Analecta Romana

Constructing Myths 1

ANALECTA ROMANA

INSTITUTI DANICI

EDENDA CURAVERUNT

OFFPRINT

XXXIII

2008

Analecta Romana Instituti Danici. — Vol. I (1960) — . Copenhagen: Munksgaard. From 1985: Rome, «L’ERMA» di Bretschneider. From 2007 (online): Accademia di Danimarca ISSN 2035-2506

Redaktionskomité/Scientific Board/Comitato Scientifico

Ove Hornby (Bestyrelsesformand, Det Danske Institut i Rom) Jesper Carlsen (Syddansk Universitet) Astrid Elbek (Det Jyske Musikkonservatorium) Karsten Friis-Jensen (Københavns Universitet) Helge Gamrath (Aalborg Universitet) Hannemarie Ragn Jensen (Københavns Universitet) Mogens Nykjær (Aarhus Universitet) Gunnar Ortmann (Det Danske Ambassade i Rom) Marianne Pade (Aarhus Universitet) Bodil Bundgaard Rasmussen (Nationalmuseet, København) Lene Schøsler (Københavns Universitet) Poul Schülein (Arkitema, København) Anne Sejten (Roskilde Universitet)

Redaktionsudvalg/Editorial Board/Comitato di redazione

Erik Bach (Det Danske Institut i Rom) Patrick Kragelund (Danmarks Kunstbibliotek) Gert Sørensen (Københavns Universitet) Birgit Tang (Det Danske Institut i Rom) Maria Adelaide Zocchi (Det Danske Institut i Rom)

The journal ANALECTA ROMANA INSTITUTI DANICI (ARID) publishes studies within the main range of the Academy’s research activities: the arts and humanities, history and archaeology.

Intending contributors should get in touch with the editors. For guidelines, cf. home- page. Accademia di Danimarca, 18 Via Omero, I - 00197 Roma, tel 0039-06 32 65 931 fax 06 32 22 717. E-mail: [email protected] Contents

Antonella Mezzolani: I materiali lapidei nelle costruzioni di età fenicia e punica a Cartagine 7

Gitte Lønstrup: Constructing Myths: The Foundation of Roma Christiana on 29 June 27

Jens Viggo Nielsen: ”L’Esistenzialismo non è un umanesimo” La dialettica come approccio all’esistenzialismo di Luigi Pareyson 65

Lise Bek: Innocence Lost. Symbolism to Rhetoric in Architecture and the Renaissance Concept of Invention 91 Constructing Myths: The Foundation of Roma Christiana on 29 June

by Gitte Lønstrup1

“Perhaps it is not a coincidence that the renovatio urbis, the foundation of a nova Roma by Peter and Paul, was celebrated on 29 June, the same day as the anniversary of the foundation, or refoundation, of Rome by Quirinus-Romulus.”

J. M. Huskinson2

Abstract. According to the early Christian calendar, June 29th was the day on which the Apostles Peter and Paul were martyred in Rome, by this sacrifice bestowing upon the Roman Church a unique authority. Already Ireneaus of Lyons (Adversus Haereses, 2nd century) and Clement of Rome (The Epistle of Clement to the Corinthians, 1st century) had announced that these apostles were the pillars and foundation of the Roman Church. This claim was later elaborated by Pope Damasus (366-384), during whose pontificate the cult of Peter and Paul was intensified, a monumental epigram being erected in their honour at the so-called Memoria Apostolorum on the Via Appia outside the city gates. On this common cult site, June 29th was celebrated every year, a celebration not only of the sacrifice of the Princes of the Apostles, but also of the foundation of the Roman Church. According to the Fasti Venusini, a Roman calendar of the first century (16 BC-4 AD), June 29th had once commemorated the inauguration of a temple dedicated to Quirinus, the semi-mythical founder of Rome. This inauguration, which Augustus seems to have been responsible for, is not, however, registered in any other preserved Roman calendar. Nevertheless, the coincidental parallel occurrence of these two events on June 29th has led scholars mis- takenly to claim that Christian Rome was founded on the same day upon which the Romans celebrated the city’s foundation by Romulus Quirinus. The present article aims at deconstructing this myth by careful analysis of the sources – Roman and Christian calendars, basilicas and golden glasses, graffiti and marble epigrams. It argues that a celebration of Peter and Paul on June 29th in imitation of the festival of Quirinus is unlikely. This is not least because the commemoration of the temple of pagan Rome’s legendary founder already seems to have been fading away when Ovid composed his Fasti – the only other source which testifies, however vaguely, to the inauguration of the temple of Quirinus on June 29th.

If the foundation day of Rome was actually endars testify to the celebration of the foun- celebrated on 29 June, as described in the dation of Rome on 21 April – even after the introductory quotation, the Christian ap- Emperors Valentinian II, Theodosius I and propriation of this legendary day would be Arcadius had annulled several conventional intriguing. However, this event was not cel- holidays in 389.3 ebrated on 29 June. Ancient sources and cal- When reading in the Enciclopedia dei 28 Gitte Lønstrup

Papi (2000) I was intrigued by a comment of the bowels of the earth, full of graves so dark in the entry for Pope Damasus that 29 June that the words of the Psalms [55, 16] ‘Let the was “lo stesso giorno in cui i pagani cele- living sink into the Realm of Death’ seemed to bravano l’anniversario della fondazione di become real. The darkness which surrounded us Roma.”4 This article has its origin in the may be described through the words of Virgil: curiosity aroused on this occasion. I would ‘Horror is dense everywhere, even silence thick- therefore like to examine the significance of ens with terror’ [Aeneid II. 755].8 29 June in the calendars of both the ancient Romans and the Roman Church, in order to The labyrinthine procession increased the verify whether this day had any connection tension, which was eventually released upon to the traditional foundation day of Rome as arrival to the Damasian crypt where single suggested in the quotations above. rays of light penetrated the darkness and Pope Damasus (366-384) was a central reached the saint’s grave, decorated with an figure in the creation of the myth about Chris- epigram.The inscriptions, the atmospheric tian Rome, founded by Peter and Paul.5 His rooms and the routes served to promote the works constitute a corner stone of this study. martyr’s cult in support of the myth of the During his pontificate he composed between Christian foundation of Rome which Dama- 60 and 80 poems carved into monumental sus was in the process of constructing. The stone tablets (epigrams) which were placed purpose of this myth was to ensure Rome at the martyr tombs in the Roman catacombs the position as the authoritative diocese of (Pl. I and Fig. 7).6 Damasus had crypts con- Christianity. The martyrdoms of Peter and structed in the catacombs specially designed Paul, both celebrated on 29 June,9 would for the cultic and liturgical rituals which he serve as the legitimisation of Apostolic au- staged there. The pilgrims did not arrive at thority. These martyrdoms became absolute- the crypts until after they had passed through ly fundamental in the foundation of Roma a route, the itinera ad sanctos,7 in the subter- Christiana. ranean network of streets whose endlessly The term ‘myth’ must here be conceived long, dark and narrow corridors, with tombs through two lenses: partly as a traditional from floor to ceiling, a permanent smell of foundation myth,10 in which mortal and im- putrefaction, served as a constant reminder mortal figures appear (i.e. the martyrs); part- to the believer that he/she was in the realm ly through Roland Barthes’ theory of myths of the dead. Then – as now – a visit to the introduced in his book Mythologies (1957). catacombs was an overwhelming experi- According to Barthes, the myth is a phenom- ence, as very clearly evoked by Jerome’s enon, or a mechanism, which transforms his- description of such a visit: torical constructions and makes them appear natural and self-evident.11 Neither the subject We descended into the galleries, carved out matter nor the source material of this article Constructing Myths 29 have previously been studied through this month – marked with capital letters – were, lens, but it proves highly applicable, both however, VESTALIA on 9 June and MAT- in an analysis of the Christian foundation RALIA on 11 June. Out of the 45 calendars myth as constructed by Damasus, and in examined,14 the date of 29 June has actu- the scholarly myths attached to it, amongst ally only been preserved in the Republican them the discussion of whether 29 June was Fasti Antiates Maiores and in the following both the legendary and the Christian foun- Julian-Augustan calendars: the Fasti Maf- dation day of Rome. feiani (8 BC), the Fasti Esquilini (7 BC) and the Fasti Venusini (16 BC - 4 AD), to- 29 June and other Significant Days in the gether with Ovid’s poetic Fasti, and the two Roman Calendar calendars preserved in manuscript form: the This is not the right occasion for an account Fasti Philocaliani (354) and the Fasti Silvii of the complex construction and history of Polemii (449). The month of June is either the Roman calendar.12 The issues here are entirely or in part lost in the other calendars. 29 June and holidays in the Roman calen- Among the seven relevant calendars, only dar, dedicated to the celebration of the the Fasti Venusini and Ovid’s Fasti regis- founders and the foundation of Rome. Ju- ter an event on 29 June. Ovid writes very lius Caesar’s reform of the Republican cal- briefly: “When as many days of the month endar in 46 BC should, however, be men- remain as the Fates (Parcae) have names, tioned by way of introduction. The structure a temple was dedicated to thee, Quirinus, of the Julian system, which consists of 365 god of the striped gown.”15 Since there were days divided into 12 months, is in principle three goddesses of Fate (Nona, Decima and still valid, although it has been subjected to Morta), this must refer to the antepenulti- an ongoing Christianisation, partly through mate day of June. According to the Julian the inclusion of such Christian holidays as calendar, the month of June had 30 days Christmas and Easter; partly through the an- (against 29 according to the Republican nulment and the appropriation of traditional calendar), so logically the antepenultimate holidays as when Pope Gelasius (492-96) date should be 28 June. It was, however, consecrated the day of LUPERCALIA (15 29 June. What logically should have been February) as the Feast of the Purification of the penultimate day of the months was in- the Virgin Mary in 494.13 dicated by means of the Roman numeral The Fasti Antiates Maiores (84-55 BC) III, as can be seen in e.g. the Fasti Prae- is the only example of the Republican cal- nestini (6 – 9 AD) (Fig. 1). The last day of endar, which was replaced by the Julian cal- the month, i.e. 30 June, was marked PR for endar that has been handed down to us. In priedie (which means “the day before”) and the month of junius the 29 June is in no way counted as the penultimate day, whereas the emphasised. The most important days of the kalends itself (the first day of the month) 30 Gitte Lønstrup

of Rome, Romulus-Quirinus. Romulus and Quirinus were one and the same figure, as Quirinus was the name given to Romulus after his apotheosis.17 The festival took place in the middle of the so-called parentalia from 13 to 21 February when the Romans honoured their dead.18 On this day in the calendar, abbreviated QUIR NP (Fig. 2), is noted “Quirino” in the Republican Fasti Antiates Maiores, “Quirino in Colle” in the Julian calendars Fasti Caeretani, Fasti Praenestini and Fasti Farnesini, and eventually “Quiri- Fig. 1. Fasti Praenestini, Rome, 6-9 AC, Palazzo Massimo (photo: with permission from Il Ministero nalia” in Polemius Silvius’ calendar, written per i Beni e le Attività Culturali, Soprintendenza Archeologica di Roma). 60 years after the three Christian emperors Valentinian II, Theodosius I and Arcadius had annulled a series of traditional holidays both counted as the last day (of June) and as in 389.19 the first day of the next month (July). After The oldest temple to Quirinus, dedicated kalends you counted backwards from nones by Lucius Papirius Cursor in 293 BC, was which occurred either on the fifth or the sev- most probably consecrated on the QUIRI- enth day, depending on the length of the par- NALIA of 17 February.20 One may therefore ticular month. wonder how 29 June came into being. Ac- According to Ovid, a temple to Quirinus cording to Cassius Dio (164-229) the Em- was consecrated on 29 June. This is in ac- peror Augustus rebuilt the temple to Quiri- cordance with a note in the Fasti Venusini, nus which was reconsecrated in the year “Quirino in Colle”, which appears to indi- when Lucius Domitius [Athenobarbus] and cate a celebration for Quirinus on the Quir- Publius [Cornelius] Scipio were consuls, i.e. inal Hill which was named after him. The in 16 BC, which corresponds to the dating of note is, however, written in smaller letters the Fasti Venusini (16 BC – 4 AD).21 Cassius as an indication that the celebration was not Dio, however, mentions neither the day of among the 45 most important celebrations consecration nor the geographical position of the year which, as already mentioned, of the temple; nor does Augustus, when he were marked by capital letters, as was the mentions “aedem Quirini” in the Res Ges- case with the great Roman festival of the tae (19). Only in Ovid’s poetic Fasti and in QUIRINALIA.16 the Fasti Venusini is 29 June mentioned. If, The QUIRINALIA was celebrated on 17 however, we assume that Augustus actually February in honour of the divine founder did reconsecrate the temple on that day, what Constructing Myths 31

Fig. 2. Fasti Caeretani (in which I have marked the following holidays: * 17 February, QUIRINALIA; ** 23 March, TUBILUSTRUM; *** 21 April, PARILIA), Rome, 12 BC, Musei Capitolini (NCE 2449) (photo: Archivio Fotografico dei Musei Capitolini, Rome).

may have been the reason that he chose this have wished, as suggested by Cassius Dio, particular date rather than 17 February? to celebrate his 26 years by means of the 26 Equinox, solstice, victories, birthdays and columns in the temple to Quirinus.25 Augus- other important events in the life of Augus- tus’ birthday was, however, on 23 Septem- tus provided occasions for the consecration ber, which – according to ancient astrologers of buildings and the founding of holidays.22 – coincided with the birthday of Romulus.26 A victory would have been an obvious oc- This day was and is the autumnal equinox. casion for the consecration of the Augustan At both the vernal and the autumnal equinox, temple to Quirinus, since Quirinus was a god Augustus’ sundial (Gnomon) would draw a of war.23 Yet no victories were registered for line from the dial in the West to the Altar of 29 June.24 The Emperor’s birthday might Peace (Ara Pacis) in the East. At sunset the also have provided an occasion, as he may ray would touch the entrance with its reliefs 32 Gitte Lønstrup

Fig. 3. Fasti Antiates Maiores, Rome, 84-55 BC, Palazzo Massimo (photo: with permission from Il Ministero per i Beni e le Attività Culturali, Soprintendenza Archeologica di Roma).

of Romulus and Aeneas. The entire cosmic ino in Colle” on 29 June is neither regis- universe thus marked the birthday of the tered in the Fasti Maffeiani (8 BC) nor in Emperor Augustus and his connections to the Fasti Esquilini (7 BC), both dating from the legendary founding father and ancestor within the same time span as the Fasti Ve- of Rome in a way which was worthy of a nusini (16 BC – 4 AD), less than ten years divine ruler.27 after the consecration of the temple. It is also The Augustan festival which comes intriguing that Ovid’s poem about 29 June closest to 29 June is 26 June when Augus- (VI. 795-796) is by far his shortest poem of tus adopted Tiberius as the successor to the only two stanzas. By comparison his poem throne.28 Yet in the Fasti Triumphalis in- about 17 February runs to 57 stanzas (II. scriptions, no victories, birthdays or other 475-532), while the poem about 21 April memorable events are registered for 29 June is his longest of 141 stanzas (IV. 721-862). which could have provided Augustus with Might Ovid’s taciturnity about the cult and an occasion to consecrate the rebuilt temple the ceremony of 29 June be an indication to Quirinus on that day. According to Cas- that the festival occasioned by the consecra- sius Dio, Augustus’ imminent departure for tion of the second temple to Quirinus had Gaul would appear to have been the practi- almost been forgotten when, between 4 and cal reason for reconsecrating the temple.29 7 AD, he wrote his Fasti, in which he often As already mentioned, he does not, however, reports in great detail about the ritual which indicate on what day the event took place. took place on particular festivals? Is it pos- It is worth noting that the festival “Quir- sible that the festival celebrating the recon- Constructing Myths 33 secration of the temple to Quirinus ceased Ovid describes PARILIA as a festival a few years later, when the divine founder of agriculture and purification, celebrated of Rome, his temple and the foundation of in honour of the god Pales. Judging from the city had already been celebrated on 17 his poetic account, the festival of Pales February and 21 April at two of the greatest existed before Romulus, who supposedly festivals of the year? If the Fasti Venusini chose to perform the ritual of consecration was written immediately after the consecra- in connection with this festival.33 Whether tion of the temple in 16 BC, and the other the event originally took place on 21 April is calendars were not written until ten years insignificant. The fact is that the foundation later (when the day of consecration was pos- of Rome was celebrated on 21 April.34 One of sibly no longer celebrated), it might serve as the most spectacular celebrations took place an explanation of why the festival appears in 248 in occasion of the city’s millennium. in neither the Fasti Maffeiani nor the Fasti Even the Christian Emperor Theodosius Esquilini. Here the day is not even marked I (379-395) issued a dispensation for the by an N for nefasti (festival), but by an F for celebration of the traditional foundation fasti (weekday).30 day, possibly because the idea of Rome as While 17 February was a festival celebrat- the Eternal City lived on in his own politics; ing the divine founding father of Rome, and possibly because it was an event celebrating while the reconsecration of his temple may - the city rather than its pagan founder for a while at least - have been celebrated on Romulus-Quirinus. As it appears from a 29 June, the founding of the city itself was notice in the Fasti Philocaliani (“Natalis celebrated on 21 April. Like the QUIRINA- Urbis. Circenses missus XXIIII”) the day was LIA the foundation day was one of the most still celebrated with games, circenses, in the important of the 45 holidays. They have fourth century. This practice of celebration both been passed down in all the calendars continued until 444, when the games in the in which the months of February and April circus ceased.35 This explains why they are are preserved.31 Both in the Republican and not registered in Polemius Silvius’ calendar in the Julian calendars, 21 April is marked of 449, where both “Natalis Urbis” and by PAR or PARIL, which are abbreviations PARILIA still appear under 21 April.36 The of PARILIA (Fig. 3).32 In the Fasti Antiates foundation day itself was, in other words, Maiores and the Fasti Caeretani among oth- still commemorated after Christianity had ers, PARILIA is followed by the note “Roma become the state religion in 380.37 condita. Feriae coronatis omnibus” (Figs. 2 In the Fasti Praenestini there would ap- and 3), while in such Late Antique calendars pear to be a difference between PARILIA as the Fasti Philocaliani and Polemii Silvii and the foundation day of Rome. 23 March it is referred to as “N Urbis” and “Natalis (which was one among the 45 most impor- Urbis Romae”. tant holidays called the TUBILUSTRUM) 34 Gitte Lønstrup

Fig. 4. Fasti Praenestini, Rome, 6-9 AC, Palazzo Massimo (photo: with permission from Il Ministero per i Beni e le Attività Culturali, Soprintendenza Archeologica di Roma). carries the note “Romulus Urbem inaugu- appear that there was some confusion about raverit” (Fig. 4). Scholars have attempted the exact date, which, according to Ovid, to explain this exception with a reference was on 26 March (III. 877-878). According to the Augustan desire to make the founda- to Professor Carandini, the TUBILUSTRUM tion day coincide with the vernal equinox, might have marked the day when the Augur in order to make it correspond to Augustus’ saw the birds flying from the Aventine Hill birthday which coincided with the autumnal as a sign of the gods’ blessing of Romulus equinox. Vernal equinox is, however, on 21 and his imminent consecration of Rome. March rather than on 23 March, but it would Romulus was then supposed to have ad- Constructing Myths 35 dressed the Etruscan priests in order to re- Fasti Praenestini. ceive the rules for the initiation ritual which It cannot be dismissed that the conse- was to take place a month later at the festival cration festival for the Augustan temple to of Pales, the PARILIA.38 Quirinus took place on 29 June, and that Amongst the exceptions is also the Fasti this is the festival referred to in the Fasti Ve- Fratrum Arvalium (36-21 BC) in which nusini and in Ovid’s Fasti. Two of the most Quirinus is mentioned in the note “Quir- important holidays of the year had, however, ino in Colle Volk Comit” for 23 August, already celebrated the founder of Rome on when people presumably made sacrifices 17 February, and the foundation of the city to Quirinus as part of the festival in hon- on 21 April respectively, so it would not be our of the god Vulcan, Feriae Volcano.39 surprising if the festival on 29 June lost its Like the QUIRINALIA, the VOLCANALIA significance after a few years. There would, was amongst the 45 most important Ne- in other words, appear to be no evidence for fasti (festivals). The day is documented in referring to 29 June as “the anniversary of the Fasti Pinciani (VOLC-N Volcano), the the foundation, or refoundation, of Rome” Fasti Maffeiani (VOLC NP) and the Fasti or “lo stesso giorno in cui i pagani celebra- Vallenses (VOLCAN NP – “Volcano in Cir- vano la fondazione di Roma”, as stated in co Flaminio”), but here “Quirino in Colle” the introductory quotations to this article. is not mentioned.40 Whether the note in the It is therefore problematic to base an ar- Fasti Venusini might likewise be a reference gument on the coincidence between 29 June, to a sacrifice to Quirinus on the occasion of the reconsecration of the temple to Quiri- another festival is mere guesswork, as no nus, the legendary and Christian foundation festivals for other gods, rulers, victories, of Rome, and the dies natalis of Peter and birthdays or natural phenomena are regis- Paul.42 The conflation of these events looks tered for this day.41 more like an after rationalisation. But how The note “Quirino in Colle” appears for could it have arisen? The claim that 29 June 17 February in several calendars, and excep- was the foundation day of Rome appears in tionally for 29 June in the Fasti Venusini and such a recent publication as the Enciclope- 23 August in the Fasti Fratrum Arvalium. It dia dei Papi of 2000 referred to above. It is, refers to the founding father of Rome, Rom- however, not supported by any source refer- ulus-Quirinus, and not to the foundation ences. Huskinson, on the contrary, does refer day of Rome on 21 April, whereas the notes to a monograph on the Apostle Peter written “Roma condita […]” and “Natalis Urbis Ro- by Antonio Rimoldi in 1958. It is interesting mae” refer to the foundation itself and not to pursue this reference, as Rimoldi actually to the founder. Nor does it say “Quirino in stresses that 29 June was not the foundation Colle” for 23 March, the alternative founda- day of Rome.43 He states that it may have tion date which appears exclusively in the been the date for the consecration of the 36 Gitte Lønstrup temple to Quirinus, but does not enter into a tion between the founder Romulus-Quirinus discussion of 29 June and 21 April. Rimol- and the founders of the Church – with the di’s discussion arises out of his criticism of festival celebrating the founding of the city. Oscar Cullmann’s claim that “c’est le 29. It would appear that Rimoldi’s criticism of juin qu’était célébrée la fête anniversaire de Cullmann’s article has not been registered, la fondation de Rome, Quirinus-Romulus. A since this misunderstanding still circulates cette fête du fondateur de la ville correspon- in 2000, some forty years after the publica- dit celle des fondateurs de la communauté tion of Rimoldi’s monograph. One inevita- chrétienne.”44 Cullmann refers to Carl Erbes bly wonders why Huskinson allies himself (1899), but he does not claim 29 June for the with Cullmann without taking Rimoldi’s foundation date of Rome either. With a ref- argument into consideration, despite his ex- erence to the Fasti Venusini, Erbes speaks of plicit reference to Rimoldi’s work.47 this day as a festival for Romulus-Quirinus. In the very same monograph of 1958, Subsequently he maintains that Pope Sixtus Rimoldi furthermore counters Erbes’ idea II established the cult of the Apostles for the of a parallel between the legendary founder founders of the Church on 29 June 258.45 Romulus-Quirinus and the founders of the The reason for Sixtus II’s choice of this par- Church, Peter and Paul.48 As quite rightly ticular date was, according to Erbes, that pointed out by Rimoldi, the parallel be- this was the closest available date which had tween Romulus-Quirinus and Peter and any connection to the founder(s) of Rome. Paul makes no sense, since Romulus and The QUIRINALIA had long passed when the Quirinus were one and the same person. If second Valerian edict was issued to immedi- it were to have made any sense, the paral- ate effect in the summer of 258.46 This edict lel should have referred to another pair, like commenced the persecution of those priests Romulus and Remus.49 Charles Pietri has, who refused to perform traditional sacrifices however, introduced a correspondence be- to the imperial cult. Among the persecuted tween Peter and Paul on the one side and the priests were Pope Sixtus II and his six dea- eastern Dioscuri, the twins Castor and Pol- cons, among them St. Lawrence to whom lux, who became the guardians of Rome, on Damasus dedicated his titular church S. the other: “Pourquoi s’étonner si Damase, Lorenzo in Damaso. Sixtus II was executed dans son ambition de donner à Rome ses on 6 August 258; St. Lawrence followed suit véritables héros et ses vrais patroni, sug- only four days later on 10 August. Damasus gère de remplacer les Dioscures, encore honoured both of them with epigrams. populaires, par les deux apôtres?”50 This The claim that 29 June was the founda- correspondence has recently been resumed tion date of Rome consequently appears by Dennis E. Trout who writes that “They to have its origins in Cullmann. Cullmann [Peter and Paul] would assume the city’s ce- merges Erbes’ thesis – about the connec- lestial guardianship, replacing such former Constructing Myths 37 heavenly transplants as Romulus-Quirinus, and Hercules was commemorated on 12 the Dioscuri, and the deified emperors.”51 August when the consecration of Hercules’ Taking their starting point in Pope Dama- Ara Maxima, erected by either Evander or sus’ epigram to Peter and Paul, in which the Hercules himself, was likewise celebrated.57 Apostles are referred to as the ‘new stars’, As it appears from Ovid’s Fasti (I. 461-581) nova sidera,52 Pietri and Trout would appear their story was likewise commemorated on to suggest that these ‘new stars’ took over 11 January in connection with one of the 45 the position of the ‘old stars’, i.e. the stellar great annual festivals, the KARMENTALIA, constellation (“l’image astrale”) of Castor named after Evander’s mother Carmenta or and Pollux. Pietri and Trout thus stress the Carmentis. While the festival on 12 August corresponding characteristics and responsi- is not registered in any of the calendars from bilities of the heroes rather than any corre- the fourth and the fifth centuries AD, the spondence between the dates on which the memory of the KARMENTALIA was, sur- heroes were celebrated. When seen from prisingly enough, still vivid by the mid fifth this angle, Peter and Paul could potentially century, as suggested by the following note also correspond to the twins Lares Praes- in Polemius Silvius’ calendar of 449: “Car- tites. Like Romulus and Remus they were mentalia de nomine matris Evandri. Natalis brought up among wild animals, and like the […] Theodosii Augusti.” One can only spec- Dioscuri they took the roles as the guardians ulate on whether the coinciding dates of the of Rome.53 According to Pietri and Trout, Emperor Theodosius’ birthday and the KAR- this role was taken over by Peter and Paul. MENTALIA may have had any influence on The heroic couple of Evander and Hercules this non-Christian festival still being regis- could likewise be introduced as correspond- tered in a calendar of 449. The fact is that ing founders, in so far as Evander and his the story of Evander’s mother, her son and retinue supposedly founded a settlement on Hercules was still being remembered even the hill of Pallantion (i.e. the Palatine Hill) after the myth of Romulus’ (and Remus’) by the Tiber where Hercules paid them a founding of Rome had been solidly estab- visit.54 lished around the third century BC.58 The These hypothetical correspondences be- KARMENTALIA is registered in the Fasti tween Peter and Paul, Lares Praestites, the Antiates Maiores, the Fasti Maffeiani and Dioscuri, Evander and Hercules do, however, the Fasti Praenestini. Paradoxically enough, not reflect any correspondences between the it would appear that one founding myth did Saints’ day and the festivals for the ancient not preclude the existence of another. heroes. The consecration date for the temple If the Christians had wanted to take over to the Dioscuri was 27 January.55 The origi- a date which directly associated the founda- nal festival days for Lares Praestites were 21 tion of Roma Christiana with the legendary February and 1 May.56 The story of Evander foundation of the city, they had a choice 38 Gitte Lønstrup

Fig. 5. Plan of the S. Sebastiano complex at the Via Appia showing the plan of the circus-shaped basilica as well as the catacomb beneath it, Rome, fourth century (Archivio Disegni, Pontificia Commissione di Archeologia Sacra, Rome).

between 21 April and 23 March (cf. Fasti festivals, partly in order to avoid any com- Praenestini). Had they wanted to associate peting festivals, partly not to give rise to any Peter and Paul with the founding father of unrest. We know of similar discretions from Rome, 17 February would appear far more the Emperor Constantine who presumably obvious than 29 June. Alternatively, the erected the first Christian basilicas outside KARMENTALIA on 11 January was a possi- the monumental city centre of Rome, in or- bility. Had the Christians wished to connect der not to provoke the aristocratic elite by Peter and Paul with the guardians of Rome, building churches side by side with the tem- they could have taken over the festival of the ples.60 Dioscuri on 27 January or the Lares Praes- Carl Erbes may have been right when tites festivals on 21 February and 1 May. suggesting that, because of the persecutions According to the saints’ calendar, nothing, introduced in Valerian’s second edict, it be- however, took place on those dates.59 It may came impossible to postpone the transfer- well be that the priests deliberately avoided ral of the bodies of the Apostles to the most any dispositions on these traditional Roman important festivals in the spring of the fol- Constructing Myths 39 lowing year. He concludes that 29 June was that Peter was celebrated “in catacumbas”, the closest available date connected with the while Paul was celebrated “in Ostense”, i.e. founders of Rome. The question is, however, in the Via Ostiense where Paul supposedly whether the significance of the festival of was beheaded and buried.63 “In catacum- “Quirino in Colle” was still so vivid in the bas” refers to the toponym ad catacumbas, collective memory by 258 that an appropria- which was the name of the Christian burial tion would have made any sense? This seems ground underneath the present Basilica of S. questionable in the light of the taciturnity Sebastiano in the Via Appia outside the Ro- which even 250 years previously character- man city walls (Fig. 5). Not until the ninth ised Ovid’s brief poem about this date. Such century did this toponym become a common brevity may well speak for itself. denomination for the type of subterranean Given the seriousness of the persecutions, burial place of which there were about 60 it made little sense to waste any time on con- in Rome by the fourth century, namely the sidering which dates to move the relics in catacombs.64 order to create continuity between the legen- Under S. Sebastiano more than 600 in- dary and the Christian founders of Rome. In scriptions have been found which testify to the following, the implications of this date the fact that since the middle of the third will step into the background, to make room century both Apostles had been worshipped for a sketch of the actual significance of 29 “in catacumbas” in the part of the burial June within the Roman-Catholic Church. ground which was later called the triclia.65 In these graffiti Peter and Paul appear side 29 June in the Christian Calendar: Dies na- by side in the believers’ prayers to them talis Petri et Pauli? (Fig. 6). Amongst the believers was the man The first time 29 June is mentioned in the Sozomenus who visited the triclia on 22 Christian source material is in the part of June (ten days before the kalends of July): X the Fasti Philocaliani (336-354) called the KL iulias Paule Petre in mente habete Soze- Depositio Martyrum.61 It consists of a list of menum et tu leges.66 Other graffiti likePetro the burial places and the death days of pri- et Paulo Tomius Coelius refrigerium feci[t] marily Roman martyrs – dies natales. For recount how the ritual meal, the refrigerium, 29 June on this list we find the following took place here.67 This meal belonged to note: “III KAL. IUL. Petri in Catacumbas et the private cult, and judging from the graf- Pauli Ostense Tusco et Basso cons.” From fiti which indicate a date, it would appear to this we may infer that Peter and Paul were have taken place all the year round, while celebrated on 29 June (the third day before the official Eucharist liturgy was presum- the kalends of July), since Tusco and Bas- ably only being celebrated on 29 June.68 It so were consuls, i.e. in 258 when Sixtus II has been much discussed what provided the was Pope.62 We are furthermore informed occasion for the rise of this cult. The main 40 Gitte Lønstrup

Fig. 6. Graffiti in the catacomb beneath the S. Sebastiano complex. Among them Sozomenus’ prayer to Peter and Paul: X KL iulias Paule Petre in mente habete Sozemenum et tu leges. Rome, third-fourth century (photo: Pontificia Commissione di Archeologia Sacra, Rome).

points in this discussion will be summed up crucified […], on the Mons Aureus, on the Vati- in the following.69 can at Nero’s palace, on 29 June.70 In the biography of Pope Cornelius (251-253) in the Liber Pontificalis (compiled Abbé Duchesne was, however, of the im- ca. 530) we find the following version: pression that Peter and Paul had originally been buried close to the place where they […] at the request of a certain lady Lucina, died and that, during the Valerian persecu- he took up the bodies of the apostles Saints Pe- tions in 258, they had been removed to the ter and Paul from the catacombs at night; in fact Via Appia because people were fearing for first of all the blessed Lucina took the body of St. the safety of the relics. Duchesne’s expla- Paul and put it on her estate on the Via Ostiensis nation, which is generally accepted, is the close to the place where he was beheaded; the most plausible one, if one is to believe the blessed bishop Cornelius took the body of St. testimonial given by the Roman Christian Peter and put it close to the place where he was Gaius in the second century: “If you will Constructing Myths 41 go to the Vatican or to the Ostian way, you pia until Damasus resumed it and placed the will find the trophies of those who laid the monumental epigram dedicated to Peter and foundations of this church.”71 Gaius men- Paul to which I shall return shortly.76 tions no Apostolic tomb “in catacumbas” As for 29 June, the issues up for discus- where Peter, according to the later Deposi- sion are partly when and where the Apostles tio Martyrum was supposedly celebrated. were worshipped, and partly whether this In the Apostolorum Passio hymn from the date did at all refer to the day of the Apostles’ beginning of the 380s it is suggested that the deaths, or whether it simply marked a tem- Apostles were celebrated in three different porary translation of their relics to or from places.72 This is confirmed by the liturgical the Via Appia, if such a translation ever took calendar Martyrologium Hieronymianum place.77 These issues have been much de- of 431-50 according to which Peter was bated, partly because there is no evidence to celebrated on the Mons Vaticanus, Paul at prove that the Apostles actually died on 29 Ostiense and both “in catacumbas”: “III KL. June. In Gaul the death of the Apostles was IUL. Romae natale sanctorum apostolorum celebrated on 22 February, whereas the Ori- Petri et Pauli. Petri Via Aurelia in Vaticano. ental Church, according to a martyrology of Paulo vero in Via Ostensi. Utrumque in ca- 411, celebrated the day on 28 December and tacumbas, (passi sub Nerone), Basso et Tu- regarded 29 June as the date of the transla- sco consulibus.”73 The information given in tion.78 the Depositio Martyrum and in the Martyr- The fact is that a cult of the Apostles – ologium Hieronymianum are thus not in ac- with or without translation – arose ad cat- cordance with one another. It may well be acumbas about 100 years before Damasus that they reflect two different situations. In became Pope. He either passed on or re- 336, when the first compilation of the Fasti sumed this tradition by marking the day, the Philocaliani (which contains the Depositio cult and the Apostolic agreement – concor- Martyrum) took place, Paul had apparently dia apostolorum – with a cenotaph to Peter been moved to the modest Constantinian and Paul in the form of a metric epigram, as Basilica of Paul whereas the monumental is stated in the life of the Pope in the Liber Basilica of St. Peter presumably had not yet Pontificalis: “At the Catacombs, the place been consecrated.74 It is therefore possible where lay the bodies of the apostles St. Pe- that Peter was still being worshipped in the ter and St. Paul, he adorned with verses the so-called Memoria Apostolorum Basilica actual tablet at the place where the holy bod- which by the beginning of the fourth centu- ies lay.”79 The implications behind the posi- ry was superimposed upon the triclia in the tioning of this epigram in the basilica in the Via Appia.75 The separation of the Apostles Via Appia – and not elsewhere – will be the may thus have resulted in a similar separa- central issue of the next section. tion of the cult of the Apostles in the Via Ap- 42 Gitte Lønstrup

Concordia Apostolorum. The Myth of the tomb and the crypt were, however, bur- Christian Foundation of Rome on 29 June ied under the 70 meter long circus-shaped “You should know that two saints used to basilica which was later consecrated to St. dwell here (Hic habitasse/habitare prius Sebastian.84 The Damasian inscription thus sanctos cognoscere debes, v. 1).” So Dama- marked the original place in which Peter sus begins his poem to the Apostles.80 and Paul had been worshipped more than a “Their names which you seek are Peter and hundred years previously.85 The Apostles’ Paul (nomina quisq. Petri pariter Paulique contact with this place (v. 1) had invested it requiris, v. 2). The East sent us her disci- with a sacred atmosphere which it was in the ples whom we willingly receive (discipulos Pope’s best interest to preserve – or possibly Oriens misit, quod sponte fatemur, v. 3).81 By rather to resume, if we recognise the infor- the merit of blood (sanguinis ob meritum, v. mation in the Depositio Martyrum that at the 4), they followed Christ to the higher spheres beginning of the fourth century the Apostles through the stars to the realm of the pious were worshipped individually, “in catacum- (Xpumq. per astra secuti / aetherios petiere bas” and “in ostense” respectively.86 The es- sinus regnaque piorum, v. 5).” Since God let sence of the Papal project was to preserve Peter and Paul receive their martyrdom in and retrace the martyrs. The purpose of this Rome “this city was far more deserving than project was to secure the memory of the leg- any other city of claiming the two Apostles ends about the martyrs, then on the point of for its honorary citizens (Roma suos potius perdition. He therefore composed numerous meruit defendere cives, v. 6). Damasus here verses and had them carved in marble tablets conveys your praises to the new stars (Haec that were erected close to the martyr tombs. Damasus vestras referat nova sidera laudes, Although the physical traces of the early v. 7).” place of worship had disappeared, a kind Sadly, the Apostolic epigram has been of architectonic continuity was preserved, lost, but the stanzas have been handed down since the inscription was placed close to in several pilgrim itineraries, amongst them the crypt which marked the original place the so-called Sylloge Laureshamensis (821- of worship. This position was quite atypical 846) from the monastery in Lorsch in Ger- for Damasus who often placed his epigrams many.82 During his visit to the so-called Me- in subterranean crypts (Pl. I). The pilgrim’s moria Apostolorum, a pilgrim had copied experience of a visit must necessarily have the inscription which had in all likelihood been different in the 2000 square metre large been placed at the altar. The altar was close and well lit processional hall of the Apos- to the entrance to the crypt where the Apos- tolic Basilica from a visit to the subterrane- tles’ communal place of worship was, the an crypts of 10-15 square metres to which place previously referred to as the triclia.83 you arrived after having winded your way At the beginning of the fourth century, the through the dark labyrinthine corridors, as Constructing Myths 43 described by Prudentius: the epigram aloud, he could stress its direct appeal to the believer (cognoscere debes Into its hidden depths a downward path shows and requires) in the first two stanzas of the the way by turning, winding steps, with the help poem and hence promote the proliferation of light from a source unseen […]; then as you of the message carried by the epigram. But go forward easily you see the dark night but you what was this message? When seen in the find openings let into the roof far above, so as light of the foundation myth of Roma Chris- to throw bright rays down into the chasm. How- tiana, the essential part of this inscription is ever doubtful you may feel of this fabric of nar- Damasus’ declaration that “more than any row halls running back on either hand in dark- other city” Rome fully deserved “to claim some galleries, still through the holes pierced in Peter and Paul for its honorary citizens” (v. the vault many a gleam of light makes its way 6), despite their Eastern origins (v. 3). This down to the hollow interior of the disembow- was justified by the two Apostles having met elled mount, and thus underground it is granted their martyrs’ deaths in Rome (v. 4 and 5). to see the brightness of a sun which is not there, He thereby maintains that more than any and have the benefit of its light.87 other city Rome has the supreme prior claim as the highest Apostolic See. This was also Such an atmosphere could not be created given to Rome officially at the Ecumenical in the space surrounding the Apostolic epi- Council in Constantinople in 381, when it gram which merely marked where the lost was agreed that the Bishop of Constantino- triclia had been. Cultic and liturgical conti- ple was allotted the rank just under that of nuity prevailed, however, partly because the Rome in the ecclesiastical hierarchy.89 The refrigerium was still being celebrated within question is whether Damasus composed his the framework of the private cult, and partly Apostolic epigram before or after the Ecu- because the Eucharist liturgy for the two menical Council in 381. Did the epigram Apostles was probably celebrated here on confirm the recently established hierarchy, 29 June. We must presume that on this occa- or was it an attempt to obtain a position of sion Damasus gave a sermon and read aloud sovereignty in the form of the primateship the Apostolic epigram. Reciting inscriptions (Lat. primatus, first rank)?90 and texts was common practice, since si- On the basis of the decisions reached lent reading was generally not much used at the Ecumenical Council, Damasus con- before the Middle Ages, with a few excep- structed a myth about the foundation of tions such as St. Ambrose whose silent read- Roma Christiana on 29 June. The central ing intrigued St. Augustine so much that he message of this Damasian myth, reflected in suspected St. Ambrose of either wishing to the epigram to the Apostles, was to empha- conceal the content of his book or of wish- sise that they had jointly and equally founded ing to rest his voice.88 When Damasus read the Roman Church. Such equality between 44 Gitte Lønstrup

Peter and Paul is remarkable and novel. The be seen in several vetri dorati – small glasses Roman Church had so far not exposed Paul whose bottoms are decorated with gold (Pl. on an equal footing with Peter, presumably III). The Apostle motifs became highly pop- because Paul was not among the Disciples ular, not least during Damasus’ pontificate of Christ.91 Damasus created a special pro- where his own portrait occasionally figures file for Rome as a diocese by promoting side by side with those of Peter and Paul (Pl. the Apostles as an inseparable pair, supple- IV). One can only speculate on whether this menting one another: Peter was the rock, the might have been a way of stressing or sign- representative of the faith and the preacher ing his revised interpretation of the concor- of the Jews; Paul was the messenger of the dia apostolorum. Whatever may have been Doctrine and the preacher of the Gentiles.92 their exact significance, the Apostolic mo- This inseparability was of great importance tifs continued their existence for centuries, for Damasus’ interpretation of the Apostolic irrespective of the liturgical and theological agreement – concordia apostolorum – and roles which Peter and Paul played together, for Peter and Paul’s joint foundation of the as well as separately.95 Roman-Catholic Church due to their mar- In his approach to the Apostolic agree- tyrdom on the same day. ment and the foundation of the Roman- Ever since Clement Romanus (30-100) Catholic Church, Damasus differed from his had written to the congregation in Corinth predecessors, none of whom had yet con- around 97, the bishops of Rome had main- nected these matters with the discussion of tained that the Roman Catholic Church rest- the primateship of Rome or her sovereignty. ed on the blood of the Apostles Peter and Before Damasus the Roman diocese had Paul.93 Damasus’ predecessor Liberius (352- been regarded as an Apostolic seat, but not 366) also had the Apostles’ foundation of the as the Apostolic See that he desired to make Roman diocese in mind when he supposedly it.96 The legitimization of such a sovereign commissioned the, now severely restored, position was the equality of Peter and Paul mosaics for the niches in S. Costanza (Pl. and their joint foundation of the Roman- II). Here Christ is flanked by Peter and Paul, Catholic Church which took place when the lambs and the symbolic representations they received martyrdom in Rome – not in of Jerusalem and Bethlehem. Iconographic Constantinople, Alexandria or Antioch.97 representations of the pair also begin to ap- The Apostles had been joined by their simul- pear at around this time (350-360), as can be taneous presence in Rome, by a joint dies seen from miniature art (in glass, bronze and natalis, a joint place of worship and possibly ivory) and from reliefs on sarcophagi, cata- also a joint place of burial, and it was on the comb paintings and mosaics.94 The idea of background of this Roman ‘construct’ that concordia found iconographic expression in Damasus was able to proclaim that Rome the double portrait of the two Apostles as can had obtained her primateship. Constructing Myths 45

There is, however, a certain discrepancy also ad catacumbas. The epigram which he with respect to the idea of concordia. On the placed there supplemented the information one hand, the Apostles were equals as they from the calendars and the architectonic founded the Roman Church by receiving framework of the cult with accounts which their glorious deaths in Rome on the same primarily derived from the apocryphal Acts day. On the other hand, Peter and Paul could of the Apostles in which the actual date of not share the post as the first Bishop of Rome; 29 June is not mentioned. Damasus enlarged a post which belonged solely to Peter.98 Not the tradition of the Apostles’ association many years would pass before Paul was with Rome by stressing their inseparability again placed in the shadow of Peter, since and equality in his emphasis that they were Damasus’ successors again stressed Peter’s celebrated as martyrs on the same day. To- primateship, just like his predecessors had gether with the idea of their Roman “citi- done.99 zenship”, this was designed to legitimise Dilemma or no dilemma; the concordia the supreme status of Rome as the Apostolic construct had a remarkable effect, as re- See within the Christian world, a status the flected not merely in the iconography of the Roman diocese no longer intended to share time, but also in its architecture. The idea with the other patriarchies. for a new Pauline memoria was most prob- During Damasus’ reign the celebration ably conceived at the first Roman Council of 29 June took place in the three basilicas in 382.100 This led to the construction of the in the Via Appia, the Via Cornelia and the three Emperors’ (Theodosius, Gratian and Via Ostiense. Here the pilgrims took part in Valentinian II) Basilica of St. Paul, designed liturgical ceremonies, and in the basilica in to replace the smaller Constantinian struc- the Via Appia they probably listened to the ture which could not match the Basilica of recitation of the Apostolic epigram. Some St. Peter.101 But apart from these two sepul- even copied it into their diaries. In addition chral basilicas, the Memoria Apostolorum they could purchase small vetri dorati, the also became a significant site, since Dama- gilt bottom of which were decorated with sus decided to mark it by means of a ceno- double portraits of Peter and Paul in concor- taph.102 The cult place thus regained – for a dia (Pl. III).103 On the occasion of 29 June time at least – its raison d’être as a commu- it even became the custom for Christians nal memoria for Peter and Paul. to donate to friends and family such a glass During Damasus’ pontificate, the deaths upon which had been engraved the exhorta- of Peter and Paul were thus celebrated on 29 tion “Pie Zeses” (“drink and live”) as a ref- June. As already mentioned, it cannot be as- erence to the function of these small glasses certained whether he continued or resumed at libation sacrifices in connection with the the older liturgical tradition which had been refrigerium (Pl. III).104 documented in the Depositio Martyrum and Both the Apostolic epigram and the gold 46 Gitte Lønstrup glasses contributed towards the spreading of which makes historical constructions the Papal message by ‘naturalising’ the myth look like natural ones by way of associative of the saints’ day, the cult of the martyrs and relations.108 Taking my starting point in the the foundation of Roma Christiana.105 ‘To Barthesian theory of myth as a mechanism spread’ is the original meaning of the term of naturalisation, I should like to employ ‘propaganda’ (from the Latin verb propa- the term ‘myth’ to the Damasian foundation gare), and it is widely believed that Dama- history. sus used the epigrams and the gold glasses The naturalisation of historical construc- as means of propaganda. When Huskinson tions is Barthes’ primary objection against refers to the glasses as “weapons of prop- the phenomenon of myth as launched in his aganda”, and when Carletti describes the book Mythologies (1957). In this book he epigrams as “strumenti di propaganda” their defines myth as “[…] pas par l’objet de son terms produce negative connotations with message, mais per la façon dont il le profère respect to the objects concerned as well as to […].”109 Barthes did not focus on the con- the ambitions of Damasus.106 These conno- tents of myths, but rather on their form and tations of ‘propaganda’ have primarily their function. “Le mythe est une parole”, he origin in the use of the term ever since the wrote.110 It is a system or a mechanism of First and the Second World Wars. Damasus’ communication, significance and memory. use of the decree, the epigrams and the gold Barthes held that the people subjected to glasses – with or without the Papal portrait myth, conceived of the relation between ex- (Pl. III and IV) - in order to convince the pression and intension as a natural relation, competing patriarchies of Constantinople, not as a historically constructed one.111 Alexandria and Antioch that the Roman When Damasus’ project is viewed in the Church was worthy of its primateship does, light of this, albeit summary, version of Bar- however, not turn him into a propagandist. thes’ theory, the Roman congregation and He was merely an educated man who under- the pilgrims become subjected to myth. The stood how to employ visual as well as rhetor- imaginary spectator did not conceive of the ical effects in order to spread and naturalise Apostles’ joint dies natalis, the martyr acts his message.107 It is therefore my conviction and their relation to the Christian foundation that the mechanism of naturalisation, which of Rome in terms of a historically construed Roland Barthes called ‘myth’, offers a far relation, but rather as a fact of nature. It is this less value-laden perspective on Damasus’ naturalisation of meaning which Barthes ob- strategies than does the term ‘propaganda’. jects against. He maintains that “Le rapport qui unit le concept du mythe au sens est es- Myth as a Construct of Memory and a sentiellement un rapport de déformation.”112 Mechanism of Naturalisation The reason for this is that mythical meaning, According to Barthes, ‘myth’ is a mechanism, as construed by the producer of the myth, Constructing Myths 47 pretends to be a matter of fact.113 This was when memory is no longer vivid, there is a what Damasus did when, as the producer of need to write it down. The distance to the the myth, he discreetly concealed lacunae in past makes room for the construction of his- some of the legends about the deaths of the tory. If you transfer this to Damasus’ project, martyrs which had been passed down orally, it is obvious that a noticeable distance had and when, with the expression Credite per entered to the time of the persecutions and Damasum, he pretended that these legends the martyrs, a time which Damasus de- were true.114 In this sense Damasus’ project scribed in the frequently appearing meta- takes the form of a myth, as a mechanism phorical phrase: tempore quo gladius secuit of significance which achieved the naturali- pia viscera matris.117 (Burial) sites had been sation of a historical construct; a construct forgotten and the fixing in writing of the which revolved around Peter and Paul as orally transmitted evidence had begun when joint founders of Roma Christiana by their Damasus had them carved in stone. Ac- deaths on the same day. The means of re- cording to Halbwachs, events which previ- alising and naturalising this historical con- ously existed in the collective memory will struct were the epigrams, the gold glasses, slowly be transformed into imaginary and the martyr tombs, the subterranean crypts fictitious episodes and periods.118 This was and the basilicas, together with the Latin the case with the macabre executions which translation of Paul’s letters, the Hebrew Bi- had almost become absent in the collective ble and the mass which had until then been memory, and which instead found their way celebrated in Greek. Each in their way these into the poetic universe of Damasus. The objects, writings, rituals and spaces can be Pope’s rewriting of history was, however, conceived as systems of communication and at the same time materially rooted in the mechanisms generating meaning, spreading architecture. The crypts and the epigrams the papal message and contributing towards were to contribute towards the creation of a naturalisation of the Christian legend of a Christian historical awareness of the past, the foundation in the memory of the users. since the collective memory in a Halbwach- When seen from this angle, the relation sian sense could no longer be kept alive. It between history and memory is reciprocal. is interesting that Abbé Duchesne has called If, however, Damasus’ historical construct is the Damasian epigrams devoid of history viewed through Maurice Halbwach’s theory (“vides d’histoire”), when their form, con- of collective memory, the relation between tents and contexts appear so full of legends, history and memory becomes a relation of myths, stories and constructs.119 opposites.115 This relation has its roots in the Another aspect of the Barthesian theory view that as long as the memory of an event about myth, of great methodological rel- is vivid in the collective memory, there is no evance in my analysis, is that which Barthes need to fix it in writing.116 On the contrary, en passant calls the mythologie du mytho- 48 Gitte Lønstrup

Fig. 7. Damasian epigram to S. Agnes, S. Agnese fuori le mura, Rome, 366-384 (photo: Pontificia Commissione di Archeologia Sacra, Rome).

logue, i.e. the scholars’ own myths.120 This the mid seventh century the Damasian epi- notion is central to my uncovering of the grams no longer played a significant role in scholars’ myth about the reputed interrela- the martyr cult. They were therefore unscru- tionship between the celebration of Peter pulously hacked into pieces and employed as and Paul on 29 June, the foundation day spolia in the marble-paved floors, as was the of Rome and Romulus-Quirinus. As dem- case with the Hippolytus epigram which was onstrated, the myth created by Damasus adapted to fit the pattern of the cosmatesque about the foundation of Roma Christiana pavement in the Lateran Basilica in the fif- on 29 June was, however, neither indicative teenth century.124 Several have been lost and of propaganda nor a direct takeover of the are only known from the pilgrims’ copies foundation day of Rome. in their itineraries from the seventh to the ninth centuries.125 The epigram to St. Agnes Conclusion. The Deconstruction of the Con- is one of the few preserved because it was struct at the Time of Pope Gregory and Pope recycled in one piece and placed front down Honorius in the sixth and seventh century in the pavement of the ad corpus basilica “When so much else falls into silence, mon- which Pope Honorius (625-638) built over uments remain” - writes Dennis E. Trout.121 the tomb of the female saint. After having It is tempting to agree with him when faced decorated the martyr’s tomb for almost 300 with one of the few intact Damasian monu- years, Damasus’ epigram was taken down. ments such as the epigram to St. Agnes (Fig. For the very same reason it is not mentioned 7).122 Sadly, things are not quite so. Several in any of the itineraries from after the mid Damasian inscriptions perished during the seventh century. Only 1100 years later it was fifth- and sixth-century invasions by the discovered by Giovanni Marangoni.126 Visi- and Ostrogoths, the Vandals and the The pontificate of Gregory the Great Longobards, as witnessed by Pope Vigilius (590-604) was also of importance for the de- (537-555),123 who restored them, and from construction of Damasus’ work. The equal- Constructing Myths 49 ity of the Apostles, which he had stressed Apostle’s death could not be moved all that in order to convince the Christian world of easily. Gregory did so, however, because he Rome’s primateship, was annulled. As soon intended to promote Peter’s supreme po- as the primateship had been secured, the sition as the founder of the Church.130 By Apostolic pair began to lose their liturgi- separating the saint’s days he had created cal significance, and Damasus’ successors a new official construct, thus superimpos- again emphasised Peter’s primateship, just ing Damasus’ myth which was not merely as his predecessors had done. Gregory the attached to Peter’s primateship, but to the Great had even the celebration of Paul’s dies Apostles’ joint foundation of Roma Chris- natalis moved from 29 June to 30 June.127 tiana on 29 June. This significant separation is commented upon in a sermon of the seventh century.128 Gitte Lønstrup Here it is reduced to a merely practical is- M.A. & Ph.D.-fellow sue, namely that it was supposedly difficult Aarhus Univeristy to make the congregation attend mass in Department of Church History both the Basilicas of St. Peter and St. Paul Taasingegade 3 on the same day. The sermons of Leo the DK-8000 Århus C Great (440-461) testify to the fact that the [email protected] Church was competing against such other kinds of traditional entertainment as the theatre, since Leo complains over the fact that “mad spectacles draw greater crowds than blessed martyrs.”129 But no matter how great may have been the challenges encoun- tered by the popes in terms of capturing the attention of the congregation, one would have believed that the celebration of the 50 Gitte Lønstrup

ABBREVIATIONS

CIL Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum, 1871-. CSEL Corpus Scriptorum Ecclesiasticorum Latinorum, Paris 1866-1926. CCEL Christian Classics Ethereal Library: http://www.ccel.org/ ICUR Inscriptiones Christianae urbis Romae septimo saeculo antiquiores, De Rossi, G. B. (a cura di) († 1894), Romae 1857-1915. LCL The Loeb Classical Library. LTUR Lexicon Topographicum Urbis Romae, Steinby, M. (a cura di), Roma 1993-2000. PL Patrologia Latina, Migne, J. P. (ed.), Romae 1906-. RAC Rivista di Archeologia Cristiana.

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NOTES

1 I would like to thank the Princess Margrethe and Queen Ingrid Foundations for awarding me scholarships for the Danish Academy in Rome during 2005 and 2006. I would also like to thank the New Carlsberg Foundation for financing the illustrations of this article, and the Elisabeth Munksgaard Scholarship for financing its translation into English by Dr. Lene Østermark-Johansen. 2 Huskinson 1982, 82. It is worth noting that Nova Roma here refers to Rome rather than Constantinople, although the latter was also often referred to in that term. The foundation day of Constantinople was, however, celebrated on 11 May. 3 The foundation day of 21 April is registered in the Republican calendar Fasti Antiates Maiores (84-55 BC) and in such Julian-Augustan calendars as the Fasti Caeretani (12 BC) and the Fasti Esquilini (post 7 AD), as well as the Fasti Philocaliani (354 AD) and the Fasti Polemii Silvii (449 AD). Amongst the ancient writers referring to the foundation day on 21 April are Varro (116-27 BC) quoted by Solinus (fourth century AD): “Ut affirmat Varro auctor diligentissimus, Romam condidit Romulus […], duodeviginti annos natus undecimo kalends Maias” (I. 18); Ovid (43 BC-17/18 AD) IV. 806; Plutarch (46-120 AD) XII. 1 and Asinus Quadratus (third century AD) who described the millennium of the city on 21 April 248. His History of a Thousand Years is, however, lost to us. A lecture of 29 October 2006 in the Roman Auditorium by Professor Carandini on the significance of 21 April can be downloaded at http://www.laterza.it/novita/lezionidistoria.asp For the annulment of holidays in 389, see Codex Theodosianus II. 8. 19-22. See also Salzman 1990, 155; Lim 1999, 279. 4 Enciclopedia dei Papi 2000, 362. 5 The names of saints, popes and emperors are as far as possible given in English and Latin (St. Agnes, St. Sebastian, Damasus, Augustus, Constantine), whereas the names of basilicas and catacombs are mentioned by their Italian place names (e.g. S. Agnese fuori le mura (f.l.m.), S. Sebastiano, S. Callisto). 6 Damasus’ poems were carved in stone by Furius Dionysius Filocalus who signed both several of the epigrams and the frontispiece of the Fasti Philocaliani, named after him. 7 For the itinera ad sanctos (the routes to the holy martyr tombs in the catacombs), see Fiocchi Nicolai 1995. 8 In Ezechiel 12, 40 (in: PL 25, 375): “[…] crebroque cryptas ingredi, quae in terrarum profunda defossae, ex utraque parte ingredientium per parietes habent corpora sepultorum et ita obscura sunt omnia, ut propemodum illud propheticum compleatur: Descendant ad infernum viventes (Ps. Liv, 16): et raro desuper lumen admissum horrorem temperet tenebrarum, ut non tam fenestram, quam foramen demissi luminis putes: rursumque pedetentim acceditur, et caeca nocte circumdatis illud Virgilianum proponitur (Aeneid. Lib. II.): ‘Horror ubique animos, simut ipsa silentia terrent’.” 9 See Fasti Philocaliani (354). 10 For this aspect, see also Trout 2003, 524. 11 Barthes 1957, 215-216. I shall return to the discussion of Barthesian myth later in this article. 12 See Michels 1978; Brind’amour 1983; Invernizzi 1994; Hannah 2005. 13 Invernizzi 1994, 30 and 36. The traditional caristia festival on 22 February was for example appropriated by the Christian natale Petri de cathedra. For St. Augustine’s commentary on this appropriation, see epistles 22 and 29 (in: PL 33). See also Ferrua 1956, IV, 134. 14 44 of them are published in Inscriptiones Italiae XIII. 2 and CIL I. Ovid’s Fasti is in addition to these. 15 VI. 795-6: “Tot restant de mense dies, quot nomina Parcis, cum data sunt trabeae templa, Quirine, tuae.” English translation of quotations from Ovid by Frazer, LCL 1976. Constructing Myths 55

16 QUIRINALIA is documented as the 17th day of the month of februarius in: Fasti Antiates Maiores, Fasti Caeretani, Fasti Maffeiani, Fasti Philocaliani and Fasti Polemii Silvii, and in the Codex Vaticano Barberini 2154 and the Codex Vaticano Latino 9135, which contain calendars from the time of Constantine until 403. 17 According to my correspondence with Michele Salzman: “Quirinus was made the equivalent of Romulus – in a rather nebulous way – as another founder of Rome, from the third century BC on.” See also Ovid II. 475: “[...] qui tenet hoc nomen, Romulus ante fuit […].” (“[…] he who owns this name [Quirinus] was Romulus before […].”). 18 Ovid (II. 533): “Est honor et tumulis.” (“Honour is paid, also, to the tombs.”). 19 Codex Theodosianus II. 8. 19-22; Salzman 1990, 155; Lim 1999, 279. 20 Livy (X. 46. 7) mentions briefly L. P. Cursor’s triumph and dedication of the temple, but he does not mention where or when. See also Ovid’s Fasti 1929, 343-44; 1958, 365; 1976, 382; Richardson 1992, 326-327; LTUR, 185-187. 21 Dio LIV. 19. 3. 22 16 January 10 AD became a holiday when Augustus consecrated the temple of Concordia. In 38 BC 17 January became a holiday in celebration of Augustus’ and Augusta’s wedding anniversary. 4 July became a holiday at the consecration of the Ara Pacis in 13 BC. Cf. Judge 1987, 59-63. 23 Wissowa 1912, 154. 24 The closest victories are on 1 August 30 BC and 14 August 29 BC. Cf. Judge 1987, 59-63. As a consequence of these victories, and because Augustus was proclaimed consul for the first time in August, the Republican month of sextilis was renamed and called after him – after 16 January 27 BC when Octavian was given the name of Augustus. 25 Dio LIV. 19. 3. Vitruvius III. 2. 7. Augustus’ birthday is registered as a holiday in the Fasti Maffeiani (CIL I, 225): “Augusti natalis LUD CIRC.” 26 See Rehak 2001, 15 for the astrologer Publius Nigidius Figulus’ calculation of the birthdays of Romulus and Augustus at the autumnal equinox. This theory is challenged by Brind’amour 1983, 240-49; Hannah 2005, 125. 27 Rehak 2001, 7. Equinox is on 21 March and 23 September. 28 Fasti Amiterni (in: Inscriptiones Italiae XIII. 2); Michels 1978, 176: “26. a.d. V Kal. Quinct. = a.d. VI Kal. Iul. anni Iuliani. NP. Feriae ex s. [c.q]uod e[o] die [imp. Caes(ar)] Augus[tus ado]p[tav]it [sibi] filiu[m Ti. Caesarem] Aelio [et Sentio cos]. AMIT.” 29 Dio LIV. 19. 30 The days were divided into five categories marked by the following abbreviations: F (Fasti, workdays or court days), N (Nefasti, festivals), C (Comitiales, workdays when the popular assembly, comitia, would meet), EN (Endotercisi, festival at the beginning and the end of the day, but workday in the middle of the day) and NP, the full significance of which is not quite clear, but which almost consistently follows the ides and festivals of the months. See Invernizzi 1994, 13. 31 See the following Fasti: Antiates Maiores, Ostiensis, Caeretani, Maffeiani, Esquilini, Praenestini, Philocaliani and Polemii Silvii. 32 In such calendars as the Fasti Praenestini, Fasti Maffeiani and Fasti Ostiensis the festival of 21 April is only indicated by the capital letters PAR[ILIA]. Invernizzi 1994, 14. 33 Ovid IV. 819-20. The ritual consisted in the marking of the pomerium, also called the moenia: “Apta dies legitur, qua moenia signet aratro. Sacra Palis suberant: inde movetur opus.” (“A suitable day was chosen on which he should mark out the line of the walls with the plough. The festival of Pales was at hand; on that day the work began.”). See also Dionysius of Halicarnassus (first century BC) I. 88. 3, who has reservations about whether the festival existed before Romulus. 34 Cf. Solinus I. 18; Ovid IV; 806; Plutarch I. XII. 35 Salzman 1990, 122 table 2. 36 The event is, however, not mentioned in the Martyrologium Hieronymianum. 37 According to the Cunctos Populos edict, issued by the Emperor Theodosius in 380, “the faith which Peter passed on to the Romans and which Pope Damasus continues” was recognised as the state religion. Cf. Codex Theodosianus XVI. 1. 2. Mommsen & Meyer 1905, 477: “De fide Catholica”, titulum I. II. 38 Cf. Prof. Carandini’s lecture of 29 October 2006. MP3: http://www.laterza.it/novita/lezionidistoria.asp. As for the sign of the flying birds, see Dionysius of Halicarnassus I. 85 and Ovid IV. 812-819, where it would likewise appear to be an event preceding 21 April; Wiseman 1995, 6-8. 56 Gitte Lønstrup

39 CIL I, 215. 40 These are the only three calendars, apart from the Fasti Fratrum Arvalium, in which 23 August is documented. 41 There are similar examples from Diana’s festival on 13 August when people also made sacrifices to the Dioscuri and other gods “in circo Flaminio”. 42 According to Christian terminology, dies natalis means day of death, since you were born to eternal life on that day. 43 Rimoldi 1958, 34. 44 Cullmann 1952, 116. 45 Erbes 1899, 39. 46 Haas 1983, 133-144. The first edict of 257 prohibited any kind of Christian adoration. The previous edict issued by Decius (249-51) prohibited any frequenting of cemeteries. 47 Pietri 1961, 311. Although Pietri’s article appeared three years after Rimoldi’s (1958) he still quotes Cullmann’s argument: “[…] le 29. juin était célébrée la fête anniversaire de la fondation de Rome, Quirinus-Romulus.” 48 Rimoldi 1958, 34. See also Cullmann 1952, 116. Cullmann refers to both Erbes and Mohlberg. Mohlberg (1952, 64-65) introduces the coincidence between 29 June, the festival of Romulus-Quirinus, the Feast of the Apostles in the Via Appia and the date for the funeral of Pope Novatian, together with the role played by St. Quirinus during the fifth and sixth centuries. It never becomes clear, however, which significance this saint may have had for 29 June. 49 As a founding figure Remus was, however, inferior to Romulus-Quirinus, the divine founder of Rome. On Remus, cf. Ovid IV. 835-856. 50 Pietri 1961, 316. The cult of the Dioscuri arose around 499 BC and would still appear to have been popular by the middle of the fourth century when the city Prefect Tertullus asked them to stop the famine in 359. Cf. Marcellinus XIX. 10, 4. 51 Trout 2003, 521-23. 52 Haec Damasus vestras referat nova sidera laudes. Ferrua 1942, no. 20. 53 Pauly, A. et al.: “Lares Praestites”: Sons of Mercury and the nymph Lara/Larunda, and guardians of Rome. The nickname praestites was given to them because they guard everything with their eyes and come to the rescue of mankind. See also Wiseman 2004, 117. 54 Wiseman 1995, 40-41, 52; Wiseman 2004, 26 and 179. Ovid I. 539-42: “Puppibus egressus Latia stetit exul in herba […]. Nec mora longa fuit: stabant nova tecta […].” (“Landing from his ships, Evander stood an exile on the Latian sward […]. But little time elapsed until new dwellings rose […].”). I. 581: for the erection of the Ara Maxima. For the name of Pallantion, see also Dionysius of Halicarnassus I. 78. 5; I. 79. 8. Wiseman 1995, 40-41, 52; Wiseman 2004, 26 and 179. 55 On 13 August they were celebrated “in Circo Flaminio” in the context of the festival for Diana where, as already mentioned, sacrifices were made to several gods. 56 According to Wiseman (1995, 71) 1 May can indicate the conception of the twins and 21 February (FERALIA) their birth. See Wissowa (1912, 171) for a discussion of Augustus’ reconsecration of a previous Lares sanctuary. See also Augustus: Res Gestae, 19. It appears from the Republican calendar Fasti Antiates Maiores (84-55 BC) that the Lares were also celebrated on 27 June. Ovid likewise describes that a sanctuary was consecrated to the Lares on 27 June (VI. 791-794). It is uncertain whether this is a reference to Lares Praestites or to other Lares (cf. Pauly, A. et al for Lares Privati and Lares Publici). It is, however, obvious that Ovid, in his poem about 1 May, suggests that the altar to the Lares twins was in a state of disrepair (V. 131-2): “[…] multa vetustas destruit, et saxo longa senecta nocet.” (“[…] length of time destroys many things, and age prolonged wears out a stone.”). Something suggests that the memory of this festival was fading at Ovid’s time – possibly as the Dioscuri took over the role previously played by the Lares. 57 Wissowa 1912, 277ff. There were two types of Hercules cults in Rome: the Greek at the Circus Flaminius, and the Tiburtan at the Circus Maximus. Hercules was celebrated on 1 February (natalis Herculi), 3 April, 30 June, and on 12 August and 11 January together with Evander. See also Wiseman 2004, 28. 58 Among the earliest artistic evidence of the myth of the female wolf, Romulus and Remus, is the sculpture group erected by G. and O. Ogulnius in 296 BC (Livy X. 23). Cf. Wiseman 1995, 72-76 and lecture given by Dr. Christopher Smith at the British School at Rome (December 2006). 59 Shepherd 1970, 854-57. 60 Baldovin 1987, 112. As one of the only churches, the Lateran was just inside the city walls. 61 Fasti Philiocaliani , CIL I, 2. The date or the location of the Apostles’ martyrdom is neither mentioned in the Constructing Myths 57

canonical writings (e.g. Acts of the Apostles) or in the apocryphal writings (Acta Apostolorum Apocrypha, i.e. the acts of Paul of ca. 170 and the acts of Peter of ca. 225). For an extensive discussion of these sources, see Erbes 1899; Lietzmann 1927; Rimoldi 1958. 62 A list of consuls can be found in Marucchi 1912, appendix. 63 Ruysschaert 1965-1966, 173-174. 64 The martyr Sebastian is supposedly also buried here and later the church was named after him. Catacumbas means cave in the earth or in the rock, for the oldest core of the burial place arose in an arenarium, i.e. a cave from which you dug out tuff. Christian burial grounds were originally called coemeteria, i.e. resting places where the body was awaiting resurrection. 65 Krautheimer 1937, 103. Graffiti dated 260 whenSaeculari II et Donato II cos were consuls. See also Josi 1969, 166. For the history of the building, see Krautheimer 1937, 99ff; Donati 2000; Fiocchi Nicolai 2001, 10ff; Brandenburg 2005, 63-69. 66 Ferrua 1956, III, 432-33. 67 Ferrua 1956, IV, 135. At least ten of the S. Sebastiano graffiti refer to meals for the Apostles. Some of them are dated: XIIII kal apriles [14 March] refrigeravit Parthenius in deo and Idus (iuli)as [15 July] refrigeravit restituita (in domi)no at Paulu(m) et Pet(rum) refri(geravi). Chadwick 1957, 47 and 33. 68 Saxer 1969, 166: “Le date offerte dai graffiti sono quelle del loro pellegrinaggio a Roma: in febbraio, marzo, giugno, agosto, novembre; una sola data non si legge mai: quella del III kal. Iulias!” Nothing specific is known about the official cult in the Via Appia. See Lietzmann 1927, 125; Susman 1961, 16-18. 69 It is dealt with in detail in Chadwick 1957 and 1962; Rimoldi 1958; Donati 2000. 70 Hic temporibus suis, rogatus a quodam matrona Lucina, corpora apostolorum beati Petri et Pauli de Catacumbas leuauit noctu: primum quidem corpus beati Pauli accepto beata Lucina posuit in praedio suo, via Ostense, iuxta locum ubi decollatus est; beati Petri accepit corpus beatus Cornelius episcopus et posuit iuxta locum ubi crucifixus est, inter corpora sanctorum episcoporum, in templum Apollinis, in monte Aureum, in Vaticanum palatii Neronis, III kal. Iul. Translation from Davis 2000, 28. 71 Eusebius, II. 25, 6-7 (translation from CCEL). According to Fiocchi Nicolai (2001, 13), the testimonial dates from the second century. Ferrua 1956, IV, 138, 141; Chadwick 1962, 313-14; Ruysschaert 1969-1970, 205; Brandenburg 2005, 63-69. 72 “[…] trinis celebratur vis/festum sacrorum martyrum” (in: PL 17, 1215). According to Susman (1961, 17 ref. 6 to Simonetti) the hymn is attributed to Pseudo Ambrose. According to Josi (1969, 156ff) it is attributed to Ambrose or Ambrosiaster. In the Gelasian Sacramentarium (750) three masses are registered for 29 June: one “in Natali S. Petri proprium”; another “in Natali Apostolorum Petri et Pauli”; and a third one “in Natali S. Pauli proprium.” 73 Martyrologium Hieronymianum (ed. Delehaye 1931): “[…] lectio codicis Bernensis suppressa tamen sententia ‘passi sub Nerone’.” The Martyrologium Hieronymianum has been passed down in several manuscripts. In the Codex Bernensis the sentence in the parenthesis has been omitted. 74 Lietzmann 1927, 109; Saxer 2000, 76. The first compilation of the Fasti Philocaliani took place in 336. The expression “Petri in Catacumbas et Pauli Ostense” dates from this time. It is worth noting that in the Martyrologium Hieronymianum we find the following commentary for 25 January: “Roma translatio Pauli apostoli ad viam Ostiensem.” This might be a reference to the removal of Paul from the Via Appia back to Ostiense. 75 Lietzmann 1927, 112; Rimoldi 1958, 26 and 34. As for the naming of the Memoria Apostolorum in 1916, see Mohlberg 1952, 53. 76 Chadwick 1957, 47. 77 According to Delehaye, the translation never took place; the Christians merely founded a place to meet and worship in the Via Appia in order to find a safe spot, but without removing the bodies of the Apostles. Cf. Saxer 2000, 76. 78 Erbes 1899, 54; Lietzmann 1927, 125, 135, 141; Mohlberg 1952, 65; Rimoldi 1958, 35-36; Susman 1961, 20. Erbes was amongst those who believed that 29 June marked the date of the translation. He was also of the opinion that the Apostles died on 22 February 63. In the calendar of Polemius Silvius the note “depositio Petri et Pauli” is also registered for 22 February in accordance with the practise in Gaul, but also with the traditional Roman celebration of the dead (caristia) on this day, which the Roman Church appropriated for the celebration of the natale Petri de cathedra as mentioned above. Erbes was accordingly of the opinion that the apostles died before the famous fire of Rome on 18 July 64. This particular event is otherwise often regarded as the reason for the intensification of the persecution of the Christians under Nero, which led to the execution of the Apostles. There are, however, endless discussions of which year the Apostles were executed, but it is generally assumed that Peter was executed between 64 and 67, and Paul in 67. Christiana Loca I, 2-4 (a cura di Pani Ermini 2000- 58 Gitte Lønstrup

2001). 79 “[…] et in catacumbas ubi iacuerunt corpora sanctorum apostolorum Petri et Pauli, in quo loco platomam ipsam, ubi iacuerunt corpora sancta, versibus exornavit. Hic multa corpora sanctorum requisivit et invenit, quorum etiam versibus declaravit.” Translation from Davis 2000, 29. 80 Ferrua 1942, nr. 20; Ruysschaert 1969-1970, 205-15; Trout 2003, 532 ref. 38. Both Ferrua and Trout write habitasse in full accordance with ICUR V. 13273. Ruysschaert discusses variant readings alternating between habitasse and habitare. Damasus does not specify whether the Apostles were buried here first or in the places where they were executed. He completely omits the use of such verbs relating to the funeral as depositus, iacet and requiescit. Instead he uses the much more discreet term habitare/habitasse as a more general indication that the apostles had dwelt here – dead or alive – as also referred to in the apocryphal writings (Acta Apostolorum apocrypha) which relate that Peter and Paul had either lived or been there. 81 Whereas the death of the Apostles is only described in the apocryphal acts of Peter and Paul, their journey from their home in the East to Rome in the West has been related in the canonical Acts of the Apostles. 82 Codex Vaticano Palatino 833. This has likewise been documented in Itinerarium Einsiedlense of the eighth and ninth centuries. They have both been published in ICUR II. I and Lanciani 1891. 83 Ruysschaert 1969-1970, 216. 84 Pavia 1999, 42ff; Christiana Loca (a cura di Pani Ermini 2000-2001) I 74, 93-94 and II 8; Brandenburg 2005, 63-69. For discussions of the circus-shaped deambulatory basilicas in general (Basilica Apostolorum (S. Sebastiano f.l.m.), S. Agnese f.l.m., S. Lorenzo f.l.m., Ss. Marcellino e Pietro ad duas lauros and the anonymous basilica in the Via Prenestina), see Krautheimer 1937; Tolotti 1982; Torelli 1992. For the most recently discovered basilica in the Via Ardeatina, see Fiocchi Nicolai 1995-1996. 85 Ruysschaert 1969-1970, 215. 86 Ruysschaert 1965-1966, 176. 87 Prudentius XI. 154-178: “[…] mersa latebrosis crypta patet foveis: huius in occultum gradibus via prona reflexis ire per anfractus luce latente docet. Primas namque fores summo tenus intrat hiatu inlustratque dies limina vestibuli. Inde ubi progressu facili nigrescere visa est nox obscura loci per specus ambiguum ccurrunt celsis inmissa foramina tectis, quae iaciant claros antra super radios. Quamlibet ancipites texant hinc inde recessus arta sub umbrosis atria porticibus, len excisi subter cava viscera montis crebra terebrato fomice lux penetrat. Sic datur absentis per subterranea solis cemere fulgorem luminibusque frui.” Translation from LCL 1953. 88 Saenger 1997 (introductory chapter). As for St. Augustine’s comments on St. Ambrose, see Confessiones VI. 3 (in: Nicene and Post Nicene Fathers, 2nd Series). For the recitation of inscriptions, see Bodel 2001, 16. 89 Enciclopedia dei Papi 2000, 358 (on the Conciliorum Oecumenicorum Decreta, canon 3, 32). 90 Ruysschaert 1969-1970, 211-212: “L’un et l’autre sont, en effet, invoqués au concile tenu a Rome en 382, sous Damase, lorsqu’il s’est agi d’affirmer en face de Constantinople le droit de l’Eglise de Rome d’occuper la première place.” There has been no attempt to date the Apostolic epigram. For their chronology in general, see Enciclopedia dei Papi 2000, 351. 91 Huskinson 1982, 79 and 88. Damasus did, however, ask Jerome, who worked as his secretary, to obtain a version of the letters of Paul. Ferguson, E. et al. 1997, 218. 92 Pietri 1961, 295. 93 Clement Romanus, chapter 5 (in: Nicene and Post Nicene Fathers, 2nd Series); Chadwick 1957, 35. 94 The iconography of the Apostles is dealt with in great detail by Huskinson 1982, 3-62; Mazzoleni 1996, 66. As early as 310-320 specific iconographic programmes were developed allowing the spectator to distinguish the two Apostles from one another. Paul is characterized by being the eldest; he is partly bald and has a long beard, whereas Peter has far more hair and a shorter beard. No apsidal paintings in churches from the time of Damasus have survived, and it is therefore not possible to ascertain to which extent the motif has been employed there. 95 Huskinson 1982, 62. 96 Cf. Batiffol 1925, 106. Huskinson 1961, 90. 97 Huskinson 1982, 86-88, 90. Concordia apostolorum was, according to Huskinson, developed during the second half of the fourth century as a legal legitimization of the primateship. Constantinople’s claim to a primateship was founded later in the 7th or 8th century on the Apostles Andrew (Peter’s brother) and Luke (the companion of Paul), see Dvornik 1958, 122. Antioch’s claim to a primateship was based on the belief that their church had been founded by Peter and Paul before the Apostles arrived in Rome. Here the Christians were called christianoi for the first time, cf. Martyrologium Romanum, 22 February. See also Pietri 1961, 304; Ruysschaert 1969-1970, 211-212. 98 Paul is not mentioned in the so-called Liberian Catalogue in the Fasti Philocaliani 354; nor does the Liber Pontificalis(ca. 530) contain his biography, but Peter’s death on 29 June (III Kal. Iul.) is, however, mentioned Constructing Myths 59

there in his biography, as the first Bishop of Rome. 99 Huskinson 1982, 86. I shall return to this discussion later. 100 According to Février, André Chastagnol has demonstrated how the construction of the Basilica of St Paul was begun in 383-84: “cette reconstruction a eu pour l’inspirateur Damase.” Février 1992, 505; Carletti 2000b, 448. 101 CSEL 35, 3: “De constructione basilicae sancti apostoli Pauli.” 102 The popularity of the site is reflected in the intensified sepulchral cult. At the time of Damasus several tomb monuments were erected around the basilica in the so-called Platonia. 103 Pietri 1961, 279; Grig 2004, figures 5-6. 104 Zeses is a Latin transliteration of the Greek verb záo (ζάω). It was inserted in the phrase dignitas amicorum vivas pie zeses (“honour and good luck befall your friends, drink and live”) as it says in the bottom of the glass in Pl. III. The phrase was originally intended as a congratulatory greeting to the living, as the gold glasses had so far been used as gifts for one’s hosts. See Pietri 1961, 307-8; Ferrua 1974 and 1975; Faedo 1978, 1026. 105 ‘Naturalising’ is a term which takes its starting point in Barthesian theory and method. The term refers to the process of something becoming natural and matter-of-course, as if it had never been any different. I shall enter into a further discussion of the term and its application in connection with Damasus’ project in the following section. 106 Huskinson 1982, 90; Carletti 2000a, 367-369. See also Pietri 1961, 305, 307, 322; Cameron 1991, 82; Février 1992, 505; Sághy 2000, 279, 285-286. 107 I shall expand upon the criticism of the whole concept of propaganda in a forthcoming article. 108 Barthes 1957, 215-216: “au principe même du mythe: il transforme l’histoire en nature.” “[…] il va le naturaliser.” His italics. 109 Barthes 1957, 193. 110 Barthes 1957, 193. 111 Barthes 1957, 214-217. 112 Barthes 1957, 207. 113 Barthes 1957, 210. 114 Epigram to Nereus et Achilleus, Ferrua 1942, no. 8. 115 Halbwachs 1950, 68. 116 Halbwachs 1950, 68-69. 117 The expression can be found in epigrams nos. 17, 31, 35, 43, 46, cf. Ferrua 1942. Translation: “When the sword was still ravaging the holy interior of the Mother.” 118 Halbwachs 1950, 37, 70, 73. 119 Ruysschaert 1969-1970, 205 quotes Duchesne: Histoire ancienne de l’Eglise t. 2, Paris 1907, 483. 120 Barthes 1957, 10 (preface). His italics. This aspect has been developed by Dr. Mary Beard. Cf. Beard 1993, 45. 121 Trout 2003, 527. 122 Apart from the inscription to St. Agnes, the martyr epigram to St. Euthychius in S. Sebastiano is intact. It has been possible to reconstruct the inscription in the papal crypt in S. Callisto because of the large number of fragments which have come down to us (Pl. I). Far more fragmented are the inscriptions to St. Felicissimus and St. Agapitus in the Pretestato catacomb, the inscriptions to St. Eusebius and St. Cornelius in S. Callisto and the St. Nereus and St. Achilleus epigram in the catacomb of Domitilla. 123 Ferrua 1991, 332-339. 124 From the twelfth to the fourteenth centuries the Cosmati family adapted several epigrams to the patterns in the cosmatesque pavements in S. Martino ai Monti, Ss. Quattro Coronati and S. Giovanni in Laterano. 125 Among these itineraries are De Locis Sanctis and Notitia Ecclesiarum Urbis Romae from the seventh century and Itinerarium Einsiedlense and Sylloge Laureshamensis of the eighth and ninth centuries. 126 Marangoni 1744, 402-3. 127 Huskinson 1982, 86. Moreover, in Prudentius’ hymn to Peter and Paul (XII, 3-6) he suggests that Paul became a martyr a year after Peter: “Festus apostolici nobis redit hic dies triumphi, Pauli atque Petri nobilis 60 Gitte Lønstrup

cruore. Unus utrumque dies, pleno tamen innovatus anno, vidit superba morte laureatum.” (in: PL 60, 556). (“Today we have the festival of the apostles’ triumph coming round again, a day made famous by the blood of Paul and Peter. The same day, but recurring after a full year, saw each of them win the laurel by a splendid death.”). Translation from LCL 1953. 128 The sermon is taken from Agimondo’s collection of sermons (in: PL 54, 513); Chevasse 1960, 166-167; Susman 1961, 19. 129 Sermon 84. 1 (in: Nicene and Post Nicene Fathers, 2nd Series). 130 Susman 1961, 188-189. Constructing Myths 61

Pl. I. The crypt of the popes containing a Damasian epigram, S. Callisto, Rome, 366-384 (photo: Pontificia Commissione di Archeologia Sacra, Rome). 62 Gitte Lønstrup

Pl. II. Mosaic with a representation of Peter and Paul, S. Costanza, Rome, fourth century (photo: with permission from the ‛Parrocchia di S. Agnese’, Rome). Constructing Myths 63

Pl. III. Gold glass, vetro dorato, with a double portrait of Peter and Paul framed by the inscriptions Petrus, Paulus and fragments of the sentence dignitas amicorum vivas pie zeses. Rome, fourth century, The British Museum (photo: The Trustees of The British Museum). 64 Gitte Lønstrup

Pl. IV. Gold glass, vetro dorato with a representation of “Pastor”, the christological monogram, and the portraits of Damasus, Peter and Paul, whose names are inscribed on the glass as well. Rome, fourth century, Musei Vaticani (photo: Musei Vaticani, The Vatican City, Rome).