority society on the other hand has to open up Kosovo Albanians into the Slovenian society. its institutions, adjust them to the new situation and ensure the immigrants equal opportunities for participation in them, as are in place for other people.’ (Bešter 2007: 108) 12 According to the Centre for Slovene as a Second/Foreign Language, in 2007 the num- ber of Albanian-speaking candidates for the basic level exam increased to about a quarter of all candidates and remained the same for another two years; in 2010 it fell from 25 to 11% (Ferbežar 2011: 45). Louis Adamic’s Role in the Prehistory of Multiculturalism

Janja Žitnik Serafin

can cultural pluralism. Adamic’s works point to multiculturalism’s potential to foster the growth of unsentimental em- pathy for the experience of others, to develop personal and national identity built upon a variety of critically exam- ined cultural influences, and to create a more progressive and integrated society. Adamic is thus a pioneer of the most en- gaged contemporary speakers for equal integration of immigrants – speakers who demand recognition and equal position for marginalized groups, their languages, religions, values and cul- tural patterns without demonizing the dominant culture. Only in this way can multiethnic nations develop the kind of multicultural identity and intercul- tural awareness that Adamic strove for.

Fig. 1 Portrait of Louis Adamic by Božidar Jakac Without that, the implementation of (The Louis Adamic Memorial Museum, Praproče, some important human rights and, con- Slovenia) sequently, social stability, efficiency and internal security of any modern country Introduction1 may be at risk. Louis Adamic (1898–1951) was a suc- With his 20 books of documentary cessful Slovenian American novelist, prose and fiction, some 500 articles, and publicist, and social critic who played his public lectures – particularly those a significant role in the early develop- focusing on the role of immigrants in ment of strategies relating to Ameri- the development of the nation, Adamic 76 AEMI JOURNAL 2011 played a prominent part not only in American ethnic literature but also in the prehistory of American multicultur- alism. Scholars of Adamic have found that his works on cultural diversity, immigrant issues and social conditions in a multiethnic society are of vital im- portance for the current development of strategies in the area of cultural plural- ism not only in the United States but also in other receiving countries today. Adamic provided substance for his ideas through numerous study trips, visits to archives and libraries, field re- search, in-depth interviews and surveys with thousands of copies of question- naires, and he acquainted the public with his findings through countless ar- ticles, lecture tours, radio broadcasts, and through his many books dealing Fig. 2 Louis Adamic as assistant editor of Glas with immigration. Adamic was also a naroda in New York, 1916 (France Adamič, Spomini in pričevanja o življenju in delu Louisa Adamiča key figure in the prehistory of American (Ljubljana, 1983), 21) multiculturalism as the founder and ed- itor of Common Ground, issued by the Common Council for American Unity, traveled all over the States and worked which strove for intercultural education his way through various jobs. Having through the inclusion of immigrant improved his English, he settled in San content in public education, and in the Pedro, California, in 1923 and began final years of his life as General Editor to publish his articles, short stories and for nine books of The Peoples of Amer- translations from Slavic authors either ica Series.2 He was also the editor of sev- as books or in various American liter- eral consecutive self-published journals,3 ary magazines and Slovenian American and president or honorary president of journals. In 1929 he became a freelance major Slovenian and Yugoslav immi- writer and moved back to New York, grant organizations in the U.S. married a young writer Stella Sanders, and finished his first two major works: Dynamite: A History of Class Violence in Louis Adamic’s life America, 1830–1930 (1931), which was Born in Blato, Slovenia, Lojze Adamič later used in a number of U.S. colleges; emigrated to the U.S. in 1913, at the and Laughing in the Jungle (1932), an age of fifteen. He was assistant editor of anecdotic autobiographic narrative in- Glas naroda (a Slovenian ethnic newspa- cluding social commentary and tragi- per in New York), served in the Army, comic portraits of people who had been Janja Žitnik Serafin 77 ture tour, and continued his determined investigation of the United States. His next major work was Grandsons (1935), one of his few works of fiction. Its topic represents a link between the American ‘jungle’ of his early autobiog- raphy and his later books on social and intercultural relations within the coun- try. This novel about third-generation immigrants and their lack of a feeling of rootedness demonstrates the tragic results of their inferiority complex, im- posed by the American success mental- ity and exaggerated individualism.5 In 1938, Adamic published My Amer- ica, a compilation of his articles on so- cial and interethnic issues written since 1934. During the war years, he was en- gaged in political activism but – with a Fig. 3: Louis Adamic with his wife Stella (France Carnegie grant – he still managed to ac- Adamič, Spomini in pričevanja o življenju in delu complish his major writing project, the Louisa Adamiča (Ljubljana, 1983), cover) Nation of Nations Series. The first vol- ume entitled From Many Lands (1940) part of his immigrant experience. With is a collection of portraits of individual both books, Adamic won a Guggen- American immigrants from various parts heim Fellowship for fiction. He spent of the world. It won the John Anisfield his Fellowship year in Yugoslavia, met Award as the most significant book of with leading Slovenian writers and pub- 1940 on race relations in the contempo- lic figures,4 and with the Yugoslav King rary world. The series further included Alexander. Two-Way Passage (1941), What’s Your Back from his visit to Yugoslavia, Name? (1942) on the Americanization Adamic wrote The Native’s Return(1934), of immigrants’ names, and A Nation of Book-of-the-Month Club selection for Nations (1945). February 1934, in which he condemned In Two-Way Passage, the second vol- King Alexander’s dictatorship and pre- ume of this series, Adamic suggested that dicted his assassination. When the king qualified American immigrants should was actually assassinated in Marseilles, help the post-war Europe by spend- France, the same year, Adamic became ing the first post-war years in their na- a major attraction for American media tive lands to share their know-how and overnight. His book was prohibited in democratic values. This brought him Yugoslavia and an immediate success in an invitation for dinner with the Roo- the U.S. Adamic received some 3000 sevelts and Churchill in January 1942. letters, set out on a cross-American lec- Alarmed at subsequent world tensions, 78 AEMI JOURNAL 2011 Adamic published Dinner at the White 1980s, were well along with their work House (1946), in which he challenged before discovering that Adamic had pro- U.S. and British foreign policy. Church- posed a similar project in his book My ill sued him for libel; Adamic lost in this America as early as in the 1930s,8 almost lawsuit but he remained General Editor four decades before the so called ethnic for nine of The Peoples of America Se- revival in the U.S. and elsewhere. How ries (1946–1950). Upon the Tito-Sta- did Adamic carry out his plan in this lin split in 1948, Adamic sided with area? Tito, visited his native land for a second Before his first visit to his native land, time (1949), and wrote The Eagle and i.e. before 1932, Adamic had already the Roots to clarify the split and place it published a number of articles and short in relation to the American imperial- stories on immigrants and their position ism, the armaments race and cold war. in the receiving society. Being considered Facing a wide range of political oppo- one of the experts on cultural pluralism, nents, he now also became a target of he was elected member of the executive the House Committee on Un-American committee of the Foreign Language In- Activities. On September 5, 1951, Louis formation Service (FLIS), which had Adamic was found shot in his burning regular connections with ethnic organ- farmhouse. His death was proclaimed izations and ethnic press. Upon the pro- a suicide, which evoked considerable posal of his publisher he set on several doubt in the media. His posthumously cross-country lecture tours, not only in published book (1952) contains only order to present his books to broader chapters on post-war Yugoslavia and audience but also to get acquainted with President Tito’s life. A book-sized chap- daily life and needs of ordinary people ter on the contemporary U.S. domestic in different parts the States. He encoun- and foreign policy, the psychosis of the tered new ethnic groups, officials of emerging McCarthy era, and the real labor and government and educational U.S. motives for entering the Korean organizations, and citizens in general of War, has – naturally – remained unpub- varying backgrounds and employment. lished.6 He took his time to talk to people after his lectures, and he made notes Louis Adamic’s role in the prehis- on their observations and testimonies tory of American multiculturalism to use them later on for his articles In their journal called Spectrum, re- and books. As early as in the 1930s it searchers of Adamic’s legacy at the Im- became clear that he did not believe in migration History Research Center any of the existing institutional political in Minnesota observed that the eth- or social programs. Adamic promoted nic movement of our time had a short a pluralism that did not require immi- memory. They pointed to the fact that grants to surrender cultural heritage to a the editors of the Harvard Encyclope- ‘melting pot’ ideal. He championed an dia of American Ethnic Groups,7 which expanding sense of American identity in was published in the beginning of the which immigrants and their children as well as all other Americans are enriched Janja Žitnik Serafin 79 by a variety of critically examined per- tects its cultural diversity but also gains spectives and influences.9 vitality from it. Therefore he was not Dan Shiffman, professor of literature simply a forerunner of the initiators of and American studies, was the first to do contemporary multiculturalism’s docu- a thorough research into Louis Adamic’s mentation, recovery, and celebration of role in rooting American multicultural- ethnic contributions and traditions. His ism. He published his results in 2003 in conceptions of ethnic and cultural iden- his book entitled Rooting Multicultural- tities depicted the kind of complexity ism: The Work of Louis Adamic.Shiffman that current intercultural theories have observes, only recently begun to articulate. In Adamic’s belief, a nation cannot Although Adamic shares contem- base its identity either on a particular porary multuculturalism’s dedica- cultural tradition or on the sum of its tion to an inclusive America, he was various cultural traditions because its not preoccupied with diversity as a identity is in fact in a constant process goal in and of itself; Adamic’s cham- of formation and reformation. There- pioning of cultural variety was a part fore, a nation and its identity cannot be of a larger project to have difference something that should primarily be pre- serve progressive social change. For served. On the contrary: a nation should Adamic, diversity encourages partic- continuously try to discover, rediscover ipation in a communally responsive and articulate itself. As European na- society and allows for ideas and per- tions today are also multiethnic nations, sonalities to discourage Americans it is time we realized that this principle from measuring their lives against applies to all the nations of today’s Eu- mythical narratives of unbounded rope as well. upward mobility. Until the United Adamic was a forerunner of the most States overcomes its narrowly in- incisive modern social critics, who de- dividualized and isolating notions mand recognition and an equal role for of success, according to Adamic, marginalized groups, without demoniz- the nation cannot fully benefit ing the predominant culture. Only in from its multiethnic diversity.10 this way can the members of multi- ethnic societies develop a multicul- tural national identity and intercultural In spite of the fact that Adamic awareness, since a lack of the former and consistently stressed the significance latter can seriously threaten the imple- of ethnic heritage, he also considered mentation of some important human with great sensitivity the many faces rights, and consequently social stability of its stigma. His social criticism ex- and the internal security of any country. poses nationwide ignorance, racism and xenophobia as tools of exploitative cap- italism. Adamic argued for pluralism, for a dynamic, ever-evolving American culture that not only respects and pro- 80 AEMI JOURNAL 2011 represent individuality and Ameri- can identity at the same time. Or- ganically belonging to an ethnic group of their choice, these Adamics who are neither Adamičes nor Ad- amses can now proceed to fight an- cient narrowness and mob spirit and do it in the name of their province and of America.12

Fig. 4 Postage stamp, issued in March 1998, upon Adamic’s life is a unique experience the 100th anniversary of Louis Adamic’s birth of a boy from the Slovenian country- side, with scarcely a formal education, Conclusion who became a nationally recognized, Adamic’s writing reveals an author who award-winning American writer and is equally convincing in his sincere at- the guest of Presidents Roosevelt and tempt to understand class violence, Truman. His writing brought him an social change, or inner and outer con- honorary doctorate of the Temple Uni- flicts relating to ethnic and cultural di- versity, Philadelphia (1941), and the Yu- versity. Throughout his lifetime, feeling goslav Order of Brotherhood and Unity simultaneously an insider and outsider, (1944). He enjoyed private and pub- Adamic was seeking a balance between lic support from some most acclaimed his role of a watchful observer and that literary figures such as Upton Sinclair, of an activist. His probably most char- Sinclair Lewis, Sherwood Anderson, acteristic feature was that he actually and Francis Scott Fitzgerald.13 Slovenian managed to remain detached from ste- historians believe that Adamic is prob- reotypes and from any pre-formulated ably the most widely known Slovenian ideology. Numerous American authors so far.14 The number of search results in the field of multicultural and integra- for Louis Adamic on the internet shows tion studies have considered his views. that his ideas relating to intercultural The aforementioned Dan Shiffman’s relations within a multiethnic nation book is an impressive register of cita- which he published seven decades ago tions of Adamic’s works in the works of are still of considerable interest today. other well-known researchers. Werner Time after time, permanent relevance of Sollors11 uses Louis Adamic’s name to his multicultural and integration con- epitomize those like him who have con- cepts is thus rediscovered and interna- tributed to the development of cultural tionally recognized, proving once again pluralism: in its own way that migration history still does matter after all. By creating new /…/ group iden- tities and by authenticating them, they (American immigrants) may Janja Žitnik Serafin 81 Notes 13 Some of their correspondence with Adamic was 1 The paper is a partial result of the research pro- published in Slovenian translation by Jerneja gram National and Cultural Identity of Slovenian Petrič in: Izbrana pisma Louisa Adamiča, ed. Emigration (P5-0070). The author acknowledges Henry A. Christian (Ljubljana, 1981). the financial support from the state budget by the 14 Jože Pirjevec, ‘Louis Adamič,’ a lecture Government’s Office for Slovenians Abroad and at the roundtable Življenje in delo Louisa by the Slovenian Research Agency. This paper is Adamiča: počastitev 110. obletnice rojstva a summarized version of the author’s article Per- Louisa Adamiča (Ljubljana, 12 March 2009). manent Relevance of Louis Adamic’s Social Crit- icism, Studia Historica Slovenica, vol. 10 (2010), no. 1: 231–246. 2 Henry A. Christian, Louis Adamic: A Check- list (Kent, Ohio, 1971): 75. 3 See also: Janja Žitnik, ‘Louis Adamic’s period- icals,’ Dve domovini / Two Homelands, no. 2–3 (1992): 253–263. 4 For Adamic’s contacts with leading Slovenian writers and journalists at the time, see: France Adamič, ‘The links between Louis Adamič and Slovene journalists and literary figures (1921– 1941),’ Dve domovini / Two Homelands, no. 9 (1998): 55–65. 5 An in-depth examination of Louis Adamic’s ideas expressed in his novel Grandsons can be found in Carey McWilliams, Louis Adamic and Shad- ow-America (Los Angeles, 1935). 6 The manuscript of the unpublished chap- ter entitled ‘Game of Chess in an Earth- quake’ is discussed in: Janja Žitnik, ‘Louis Adamic: Game of Chess in an Earthquake,’ Slovenski koledar ’88: 203–205; same author, ‘Neobjavljeno poglavlje Orla i korena Luja Adamiča,’ Književna smotra 21, 1989, no. 69–72 (1988): 65–68; and in the following books by this author: Pero in politika: Zadnja leta Louisa Adamiča (Ljubljana, 1993); Orel in korenine med ‘brušenjem’ in cenzuro (Lju- bljana, 1995); and partly in her books Louis Adamič in sodobniki: 1948–1951 (Ljubljana, 1992) and Pogovori o Louisu Adamiču (Lju- bljana, 1995). 7 Ed. Stephan Thernstrom (Boston, 1981). 8 ‘Louis Adamic (1898–1951): His Life, Work and Legacy,’ Spectrum 4, no. 1 (1982): 2. 9 Dan Shiffman, Rooting Multiculturalism: The Work of Louis Adamic (London etc., 2003): 14. 10 Ibid: 14–15. 11 Werner Sollors is professor of English liter- ature and professor of African and African American studies at the Harvard University. He is one of the most prominent scholars in the field of American multiethnic literature. 12 Werner Sollors, Beyond Ethnicity: Consent and Descent in American Culture (New York, 1986): 206–207. Polish Immigrants in Westphalia - A European Case Study of Integration?

Dietmar Osses

Integration seems to be today one of the industrial hot spot in southern Ger- the most important key words and key many, along the rivers Rhine and Main, issues of social change in Western Eu- in the Ruhr-Area and to big cities like rope and especially in Germany. In fact, Cologne, Hamburg, Frankfurt and Ber- from the middle of the 1940s on, West- lin. ern Germany was a country of immi- But as recently as 2005, after more gration. After the big wave of German than forty years of immigration to Ger- refugees from Eastern Europe at the end many, the German government enacted of the Second World War, bi-national the first immigration law, which made contracts between Germany and several clearly defined rules for legal immi- states of south and east Europe brought gration for the first time. As a conse- millions of foreigners to Germany. From quence, from this time on politicians the peak of the so called ‘economic won- have been required to face the question der’ in 1955 up to the economic crisis of cultural diversity and social chal- in 1973 Germany recruited about 14 lenges on a national level. In 2007 the million of workers from Italy, Spain, federal government made up a national Greece, Turkey, Portugal, Morocco, Tu- plan for integration to cope with obvi- nisia and Yugoslavia. 11 million went ous social problems of segregation and back to their home countries or went ethnic self-isolation. The main concepts further to other destinations and about are now: German language courses for three million decided to stay in Ger- new and for long-term immigrants, im- many.1 proved education from the early child- After the economic crisis in 1973 hood on, and cultural education. recruitment was stopped. But as a con- Looking back in history, the Polish sequence of family reunion and ad- immigrants are often seen as a positive mittance of about five million political example for a successful integration. refugees and German ethnic emigrants Let’s have a closer look at their history from Poland and Russia in the 1980s in Germany. and 1990s the number of immigrants With the increasing industrialization increased further. The main portion of of Germany from the 1870s on, about the immigrants in Germany went to half a million of Polish immigrants dietmar osses 83 came to Germany until the beginning on their own. This was not only to im- of the First World War.2 We have to prove the accommodation but also to remember that since the third division make the former peasants feel at home. of Poland in 1795 there was no Polish Because of the rapid growth in in- state. The country and populations was dustry there was an urgent need for mainly divided to the Prussian state in thousands of new workers. The first ten the west, the Russian state in the east years of Polish migration to the Ruhr and the Austro-Hungarian Kingdom brought about 38.000 Poles to the new in the South. After the foundation of industrial landscape. Another ten years the German Empire in 1871 the Polish later, up to the year 1890, their num- people in the Prussian part were given ber increased to 120,000. In the year legal status as inhabitants of the Ger- 1900 about 333,000 polish immigrants man Empire with Polish origin. Legally, were counted in the Ruhr, followed by they were not treated as foreigners but the peak of 500,000 Poles in the Ruhr as members of the Empire, so it was easy in 1910. In the northern parts of the for them to migrate from the eastern Ruhr, where new mines were built in the provinces of the Empire to the new in- 1880s and 1890s, Polish miners were in dustrial land in western Germany at the the majority. About the year 1910, 19 river Ruhr, mainly part of the province coal mines were so-called ‘Polish Mines’ of Westphalia and also Rhineland. with more than 50 percent of Polish Due to crop failures, the inheritance miners, and seven of them had more law and a kind of peonage (or serf- than 75 percent of Poles.4 But did they dom) which prevented many men from feel at home in the Westphalia? Were achieving economic independence, now they welcomed and integrated into their thousands of Polish men, mainly poor local communties? peasants from the rural landscapes, fol- The colonies of the mining com- lowed the call of money and labour and panies with lots of Polish immigrants migrated to the Ruhr. The coal mining living together in neighbourhoods like companies sent out special agents to the in small rural villages could make them eastern provinces to recruit men from feel at home. But on the other hand the the rural landscapes to the growing cit- ‘cultural chock’ of the growing cities ies of the Ruhr for to work in the coal nearby and the high number of young mines and iron works. 3 They tried to men brought together without the so- attract the workers with the high loans cial control of a rural society was a chal- and fine housing in new houses built by lenge for every one – immigrants and the mining companies. In fact all mining the other inhabitants, and consequently companies had to build up settlements, there were many problems. called ‘colonies’’ near their mines, be- The main problem for the Polish im- cause there was insufficient housing migrants was the question of religion before, or none at all. The main part of and spiritual guidance in their native the housing was built as small houses for language. More than 90 percent of the four or five families with large gardens Polish immigrants were Catholics – only were the miners could plant vegetables the immigrants from Masuria were Prot- 84 AEMI JOURNAL 2011 estants. The native people of Westphalia were half and half Protestant and Catho- lic. Joining in Catholic church-services was easily possible for the Polish immi- grants, but not enough for their needs. Church services, spiritual guidance and sacraments in the Polish language were extremely important to them. As an initiative of the immigrants, a first re- ligious association was set up in 1877: the Jedność association of Dortmund (Jedność means Unity), followed by sev- eral brotherhoods of Saint Barbara, the patron of the miners, in the following years. 5 In 1885 the first Polish priest, Jozef Szotowski, was sent to Westphalia. He settled in a monastery in the city of Bochum. His first aim was to increase Postcard in Polish , printed in Bochum/ Germany, the number of brotherhoods and reli- 1900 gious associations and built them up in © LWL-Industriemuseum, Dortmund every city in the Ruhr. Until 1890 more cal activities, education, music or lotter- than 20 new associations were estab- ies founded. Only some of them acted lished. The brotherhoods were allowed politically like the Sokoł-movement, to bring their banners and wear their which combined physical education colours during the church services and with national Polish attitudes, or like processions – a sign of integration in the the Polish Trade Union ZZP, founded in Catholic Church and society at large. 1902 to fight for equal rights and loans In 1890 Szotowski was exchanged with for the Polish mine workers. Most of Frantizek Liss as the new Polish priest in them simply organized Polish every-day the Ruhr. Liss started to develop more life in Germany. With organisations the and other kinds of associations to organ- city of Bochum developed to the cen- ize the social life and form a self-confi- tre of the Polish cultural life - not only dent Polish community. in Westphalia, but for the whole of the He started the foundation of a Polish German Empire. 6 newspaper, ‘Wiarus Polski’ as an im- In 1912, 875 Polish associations portant means of communication and with more than 81,000 members were initiated several meetings and events. counted in the Ruhr. This as an indi- From this strong impulse the founda- cation of the well-developed self-confi- tion of several Polish organizations fol- dence of the Polish community in the lowed. One the one hand, there were heart of Germany. But for the author- not only religious associations but more ities and a part of the German com- and more associations for singers, physi- dietmar osses 85 munity it was a signal for segregation With the beginning of the First World and Polish nationalism. In fact, the War, it was official policy to avoid any young and fragile German Empire was social conflict in the Empire. So step by in a state of permanent social struggle, step the situation for the Poles improved especially in the industrial areas with a bit. But with the end of the war and the controversial ideas of socialism and the re-foundation of the Polish state communism. So the government was the situation changed completely. Until afraid of the Poles in the Ruhr for two the midst of the 1920s the number of reasons: for a potential Polish and an- Polish immigrants in the Ruhr declined ti-German nationalism on the one hand from more than half a million to about and a potential socialistic or communis- 160.000. One third of the Polish pop- tic radicalism among the mine workers ulation, the nationalists, political activ- on the other hand. However looked at, ists and home-seeking Poles went back ‘Polishness ‘ seemed suspicious. to Poland. Another third went to the As a consequence of the development coal mines of France and Belgium. The of the Polish associations, after a big mining companies in these countries strike of the coal miners in the Ruhr in sent out agents who recruited the highly 1899 which started in one of the ‘Pol- qualified Polish miners. They attracted ish-Mines’ in the Ruhr, the German them with the promise of high loans and government set up a centre for obser- lack of oppression in their countries. vation of the Polish immigrants in Bo- Only one third of the Polish immigrants chum in 1900. As German policemen stayed in the Ruhr – mainly those who were not able to understand Polish, the had married a German or who had been use of the Polish language was now for- born there. In short: the well-integrated bidden during meetings of the Polish Poles. associations. Furthermore, the Polish All the Polish organisations and asso- miners were forced to use the German ciations were affected by this Polish mass language – officially for the reason of emigration from Germany. So after the safety in the mines. And in 1908 the use period of confirmation of the borders of the Polish language was restricted in and transfer of parts of Silesia to Ger- church services. Songs and sermons had many or Poland with hard fights there to be approved by the authorities before and in the Ruhr (the detail of which is the services.7 beyond the scope of this article), there We have little information about was a phase of reunion and consolida- every-day life in these times. On the one tion of the Polish community in West- hand we hear of simple living together phalia. in the neighbourhoods of the colonies. In 1919 the Polish Emigrants in Ger- On the other hand we can see the op- many were given legal status as an ethnic pression of the authorities, we know a minority in Germany with a special pro- lot of words of abuse about the Polish tection. This status helped to develop immigrants and we can find some neg- and improve Polish culture, associations ative poems and postcards with stereo- and political parties in Germany and types. especially in Westphalia. In 1922 an 86 AEMI JOURNAL 2011

Transport of Polish DPs to another DP Camp, Western Germany, 1948 © LWL-Industriemuseum, Dortmund umbrella organisation of the Polish as- uation changed again completely. With sociations was founded in Bochum: The the invasion of Poland in 1939, the Poles Association of Poles in Germany. With lost all their rights, Polish associations its help three new buildings were set were forbidden, officials were sent to up in the city centre of Bochum which concentration camps. In the following provided rooms for the association it- years, hundreds of thousand Poles were self, the polish trade union, the polish displaced by the Germans to Germany national workers party, a polish teacher and sent to forced labour, and most of association, the newspaper and publish- the Jewish Poles were killed in concen- ing company ‘Wiarus Polski’, the Polish tration camps. commercial bank and the Polish work- After the end of the war more than ers bank. two million Poles remained as Displaced The Polish immigrants developed Persons in Germany. Faced with the a new and strong self-confidence and politics of the newly established com- fought against oppressions and disposal munist government in Poland, most – even in the beginning of the Nazi pe- of them could not re-migrate to their riod. As an example, in 1938 an official home country and decided to go over- delegation of the Poles in Germany went seas to Australia, Canada and New Zea- to Chancellor and ‘Führer’ Adolf Hitler land. About 26,000 Polish DP remained and complained about several disposals in Westphalia. After a long odyssey against Poles.8 But one year later, the sit- through different DP camps the state dietmar osses 87 culture in the past years.10 As an ethnic German immigrant, one got free German language courses, help to find housing and jobs, and the payments to the Polish social assurances were assigned to the German social as- surances. So it was very comfortable to be an ethnic German immigrant and a lot of Poles found it easy to claim to be a Banner, held by Solidarność-activists at the Pope German. The majority of the new immi- John Paul’s secong visit to Germany in 1987 © LWL-Industriemuseum, Dortmund grants from Poland came to Westphalia – this was a well known country. The government of Northern Westphalia immigrants built up small and informal built 16 housing estates for the DPs and networks in a short time. But they be- gave them a new home in Germany.9 haved in a very silent and shy way. They During the years of the communist brought their children with them who government in Poland, the Iron Curtain grew up with both Polish and German came down and there was only a short aspects to their identity.11 period at the end of the 1950s where Po- It is a phenomenon of the last five land allowed about 50.000 emigrants to to ten years that the first Polish shops, go to Germany. The breakdown of the companies and legal association appear communist governments in the 1980s again in the Ruhr. A few years ago in and 1990s brought a new wave of im- Bochum an association of Polish art- migrants from Poland to Westphalia. ists in Germany was established, called After the beating down of the Solidar- ‘Kosmopolen’. In Festivals, concerts and ność movement and the introduction exhibitions they reflect the questions of of martial law in Poland in 1981, nearly being Polish in Germany. The Polish 100.000 Poles came as political refugees immigrants seem to be well on their way to Germany. Faced with the increasing to looking after their history and their problems, political and economic crisis, future in Germany.12 only a few months later thousands of Poles decided to leave their home coun- try. Up to 1990 more than one million emigrated from Poland to Germany. The vast majority benefitted from the possibility of obtaining legal status as an ethnic German immigrant. In those days it was easy to convince the authori- ties that one had German roots: in most cases it was enough to have ancestors who had lived in the former German Polish art store, Dortmund/ Germany 2010 areas, to have German ancestors, or to © LWL-Industriemuseum, Dortmund claim to have been practicing German 88 AEMI JOURNAL 2011 In the wake of the 20th anniversary zentrum des Reviers? In: Dagmar Kift/Dietmar Osses (Ed.) Polen-Ruhr. Zuwanderungen zwi- of the treaty of friendship between Ger- schen 1871 und heute, Essen 2007, p. 25-32. many and Poland, a few weeks ago the 7 Valentina Maria Stefansky: „ und bin sehr dank- Federal Minister of Culture mandated bar für die Gelegenheit an der Bekämpfung des our museum to undertake a feasibil- Polenthums mitarbeiten zu können ‘. Polnische Arbeitsmigranten und die preußische Obrigkeit. ity study for documentation center for In: Dittmar Dahlmann/Albert Kotowski/Zbi- Polish history in culture in Germany.13 gniew Karpus (Ed.): Schimanski, Kuzorra und We have appointed an historian and andere. Polnische Einwanderer im Ruhrgebiet zwischen der Reichsgründung und dem Zweitem cultural manager with Polish origins to Weltkrieg, Essen 2005, p. 37-50. help us with the study. Our concept is to 8 Dietmar Osses: Zwischen Anerkennung und Ver- include the expertise of both, Polish and folgung. Die deutsche Politik gegenüber der pol- nischen Minderheit in Deutschland 1918-1938 German experts for the center. Work am Beispiel des Ruhrgebiets. In: Inter Finitimos. has started and I hope to bring the first Jahrbuch zur deutsch-polnischen Beziehungsge- results to our next meeting. schichte 6, 2008, p. 49-66. 9 Wolfgang Jacobmeyer: Vom Zwangsarbeiter zum Heimatlosen Ausländer. Die Displaced Persons in Notes Westdeutschland 1945-1951, Göttingen 1985; 1 Klaus J. Bade/Pieter C. Emmer/Leo Lucassen/ Dietmar Osses: Unfreiwillig in der Fremde: Pol- Jochen Oltmer (Ed.): Enzyklopädie Migration. nische Displaced Persons im Ruhrgebiet. Die Vom 17. Jahrhundert bis zur Gegenwart, Mün- Beispiele Haltern und Dortmund. In: Kift/Osses chen 2007, S. 141-170; Jochen Oltmer: Migra- 2007, p. 44-54. tion im 19. und 20. Jahrhundert, München 2008. 10 Andrzej Stach: Auswanderer und Rückkehrer, Pa- 2 Christoph Kleßmann: Polnische Bergarbeiter im trioten und Verräter. In: Interfinitimos 6, 2008, S. Ruhrgebiet 1870-1945. Soziale Integration und 29-49; Christoph Pallaske: Langfristige Zuwande- nationale Subkultur eine Minderheit in der deut- rungen aus Polen in die Bundesrepublik Deutsch- schen Industriegesellschaft, Göttingen 1978. land in den 1980er Jahren. In: Inter Finitimos 6, 3 Christoph Kleßmann: Einwanderungsprobleme 2008, S. 246-256. im Auswanderungsland: Das Beispiel der „Ruhr- 11 Sebastian Nagel: Zwischen zwei Welten. Kultu- polen ‘. In: Basil Kerski/ Krzystof Ruchniewicz relle Strukturen der polnischsprachigen Bevölke- (Ed.): Polnische Einwanderung. Zur Geschichte rung in Deutschland. Analyse und Empfehlungen und Gegenwart der Polen in Deutschland, Osna- , Stuttgart 2009. brück 2011, p. 75-84; Klaus Tenfelde: Schmelztie- 12 Dietmar Osses: Von Ruhrpolen zu Kosmopolen. gel Ruhrgebiet? Polnische und türkische Arbeiter Einwanderer aus Polen im Ruhrgebiet. In: Diet- im Bergbau. Integration und Assimilation in der mar Osses (Ed.) Nach Westen. Zuwanderung aus montanindustriellen Erwerbsgesellschaft. In: Mit- Osteuropa ins Ruhrgebiet, Essen 2012, p. 54-65. teilungsblatt des Instituts für soziale Bewegungen 13 Jacel Barski: Machbarkeitsstudie für eine Doku- 36, 2006, p. 7-28. mentationsstelle zur Geschichte und Kultur der 4 Susanne Peters-Schildgen: Schmelztiegel Ruhrge- Polen in Deutschland, Petershagen 2012, ed. by biet? Die Geschichte der Zuwanderung am Bei- LWL-Industriemuseum Dortmund. spiel Herne bis 1945, Essen 1997. 5 Witold Matwiejczyk: Zwischen kirchlicher Inte- gration und gesellschaftlicher Isolation: Polnische Katholiken im Ruhrgebiet von 1871 bis 1914. In: Dittmar Dahlmann/Albert Kotowski/Zbigniew Karpus (Ed.): Schimanski, Kuzorra und andere. Polnische Einwanderer im Ruhrgebiet zwischen der Reichsgründung und dem Zweitem Weltkrieg, Essen 2005, p.11-36; Krystyna Murzynowska: Die polnischen Erwerbsauswanderer im Ruhrge- biet während der Jahre 1880-1914, Dortmund 1979. 6 Dietmar Osses / Wulf Schade: Bochum - Polen- Brazil and France: An Historical Overview of the Two Main Flows in the Portuguese Diaspora

Maria Beatriz Rocha-Trindade1

Historical Perspective guese nationality that actually reclaim it. Four centuries of Portuguese emigration Portuguese history, for five hundred directed towards all geographical areas years now, cannot be separated from the of the world has resulted in the present movement that its people have been ac- situation of over five million Portuguese complishing towards the outside of the rooted abroad, in comparison with a Portuguese territory, emigration being resident population of ten million living thus considered as a phenomenon that at home. is part of its own socioeconomic struc- According to the Direcção Geral dos ture and that in general characterizes its Assuntos Consulares e Comunidades e people. People always have and always Comunidades Portuguesas – Ministé- will continue to leave; but, knowing in rio dos Negócios Estrangeiros (2010), each historical period the basic reasons 244,780 Portuguese of Azores are liv- that provoked their emigration, it will ing abroad, three times more than those be as important to locate where to the living in the archipel and 247,161 Por- Portuguese have been leaving and what tuguese of Madeira are living abroad, configuration has been taking their four times more than those living in the movements. The variability and the archipel. rhythm that conditioned the Portuguese As seen the number of Portuguese emigration were, naturally, molded by residing abroad comparatively to those factors of external nature and of circum- living in the country itself is very impor- stance, that were conjugated with the tant. In these numbers are not included position that, at each time, Portugal was the countless descendants of Portuguese capable to maintain in the complex geo that centuries ago have rooted in Af- politic picture of the international rela- rica, Brazil or Asia, nor all those that, tionships. although possessing the Portuguese na- Portugal, placed in the Western end tionality, came to acquire another one of the European continent, limited to in the term of the Portuguese de-coloni- the small territory that constituted it, zation process. The numbers mentioned sided by the surrounding empires, suf- above only include the carriers of Portu- fered the right conditioning and the 90 AEMI JOURNAL 2011 probable menace caused by their pres- ture, namely in India and in the South- ence. Not having enough natural re- east Asia, would ease their heading to sources, it also was incapable to establish Brazil, the largest population contin- inside of its territorial space solutions to gent, consecrating colonial politics that retain a population that grew and that transfers the political focus from the In- fought, from very early, outside its bor- dian Ocean essentially to the Atlantic. ders, for survival, improvement of their life standard, stability and social ascen- sion for its descendants. Trans Oceanic and Intra-European Throughout this uninterrupted move- Destinations: Brazil and France ment that it is going to progressively Begun in the previous century, the spread the Portuguese in the world, the settlement of Portuguese had been migratory flows assumes, however, sev- especially maintained in the Brazil- eral directions associated to the discov- ian Northeast, in Pernambuco and in ery of new spaces, to the conquest and Bahía, in the cotton and sugar cane the settlement of territories, to the col- cultures. The people’s moving would onization of the empire that was being come to be directed, in a second cycle constituted or, solely, to the transfer of of movements, towards the center of workforce for other labor markets and the territory, thanks to the expansion of other activities. mining activities, increased by the dis- This movement began heading South, covery of great auriferous veins and of in direction to the Moroccan strong- precious stones beds, that enlarged the holds (Ceuta 1415); to the islands of spread of Portuguese fixation in Goiás, the archipelagos of the Atlantic (Ma- Minas Gerais and Mato Grosso. These deira 1420-25; Azores 1427) and to the times facilitated spectacular, quickly Coast of Guinea. The 15th century can acquired wealth came to consecrate the be considered as the first chronological stereotype of “The Miner” (O Mineiro). reference that marks the beginning of a It will only disappear towards the end long itinerary, prolonged by the routes of the economic cycle, finished by the of Africa, through the paths of the East exhaustion of the gold and diamond and posterior discovery of the new mar- mines and presents a direct connection itime routes to Americas. with the strong breakdown of the peo- The maritime routes traced by the ple’s movement. Portuguese, when advancing its navy – The last and third cycle of Portuguese “naus” and galleons - to the coast of the emigration to Brazil only occurs in the Cape of Good Hope, had established second half of the 19th century, linked the fundamental connection bridges to new economic conditions (extensive between the western and the eastern coffee and cotton plantations in the area world, opening space for other strategic of São Paulo) associated to the modifi- initiatives and giving place the continu- cations of social nature (political inde- ous mercantile activities. pendence acquired in 1822 and end of However, the subsequent decadence the slavery in 1888). of the might in that geographical pic- The Portuguese emigrants flow that in maria beatriz rocha-trindade 91 the first half of the 19th century arrive in or in agricultural activities: the former Brazil, evaluated in eight hundred thou- in the East Coast (New England, Massa- sand, had stabilized, in the end of that chusetts and Connecticut) and the latter period, in an annual average of about very especially in the San Joachim Val- four thousand. However, it reached very ley, California (Pinho, 1978; Baganha high values again, that competed, in 1990). equality, with the immigration currents These flows would be instituted as that arrived, above all, from the border geographically specialized currents, con- of the North Mediterranean (of Spain stituting a clear example of demarcation and of Italy), in response to the immi- of geographical zones of destiny, later on grant politics developed by the Brazilian continued for decades. Government of that time. In the beginning of the second half of The prominent position that Brazil the last century, the countries of Center continues to occupy, during a very long and Northern Europe, surpassed the time, as main destiny of the Portuguese sequels of the great conflict finished in emigration maintains an impressive reg- 1945, know a period of explosive eco- ularity, only interrupted during the two nomic development, shown by the crea- great world wars (1914-1918 and 1939- tion of new employments, mostly in the 1945), until the 60’s decade of the 20th industry (namely the civil construction) century.2 and services sectors. The local labour Although territories of previous set- began accessing larger qualification and tling and Portuguese colonization, better paid jobs, a vacuum was created namely the archipelagos of Atlantic – in the labor offer that would come to be Madeira, Azores and Cape Verde – came filled by incoming foreign workers from in the meantime to constitute sources of the Mediterranean countries. population shipping away that, retak- In competition with others, the Por- ing the cycle that searched for better tuguese found, mainly in France but life conditions outside national borders, also in Germany and in other European also went to Brazil (it is marked, in par- countries, an open market, avid of a ticular, the settlement of the southern manpower of low professional qualifica- Brazilian States coast, Santa Catarina tion, capable to carry out heavier tasks and Rio Grande do Sul) and for Africa and to accept lower salaries. (Plateaus of Angola and Mozambique). Except for Germany, where officially In the end of the 19th century the peo- only legal immigration was accepted, as ple of Madeira were directed to the Pa- “Gast Arbeiters” in many other countries cific (Sandwich Islands, actual Hawaii), immigrants were received without doc- as well as to English Guiana (Demerara), uments, having passed the borders ille- places only reached at the end of long gally. and very difficult trips. Azores preferred In the 60s and 70s, a more than a mil- the American continent as an emigra- lion Portuguese emigrated, having more tion destiny. Employed in fisheries or, in than half of their destinies been Euro- a more reduced number, as independent pean countries, with predominance of operators, they also worked in factories illegal emigration. 92 AEMI JOURNAL 2011 The middle of the 70’s decade radi- an example of Diaspora constituted by cally modifies this panorama: a recession continuous migratory flows, of essen- in the world economy determined an al- tially economic motivation. However, most complete closure of legal emigra- this character of the Portuguese emigra- tion, mostly to Europe, already its main tion was only recognized in the last dec- destiny. ades of the 20th century, for reasons that Nevertheless, at the same time the ahead will be properly explained. European borders became virtually close to immigration (except for situ- ations of family regroupment and of As an Empire Falls a Broaden temporary and seasonal immigration), Nation Rises other destinies became more significant As the last case of resistance to the great for the Portuguese: Canada, United international tendencies for the self-de- States, Brazil, Venezuela, Australia and termination of the vast and dispersed South Africa, taking advantage of the territories that constituted the great co- Portuguese communities already estab- lonial empires kept until the mid-20th lished therein. The table in attachment century, Portugal maintained, until the indicates the populations of Portuguese change of political regime happened in origin living in foreign countries (2009- 1974, the principle of the multi-territo- 2010). rial nation unity. The characteristics that allow con- In the previous official discourse, sidering a given migratory situation as based on very explicit constitutional being included in our own Diaspora precepts, Portugal was a State united concept are the following: “The term and indivisible, constituted by continen- Diaspora means the dispersion of signif- tal Portugal and the Adjacent Islands of icant part of a population, concentrated Madeira and Azores, as well as the col- originally on a well-defined cultural/ onies (later on denominated by politi- national space, towards different areas cal reasons as “Províncias Ultramarinas” of the globe, away from their origi- (Overseas Provinces) of Cape-Verde, nal territory. It goes further to assume Guinea, São Tomé e Príncipe, Angola, that this dispersion stays besides several Mozambique, the State of India, Timor generations lives and that, despite that, and the Territory of Macao. those groups or expatriated communi- Besides extending itself throughout ties continue to manifest the purpose of the Atlantic, Africa and Oceania, the identifying themselves with its ances- physical dimension of this empire was tors national origin and to take as refer- very significant, with an area compara- ence some of the cultural lines that are ble to the sum of all Western European their characteristics.” (Rocha-Trindade, countries. 1995:141) Contrary to evidence, the Portuguese Possessing the characteristics that governments at that time proclaimed allow its definition as a Diaspora, groups that this vast empire constituted a single and communities of Portuguese origin nation, in spite of the enormous ethnic dispersed through the world provide multiplicity, languages, religions and maria beatriz rocha-trindade 93 historical antecedents of the people in- The Estado Novo (1926-1974) attrib- cluded in the Portuguese Colonial Em- uted systematically to the concept of pire. Nation a semantic content very close to During the first half of the 20th cen- the one of State; or, if preferred, close tury, Portugal thought of the Nation to the somewhat ambiguous idea of a concept as “the States domain” and not, State-Nation, that was not, in fact, ad- as is usual today, as the result of a certain justed to the case of the metropolitan uniformity of cultural identities, appli- Portugal and all its overseas territories. 5 cable to an extensive group of popula- Through illuminated political inspira- tion recognized as a homogeneous social tion or happy intuition, the authorities entity. In that sense, the concept of Na- of the new democratic Portugal created tion was mistaken with the concept of a substitution mechanism for the “world State, even if the existent multi-racial greatness” associated to the lost empire, and the multi-territorial reality was not starting to grant visibility and impor- ignored: tance to another multi-territoriality ap- proach: the Portuguese Diaspora in the “It is actually with this same world, coming not from colonization concept of Nation, a differentiated but from emigration. social aggregate, independent, sov- ereign, deciding as it pleases, the organization of its territory, without Portuguese Communities: distinctions of geographical situa- An Operational Concept tion, that we consider, administer, Taking advantage of some efforts that drive the Portuguese colonies. Just had already been developed in the past as Minho or Beiras stay, under the to accomplish recognition and govern- sole authority of the State, Angola ment support for the Portuguese com- or Mozambique or India” (Oliveira munities rooted in foreign countries, a Salazar, 1939, p. 234).3 major visibility was granted to them in a symbolic manner, giving the Portuguese In the Portuguese primary schools national day (June 10) the designation the multi-territorial character of the of “Day of Portugal, Camões and the Country was emphasized in the disci- Portuguese Communities”.6 pline of Geography4 , presenting the Besides this purely symbolic visibility, compared dimension of the Portuguese other measures and other practices were Overseas Provinces with other countries started having in view the reinforcement with overseas territories and presenting of the concept of The Portuguese in the a relatively detailed description of each World. one of the territories under Portuguese The arguments for the Portuguese sovereignty. The emphasis on the total Communities to consider themselves as area of these possessions (23 times larger an intrinsic part of the national whole, than Continental Portugal) revealed the once again appealed to the idea of a sin- emphasis on the territorial extension of gle Nation, in which the value of the the Empire. ancestry gets more recognition than the 94 AEMI JOURNAL 2011 true cultural identity does. Nowadays, the concept of Nation to- “Today our great wealth is not tally disregards both the need for con- in the multi continental territorial tiguity of population and territory and domain; it is fundamentally in the the submission to a single sovereignty, community’s creative capacity tied once its elements are, not just resi- by the connections of language and dents abroad, but also possibly citizens blood to maintain alive a regional of other countries.7 In these terms, the culture all over the world (…).” main requirement to be considered as a (Helena Roseta, Portuguese Community member is the President of the Comissão Europeia da expressed desire of being considered as Assembleia da República, Lisbon, 1981) such by invoking a Portuguese origin. With the elapsing of time the different “A cultural policy measured for interaction mechanisms were improved a society that is not confined to its among the elements of the Diaspora old territory, but is prolonged in un- and its fulcrum. counted of Communities spread by Nowadays, the Portuguese Commu- all the continents.” nities are entitled to parliamentary rep- (Maria Manuela Aguiar, resentation with four deputies elected Secretária de Estado da Emigração for the Republic Assembly; the right e Comunidades Portuguesas, Opening Speech for the 1st Meeting of the in the election to vote for the election Portuguese Communities Council, Lisbon, of the President of the Republic and April 1982) the right and audition and of emission of opinion before the Government, “It is another appearance, it is an- through their representatives chosen as other Portugal, not only ours in the members of the Council of the Portu- corner of the Peninsula and in the guese Communities. Islands, not only of that empire that This enlarged conception of Portugal crossed so many phases, made and finds echo in the speech of sovereignty it tore itself, but a larger Portugal organs, of prominent politicians, of his- through the world: that heroic ac- torians and other highlighted members 8 complishment of those who left this of the Portuguese intelligence: place to work in other civilizations.” (Vitorino Magalhães Godinho, “The men and women that left Historian, and today continue Portugal offer Speech for the day of Portugal, us the example that it is possible Vila Real, June 1979) when the will, the intelligence and the effort of the Portuguese are con- “In fact and of right, the Portuguese jugated with our national identity of Homeland is not exclusively consti- a people open to other people.” tuted by those that today inhabit this (Speech of the President of the Republic beautiful peace of earth planted on on the Day of Portugal, Funchal, June the seashore, but for everybody who 1981) took the option, based on the jus san- maria beatriz rocha-trindade 95 guinis, to have a Portuguese nation- lective initiatives as a common feature, ality, which is explainable because, given their importance in the study of in each one of us, old or young, rich cultural diasporas. or poor, literate or illiterate, living The fact that most of these migrants, anywhere imaginable, all of us here in the different receiving countries, are, as well as the emigrated, receive, namely in Brazil and France, make a sig- throughout successive generations, a nificant effort in keeping the traditions, little bit of blood of our largest ones, memories, beliefs and values of their that Luís de Camões so frequently ancestors define the whole of them as underlined.” a coherent Portuguese Diaspora, a fact (José de Azeredo Perdigão, that Portuguese governments recognize President of the Fundação Calouste and cherish. The connections between Gulbenkian, Speech for the Day of Portugal, groups and communities in Portugal Figueira da Foz, June 1982) and abroad lead to different kinds of achievements that can be directly iden- Improvements of our knowledge tified as direct consequences, of cultural about Diasporas and on the diversity or economic, of the existence of the Por- of cultural characteristics between their tuguese Diaspora. separate communities have generated a As a kind of epilogue for this theme, growing interest of scholars for this re- that represents the aim of Portuguese search field. On the other hand, from Governments after restoring democ- a political perspective, decision-makers racy and achieving the descolonization in both origin and destination countries process, in the reinforcement of its in- of migrations are interested in a better teraction with the Portuguese of the understanding of consequences of their Diaspora, what may be considered the initiatives related to promoting a eu- happy end of the relationship between nomic integration of immigrants. As to Portugal and its former colonies. immigrants themselves, it is important to know how they developed their sense of belonging to the culture of origin and to identify the corresponding cultural marks they may want to display at pub- lic celebrations. The Portuguese Diaspora spread on most countries in the world, is an inter- esting case to analyze; the presentation from different sides - in the context of both the receiving and the origin coun- tries - and following different scientific approaches (historic, demographic, so- cial, economic...), taking migrant’s civil or religious celebrations and other col- 96 AEMI JOURNAL 2011 References Oriol, Michel – “Du Navigateur au Prolétaire. Almeida, Carlos; Barreto, António – Capital- L’histoire comme Ressource Identitaire dans ismo e Emigração, Lisboa, Prelo, 1970:320 la Diaspora Portugaise”, in Migrations et Me- Alves, Dário Moreira de Castro – “Intercultu- diterranée.Peuples Méditerranéens, nº31-32, ralismo e Cidadania em Espaços Lusófonos: avril-sept, 1985:204-215 A CPLP – Fundamentação Político-Cultural Pires, Rui Pena (coord.) et al. -Portugal: Atlas e os Três Anos e Meio da sua Formação” in das Migrações Internacionais, Lisboa, Tinta da Interculturalismo e Cidadania em Espaços Lu- China, 2010:118 sófonos, Lisboa, Publicações Europa América, Rocha-Trindade, Maria Beatriz – “O Diálogo 1998:21-39 (Cursos da Arrábida, nº 5). Instituído” in Nova Renascença, Julho/Setem- Baganha, Maria Ioanis - Portuguese Emigration bro, Verão de 1983:229-245 to the United States, 1820-1930, Nova York, Rocha-Trindade, Maria Beatriz – Sociologia Garland Publishing 1990:422 das Migrações, Lisboa, Universidade Aberta, Caetano, Marcello – “A África e o Futuro” in 1995:410 Ensaios Pouco Políticos, Lisboa Ed. Verbo, Rocha-Trindade, Maria Beatriz – “The Portu- 1970:35-53. guese Diaspora” in The Portuguese in Canada, Caetano, Marcello – Manual de Ciência Política Toronto, Buffalo, London, University of To- e Direito Constitucional, Lisboa, Faculdade de ronto Press, 2000:15-33. Direito de Lisboa, 1963:572 (4ª edição) Rocha-Trindade, Maria Beatriz - «A Projeção Challiand, Gérard e RAGEAU. Jean-Pierre Educativa das Associações Portuguesas no – Atlas des Diasporas, Paris, Éditions Odile Brasil» in Não Poupes no Semear. Trinta Anos Jacob, 1991:183 de Comunicação, Aníbal Alves, Coimbra, Uni- Chow, Rey – Writing Diaspora. Tactics of In- versidade do Minho; Pé de Água Editores, tervention in Contemporary Cultural Studies, 2009:145-159 Bloomington and Indianapolis, Indiana Uni- S.A., Geografia para a 3ª e 4ª Classes do Ensino versity Press, 1993:223 Primário. Aprovado Oficialmente, Porto, Ed- Cohen, Robin (Edit.) – Global Diasporas. An in- itora Educação Nacional, 90p. (Série Escolar troduction, Seattle, University of Washington Educação). Press, 1997:228 Comissão Nacional para as Comemorações dos Gallisot, René (ed.) – Pluralisme Culturel en Descobrimentos Portugueses (coord.) - Os Europe. Culture(s) Européenne(s) et Culture(s) Brasileiros de Torna-Viagem, CNCDP, Lisboa, des Diasporas, Paris, Éditions, L’Harmattan, 2000:388 1993:270 Harney, Stefano – Nationalism and Identity. Cul- ture and the Imagination in a Caribbean Di- Notes aspora, London New Jersey, Zed Books: 216 1 CEMRI – Centro de Estudos das Migrações e das Léonard, Yves – La Lusophonie dans le Monde, relações Inter-Culturais – Universidade Aberta, Aubervilliers, La Documentation Française, Uab. nº 803, 1998: 83 (Problèmes Politiques et 2 Altough movement into France began slowly it Sociaux). grew ateadily, and in 1963 overtook amigration to Lourenço, Eduardo – Mythologie de la Saudade Brazil. Essais sur la Mélancolie Portugaise 3 Salazar’s speech: “The Nation in the Colonial Pol- , Paris, Edi- itics” (“A Nação na Política Colonial”), June 1933, tions Chandeigne, 1997:8-10, 73-75 National Assembly. Moreira, Adriano – Política Ultramarina, Lis- 4 Vd. Geografia (3rd and 4th Grade), s/d. boa, Junta de Investigações do Ultramar, Cen- 5 However, the same President of the Minister’s tro de Estudos Políticos e Sociais, 1961:359. Council, Salazar’s successor, Marcello Caetano, in (Estudos de Ciências Políticas e Sociais, nº1). his Constitutional Law lessons a couple of decades Oliveira, Salazar – “A Nação na Política Colo- before, did not leave the least ambiguity when nial” in Discursos – 1928-1934, Coimbra, referring to the rigid contents of the notions of Coimbra Editora, 1939, 3ª edição,:229-237 State, Population, Nation, Territory and Sover- eignty (Caetano, 1963:102-115). maria beatriz rocha-trindade 97

6 The association of the three references is very ap- propriate: the Country as the major one; Camões, the poet of glorious discovery ages and Portuguese expansion; and, linked to these, the people and the Communities of the present time. 7 Subject to a number of clauses, namely the defi- nite proof of Portuguese ascent, the possiblity exists that emigrants (or their descendents) can obtain or keep the Portuguese nationality beside the one of the host country. 8 The following quotations were taken from the article “O Diálogo Instituído” (The Instituted Dia- logue), by the present author. 98 AEMI JOURNAL 2011

PORTUGUESE LIVING ABROAD* 2009/2010

Countries / Territories nº % Countries / Territories nº %

EUROPE AMERICA Germany 113 208 2.22 % Antilles Dutch 3022 0,06 % Austria 1 928 0,04 % Aruba 500 0,01 % Belgium 33 084 0,65 % Bermuda 10 000 0,20 % Denmark 1 086 0,02 % Brazil 860 000 16,85 % Spain 142 520 2,79 % Canada 410 000 8,04 % France 843000 16,50 % Chile 271 0,00 % Greece 599 0,01 % Ecuador 180 0,01 % Holland 15 364 0,30 % United States of America 1 444 527 28,27 % Italy 8 843 0,17 % Mexico 483 0,01 % Luxembourg 80 951 1,58 % Panama 375 0,01 % Norway 1043 0,02 % Uruguay 1 700 0,03 % United Kingdom 250 000 4,89 % Venezuela 124 000 2.44 % Russia 67 0,00 % Other Countries ------Sweden 2 561 0,05% Switzerland 220 256 4.31 % TOTAL 2 874 56,25 % 306 Other Countries ------ASIA TOTAL 1 733 585 33,93 % Saudi Arabia 321 0,01 % Bahrain 65 0,00 % AFRICA Un. Arabs Emirates 332 0,01 % South Africa 200 000 3,91 % Hong-Kong 10 700 0,20 % Angola 91 854 1.80 % India 22 538 0,44% Botswana 175 0,00 % Israel 447 0,01 % Cape Verde 1 281 0,03 % Japan 534 0,01 % Congo, Rep of 110 0,00 % Pakistan 35 0,02 % Congo, Rep. Dem. (ex- 800 0,02 % Thailand 3 0,00 % Zaire) Guinea-Bissau 1368 0,03 % Other Countries ------Lesotho 14 0,00 % Malawi 394 0,01 % TOTAL 159 204 3,12 % Morocco 600 0,01 % Mozambique 20 387 0,40% OCEANIA Namibia 1500 0,03 % Australia 18 235 0,36 % Kenya 366 0,01 % New Zealand 195 0,00 % S. Tomé e Principe 1500 0,03 % Swaziland 1162 0,02 % TOTAL 18,430 0.36% Zimbabwe 1171 0,02 % Other Countries ------GRAND TOTAL ...... 5 109524 100,00 % TOTAL 324 000 6,34 %

Source: Direcção Geral dos Assuntos Consulares e Comunidades Portuguesas - Ministério dos Negócios Estrangeiros (Portugal) The Challenges of Migration Policies in Croatia: Migration History, Trends and Prospects

Snježana Gregurović Dubravka Mlinarić

Summary prepare Croatian citizens for an increas- Traditionally a country of high emi- ing number of immigrants as a precon- gration, with labour and political dition for broader public acceptance of emigrants to overseas and western Eu- cultural and ethnic diversities, especially ropean countries, Croatia is expected insisting upon the multiple benefits of to experience considerable changes in immigration flows for Croatian soci- migration trends. Such a development ety. Higher immigration will be most will presumably include a reduction in probably initiated by expected positive emigration flows and gradual increase economic expansion in Croatia but also in immigration and transit flows after shaped by the extent of openness or Croatia’s accession to the EU. Home- closeness of receiving society towards land war (1991-1995) introduced new new immigration groups with all the types of migrants in the area such as cultural varieties they can offer. refugees or displaced population while recent processes of the EU accession KEY WORDS: migration, migration open up space for labour immigration policies, immigrants, Croatia, EU to Croatia and broader circular, tran- sit and illegal migrations. Neighboring Introduction Central East European and South East From the second half of the 20th cen- European countries recorded similar tury migration became more important migration trends after they joined the issue in Europe, in both EU members EU. These changes of migration trends and non-EU members. Aside from tradi- along with the anticipated immigration tional and „old“ immigration countries surplus require the adjusting of Croa- like Great Britain, France or Germany, tian migration policies to EU standards. southern European countries and Cen- Furthermore, they also urge the imple- tral-East European Countries after the mentation of social measures in order to EU enlargement also transformed from 100 AEMI JOURNAL 2011 strictly emigrant to immigrant destina- confessional way, Croatia has been a tions. They recorded numerous and di- traditional emigration country for cen- verse movements of migration groups in turies on the one hand as well as the recent two-three decades, with increas- immigration destination on another. ing heterogenity in their ethnic, cultural The intensity of Croatian emigration2 or religious origin (European Council, during that time significantly marked 2001). Croatian accession to the EU Croatian society as a transnational one. will probably influence the changing of Dating from the fifteenth century on- migration trends with gradual decrease ward3, Croatian emigration can be di- of emigration and increase of immigra- vided into an “old” and “new” stage, tion and transit movements. i.e. the phase before World War I and All these changes will probable face the one afterwards. Historically speak- Croatia with challenging implementa- ing, the ambiguous pattern of Croatian tion of new migration policies. While emigration primarily concerned citizens migration, namely emigration trends in of Croatia or other political units/states Croatia in historical perspective will be on the territories of present–day Croatia analyzed at the beginning of this article, (Heršak, 1998: 78). In both periods eco- recent migration trends (2000-2010) nomic migration dominated, primarily and the development of migration pol- made up of labourers from the rural icies is the core of this presentation. areas, forced to migrate due to crisis in Special focus is put on net migration, farming and increasing rural over-pop- labour migration, asylum seekers and ulation, and to a lesser degree by work- illegal migrations. ing forces from urban centers (Lakatoš, Will migrations, as stated by Mas- 1914: 65, Nejašmić, 1991: 64). Un- sey et al. (1997) develop the social re- der-populated territories of America lations in terms to act as a catalyst of and Australia were inviting destinations overall changes? It will depend not only for poor Croatian labourers, who were on migration policies and legal frame- recruited by mining companies, ship- work but also on some other factors, re- yards and factories before the imple- lated on openness/closeness of receiving mentation of the immigration quota in countries towards immigration flows. the USA in the early 1920s took place. However, each country and its national Generally, the unskilled population, policy is affected by public opinion, usually men from 15 to 40 years of age, which resulted with immigration­ poli- migrated mostly to overseas countries, cies adjusted to country’s own national while later on labourers sought employ- interests. ment in the countries of Central and Western Europe (Germany, France and Croatian (e)migration1 history Belgium) (Heršak, 1998: 88, Nejašmić, Having a specific geo-strategic position 1991: 68). However, during the time of between Central Europe, the Mediter- the open door policies in the USA there ranean and the Balkans, and being the was no significant Croatian emigration bordering region in cultural, ethnic and to European countries. Moreover, some European countries like Germany also Snježana Gregurović and Dubravka Mlinari ć 101 limited and restricted the labour influx people. Croatia, in relation to the other on the basis of labour contracts and or- Yugoslav republics at that time, had the ganised recruitment. The capacity and largest emigration flows, and in 1960 attractivity of the receiving destinations accounted for 56% of all external mi- varied through time and depended also grants from Yugoslavia (Baučić, 1973: on entry policies shaping the profile of 43). After 1963/4 the attitude towards emigrants. On the time-scale, 1930’s external migration began to change with brought a change of direction for over- the removal of travel restrictions to la- seas migrants from Croatia, when the bour migrants. These so called “pasošari” USA lost its previous “top” position (i.e. migrants with a passport) were not among other destinations, while Ar- officially considered “emigrants”, since gentina, Chile, Canada, Australia and they were expected to return. No mat- New Zealand became new immigrant ter whether they were seasonal workers destinations. Besides new destinations, or permanent emigrants, they were de- a new type of emigration and new mo- nominated as “workers on temporary tives occurred after the WW II. Along work abroad” (compatible to the notion with economic migration, war-related of Gastarbeiter). The Yugoslav political migrations included also political mi- system was no longer able to solve ac- gration, composed partly of displaced cumulated economic problems and the persons, refugees, defeated collaborators growing rate of unemployment, and and ethnically “cleansed” ethnic groups. thus labour migration abroad became an Comparing to first overseas migrants, “escape-valve” (Mežnarić, 1991) and a who had been employed by steel and necessary evil to alleviate labour market mining industries, latecomers in 1950- pressure. In mid 1960’s there were about es turned to agriculture and trade. As 400,000 workers from the former Yugo- to the various statistics and estimates4 slavia in Western Europe. From 1968- about the number of emigrants from 1981, according to some estimates, the Croatian lands until World War I, about 293,000 persons from former Yu- one cannot reliably determine a specific goslavia were employed abroad. The po- number, however according to some litical regime enabled the migration of estimates this total is somewhere be- workers. That was seen as an important tween 300,000 and 500,000 (Telišman “comparative advantage” of the Yugo- according to Heršak 1993: 269). After slav system in regard to other commu- the Second World War, especially in the nist systems. Reaching its peak in early first two decades after the war, the great- 1970-s, emigration from former Yugo- est emigration wave from Yugoslavia oc- slavia was a combination of two factors: curred between 1955 and 1958, when the relative openness of borders and also the annual outflow included between the inability of the socialist development 40.000 and 57.000 persons. In spite model to achieve growth that could ab- of being mostly illegal, random, unor- sorb labour surpluses. The labour con- ganised and spontaneous, net migration tingent that migrated was significantly in the inter-census period 1948-1961 larger in number and also different in may have amounted to about 500,000 its structure and distribution. It was 102 AEMI JOURNAL 2011 not consisted only of low-skilled labour Croatia. This particular wave of mass force, but rather of qualified workers emigration included economic mi- and professionals (Baučić, 1973: 121, grants and victims of forced migrations, Živković et al., 1995: 15). These migra- namely of specific ethnic origin (Serbs tion waves started to decrease after the and some other national minorities). oil crisis and recession in 1973/4, with On the other hand, during the war in the implementation of immigration and Bosnia and Herzegovina, and later in recruitment restrictions in the West- Kosovo, as well as during the crises in ern European countries. Among other Macedonia, great numbers of refugees parts of the former Yugoslavia, Croatia came to Croatia, and this, along with had one of the largest shares in terms the presence of hundreds of thousands of emigrants per head of total popula- of displaced persons from occupied areas tion. Specifically, migrants from Croa- of Croatia itself, produced a burden for tia made up 39 per cent of all Yugoslav the state that it could barely support. migrant workers, while Croatian popu- Additionally, knowing that recent em- lation was not larger than 22 per cent igration waves engaged mainly young of total Yugoslav population (Baučić, people, despite simultaneous immigra- 1973: 59, 116). Therefore, Croatian mi- tion, emigration from Croatia led to a grant workers represented the majority decrease in population growth (Lajić, of Yugoslav migrants in overseas coun- 2002: 135-149). Last decade revealed tries, Western Germany and Switzerland economic security and political stability (Baučić, 1973: 94-95). The number of as the most important factors for mak- emigrants from Yugoslavia, namely Cro- ing decision to migrate, with increasing atia, attracted bigger concern of Croa- importance of quality of life and career tian intellectual but also political elites pathways, especially for highly educated at the beginning of 1980-s. Besides, this people. issue started to be perceived as negative Given Croatia’s geographic location economic and socio-political phenome- along the so-called “Balkan route”, nu- non, causing drainage of educated peo- merous migration flows from the East ple, demographic and multiple losses to the West have passed through the in human capital and weakening of do- country, owing to its long and indented mestic labour market (Grečić-Jovanović, border-line 2374,9 km (length of the 1978: 280-286). land boundaries only)5 which are often Since the early modern Ottoman difficult to control in order to prevent wars, besides being an emigration arena, illegal crossings. Croatia, as a candidate Croatia was also an attractive destina- country for EU accession, is becoming tion for neighboring population, espe- an increasingly more interesting desti- cially for migrants from other republics nation for a number of immigrants who of the former common state. are attempting to find employment in The war events of 1991-1995 (i.e. the the country and settle in it. It is certain Homeland War) and the dissolution of that when Croatia gains its member- Yugoslavia resulted in both emigration ship to the EU, migration to Croatia but also massive immigration flows to will receive a new dimension, character Snježana Gregurović and Dubravka Mlinari ć 103

Table 1 and importance. In this context we can Table 1 expect that spatial mobility and existingInternational International migration migration of the of thepopulation population of the of theRepublic of Croatia, Republic of Croatia, 2000 to 2010 trends in numerous types of migration,from 2000 to 2010 which are already visible, will become even more emphasized, along with some Immigrants Emigrants Net migration new emerging migration issues. They are applied through the retention of2000 29 385 5 953 23 432 possible emigrants, regulation of inter-2001 24 415 7 488 16 927 national retirement migration, improve-2002 20 365 11 767 8 598 ment of the labour migrants’ status in2003 18 455 6 534 11 921 their host countries, social and political2004 18 383 6 812 11 571 integration of labour and other kinds of immigrants to Croatia. All these2005 14 230 6 012 8 218 problems require additional attention2006 14 978 7 692 7 286 from researchers and also policymakers2007 14 622 9 002 5 620 (Božić, 2007: 40). 2008 14 541 7 488 7 053 2009 8 468 9 940 -1 472 The recent migration flows 2010 4 985 9 860 - 4 875 A key feature of contemporary migration flows is variety. This variety is related to Source: www.dzs.hr/Hrv- Eng/publication/2011/07-01-02_012011.htm the country of origin of the migrants asSource: www.dzs.hr/Hrv- well as their social, economic and cul-Eng/publication/2011/07-01-02_012011.htm the country.6 From 2009 up until now tural origin. Much more countries are participating in migrations but recent this trend changed, and Croatia had a migration flows in those countries are negative net migration. The number of different. However, the majority of con- immigrants in relation to 2008 and the temporary worldwide migration flows is previous years fell by more than 40%. recently manifested with some general The reduction in the number of immi- features defined by Castles and Miller grants in Croatia was primarily due to (2003: 8) as general migration tenden- negative trends in the economy, since cies which are revealed primarily in the the demand for labour was reduced aspects of globalization of migration, ac- in such sectors as the construction in- celeration of migration, differentiation of dustry, the hotel industry and tourism, migration and feminization of migration. which traditionally employed foreign Although to a smaller degree than workers. The gradual reduction of the in some “old” immigration countries, number of arriving foreigners was par- Aliens Act a trend towards increasing migration tially also the result of the new movements can be noticed in Croatia which entered into force in 2008, and too. prescribed restrictive requirements for From 2000 right until 2009 Croatia granting residence permits to foreigners. had a positive net migration. This means In 2010 out of the total number of that the number of persons arriving was immigrants in Croatia, 51,8% were per- greater than the number departing from sons who had migrated from Bosnia and 104 AEMI JOURNAL 2011 Herzegovina. The largest proportion of izens of South-East European countries emigrants departed for Bosnia and Her- (except for Greece), make up over 90% zegovina (36 %) and Serbia (30,9%). of all illegal migrations in the Republic Therefore, we can conclude that the mi- of Croatia. The reduction in the number gration trends in Croatia have a regional of illegal border crossings was primarily character, given that most migration the result of the involvement of the Cro- movements take place between neigh- atia police force in regional cooperation, boring countries. aimed at securing better border control. The new Aliens Act which has been The number of illegal border crossing implemented since January 1st 2004, has suddenly fell in 2007 with the accession tightened the conditions for granting of Bulgaria and Romania to EU mem- the permanent residence of foreigners.7 bership and continues to fall until 2010 Thus, in the period from January 1st when it recorded a slight increase. 2005 until December 31st 2009 only 6,148 permanent residence permits have been issued to foreigners, whereas this Table 2 number was much greater before enact- Number of Illegal Border Crossing, 2000 to 2010. ment of the Act, and in 2004 amounted to 21,830.8The most important reason Year Number of Border for seeking permanent residence in Cro- Crossings atia is family reunification. 2000 24,180 2001 17,038 Illegal migration 2002 5,415 The implementation of the Schengen 2003 4,311 regime on the Croatian borders after 2004 4,438 Slovenia and Hungary became the EU members increased the issues of illegal 2005 5,169 migrations to a significant extent. Ac- 2006 5,665 cording to the evidences of the Public 2007 3,527 Relations and Media Office of the Slo- 2008 2,119 venian government, the majority of il- 2009 1,823 legal immigrants to Slovenia entered 2010 2,221 this country across the Slovenian-Cro- atian border. The number of illegal state Source: http://www.mup.hr/UserDocsImages/statis- border crossings began to increase from tika/2012/pregled%20211.pdf 1996, and notably increased in 2000. In recent years the number of illegal bor- der crossings or transit illegal migrants Labour migration through Croatia has significantly de- International migrations depend on clined. In illegal state border crossings economic circumstances in receiving during those years were in most cases countries, like the economic growth, citizens of Albania, Macedonia, Turkey, labour market structure, employment Moldavia and Romania. In general, cit- rate etc. Among the other neighbouring Snježana Gregurović and Dubravka Mlinari ć 105 countries which are still not EU mem- gation has been introduced to establish bers, Croatia is economically the most annual quota of work permits. The Gov- developed one with the lowest unem- ernment implemented its Decision to ployment rate.9 Therefore Croatia be- Determine Annual Quotas of Work Per- came a traditional destination country mits for the Employment of Foreigners for for certain labour categories from the the first time in 2004. During the first neighbouring countries. three years of its application it turned According to the data of the out that work permits for particular Croatian Employment Bureau, the larg- occupations listed in the quota system est numbers of work permits in the pe- were not utilised, whereas, on the other riod 1994-2003 were issued to citizens hand, in some activities a sufficient of Bosnia and Herzegovina, Serbia and number of work permits was not fore- Montenegro, Macedonia and Slovenia. seen. Most work permits to foreigners In recent years there has been also a with middle qualifications (secondary gradual increase in the number of work school education) were issued for work permits issued to citizens of other Eu- in the construction industry, shipbuild- ropean countries: Austria, Germany, ing, tourism and the hotel sector. Most France, Italy and Great Britain. One foreign employees with higher and uni- of the reasons is certainly the growing versity qualifications were employed in number of multinational corporations, activities in management structures of namely commercial firms entering Cro- commercial firms, in foreign branch atian market, with significant number offices, as professors in the education of professionals in its’ management sector, and in jobs as foreign language structures. The qualification structure lecturers and translators, cultural work- of foreign citizens to whom work per- ers, etc. mits have been issued has gradually As mentioned before, most foreign changed. Whereas at the beginning of workers in Croatia arrive from neigh- the 1990’s most applications for work bouring Bosnia and Herzegovina, where permits pertained to scarce (i.e. defici- the unemployment rate is exceptionally tary) occupations requiring middle or high, reaching even 40%. The latter low professional qualifications, from is the reason for the high mobility of the mid-1990’s there has been a gradual Bosnian workers towards Slovenia and increase in the number of work permits Croatia. Other foreign workers in Cro- issued to foreigners with higher or high atia come from Serbia and Montenegro, professional qualifications, including Turkey, Macedonia, Slovenia and Aus- university-level qualifications (Migra- tria (the HZZ, 2007) tion policy strategies of the Republic of In comparison to the EU-27 coun- Croatia for 2007/2008). tries, Croatia has the lowest rate of em- In accordance with the Aliens Act, ployment, which in 2007, while the authority to issue work permits from economy was still registering a positive January 1st 2004 has passed from the growth rate, amounted to about only Croatian Employment Bureau to the 55.6% (the HZZ, 2010). This, however, Ministry of the Interior, and an obli- only partially explains why a very small 106 AEMI JOURNAL 2011

Table 3 emphasized how it is increasingly diffi- 10 Annual quotas for foreign workers in Croatia cult for them to find, on the Croatian labour market, highly qualified labour, Year Annual quotas for an educated work force in suitable oc- foreigns workers in cupation groups. In the period 2004- 10 Croatia 2007, for instance, registered requests 2004 2,589 for construction engineers were five 2005 1,800 times greater than the number of newly 2006 1,037 registered unemployed, whereas the de- 2007 2,613 mand for doctors was twice greater than the newly registered unemployed (Oba- 2008 8,397 dić, 2008: 108). Labour shortages were 2009 4,677 also affected by negative demographic 2010 968 trends, the depopulation process and ageing of the population, which have Source: Croatian Employment Bureau (http://www. reached alarming dimensions.11 hzz.hr/) Asylum Seekers number of work permits were approved As in other Central-East European to foreigners. (CEE) countries, Croatia was attractive The reduction of the annual quota for destination for asylum seekers primarily 2010 definitely is the result of the eco- as a transit country. By its direct bor- nomic crises which in Croatia was most derline with the EU members and due strongly feel in the sectors of construc- to the fact it tends to become an EU tion, shipbuilding and to a lesser extent member in relatively short time, Croa- in tourism, i.e. precisely in the sectors tia is growing into a desirable destina- which employed the largest number of tion to asylum seekers. The majority foreigner workers. of those are using Croatia primarily as The annual quotas of work permits transit route, whilst their final destina- for newly employed foreigners in the tions are still North-Western European period 2004-2008 were not adjusted countries. Usually, these are economic with the real needs of the labour market. migrants with not legal ground for as- Until 2007 not one work permit was is- signed asylum status, since they have sued in the field of computing, although not been subject to some form of per- employers each year have been increas- secution, due to which their lives were ingly seeking IT specialists. However, endangered. However, some of these in Croatia, apart from highly educated persons did come to Croatia under jus- profiles, there is also a large deficiency of tified suspects indicating that they were low-skilled and semi-skilled workers, es- experiencing classical persecution. Since pecially of seasonal workers, in the tour- January 1st 2008 the new Asylum Act ist sector and in shipbuilding and in the has been in force, which has been ad- construction industry (Obadić, 2008). justed to EU regulations. According to A large number of employers have this law, asylum seekers can count on Snježana Gregurović and Dubravka Mlinari ć 107 receiving access to the instrument of process of attaining asylum, or else reg- so-called subsidiary protection, which ulation of the status of asylum seekers offers them protection from persecution in Croatia, as yet little has been under- in their countries of origin. taken in the area of social integration of By the new law, the process of resolv- asylum seekers. The number of persons ing applications has been accelerated that have received protection is increas- and asylum seekers have received the ing, but the number with recognised right to employment (beginning one status is not in accord with the measures year after presenting their applications and activities linked to their integration, for asylum, if in that period the legal based on satisfactory standards of recep- process has not been completed). The tion, and to the integration of refugees new law has also extended their right to into the social, cultural, educational education to the secondary school level, and economic life of the society. It is and definitions of family members have necessarily to develop high-quality in- also been extended, as has been family stitutional mechanisms and to improve reunification among asylum seekers and practices which will allow for a compre- foreigners under temporary protection. hensive and long-term integration of asylum seekers. It is also necessary to in- Table 4 crease cooperation between government Asylum Application, from 2004 to June 2011 institutions and institutions at the local level, and non-governmental institu- Year Asylum tions, so as to develop the practice of an applications all-inclusive integration of asylum seek- 2004 162 ers into community life. 2005 186 2006 94 Migration policies 2007 195 The majority of European immigration 2008 155 countries are receiving migrants of dif- ferent economic, social and cultural or- 2009 146 igin. Besides, recent migration grows in 2010 290 quantity resulting with urgent measures until June 2011 326 and migration regulations (policies) by national governments. Contemporary Source: http://www.mup.hr/UserDocsImages/statis- tika/2012/Statisticki%20pregled_2011.pdf migration policies are far developed in the North-Western than in the South The first registered case of recognised European Countries, while migration refuge status was recorded in the middle policies in the Central-East European of November 2006. Until today, 22 per- Countries12 are still to be implemented. sons have succeeded in gaining such a This development is further accelerated status, and 20 are under subsidiary pro- by the volume and structure of immi- tection, see Table 5 and Table 6. grant population, which does not con- Despite the progress achieved and the tribute to the balance and programmed advancement and standardisation of the structure of migration and integration

108 AEMI JOURNAL 2011

Table 5 Recognized Refugees in the Republic of Croatia, from 2004 to June 2011.

2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 until Total June Country of Origin 2011 AFGHANISTAN 1 1 1 3 ARMENIA 1 1 CONGO 3 3 MOLDOVA 2 2 RUSSIAN FEDERATION 5 5 TURKEY 1 1 SOMALIA 1 1 SUDAN 1 1 ZIMBABWE 1 1 UKRAINE 1 1 UZBEKISTAN 3 3 Total 0 0 1 0 3 11 5 2 22

Source: http://www.mup.hr/UserDocsImages/statistika/2012/Statisticki%20pregled_2011.pdf

Table 6 Persons under Subsidiary Protection, from 2004 to June 2011

2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 until Total June Country of Origin 2011 PAKISTAN 3 3 IRAQ 1 1 AFGHANISTAN 1 2 5 8 GEORGIA 4 4 UNKNOWN 1 1 CITIZENSHIP UKRAINE 1 1 SUDAN 1 1 KOSOVO 1 1 TOTAL 0 0 0 0 3 2 8 7 20

Source: http://www.mup.hr/UserDocsImages/statistika/2012/Statisticki%20pregled_2011.pdf policies While programmed policies pro- (Mármora, 1999: 47). We can divide vide responses for economic, political migration policies into immigration and or social problems caused by more ex- integration. While the immigration pol- tensive migration movements, ad hoc icies are usually involved in regulating policies acts upon migration pressures of entry, sojourn and employment of the the moment without further strategies immigrants, integration policies try to Snježana Gregurović and Dubravka Mlinari ć 109 provide a conceptual and organisational 2004). The selective measures that Cen- framework for including the newly-ar- tral-East European countries apply in rived groups of immigrants in society their immigration policies make them (Castles, 1995; Penninx, 2004). variously attractive to different groups Concerning its historical, cultural of immigrants. Similarly as to the and socio-political background Croa- CEEs’ experience, the majority of Cro- tia is to a great extent similar to Cen- atian immigrants are coming from the tral-East European Countries. By the neighbouring countries with the lower end of the 1980’s CEECs were facing economic growth and higher unem- totally new challenges in their migra- ployment rate than in Croatia. tion policies. After having been pri- Questions regarding migration issues, marily migrant-sending countries, they have not received much attention in sud­denly became transit, as well as des- Croatian society. During the Homeland tination countries – and a new phase of War, and immediately after it, the topic de­velopment­ began following their in- of migration was to a great deal reduced corporation into the EU (Laczko, 2002, to the problems of refugees, displaced Iglicka, 2005). persons and expellees that had been the It can only be presumed that migra- result of forced migrations of very many tion policy that still to be implemented people on the territory of Croatia and in in Croatia will follow the experience of neighbouring countries. related countries, especially having in Apart from these refugee issues, mi- mind that Yugoslav migration policy, gration policy and the public political namely relating to the emigration from debates were also focused on the ques- Croatia during the Socialist Regime was tion of emigrants in the Croatian di- comparatively much more „open“ than aspora, and the possibilities for their in neighboring states. After entry into return to their homeland. From the the EU, Croatia will become a border time that Croatia became a candidate EU country, with greater possi­ ­bilities of country for full EU membership, the controlling migration flows. The simi- need arose to adjust the legal framework lar situation was with the CEECs too, in the area of migration with the EU Ac- since in a certain sense they became a quis Communautaire. The Government, tampon zone between CIS countries therefore, had to begin elaborating a and the EU (the Wallace et al., 1996). Strategy of migration policies in relation Mentioned countries have been involved to: the policy of managing migration in different forms of migration: returnee flows, asylum policy and immigration migrations, transborder mi­gra­tions, policy (integration of immigrants). The tempo­ ­rary and transit migrations and development of migration policies in permanent labour migrations. Although Croatia has not proceeded equally in all most immigrants do not see Central-East these areas, but a legal framework has European countries as attractive destina- been achieved. The fundamental acts tions, some immigrants­­ remain in these that the Croatian Parliament passed, and countries because they cannot enter which form the new legal framework, “older” EU member states (Kreienbrink, were the Act on Croatian Citizenship and 110 AEMI JOURNAL 2011 the Act on the Movement and Sojourn of Conclusion Aliens (i.e. Aliens Act). Due to specific geopolitical circum- Due to the adjustment of Croatian stances and its position on the crossroads immigration legislation with a series of of Central Europe, the Mediterranean EU directives and other regulations, in and the Balkans, Croatia became a tra- July 2007 a new Aliens Act and a new ditional emigration country with an ex- Asylum Act were passed. The new Aliens panding society of transnational type. Act came into effect on the 1st of January The mass emigration of labour and po- 2008, and it reveals more and more the litical migrants from Croatia to overseas tendency of the legislator to view Cro- and western European countries reached atia as an immigration country. Thus, its peak in 1970s, introducing new types foreigners are explicitly and very pre- of war emigrants in the 1990s (refugees cisely guaranteed certain employment and ethnically motivated). Croatia was rights, as determined by the regulations at the same time an inviting (labour) of the Republic of Croatia, collective destination to neighbouring popula- agreements and arbitrative judgements. tion from socialist Yugoslavia as well as The new act stipulates that temporary to refugees and displaced persons, with residence for the purpose of family re- high potential for transit, especially on unification shall not be approved if the the routes of illegal migrations. marriage has been concluded out of Starting from 2009, a negative net mi- interest, and it provides a very detailed gration in Croatia is recorded, primarily listing of circumstance which may indi- due to negative economic trends in both cate that a marriage was concluded out Croatia and the EU countries and the of interest, i.e. for the purpose of gain- weakening of the (i)mmigration flows to ing legal status in Croatia. Croatia. Expecting Croatian EU mem- In Croatia the subject of asylum is bership would open the possibility for regulated by the Asylum Act (NN no. increase of incoming migration flows 103/03) which entered into force on to the country that could become an July 1st 2004. The current law is based attractive destination for emigrants on on the 1951 Convention on the Status their way to the core of the EU. Simul- of Refugees and the 1967 Protocol on the taneously, if Croatia does not improve Status of Refugees (i.e. the Geneva Con- economic conditions for its citizens and vention). The Act was mainly adjusted decrease unemployment rate one can to EU directives and regulations in this expect increase of emigration from the area. However, adjustment with the EU country. However, higher mobility of la- acquis required further changes, and bour forces is highly expected to occur, thus the enactment of a new law was especially among younger population, suggested. This law was passed in 2007 along with increase of circular, and tran- and entered into force on the 1st of Jan- sit migration. uary 2008. According to current trends in the most EU countries, we can assume that migrations will be less permanent and increasingly flexible, with a gradual shift Snježana Gregurović and Dubravka Mlinari ć 111 toward circular and transnational mo- References: bility. Besides the necessity for coherent Baučić, I. (1973). Radnici u inozemstvu prema and long-lasting migration policy that popisu stanovništva Jugoslavije 1971. Zagreb: would stabilize Croatian economic and Institut za geografiju Sveučilišta u Zagrebu. Božić, S. (2007). „Strengthening cross border demographic growth and brings eco- cooperation in the Western Balkans regard- nomic and cultural prosperity in the ing migration management“, in: Vladimir society, it is also required to prepare Petronijević (ed.), Migration flows in South- Croatian citizens to possible increasing eastern Europe. A Compendium of National immigration as a result of such a com- Perspectives. Belgrade: Sinag, pp. 13–42. Castles, S. (1995). “How nation-states respond plex migration strategies. It is therefore to immigration and ethnic diversity”, New important to raise awareness in society Community, Oxford, vol. 21, no. 3. Pp. 293- about the mobility of labour since the 308. population and labour force in Croatia Castles, S. and Miller, M.J. (2003). The Age of are small. On the other hand domestic Migration: International Population Move- populations should be educated about ments in the Modern World. Basingstoke: Pal- grave Macmillan. the importance and benefits of cultural Croatia Bureau of Statistics, 2011 Statistical diversity that immigrants bring with Yearbook of the Republic of Croatia, Zagreb, them. 2011. In order that Croatia’s role after acces- Grečić, V., Jovanović, M. (1978). „Osnovne sion to the EU will not be reduced only komponente pretvaranja privremene ekon- omske emigracije u iseljeništvo“, in: Ivan Čiz- to one of guarding the borders of „for- mić et al. (eds.), Iseljeništvo naroda i narodnosti tress Europe”, it is necessarily that Cro- Jugoslavije. Zagreb: Zavod za migracije i nar- atia along with other South European odnosti, pp. 273–286. and Central-East European countries Heršak, E. (1993). “Panoptikum migracija – take an active role in the negotiation Hrvati, hrvatski prostor i Evropa”, Migracijske and adoption of a new common Euro- teme, Zagreb, vol. 9, no. 3-4, pp. 227-303. Heršak, E. (1998). (ed). Leksikon migracijskoga i pean migration policy. etničkoga nazivlja. Zagreb: IMIN and Školska knjiga. Iglicka, K. (2005). EU Membership Highlights Poland’s Migration Challenges. Warsaw: Center for International Relations, See:http://www. migrationinformation.org/Feature/display.cf- m?ID=181. Laczko, F. (2002).”Introduction”, in: F. Laczko, I. Stacher i A. Klekowski von Koppenfels (eds.) New Challenges for Migration Policy in Central and Eastern Europe. The Hague: IOM, ICMPD: 1-10. Lajić, I. (2002). “Hrvatske migracije početkom 21. stoljeća”, Migracijske i etničke teme, vol. 18, no.2-3, pp.135-149. Lakatoš, J. (1914). Narodna statistika, Zagreb. Mármora, L. (1999). International Migration Policies and Programmes. Buenos Aires: United Nations – IOM. 112 AEMI JOURNAL 2011 Massey, D.S, Arango, J., Hugo, G., Kouaouci, Notes A., Pellegrino, A., Taylor, J. E. (1998). Worlds 1 In a respectable number of historical, demo- in Motion. Understanding international migra- graphic or economic researches on Croatian em- tion at the end of the millennium. New York: igration (that was usually called Diaspora) made Oxford University Press. in the last five decades the importance of emi- Mežnarić, S. (1991). Osvajanje prostora, gration communities and even more the number prekrivanje vremena. Zagreb: SB,SDH. of Croatians emigrants has been quite a delicate political issue, engaging the public interest as Migration policy of the Republic of Croatia for well as the interest of policy makers. Due to spe- 2007/2008 cific political circumstances during the socialist Mišetić, R. (2008). Aktualno demografsko regime in Yugoslavia and even in the post Yugo- stanje i projekcije stanovništva Republike slav Croatia all these debates revealed the po- Hrvatske do 2050. godine. International con- tential of migration becoming a politicized topic ference: Useljenička politika u funkciji razvoja (Mlinarić, 2008:169). hrvatskoga gospodarstva, Zagreb, June 19-20 2 Since their ethnic identification had changed 2008. through process of integration in their new home Mlinarić, D. (2008) “Emigration Research countries, counting emigrants of Croatian origin in Croatia: An Overview”, in: Brunnbauer, was highly speculative. Some migration records Transnational Societies, Transterrito- count all people who left Croatia, other record Ulf. (ed.) only ethnic Croats, making the definition of who rial Politics; Migrations in the (Post)-Yugoslav the „Croatian emigration“ is rather vague. The Region, 19th-21st Century, München: R. practice of counting descendants of emigrants, Oldenbourg Verlag: Suedosteuropaeische Ar- who were born abroad, within the number of beiten, pp. 169-191. emigrants inflated the total size of the Croatian Nejašmić, I. (1991). „Iseljavanje iz Hrvatske. emigration (Škvorc, 2005: 26,181). This aspect Brojčani aspekti stoljetnog procesa“, in: Ivan of quantification was particularly used in politi- Crkvenčić (ed.) Političko-geografska i demo- cally motivated debates. grafska pitanja Hrvatske, Zagreb, pp: 61-81. 3 Early-modern Hapsburg-Ottoman wars ini- Obadić, A. (2008). Ocjena stanja hrvatskog tiated first emigration waves leaving region. These early migrations were the origins of the tržišta rada i njegova mobilnost. International present-day Croatian ethnic minorities in Italia, conference: Useljenička politika u funkciji Austria (Gradišće/Burgenland), Romania, Slo- razvoja hrvatskoga gospodarstva, Zagreb, June vakia and Czech Republic. These wars also re- 19-20 2008. pp. 97-112. sulted with immigration of other ethnic groups, Penninx, R. (2004). “Integration of migrants: that have been invited as craftsmen (e.g. Ger- economic, social, cultural and political dimen- mans) or soldiers (Ottomans refugees, including sions”. Background Paper for the UNECE Serbs) on present-day Croatian lands, namely conference 12-14.2004. European Population on the constantly war-engaged territory of the forum 2004: Population Challenges and Policy Military Frontier, under the direct Hapsburg rule Respsonses. (Roksandić, 1988). Vojna Hrvatska – La Cro- 4 Evidence on migration is one of the most poorly Roksandić, D. (1988) documented demographic phenomena in Croa- atie Militaire. Zagreb: Školska knjiga. tia due to the lack of uniform official statistical Škvorc, B. (2005). Australski Hrvati. Mitovi i records of emigration for all Croatian territories stvarnost. Zagreb: Hrvatska matica iseljenika. that were previously under different state juris- Wallace, C., Chmuliar, O., Sidorenko, E. dictions. Moreover, Croatia still does not have a (1996). “The Eastern Frontier of Western Population Register, which would be the most Europe: Mobility in the Buffer Zone”. New complete data base on migration (Mišetić, 2008: Community, vol. 22, no. 2, pp. 259-286. 83). This uneven empirical base resulted with a Živković, I., Šporer, Ž. and Sekulić, D. (1995). number of very different estimations about the Asimilacija i identitet. Zagreb: Školska knjiga. number of Croatian migrants (Lakatoš, 1914; Nejašmić, 1991; Lajić, 2002). 5 The sea borderline is additional issue, since the length of the sea coast of the Republic of Caroatia is 5835,3 km. Source: State Geodetic Snježana Gregurović and Dubravka Mlinari ć 113

Administration, according to. 2011 Statistical Yearbook of the Republic of Croatia, Croatia Bureau of Statistics, Zagreb, 2011: 40. 6 Migration statistics in Croatia are still undeve- loped. The exact number of persons that moved abroad is not known, since there is no legal obli- gation for persons leaving the country for a longer period to register his/her departure at the authori- sed institution (the Minstry of the Interior). Furt- hermore, Croatia still does not have a population register and stock data is available only every 10 years. It is necessarily, therefore, to develop migra- tion statistics, or to revise existing statistical rese- arch according to international recommendations as well as to improve the quality and the volume of data on migrations and ensure international com- parability. 7 Permanent residence shall be approved to a fo- reigner which at the time of applying has had continuous temporary residence for a period of 5 years, or who has been married for 3 years to a Croatian citizen, or a foreigner with approved permanent residence, or condition of fulfilling other legal requirements. 8 Source: http://www.mup.hr 9 The officially registered rate of unemployment in Croatia in 2011. was 17,9% (http://www.hzz. hr/default.aspx?id=6191) 10 The numerical sum of the quotas also includes work permits for seasonal work, which were issued as follows: for the year 2005: 400 per- mits, for 2008: 1,845 permits, for 2009: 410 per- mits and for 2010: 20 permits. 11 The Croatian population today is among the top ten oldest populations in the world. In 1999, according to the UN data, in Cro- atia the average age of population was 38.5 years, which would place it in ninth place on the scale of the oldest populations of world. Due to depopulation trends (an increasingly smaller proportion of young people and in- creasing proportion of the older population) and a negative net migration Croatia’s indi- genous population does not even have the biological strength to assure mere reprodu- ction. In addition, during the 20th century 1.269 772 more persons left the country than settled in it. Emigration flows dominated over immigration flows in as many as eight inter-census periods in the 20th century (Mi- šetić, 2008). 12 Here we are referring to Hungary, the Czech Republic, Slovakia and Poland, which became part of the EU on January 5th 200 Irish Migrants and an Irish Migrant Object aboard Titanic

Brian Lambkin

This article reports on a temporary ex- the unusual ‘migration object’ which hibition in 2012 at the Ulster-American she was carrying with her. It is argued Folk Park, Omagh, ‘Titanic: Window that this case study helps to advance on Emigration’. It focuses on the mi- our understanding of the importance of gration story of one of the Irish emi- collecting, preserving and interpreting grants highlighted in the exhibition and migrant objects.

Fig. 1: ‘Titanic: Window on emigration’, a temporary exhibition at the Ulster-American Folk Park (NMNI), 2011 brian lambkin 115 Part of the contribution of the Na- aspect of the theme of ‘migrant objects’ tional Museums of Northern Ireland raised in a previous article in this Journal to the centenary commemoration of (Lambkin 2006). the sinking of RMS Titanic on 14 April Most if not all of the Third Class Pas- 1912, was a temporary exhibition at sengers on board Titanic can be con- the Ulster-American Folk Park, Omagh sidered as migrants and the diversity (where the Mellon Centre for Migration of their European origins, and relative Studies is based) entitled ‘Titanic: Win- proportions, are indicated by the table dow on Emigration’ (see Fig. 1).1 shown in Fig. 2.2 The first panel of the exhibition, which The migration stories of those in opened on 28 February 2012, set the Third Class have been studied by Rich- explanation of its purpose in a broad ard Davenport-Hines in Titanic Lives: European context: Migrants and Millionaires, Conmen and Crew (2012, 107-128).3 At Southamp- More than one million people ton, where the voyage commenced, left Europe for North America in 497 third-class passengers embarked; at 1912. Forced from their homelands Cherbourg 102 embarked; and finally at by poverty and religious intolerance, Queenstown (near Cork, Ireland) 113 they were attracted to America by embarked. The total number of third- the promise of a better life. class passengers accounted for 70 per Everyone travelled by ship, cent of capacity, making it fair to de- as this was the only way to cross scribe Titanic as an ‘emigrant’ ship. This the Atlantic. In 1912 there were is how Davenport-Hines explains the over 1,280 scheduled transatlantic complexity of the multi-cultural mix in crossings carrying passengers and third-class: mail between Europe and North America. This traffic flourished de- The estimate of forty-four Aus- spite shipping lines being officially tro-Hungarians includes about banned from promoting emigration. twenty Croatians. The figure of One of the most successful of the 28 eighteen Russians includes people companies operating the route was from Poland and the Baltic states, the White Star Line. but excludes Finns, who were also In this exhibition you will travel subject to Czarist autocracy. Over with some of the Third Class passen- sixty Finns [fifty-five in third class] gers who left Ireland on the White had steamed from Hanko, a little Star Line’s new, Belfast-built flag- port on the southerly tip of Finland, ship, Titanic. across the Baltic and North seas to Hull, from whence they entrained One of these passengers, Mary for Southampton … At Cherbourg McGovern, and the ‘migration object’ the embarking third-class passen- that she was carrying, a sample of ‘St gers were mainly Christians from Mogue’s clay’, is the focus of the pres- Armenia and the Lebanon seeking ent article. Its purpose is to develop an to escape Turkish-Muslim persecu- 116 AEMI JOURNAL 2011

Fig. 2 Third Class Passengers aboard Titanic (source: derived from http://www.ithaca.edu/staff/jhenderson/ titanic.html)

Nationality Third Class Total Survived Died Percent Survived Irish 113 41 72 36 Britsih 118 18 100 15 Swede 104 23 81 22 Syrian 79 31 48 39 Finn 55 17 38 31 Austro Hungarian 44 7 37 16 American 43 12 21 28 Bulgarian 33 0 33 0 Norwegian 25 8 17 32 Russian 18 6 12 33 Tu rk 8 2 6 14 Chinese 8 6 2 75 Danish 7 1 6 14 Canadian 5 0 5 0 French 5 0 5 0 German 4 1 3 25 Greek 4 0 4 0 Swiss 4 0 4 0 Italian 4 1 3 25 Portuguese 3 0 3 0 South African 1 0 1 0 Australian 1 1 0 100

Grand Total 708 180 518 25

tion and privation … The largest neers, stone masons, bricklayers, plumb- category of foreigners in third-class, ers, carpenters, a miller’s lad, potters, outnumbering the British, was tinsmiths, locksmiths, blacksmiths, wire Scandinavians. There were few voy- makers, a fur cutter, a leather worker, agers from Mitteleuropa … Czechs, a picture framer, boxers, chemists, Slovaks and Poles, or ‘Hunkies’ as jewellers, bakers, tailors, dressmakers, they were contemptuously called … servants, shop salesmen, door-to-door (2012, 225-6). pedlars, seamstresses, a laundress, cooks, barmen, grooms and waiters’ (2012, The occupations of Titanic’s third- 227). class passengers included ‘farmers, farm The distribution of the Irish passen- labourers, foresters and farriers; miners, gers in third-class according to place of machinists and print-compositors; engi- residence in Ireland is shown in Fig. 3 brian lambkin 117

Fig. 3 Irish passengers in third-class aboard Titanic by place of residence (source: Liam Corry, UAFP). 118 AEMI JOURNAL 2011 As may be seen the distribution is saint’s grave which promised protection concentrated in the southern and west- against death by fire or drowning.She ern counties of the island. Only eight was saved (Molony 2000, 18). third-class passengers came from the nine counties of the northern province Here it is important to distinguish be- of Ulster, and only one from the six tween religious (Christian) and non-re- counties of Ulster which were to be- ligious ‘migrant objects’ (both often come the present Northern Ireland in presented as gifts shortly before depar- 1920. This is accounted for by the ten- ture).5 Among the non-religious mi- dency of transatlantic migrants from the grant objects noticed by Molony were a northern and eastern parts of Ireland to knife, a ‘lucky’ Norwegian fishing cap, leave from the more convenient ports a watch, a picture and a photograph. of either Londonderry (Moville) or Liv- The knife, belonging to Margaret Dev- erpool. Not unusually for this period, aney (aged 20 from County Sligo) was about a third of all the Irish passengers a ‘parting gift’ from her teenage brother were ‘returned emigrants’, having been John, which proved useful in saving her in America at least once before (Liam and a boatload of others by enabling Corry pers.comm; see also Fitzgerald ropes binding oars in the boat to be cut. and Lambkin 2008, 215-216) She remembered later ‘how she had ear- The migration stories of the Irish in lier been so happy peeling apples with third-class have been studied by Senan John’s knife and chatting with friends in Molony in The Irish Aboard Titanic the Titanic’s third class common room (2000; 2012). It was the following ob- after an evening meal of ragout beef and servation by him about ‘migrant objects’ potatoes’, and that ‘it was a lucky thing that prompted the present interest in she had the knife when the call came to Mary McGovern and the sample of ‘St prepare to abandon ship’ (2000, 61).6 Mogue’s clay’ that she was carrying: It is known that Frank Dwan (aged 67 from County Waterford) was wearing An enormous industry had grown his ‘lucky’ Norwegian fishing cap when up on the back of Irish emigration. he boarded Titanic; however he was lost Every town of any consequence and his body never found (2000, 71). had its own shipping agents or sub- Bertha Mulvihill (aged 25 from County agents. One such outlet, O’Connor’s Westmeath), who was saved, had with of Ennistymon, sold tickets, steamer her a portrait of Robert Emmet, which trunks and religious statuary [empha- was lost. She had acquired it after seeing sis added]. The operators reported an amateur performance of a play about that almost every intending emi- Emmet (a dashing Irish rebel, executed grant also bought some religious item in Dublin in 1803) which included to accompany them on their journey – many family friends in the cast (2000, and Irish bodies taken from the sea 161).7 Patrick O’Keefe (aged 21 from would have rosary beads or protective County Waterford), who was saved, had scapulars.4 Some brought relics. Mary had his photograph taken in a profes- McGovern had a sample of clay from a sional studio before his departure and brian lambkin 119 this survived (2000, 181). ture. His grandniece commented later While non-religious objects might that ‘he wouldn’t have thrown away be regarded as ‘lucky’ prospectively (the a bottle of holy water his mother gave Norwegian hat) or retrospectively (the him. There was an element of panic knife), the religious migrant objects to it’ (2000, 36-7). A niece of Bertha which Molony specifically relates to Mulvihill (who lost her picture of Rob- individual migrants (holy-water bottle, ert Emmet) reported that as her aunt Bible, St Mogue’s clay) were regarded jumped into the lifeboat she ‘clung to as having a ‘protective’ function. A holy a tattered damp Bible which she had re- water bottle, containing a message was cently been given by my father’ (2000, found washed upon the shore of Ireland 161). in 1913 is believed to have belonged to It is the third religious object, St Mo- Jeremiah Burke (aged 19 from County gue’s clay, which is of particular interest Cork). His mother claimed that it was here. It belonged to Mary McGovern the same holy-water bottle that she had (aged 22 from Count Cavan), who was given her son on the day of his depar- saved (see Fig. 4).

Fig. 4 Mary McGovern and Saint Mogue’s clay on display in ‘Titanic: Window on Emigration’ (source: Fiona McClean, Pat O’Donnell, UAFP 120 AEMI JOURNAL 2011 Displayed in the exhibition is a sam- from County Cavan, Julia Smyth (aged ple of St Mogue’s clay – the grey mate- 17) and Kate Connolly (aged 23), at rial in the saucer at the foot of the Sacred least in part, to the ‘protection’ of St Heart statue (Fig. 4). The caption reads: Mogue, provided because she was car- ‘Saint Mogue is another name for Saint rying ‘a little locket’ of his ‘clay’, which Aidan.8 He was born in County Cavan. was ‘sewn’ into her clothes. Unlike the Titanic passengers Mary McGovern and case of Margaret Devaney’s ‘lucky’ knife, Julia Smyth believed that clay from an which she was fortunate to have with old church at his birthplace would pro- her at the time of the collision, Mary tect them from drowning’. McGovern had ensured that her ‘locket’ Mary McGovern (1890-1957) of St Mogue’s clay would be with her at worked in New York as a housekeeper all times having sewn it into her clothes but returned to her homeplace in Ire- (probably an undergarment). land in 1920. The following year she Fieldwork by the author in August married Peter McGovern, who lived in 2011 found the ‘cult’ of St Mogue to be the townland of Tullytransna, next to strong still in the part of County Cavan her native townland of Clarbally. In in which Mary McGovern lived. The 1952, on the fortieth anniversary of the Lake Avenue Guest House (Bed and sinking, she explained the significance Breakfast), which offers ‘picturesque of St Mogue’s clay in an interview with views down over Templeport Lake and the Sunday Independent newspaper (21 St Mogue’s Island (http://www.lakeave- September): nuehouse.com/bed--breakfast-page.html last accessed 21/08/12)’ also has a link to the We left Cobh on Wednesday Templeport Development Association’s for New York, and everything was website, and associated book, which ex- grand. I was fast asleep in my cabin, plains: a three-tiered affair, which I shared The clay from St. Mogue’s Is- with two others from Virginia, land is renowned for its legendary County Cavan. On Sunday night properties in keeping safe the peo- we were awoken and thrown out of ple and places on which it is stored, our bunks by the shock of the col- and there are a number of stories in lision … Next day we were picked this book to illustrate this. It is also up by the Carpathia. … Sewn in my widely known that Mary McGov- clothes from the time I left my native ern, a survivor of the Titanic disaster, Corlough here in Cavan, I have car- was carrying some of the clay given ried a little locket of St Mogue’s clay. I to her by her mother before she left still have it hidden in the rafters of my Corlough in 1912, and Mary’s story home (Molony 2000, 138; emphasis is told in the book in her own words. added).9 The use of clay from the island is as popular today as it has ever been Clearly, Mary McGovern attributed (http://www.templeport.ie/pages/sales. her survival, and that of her two friends html; Rofé 2011, 14). brian lambkin 121 The front cover of the book published by Templeport Development Associa- tion in 2011 (see Fig. 5) shows the is- land which according to tradition is the birth place of the sixth-century Irish saint Maodhóg (anglicised ‘Mogue’), better known now as Aidan (Ó Riain 2011, 432; Doherty 2002).10

Fig. 6 Local historian Oliver Brady, Cloneary (foreground), collecting St Mogue’s clay on Saint Mogue’s Island (Inis Breachmhaighe) on Brackley Lough in the parish of Templeport, County Cavan, August 2011 (Photo: Brian Lambkin)

Glassie. One informant, Joe Flanagan, told Glassie that ‘clay from the grave of Saint Mogue near Bawnboy in Cavan was collected and thrust up in the thatch … to prevent lightning from blasting the home’.11 His brother, Peter Flana- gan, explained its particular importance for emigrants:

Saint Mogue, he was a wonder- ful saint, they say. Saint Mogue. He Fig 5. Inis Maedhóg, St. Mogue’s Island, Temple- was in the diocese of Clogher. Saint port Lake, Bawnboy, County Cavan, birth place of Mogue is buried on a wee island this Saint Mogue (front cover of Rofé 2011) side of Bawn. And all the emigrants ever went to America, even me sis- The island is the site of a medieval ters, they brought Saint Mogue’s church, now ruined, and surrounding clay with them. It’s a whitish color, graveyard. St Mogue’s ‘clay’ is mortar more like chalk, or like putty, that taken by pilgrims from the seams in the nature. It’s wee crumbly stuff. It’s remaining stone walls of the church, as interestin that when they’d be going shown in Fig. 6. to America longgo, they’d chip a Evidence of the cult of Saint Mogue wee bit of it, like that, into the sea. was collected in the neighbouring And the sea would be at its roughest county of Fermanagh in 1972 by the and it would drive the waves back. I eminent American folklorist Henry 122 AEMI JOURNAL 2011 heared that now. I’m only just tellin religious objects as a ‘safeguard’ against as I heard. I wasn’t an emigrant me- drowning at sea can be traced back at self, nor had nothing to test it or an- least to the early seventeenth century. ything, but I heard that about Saint Perhaps the most famous historical ex- Mogue’s clay. It was always took be ample – one of which many Irish emi- all the emigrants and specially when grants of the nineteenth and twentieth there was the ould sailin ship, when centuries may have been aware – is part it was more hazardous goin away out of the story of the Flight of the Earls on the ocean (Glassie 1982, 174, in 1607, when Hugh O’Neill, Earl of emphasis added). Tyrone, and Rory O’Donnell, Earl of Tyrconnell, who had opposed Queen Peter Flanagan’s general comment Elizabeth I during the Nine Years War here on how the ‘hazard’ of the trans- (1594-1603, departed in haste from atlantic crossing was perceived to have Ireland to mainland Europe (Fitzgerald been much greater in the age of sail than and Lambkin 2008, 23-4).The account in the age of steam was confirmed by a given of the use by emigrants of St Mo- specific case given by Joe Flanagan: gue’s clay given to Henry Glassie bears strong resemblances to the following There was an uncle and aunt of contemporary account of the behaviour ours, and they set out (that would of Hugh O’Neill’s men in response to a be a brother and sister of me father’s) threatening storm on their voyage: and it took them four months to go to America. A storm riz and blew After that they spent thirteen days them out of their course altogether, at sea with excessive storm and dan- do ye know. They had to wait then gerous bad weather. It gave them for the storm to cease. They were great relief when they placed in the ould sailin ships at that time (1982, sea, trailing after the ship, a cross 174).12 of gold which Ó Néill had, [and] in which there was a portion of the Notwithstanding the much shorter Cross of the Crucifixion along with crossing times in the age of steam, the many other relics (Ó Muraíle 2007, ‘hazard’ in terms of danger of sea-sick- 52-3). ness and drowning, was clearly still per- ceived as significant, as evidenced by In using their gold cross in this way, the use of Saint Mogue’s clay by Mary Hugh O’Neill’s men may have had McGovern in 1912 and Peter and Joe in mind as a precedent for calming a Flanagan’s sisters when they emigrated stormy sea not only the miracle of Jesus in the 1940s. (Mark 4: 35-41; Luke 8: 22-25; Mat- We are dealing here with a migrant thew 8: 23-27) but also many other ‘coping strategy’ that has deep roots in similar miracles, traditionally believed Irish history (and probably one that was to have been performed by Irish saints, shared across Europe before the Refor- including Colmcille – the archetypal mation). The motif of emigrants using Irish emigrant, and near contemporary brian lambkin 123 of Mogue in the sixth century, who was Before I take my place behind the sent into exile from Ireland to Iona, off wheel the west coast of Scotland (Lambkin I pray, O Sacred Heart – Guide me on 2007b, 133-4; Lacey 1998, 175). The my way. actions of trailing the gold cross after Virgin Mary, Morning Star, from the ship and chipping a piece of St Mo- every danger guide this car. gue’s clay into the sea during a storm Thou dear Lord who gave it to enjoy, may be considered as ways of invoking Grant that its purpose be to save and or even mimicking the kind of protec- not destroy. tive actions performed directly by these Amen. saints.13 If this ‘coping strategy’ in relation to The form of this prayer, with it em- the hazard of drowning, exemplified by phasis on ‘guidance’ to safety, is strik- Mary McGovern taking with her Saint ingly similar to the prayer to Saint Mogue’s clay, can be traced back in the Mogue that was also given to Mary Irish migration tradition at least to the McGovern by her mother before she set early seventeenth century, we may ask sail on the Titanic: to what extent, if any, it persists in the present. There are reports of the effec- May the Almighty God be a Father to tiveness of Saint Mogue’s clay in rela- you, tion to protection against fire (including The Mother of God a Mother to you, a bomb explosion in Belfast during the And your Guardian Angel and Patron Troubles), on land rather than on sea, Saint Mogue as recently as the 1970s (Rofé 2011, 78, Guide, guard and protect you night, 116). However, Mary McGovern’s use noon and morning, of Saint Mogue’s clay can be seen as part Lying and rising, asleep and awake of a more general religious approach (Rofé 2011, 15).14 in Ireland to the dangers of travel on land, sea and air. Judging from a recent Thus, within the exhibition ‘Titanic: statement by the Catholic bishops of Window on Emigration’, the case of Ireland, now the most urgent danger to Mary McGovern provides a ‘window’ life while travelling is to be encountered on the value of migrant objects in help- on the island’s roads. Speaking on be- ing the migrants who carried them (and half of his fellow bishops, Bishop Liam those in the old home who may have McDaid of Clogher said ‘up to 2 August presented them) cope with the hazards 2012 road fatality figures stood at 109 of migration, especially religious mi- for the Republic and 24 for the North’, grant objects, like Saint Mogue’s clay, and he concluded his statement by rec- in coping with the hazard of an ocean ommending ‘the following dedicated crossing. In particular this case helps prayer for motorists which may be re- us to understand the attitude of Irish cited before driving’ migrants who shared Mary McGovern’s (http://www.catholicbishops.ie/2012/08/02/ bishop-macdaid-urges-road-users-safe- Catholic faith and local tradition. At the recommends-prayer-motorists-2/): 124 AEMI JOURNAL 2011 same time it challenges us to understand Mercier Press, Cork better the coping strategies of those who Molony, Senan (2000; 2012), The Irish Aboard Titanic, Wolfhound Press, Dublin; Mercier did not, such as her fellow passenger Press, Dublin Thomas Morrow (Molony 2000, 153- Ó Canáinn, Aodh and Watson Seosamh (eds), 4). The only Presbyterian, Orangeman (1990), Scian A Caitheadh Le Toinn: scéalta from Ulster aboard Titanic, he was lost; agus amhráin as Inis Eoghain agus cuimhne ar and about his migration objects nothing Ghaeltacht Iorrais. Coslett Ó Cuinn a bhailigh, is known. Coiscéim, Baile Átha Cliath (Dublin) Ó Muraíle, Nollaig (ed.) (2007), Turas na dTao- iseach nUltach as Éirinn: from Ráth Maoláin to Rome: Tadhy Ó Cianáin’s Contemporary Narra- References tive of the Journey into Exile of the Ulster Chief- Davenport-Hines, Richard (2012), Titanic tains and Their Followers, 1607-8 (The so-called Lives: Migrants and Millionaires, Conmen and ‘Flight of the Earls’), Pontifical Irish College, Crew, Harper Press, London Rome Day, Angélique and McWilliams, Patrick (eds) Ó Riain, Pádraig (2011), A Dictionary of Irish (1995), Ordnance Survey Memoirs of Ireland, Saints, Four Courts Press, Dublin Parishes of Londonderry X, 1833-35, 1838, Rofé, Nigel (ed.) (2011), Inis Maedhóg, St Mo- Institute of Irish Studies, Queen’s University, gue’s Island, Templeport, Templeport Develop- Belfast ment Association, Cavan Doherty, Charles (2001), ‘The transmission of the cult of Saint Maedhóg’, in P. Ní Chatháin Notes and M. Richter (eds), Ireland and Europe in 1 I am grateful to my colleagues in the Ulster-Amer- the Early Middle Ages: Texts and Transmission, ican Folk Park and the Mellon Centre for Mi- Four Courts Press, Dublin gration Studies for assistance and suggestions, Fitzgerald, Patrick and Lambkin, Brian (2008), particularly Liam Corry, Fiona McClean, Cathe- Migration in Irish History, 1607-2007, Pal- rine McCullough, Pat O’Donnell, Patrick Fitzger- grave Macmillan, Basingstoke ald, Christine Johnston, Johanne Devlin-Trew, and fellow field-worker Kay Muhr. Glassie, Henry (1982), Passing the Time: Folklore 2 Precision with regard to numbers of passengers and History of an Ulster Community, O’Brien and crew aboard Titanic remains a difficult and Press, Dublin contested issue, as the Ithaca website acknowl- Gwynn, Stephen (1898), Highways and Byways edges. in Donegal and Antrim, Macmillan, London 3 It may be of particular interest to readers of this Lacey, Brian (ed.), (1998), The Life of Colum edition of the AEMI Journal, which contains an Cille by Manus O’Donnell, Four Courts, Dub- article on Louis Adamic, that Davenport-Hines lin makes particular reference to the work of Adamic Lambkin, Brian (2006), ‘Representing “Migrant in this regard (1912, 109-10, 112, 229). Objects” in Cinema and Museum: a recent 4 Scapular: ‘an article of devotion composed of two small squares of woollen cloth, fastened together case study from Northern Ireland’, Journal of by strings passing over the shoulders, and worn as the Association of European Migration Institu- a badge of affiliation to the religious order which tions, 4, 22-35 presents it’ (OED). Lambkin, Brian (2007a), ‘The Art of European 5 Molony makes clear that ‘farewell parties’ or Migration Virtual Archive: comparing ‘ritu- ‘American wakes’ were held in honour of many of als’ of departure’, Journal of the Association of the departing emigrants and that some were pre- European Migration Institutions, 5, 153-161 sented with their ‘parting gifts’ on these occasions Lambkin, Brian (2007b), ‘“Emigrants” and “Ex- (2000, 27, 32, 97, 108, 121). For more on the iles”: migration in the early Irish and Scottish Irish ritual of departure known as the ‘American church’, The Innes Review, 58, 2, 133-155 wake’, see Lambkin (2007, 154-8). 6 Knives were popular as gifts in Ireland not only McGowan, Joe (2001), Echoes of a savage land, for their practical value but also as a protection brian lambkin 125

against evil (being made of iron against which fair- witches or necromancers, as well as against phan- ies were believed to be powerless). Traditionally, a toms or evil spirits’ (Day and McWilliams, 71). coin would be given in return (to avoid ‘cutting’ Regarding the use of a ‘scapular’ to still a storm, the friendship). The knife as a protection for fish- McGowan (2001, 28-29) reports an incident in- ermen against storms and the danger of drowning volving a group of fishermen from County Sligo is the central motif of Ó Canáinn and Watson who during a storm were in danger of drowning: (1990). I am grateful to Kay Muhr for this refer- ‘An old man, acknowledging they were beyond ence. human help, tried one last desperate measure. 7 For more on the image of Robert Emmet as a “There’s only one thing left,’” he said, taking off popular Irish migrant object see Lambkin (2006, his scapulars and throwing them on the heav- 27). ing water. ... Soon afterwards, the winds calmed 8 The connection between Maedhóg (English and the storm cleared. By starlight, they steered Mogue) and Aodhán (English Aidan) is the Irish the boat to a safe landing at the mouth of the Duff name Aodh: Maedhóg means ‘my little Aodh’ and river. Barton, the local landlord - and a Protestant Aodhán means ‘little Aodh’ - ‘óg’ and ‘án’ being - was one of those on board. As they pulled the diminutives (Ó Riain 2011, 71). boat ashore, he spoke to the skipper. “Look here”, 9 Mary McGovern also gave an interview to the he said, pointing to the water, “what you threw Sunday Press, 21 September 1952, which appears out on the sea is still here floating alongside!” I am to be the source of the account given in Rofé grateful to Johanne Devlin-Trew for this reference. (2011, 14) Here there is a slight textual difference 14 The most famous prayer of this type is St Patrick’s in the last two sentences: ‘… I had carried a little Lorica (Breastplate), which dates from the eighth of the earth from Saint Mogue’s grave. I have it century. still hidden in the rafters of my home’. 10 According to written tradition, the burial place of Saint Mogue is at Rossinver, on the shore of Lough Melvin in the neighbouring county of Leitrim. In oral tradition in both Cavan and Fer- managh, there appears to have been a conflation of the saint’s birth place and burial place, at least so far as Mary McGovern (see note 6 above) , the Fla- nagan brothers and Henry Glassie were concerned (Glassie 1982, 627). 11 Catherine Reilly, landlady of the recently-built Lake Avenue House Bed and Breakfast accommo- dation, informed us that her mother-in-law had taken care to ensure that an amount of Saint Mo- gue’s clay was placed in its foundations. 12 Glassie comments that this emigration would have taken place ‘about 1880’ and that ‘they were never heard from again’. He also comments that when Peter and Joe’s sisters emigrated sixty years later they also ‘took a pinch of Mogue’s clay’ (1982, 175). 13 There is a tradition, still current, that clay from a special grave blessed by Saint Colmcille on Tory Island, off the west coast of County Donegal, like Saint Mogue’s clay, was used by emigrants as a protection from drowning (Gwynn 1898, 160; Glassie 1982, 813 ). Similarly, it was believed about ‘sand’ taken from beneath the monument to Saint Murriagh O’Heaney in the old graveyard of Banagher, County Londonderry, that ‘the house in which any of the above sand is deposited can never burn by accident, in that it is a barrier and safeguard against burning, drowning, the spells of Norwegian Immigration Policy and the 22 July 2011 Terrorist Attacks in Oslo

Hans Storhaug

In 2010 Norway experienced the highest refugees, as labour migrants, to study, or to immigration numbers ever. Although it join family living in Norway. • Immigrants and those born in Norway to was Polish and Baltic citizens that con- immigrant parents constitute 655,000 per- tributed the most, there was a growing sons or 13.1 per cent of Norway’s popula- skepticism about immigration in gen- tion, among which 547,000 are immigrants eral. With the Arab Spring the fear of and 108, 000 are born in Norway to immi- new waves of asylum seekers and radical grant parents. Islam became hot topics in the political • Broken down by region, 294,000 have a European background, 163,000 persons debate prior to the 2011 municipal elec- have a background from Asia, 60,000 tions. With the terrorists attack on the from Africa, 18,000 from South- and government building and the killings at Central-America and 11,000 from North the Island of Utøya 22 July the debate America and Oceania. 57,100 of those silenced. born in Norway to immigrants parents have an Asian background, 29,000 have parents from Europe, 19,500 from Africa Norwegian immigrant population and 2,600 have immigrant parents from In 1665, Norway’s population was South- and Central America. 440 000. It had grown to one million • The majority of the immigrants are from by 1822, two million by 1890, three Poland, Sweden, Germany and Lithuania. million by 1942 and four million by Thirty-three per cent of the immigrants have Norwegian citizenship. 1975. By July 2012 the fifth million 1 • Between 1990 and 2010, a total of 471,000 was reached. With a birth rate less than non-Nordic citizens immigrated to Norway 2.1 in the last decades, the population and were granted residence here. Of these, growth is due to immigration, and the 22 per cent came as refugees, 28 per cent following key statistics summarise the were labour immigrants and 11 per cent were granted residence in order to under- present situation: take education. Twenty-three per cent came to Norway due to family reunification with • Norway’s immigrant population consists someone already in Norway, and 15 per of people from 219 different countries and cent were granted residence because they independent regions. They have come as had established a family. hans storhaug 127 • Statistics Norway has published figures neighbouring countries and the Western on those born outside Norway since the world. Still both the authorities and the Population Census of 1865. Back then, 1.2 per cent of the total population of 1.7 public in Norway have become increa- million were born abroad; the majority in slingly concerned about the pressure Sweden. By 1920, the immigrant share of on welfare resulting from the immigra- the total population had increased to 2.8 tion of people with low skill levels from per cent. During the interwar period there countries in the South – particularly was little immigration, and by 1950 only from Africa and Somalia. A large pro- 1.4 per cent of the population was born abroad. Today 11.4 per cent of the whole portion of these newcomers have proven Norwegian population is born outside the difficult to integrate in a labour market country. In Oslo, the capital of Norway, the characterised by high demands for skills foreign born population is 27 per cent.2 and a compressed wage structure that makes lowskilled labour comparatively The distribution of the immigrant pop- expensive. ulation is reflected in table 1. From 2007 to 2011 public expend- iture on immigration and integration Table 1. Immigrant groups in Norway, 2010 more than doubled, from 6,7 to 13, 7 billion and in the wake of the Arab Polen 52125 Spring, starting in Tunisia in December Sweden 31193 2010, more asylum seekers reached Nor- Pakistan 31061 way. In May 2011 859 persons applied Iraq 26374 for asylum, the second highest number Somalia 25496 ever, most of them from Somalia and 3 Germany 22859 Eritrea. To meet the crises in Africa, Vietnam 20100 the UN High Commissioner on Refu- Denmark 19298 gees visited Oslo, urging Norway along with the rest of Europe to take its share. Iran 16321 In addition to these newcomers, Turkey 15998 29,000 asylum seekers were waiting for Bosnia-Herzegovina 15198 their applications to be processed. Some Russia 14873 had waited for years. The government Sri-Lanka 13772 therefore increased the staff handling The Phillipines 13447 administration to shorten the pro- United Kingdom 12843 cess . The government also introduced Kosovo 12719 a stricter return policy towards those Thailand 12268 who could not document their need Afghanistan 10475 for protection. Many were returned by force, despite heavy protests from or- Lithuania 10341 ganisations like Amnesty International Source: Statistics Norway and critical remarks from the UN High Commissioner of Refugees. 4 As we have seen, the largest immi- There was also a special focus on those grant groups in Norway come from our who had their applications rejected be- 128 AEMI JOURNAL 2011 cause they lacked identification papers, sequently has no papers and no civic but who refused to return voluntarily. rights. On 12 January 2011 she was Over the years many have left the the arrested, put in custody while waiting reception centers - unofficially the num- for deportation. Many of the people ber is more than ten thousand – and be- demonstrating against her deportation came illegal immigrants. argued that paperless immigrants should A 25 year-old Maria Amelie, real be granted the right to work, pay taxes name Madina Salamova, gave these ille- and access Norway’s public health ser- gal immigrants a face by publishing her vice while they wait for their situation to book Illegally Norwegian, where she de- be resolved. For many in the same situ- scribes her fleeing the Russian republic ation “Hers was a voice for the voiceless of North Ossetia as a child and going - those who are living in hiding them- underground with her parents when selves and living in a very, very difficult their asylum application was rejected. situation.” Maria Amelie somehow managed to Yet Norway’s Prime Minister, Jens evade Norway’s immigration authorities Stoltenberg, stood firm. Speaking on for eight years while learning fluent Nor- national television, he said he under- wegian, getting a university degree and stood why people were demonstrating., then writing her best-selling book. A but added: weekly news magazine awarded her the “… my task is to make sure we execute title ‘Norwegian of the year’ in 2010.5 a fair refugee and asylum policy, so we Maria Amelie called herself a paper- have to treat people on an equal basis, less immigrant - someone whose asylum [so] that those who are in need of pro- application has been denied and con- tection are the ones who are allowed to stay.”6 But critics said the government need not have bent any rules to allow Maria Amelie to stay. John Peder Egenaes, head of Amnesty International Norway pointed to the fact that “Norway is one of the few countries that never had any kind of regularization of these people’s situations, while this has happened to six million people in Europe. “It basically means their status as illegal is changed to legal. And this has never happened in Norway. We are just creating a paperless underclass right now.”7 25 year-old Maria Amelie, real name Madina This was a difficult situation. The Salamova, gave illegal immigrants in Norway a Labour Party faced a right-of-centre face by publishing her book “Illegally Norwegian” in opposition ready to attack any sign of 2010. Source: www.nettavisen.no Photo:Poppe, Cornelius (SCANPIX) weakness on immigration. The govern- ment’s minority partner, the Socialist hans storhaug 129 Left Party was keen to ease immigra- the extremes, often blaming ‘Islam’ and tion laws, which led to serious tensions ‘the Muslims’. Although they only rep- within the government. However, Maria resent 1,5 per cent of the population, Amelie was deported to Moscow where to many Norwegians the Muslims have she applied for a work permit and later become a threat to Norwegian cultural returned as a legal Russian immigrant values and the Norwegian welfare state. worker. This was clearly demonstrated in the report Welfare and Migration. The Fu- Norwegain Integration Barometer ture of the Norwegian Model, published 2010 10 May 2011. The committee pointed Although the Maria Amelie case aroused to the fact that there is a steady flow of a lot of sympathy for the so-called ‘pa- poorly qualified groups in Norwegian perless’, general opinion on immigra- working life, and that many of them are tion has moved in a negative direction unemployed: Somalis, Iraqis, Afghani- since 2005. According to the Norwegian stanis, Pakistanis, Moroccans, Turkeys, Integration Barometer 2010 (a survey on Kosovos and Iranians – all Muslim Norwegians attitude towards immigra- countries. At the very bottom are the tion and integration), more than half of Somalis, with an employment rate of the 1380 persons asked – 53.7 per cent only 31.9 (2009).9 – want to close the borders as compared The Committee therefore strongly with 45.8 in 2005. Almost half – 48.7 recommended a further development of percent thought that integration was the so-called introductory programme unsuccessful – up from 36 per cent.8 with a strong labour market profile – in- The reasons are many and complex tegration through work – and 300 hours and cannot be addressed here, but there compulsory courses on the Norwegian are some aspects that might help to ex- language and social issues. Activation plain the negative trend: Public discus- is a key word, emphazising the need to sion on child marriages, male and female make immigrants active contributors circumcision, the head-scarf for women, in society instead of passive receivers of but also on school drop-outs, work drop- social benefits. To reach these goals, the outs, exploitation of social benefits and committee also recommended a stronger international terrorism, have increased commitment by public and private sec- in recent years. Although only a tiny tor to help integration of poor qualified proportion of terrorist attacks in Europe immigrants in productive labour and have been carried out by Muslims, many to prevent this group from falling out Europeans – and Norwegians - share the of ordinary working life permanently, view expressed in an election speech in which would mean a substantial burden 1987 by Carl I Hagen – former leader on the welfare budget. of Fremskrittspartiet (Progress Party) The report created a great stir.. that “not all Muslims are terrorists, but High-profiles individuals like Jens Ul- all terrorists are Muslims.” So the debate ltveit Moe, founder of the Norwegian about immigration has been polarized, investment company, the Umoe Group, and the media have mainly reported on claimed that immigrants are a threat to 130 AEMI JOURNAL 2011 the welfare state; 10 Progress Party repre- an atmosphere of anti-Muslim feeling. sentative Per-Willy Amundsen claimed And most people – myself included - ex- that immigrants are bad employers;11 pected that immigration would be the while on the other side Anna-Sabina main issue in the forthcoming munici- Soggiu, leader for Norwegian social pal elections in September. workers (Fellesorganisasjonen) claimed that the report to a great extent over- The Oslo Tragedy looked the reasons why many immi- Then – on 22 July Norway was struck grants did not succeed on the labour by a double terrorist attack – the most market.12 The report was, no doubt, a serious one since World War II. A bomb valuable contribution in outlining a pol- exploded in Oslo destroying large parts icy for sustainable immigration, but I do of a government office block and there not think I am too wrong saying that was a mass shooting at Utøya Island. many of the proposals in the report were 77 people were killed among them 68 ‘adopted’ from the Progress Party´s im- young members of Norwegian Labour migration policy. Party’s youth wing, the AUF. Therefore in early summer 2011 im- Immediately after the explosion many migration was a hot political issue, with feared an Islamic terrorist action, and

22 July 2011: A bomb exploded in Oslo, destroying large parts of a government office block. © Reuters hans storhaug 131 some innocent Muslims were attacked a change in society, and from his per- in the streets. A few hours later, when spective, he needed to force through a the perpetrator´s name and his extreme revolution. He wished to attack society right-wing ideas were known, the first and the structure of society.” But he did reaction among Norwegian Muslims not succeed. In contrast to U.S. Presi- as well as among most Norwegians was dent George Bush´ “we´ll hunt them simply relief. It was an ethnic Norwe- down” after 9/11 Norwegian prime gian, born and raised in Oslo. His name minister Jens Stoltenberg said “we will and appearance burned into my mind respond to his actions with more open- and retina: Anders Behring Breivik. In a ness, more tolerance and more democ- 1,500-page “manifesto” which he pub- racy”.13 lished online hours before his actions, With these words Stoltenberg gained entitled 2083: A European Declaration world-wide sympathy and admiration, of Independence, Mr. Brevik explains and in Norway people across the coun- why he committed the killings.The text try gathered in churches, town halls, rants against Marxism, multiculturalism meeting houses in a new feeling of and globalization, and warns of what empathy, solidarity and unity, in Oslo he calls Islamic Demographic Warfare. 200,000 people joined in the so-called He calls for a crusade to defend his idea Rose March in remembrance of the vic- of Europe: “What most people still do tims and their families. not understand is that the ongoing Isla- misation of Europe cannot be stopped The Utøya Effect before one gets to grip with the polit- The tragedy also had political effects. A ical doctrine which makes it possible,” month before the tragedy, Norwegian he wrote. So the target that formed in voters were presented with the results his mind was not immigrant groups, but from the June polls, reflecting both the government itself which had opened The Maria Amelie case and the Report the borders for Muslims, and young on Welfare and Migration. It gave the people who were attached to the ruling Labour Party the lowest scores in many left-leaning Labour Party. years – 27.8 per cent, and it was expected His lawyer, Geir Lippestad, said that that the party would lose ground in the “he had been politically active (Fpu) election. But the tragedy paved way for and found out himself that he did not the best elections for the Labour Party succeed with usual political tools and so in 24 years – up 4.5 per cent compared resorted to violence”. In his own chilling to the June polls, and 2 per cent in com- words, the killings were “atrocious but parison to the 2007 elections. It is not necessary”. From his own tweets, para- unlikely that some of the 100,000 new phrasing the English philosopher John voters were sympathy voters, or endors- Stuart Mill, you can glimpse his twisted ing the way Prime Minister Jens Stolten- certainty: “One person with a belief is berg had handled the tragedy. However, equal to the force of 100,000 who have its coalition ally the Socialist Left Party only interests.” (SV) lost even more votes after the trag- Again, quoting his lawyer: “he wanted edy and ended up with only 4 per cent, 132 AEMI JOURNAL 2011 down from 6 per cent in 2007. The big sincere commitment to Norwegian de- winners were the Conservatives, who mocracy. Also Muslim young men and probably took votes from the anti-im- women were killed at Utøya. Or as one migration Progress Party once favoured who knows most about Muslims in Nor- by right-wing extremist Anders Behring way, Kari Vogt, Researcher at the Insti- Breivik, which lost a third of its vote, see tute of Cultural Studies at the University Table 1. 14 of Oslo says: A new “us” seems to have been created.15 Table 1: Municipal elections 2007 - 2011 including polls June 11 Anti-immigrant sentiments in Eu- rope 2011 June 2007 Across Europe there is a strong and Polls growing concern about immigration. It Labour Party 31.6 27.2 29.6 is partly fuelled by unemployment but also has its roots in threatened identity. Conservative Party 28.0 30.3 19.3 Societies have been changing fast. There Progress Party 11.4 16.4 17.5 is mounting frustration that officials at Centre Party 6.8 5.7 8.0 both European and national level seem Liberal Party 6.2 4.4 5.9 not to listen to the views of the voters. 5.6 5.3 6.4 With globalisation, national identity Christian People´s seems to have become more important. Party The nation state remains the focus of Socialist Left Party 4.1 5.4 6.2 most people’s identity, and so nationalist Source: Regjeringen.no parties have made gains in many parts of Europe: the Freedom Party in Austria,; Voluntary Work the Flemish Block in Belgium; the Dan- The tragedy has also given voluntary ish People´s Party in Denmark; the Na- work a new meaning. Many voluntary tional Front in France; the Hellenic Front organisastions and individuals gave a in Greece; the Northern League and Na- helping hand during and after the trag- tional Alliance in Italy; the Democrats in edy at Utøya. Particularly organisations Sweden; the True Finns in Finland; the like Red Cross and Folkehjelpen – Peo- Party for Freedom in the Netherlands,; ple´s Help. Since the tragedy hit so many the Swiss People´s Party in Switzerland; young people, many young people have and the Progress Party in Norway. also responded to the tragedy by join- There are frequent expressions of con- ing these and Amnesty International cern about the growing influence of these and Center for Anti – Racism. The La- parties. Others say that they provide a bour Party´s youth organisastion has also useful channel for the feelings of frustra- gained several more members than usual. tion and alienation. And perhaps most important, there An expert in European right-wing ex- seems to be a new and more sympa- tremism at London’s Kingston Univer- thetic awareness of the Muslim presence sity, Andrea Mammone, says Breivik’s in Norway; a great number of Muslims ideas are consistent with many on the express their feeling of belonging and extreme right in Europe. “These ideas hans storhaug 133 of having a pure community, of having much better chance of arriving at such a white Europe are quite widespread values happens if other points of view get across European right-wing extremism, sufficient cultural self-confidence, polit- They are against immigration and Islam, ical power, and opportunity to express which is a very easy target. They are for themselves.19 an immigrant-free Europe.”16 In this respect, I believe, AEMI can K. Biswas from the magazine the New make a difference. Representing a diver- Internationalist says a tide has turned sity of research centres, libraries, archives over the past decade. The extreme right and museums dedicated to the research may agree with much of Breivik’s out- and dissemination of migration issues, look, but, they say, not with his tactics, past and present, our organisation has the and it is important to separate the two. potential to enhance public awareness of “What is interesting to note is that these present migration and to prove that mi- views are no longer fringe views,” Biswas gration history matters. noted, “These views are entering part of the mainstream”. But he also says that Notes “linking Islamophobia, hostile anti-elite 1 Statistics Norway/ ssb.no views to violent acts is wrong.”17 2 All figures provided by Statistics Norway/ ssb.no 3 Aftenposten.no.webarchive, 7.06.11 This anti-Muslimism, as a rule, 4 Ibid, 7.06.11 equates migrants and Muslims, fosters 5 Lars Beranger, BBC-News,30.01.2011 intolerance towards communities whose http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-europe-12309321 religion is Islam and whose Islamic char- 6-7 Ibid. 8 http://www.bnp.org.uk/news/anti-immigra- acter, real or imagined, is the subject of tion-sentiment-rises-‘tolerant’-norway prejudice. In many Western European 9 NOU 2011:7, Velferd og migrasjon. Den norske societies multiculturalism has been trans- modellens fremtid. Oslo 2011 formed into an ideological battleground 10http://www.abcnyheter.no/penger/oe- konomi/2011/05/23/jens-ulltveit-moe-innvan- and has encouraged the growth of ‘iden- drere-uthuler-velferdsstaten 18 tity politics’ across Europe. 11 http://178.79.186.243/artikkel/velferd_og_inn- Some of Europe’s leaders, from Angela vandring_dominerte_sporretimen Merkel to David Cameron, have ques- 12 http://www.dagbladet.no/2011/06/20/kultur/ debatt/debattinnlegg/audun_lysbakken/broch- tioned multiculturalism. France’s depor- mann-utvalget/16988438/ tations of Roma, Silvio Berlusconi and 13 http://www.norway-un.org/NorwayandUN/Nor- Nicolas Sarkocy debate on “enhanced wegian_Politics/Our-response-will-be-more-open- security” in Europe’s visa-free Schengen ness-more-democracy-/ 14 Valgresultatet 2011: http://nrk.no/valg2011/valgre- area – meaning how to close their borders sultat/ for people fleeing Africa, and the Norwe- 15 http://www.alsharq.de/2011/08/who-are-muslims- gian Progress Party´s continuous talk of-norway.html about “covert” Islamization, are all ex- 16-17http://www.51voa.com/VOA_Standard_Eng- lish/Norway-Massacre-Highlights-Europes-Grow- pressions that migrants, and Muslims in ing-Far-Right-42552.html particular, represent a threat to European 18 Ruzica Cicak-Chand, Ethnic and Cultural Identity countries and civilization. By claiming of Muslim Immigrants in Western Europe in AEMI the superiority of Western culture and Journal, Vol. 2,2004: 112 19 Ibid. Reference to Bhikhu Parekh, Minority pratices values, they also want to coerce others and principles of toleration in International Migra- into accepting these values. However, a tion Review, Vol. 30:1, New York 1996.