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March 2020 4 The liminal period: The Arab reaction to the Ottoman call to arms, 1909–1914 MA Thesis in Modern Middle Eastern Studies: Turkish Studies Supervised by Professor Erik-Jan Zürcher Maryam al-Khasawneh March 2020 S1794299 1! Thank you I wish to thank my supervisor professor Erik-Jan Zürcher for his continuous support and en- couragement throughout what felt like a very long endurance test. Professor Zürcher along with Ms Nicole Van Os and the Middle Eastern Studies faculty at Leiden University were kind enough to make sure that I had the time and space to carry out this thesis exactly the way that I had first envisioned it four years ago when I first began my MA degree in Turkish studies. For that I am immensely grateful, and honoured. This thesis is dedicated to my parents, Awn and Dina, who provided me with the emotional support and the confidence to pursue an academic career. Sometimes the pressure of expectations was too heavy a burden to carry, but without their persistent encouragement and curiosity, this thesis would have never seen the light of day. A huge thank you to the wonderful Habiba Effat; the lady with the meticulous eye, and a rising star in the world of writing and publishing. She took something that looked rough and turned it into a thing of beauty, no easy task when the document in question is over 100 pages long, and the original author (myself) is a notoriously lazy editor of footnotes and bibliographies. Finally, a big thank you to Abdullah Damdoum from the University of Jordan microfilm de- partment, Berk Metin, Can Soyak, Serhat Bozkurt, Ahmad Shgeirat, Wassim Salfiti, and Assad Bishara for their contributions and translations. 2! Table of contents INTRODUCTION: THE LIMINAL PERIOD: THE ARAB REACTION TO THE OTTOMAN CALL TO ARMS, 1909–1914 ............................................................................................................6 INTRODUCTION ...............................................................................................................................6 The problem of Arab nationalist historiography .................................................................................6 Ottoman state nationalism as envisioned by the CUP between 1909–1914: The changing nature of Ottomanism ..................................................................................................8 Proto-nationalism among the Arabs: Did Arabs see the Ottoman state as their nation state?............................................................................................................................ 11 ONE: CONSTRUCTING A ‘GREAT’ ARAB EPIC: THE STORY OF THE ARAB REVOLT IN THE HASHEMITE KINGDOM OF JORDAN ........................................................................16 THE GENESIS OF NATIONAL IDENTITY IN TRANSJORDAN .............................................18 PERSISTING OTTOMANISM (1917–1922) ...............................................................................20 ETHNIZING THE PAST .................................................................................................................21 The 1920s .......................................................................................................................................21 The 1930s .......................................................................................................................................23 1940s-50s .......................................................................................................................................25 CONCLUSION .................................................................................................................................26 TWO: “A NATION IN ARMS” - OTTOMANISM UNDER THE CUP: WAR-MAKING, NATION BUILDING AND CONSCRIPTION, 1908–1914 ......................................................................29 INTRODUCTION............................................................................................................................. 29 THE QUESTION OF TURKIFICATION: A CONCEPTUAL ANALYSIS ..................................32 SHARED SPACES AND IDEALS ....................................................................................................36 1908 THE BEGINNING OF A NEW MODEL OF OTTOMAN NATION-BUILDING ..........37 The Young Turk émigrés ..................................................................................................................37 THE MACEDONIAN ARMED BRANCH .....................................................................................39 The Ottoman Freedom Society ..........................................................................................................39 Aftermath of 1908 .........................................................................................................................40 THE ARMY AS A SPACE FOR CENTRALIZATION AND OTTOMANIZATION ...................42 A NATION IN ARMS ......................................................................................................................45 The Unionists as the harbingers of civic progress ..............................................................................46 WAR-MAKING AND IDEOLOGY................................................................................................ 48 Tripolitania, 1911 ...........................................................................................................................48 THE BALKAN WARS: WHEN “IDEALISM GAVE WAY TO NEW PRAGMATISM” .......................50 THE OTTOMAN ENTRY INTO THE FIRST WORLD WAR ...........................................................54 CONCLUSION .................................................................................................................................55 THREE: GEOGRAPHY AND THE NATIONAL IMAGINATION: DIVERSE TRAJECTORIES OF INDIVIDUAL AND COLLECTIVE “NATIONALIST” EXPRESSION IN BILAD AL-SHAM (1908–1914) ...................................................................58 INTRODUCTION............................................................................................................................. 58 THEORETICAL DISCUSSION ON THE ARAB SPACE: GEOGRAPHY, IDENTITY AND REACTIONS TO CONSCRIPTION ......................................................................................60 The framework of empire and the expansion of the state under Hamidian rule (1876–1909) ..................................................................................................................................62 REFLEXIVITY ................................................................................................................................. 64 ARABIST-OTTOMANISTS: DAMASCENE PERIPHERAL INTERMEDIARIES ......................67 THE LATE HAMIDIAN PERIOD: OTTOMANISM AS A TOOL FOR OVERCOMING SECTARIAN- ISM .....................................................................................................................................................68 3! POLITICAL AFFILIATIONS IN SYRIA AFTER 1908 .......................................................................70 1908 and the beginning of divided loyalties ......................................................................................71 The Arabists as agents of state: Promoting conscription as a civilizing, nationalizing tool .................................................................................................................................................72 REACTIONS TO CONSCRIPTION IN THE CENTRAL AND PERIPHERAL PERI- PHERIES: TWO PROTECTION RACKETS BATTLING FOR AUTHORITY............................. 74 Damascus ........................................................................................................................................74 The Druze of Hauran ....................................................................................................................74 The Karak Revolt, 1910 .................................................................................................................76 THE HAURAN AND KARAK REVOLTS AS CAUSES CÉLÈBRES AMONG THE “ARABISTS” OF DAMASCUS ......................................................................................................79 INTENSIFICATION OF HOSTILITIES BETWEEN ARABISTS AND UNIONISTS ON THE BASIS OF ETHNICITY ..................................................................................................80 Prominent Arabists and the impact of their agenda on public opinion ...............................................82 WAR AS A MOBILIZING FORCE: THE BALKAN WARS, 1912–1913, AND THE QUESTION OF NATIONAL LOYALTY ........................................................................................84 The call of the Beirut Reform Movement of 1913 and its reverberations in the provinces .....................................................................................................................................88 The role of foreign consuls in delimiting ethnic identities ....................................................................92 The Decentralization Party: An Arab-Ottoman communal electorate or a separatist movement? ......................................................................................................................................93 FRAMING .........................................................................................................................................96 CALM BEFORE THE STORM ........................................................................................................97
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