Chronological Outline of a History of Knowledge and Beliefs, with Key Events What Man Knew, or Thought He Knew ©2010 Thomson von Stein [email protected]

What men “know” determines how they act. The history of the world is one of constant, continual wars, large and small. (Voltaire, “a history of crimes and misfortunes.” Gibbon, “crimes and follies and misfortunes.” Historian John M. Roberts, “tedious.”) This outline is not about who fought whom. It is an overview principally about what thinking people knew, or at least believed they knew, in the context of certain relevant background events. From the start, knowledge was a by-product of Man’s quest for answers to fundamental questions: What, if any, is the meaning of life? What happens when we die? Is there something beyond what we see? What caused X? Why/how is there matter? Aristotle, “All men naturally desire knowledge.” As a gross oversimplification, before the 17th century, knowledge was mainly theological. Thereafter it was mainly scientific.

For all of recorded history until very recent times, the vast majority of people (including rulers) were illiterate, violent, ignorant, and superstitious. Thus there is a distinction between what the masses knew (cultural history) and what the very tiny percent of thinking persons knew (intellectual history). This outline mainly concerns what such thinking persons knew and believed. Some ideas, concepts, or permutations of various schools of thought were/are so sophisticated that almost all thinking persons are not even aware of them and such ideas stay within the even smaller community of, for example, physicists or philosophers.

Plato postulated 4 levels of certainty of thought: imagining, belief, thinking, and, the most certain, knowledge, which he defined as justifiable true belief. In epistemology, the study of knowledge, there are 3 minimum requirements for any belief to be considered knowledge. 1. The belief must be based on adequate evidence. 2. The belief must be internally consistent, and 3. the belief cannot contradict previously validated knowledge. As used herein, knowledge usually includes what Man believed he knew, irrespective of its intrinsic justifiability. For most men, believing is knowing. There is no one universally accepted definition of knowledge. Averroës: “Knowledge is the conformity of the object and the intellect.” H G Wells 1920, “Our world today is only in the beginning of knowledge.” Samuel Taylor Coleridge: “The wise only possess ideas; the greater part of mankind are possessed by them.”

The development of civilization and knowledge was extremely uneven around the globe. Land travel was at walking speed. Some ideas, developments, inventions, (i.e., tools, weapons, boats, plows, stirrups, food production, wheels, paper, monotheism, democracy), developed independently in different parts of the globe. Some appeared in one place and took hundreds or thousands of years to spread to locales even relatively close. The Aztecs and Incas were unaware of each other. Mexican corn and beans took c3,000 and c4,000 years respectively to spread from Mexico to the Eastern U.S. Farming took c5,000 years to migrate from the Mid- East to France. Pottery appeared in Ecuador c3100 BC but not in neighboring Peru for c1,300 years. The rise of civilization in any given locale was enabled by a hospitable climate, a diversity of plants and animals, and the presence of certain inventions/developments, such as tools and fire (2M BC), buildings (500K BC), burial (70K BC), art (28K BC), farming (12K BC), domesticated animals (10K BC), weaving (6.5K BC), boats, weapons, and pottery, c6K BC), all of which had developed long before writing/history. Some hunter/gatherers remain so into the 21st century. Men seek a meaning to their lives. Knowledge builds on knowledge. Knowledge in the sciences, biology, medicine, botany, astronomy, physics, chemistry, etc. grew more in the 20th century than in all previous centuries combined and is not fully covered in this chronology (Gr. Chronos = time) . “Science” tries to classify, categorize and find and quantify relationships between objects and phenomena. Writers of history and philosophy generally have some agenda, so sources used herein may be imperfect.

Summary of the history of knowledge: c8000BC “Writing” used only to keep records, record laws. Men had hand weapons, boats, tools, believed in many gods. 9th cent. BC Iliad and Odyssey, at first oral, told stories of adventure, culture, and emotions of men and gods. Gods ruled. c500 BC First explosion of rational thinking/knowledge, philosophy (love of wisdom), mathematics, in Greece. The Greek philosophers/scientists, Thales, Pythagoras, Socrates, Plato, Aristotle, took knowledge from the priests. c300 BC Romans, pragmatic, built on Greek culture, developed a more or less world government, the Roman Empire. c450 AD Roman Empire fell to barbarians. Western Civilization sank into the Dark Ages, stagnation; the sum of Western knowledge actually shrank. Intellectual activity reverted mainly to theological, except for Muslims. c1000 Theological thinking ruled the West. Muslims advanced medicine, optics. Universities slowly were founded. c1240s Roger Bacon taught Aristotle at U. of Paris and advocated using induction and experiment. c1300 The Renaissance, Greek rational thinking, arts, philosophy, were rediscovered, first in Italy, spread very slowly. 1454 The Age of Printing began with Gutenberg’s moveable type system. Books became available to the masses. c1500-today Second explosion of knowledge; Scientific Method was developed. Science replaced theology as the most important area of human intellectual activity & knowledge. Christians, Muslims resisted. The Rise of the West. 17th century The century of intellectual giants. The Scientific Method was perfected. Modern science began. 1687+ Newton’s Principia showed that mechanical principles rule all matter. Scientific societies spread knowledge. 1688+ Age of Revolutions, scientific, mechanical/industrial, and political (England, USA, Germany, France). 1815-1914 Colonialism and Industry transformed the world into a money economy. 1859 Darwin explained how Man and all living things evolved from simple organisms. Christians objected. 20th century Einstein, Planck, Bohr, Russell, Hubble, Heisenberg, others, increased knowledge exponentially. ______Abbreviations: “c” for circa = approximately; K = thousand. M = million. B = billion. BC = Before Christ. AD = Anno Domini Names of persons are in boldface. Titles: Saint, King, Lord, Pope, Khan, Sir, Bishop, Caesar, Prince, Cardinal, are not.

1 Prologue Geology/Cosmology: The Big Bang was c13.6-15.6B years ago. The first element was hydrogen (1 proton), then nuclear to fusion fused 2 hydrogen atoms into helium and later into heavier elements. Earth began when matter coalesced around History a molten iron core into a planet c4.6B BC. The surface cooled and solidified into plates that drifted over the softer mantle. Primitive bacteria appeared c4B BC. For 3 billion years the only living things on Earth were one-celled organisms.

800M BC Biology: Multi-celled organisms began to appear, evolved into different more-celled forms.

c600M c600M-c530M BC Most major animal groups evolved during the Cambrian “Explosion,” which lasted c70M years. c250M BC Geology: One continent, Pangaea, slowly split into the present continents which drifted to their current locations. c65M BC 6 mile big asteroid hit Yucatan, 94 mi. crater. Dust clouds blocked Sun for years, killed 70% of species, dinosaurs.

c7M BC Biology: Hominids (i.e., man-like), with an opposable thumb, probably first appeared in Chad c7M BC, then Ardi, in Ethiopia, c4.4M BC (bipedal on the ground, used 4 limbs in trees, brain size 1/4 Homo sapiens); then Lucy in Ethiopia Hominids (Australopithecus) c3.3M BC, brain size 775 cc, half that of Homo sapiens but twice that of a chimp, walked upright. Thus Hominids appeared in the last 1/600th of the age of the Earth. Hominids had clothing, spears, and flint knives. Remains of pre-history are skimpy with little certainty re the evolution of Man. Hominids did not change very much; they foraged and used a sharpened stone as a hand tool for over one million years. Most died before age 20.

c2M BC Yellowstone erupted, enough ash to bury NY State 67 ft deep. Yellowstone is the largest active volcano on Earth.

c1.5M to 700K BC. Hominids (Homo erectus/upright) spread out of Africa. Last ice age began to cover N. Europe. c700KBC Paleolithic Age began. (Paleo=old; lithic=stone). Age named lithic as Man used stone tools, foraged, likely knew medicinal plants. Homo erectus pekinesis in China; their brain was around 1,235 cc. Hunted large animals in groups. Greatest pre- historic technological advance was use of fire. Men hunted; women cared for infants. First evidence of Man in Europe. c370KBC Neanderthal species branched from common ancestor of Cro-Magnan/Homo sapiens. They dominated Eurasia. c350KBC Biology: Hominid settlements in China. Wooden spears used at Schoeningin, Germany. Average lifespan c 20 yrs. c200KBC Biology: Homo sapiens/Thinking Man evolved in Africa, last of four now known Hominid species, made tools to make tools, used spears, sharp stones. Foraged for food. Their brain size was 1,300 cc to 1,500 cc, same as today. [Man: Phylum-Chordata, Group-Vertebrates, Class-Mammals, Order-Primates, Family-Hominidae, Genus-Homo, Species-sapiens.] Some insects have not changed in 50M years. Homo sapiens evolved from Hominid in just 7M yrs.

c74K BC Toba, Sumatra, erupted, caused a 6 year worldwide volcanic winter, may have reduced humans to a few thousand people.

c60K - Last Ice Age: Neanderthal Man [c370K BC-c30K BC] (first found in the Neander Tal/Valley in Germany). Neanderthal brain 10K BC was slightly larger than Homo sapiens. Neanderthal DNA not part of Homo sapiens family. Neanderthals were first men known to bury their dead (c60K BC in Iran). Food buried with their dead suggests a belief in an afterlife. Late Neanderthal Ice tools were little better than early Neanderthal tools, i.e., no progress. Neanderthals had plant medicines, and crude Age sculptures. Neanderthals hunted in groups, and disappeared c30K BC, possibly through contact with Cro Magnon/Homo- sapiens. Thus, at 200K BC, Homo sapiens evolved in the last 1/23,000th of the age of the Earth.

c35K BC First evidence of counting, 29 notches on a fibula, Swaziland Cave paintings generally of animals, but bow and arrow also appeared in cave paintings in Veltora Gorge, E. Spain

c30K BC Biology: Cro-Magnon Man, (c30,000 BC-10,000 BC), earliest Homo sapiens in Europe. Skilled hunters, made multi-piece Cro- tools, spear throwers, left sophisticated cave paintings in France that included witch doctors, shamans. The cave paintings Magnon told stories and thus were the first “writings.” They had dug-out canoes, clothing, huts, needles, awls, rope, bow & arrow.

Dry Land Glacial ice sheets receding. Modern Homo sapiens appeared in Europe. Neanderthals and Homo sapiens coexisted for from c40,000 years. The last Ice Age concentrated water at polar latitudes, thus lowered sea level, left dry land from Asia to Asia to Alaska, Japan, and Sarawak; New Guinea to Australia. Siberian Homo sapiens followed caribou, musk ox, mammoths Alaska to Alaska and further south. Possible DNA/archeological evidence of Ice Age humans from S. Europe in America. All pre- 1492 S. Americans were in blood group O. North Amerindians were in blood groups A & O, suggesting a second migration reaching only N. America after the one that reached S. America. Homo sapiens put handles on tools for leverage.

c20K BC Paleolithic Venus of Laussel, SW France, a crude cave carving of a nude woman may be the first depiction of a goddess. c18K - c18-10K BC Magdalenian Homo sapiens, hunters of W. Europe, used harpoons, followed herds, painted sophisticated 10K BC grand elaborate cave paintings of animals, used jewelry, lived in tipis, carved animals. Earliest evidence in S. France.

c11K BC Neolithic Age (Neo=New) began. Beginnings of agriculture, use of polished stone tools, plants and seeds. With every development of speech, Man could intensify and develop the traditions of taboos and restraints and ceremonies. Language organized consecutive thought. (Some posit that language was a requisite for religious thought.) Neolithic Man associated

2 the sun and snakes in decoration and worship. Evidence of sacrificial practices. Every food, plant, and animal of importance today was domesticated during the Neolithic Age, i.e., pre-historic, i.e., before writing.

c15-10K Last Ice Age ending, Agriculture: Ice melted, seas rose. The Sahara (means desert) was fertile. Some hunter/gatherers BC found they could grow food and use animals, so didn’t have to follow a herd, the largest single step in the ascent of Man toward modern society. (metallurgy next, c3000BC). Hunters became herders, daily seeking new pasture. Crude pottery.

In the Mid-East, by a genetic accident, a new hybrid form of wheat, Emmer, with a large full head of seeds, appeared, then another fuller seeded hybrid, but it had to be planted; it did not blow in the wind like earlier wheat. So Man settled and c9000BC planted it, but did not abandon hunting/gathering. Man formed logs or stones to build shelters, a great step intellectually. A temperate climate with water available enabled the development of farming. Family groups developed into villages, for protection and to cooperate in the hunt. Farming, even before the plow was invented, produced far more food with less Farming work, permitting the population to increase greatly in a given geographic area and providing surplus food for non-farmers. Hunter/gatherers, unschooled in many respects, had an encyclopedic knowledge of their natural world. (Some hunter/gatherer groups stayed unchanged to modern times, in New Guinea, Australia, Borneo, Africa, and the Amazon.

Man became a shaper of nature, not just a predator on it. The oasis of Jericho, ten acres big (just north of the Dead Sea), Jericho the first town for which there are records, was fortified. People ground grain, had ovens, and houses of sun-dried bricks. Towns grew along trade routes. Flax (linen), one of oldest crops, was grown for rope and cloth. Flax was the chief textile of Europe until cotton supplanted it in the 18th century. Some cultures have still not advanced beyond crude agriculture.)

Farming developed independently in at least four locales (with different crops). 1. The Americas, corn, potatoes, beans, peppers, 2. Europe-Middle-East, where field agriculture, depending on reproduction by seed developed, grains, esp. wheat and barley being the principal crops, (Bread of differing grains was the staple diet and remained so until modern times.) 3. Monsoon Asia/Pacific islands where propagation of crops by transplantation of offshoots from a parent plant, such as rice and millet, prevailed, and where root crops dominated, and 4. Western Africa, millet and yams. Farming took time to spread from where it originated, and it spread unevenly, depending on climate and ease of travel. For example, farming was only established in France thousands of years after it began in the Mid-East. c8000BC Mathematics probably preceeded writing. Primitive writing, pictographs, developed in Sumer city-states in Babylon, a small kingdom in south Mesopotamia (land between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers), current S. E. Iraq. Pictographs then simplified into symbols for syllables/sounds. Only “inventions” were primitive hunting/fishing tools (and perhaps a kiln

“History” began with writing. The concept of preserving ideas/facts with writing was the first important development in the history of knowledge. But, the important developments that enabled civilizations to develop, i.e., tools, fire, art, buildings, burial, farming, domestic animals, boat, weapons, pottery, weaving, money, metal, all pre-dated 8K BC. “History” Dogs, sheep, goats, and pigs were domesticated by c8K BC in the Mid-East, the cow (in the Mid-East and India) by c6K BC, Cotton cloth was used in Mexico. Copper and obsidian (glassy lava) were used in W estern Turkey)

There is no one agreed-upon theory of the origins of religions: Humans saw that some things caused other things. But Origins if the cause of something cannot be readily understood, it may be ascribed to a supernatural force. Non-readily explainable of events / phenomena, like wind, sunshine, disease, luck at hunting, rain, were ascribed to supernatural forces. So may religions have evolved the oldest and most enduring argument for a god(s), the God by Default argument, an argument by inference, i.e., “We don’t know what caused X, but something must have (a common sense reaction), so we infer that it must have been done by a supernatural force/god.” Belief in the supernatural brought/brings meaning and order to people’s lives; “Ah, that explains it.” Burial of the dead generally thought to be first evidence of belief in supernatural forces. Arthur C. Clarke, “Any phenomenon sufficiently beyond one’s current experience is indistinguishable from magic.” c7000BC Enter the priest/shaman, someone who claimed knowledge of why things happened, and saw an advantage in asserting that some supernatural force, a god, with whom they had some connection or influence caused such events. The concept of sacrifice/obedience may well have developed when priests ascribed to such supernatural force(s) the human trait of trading. The god would accept a sacrifice/gift in exchange for giving success in the hunt, or crop. The priest saw an advantage in proscribing rituals for such gift giving, in which he was the middleman between the people and the gods (taking his commission as it were). Priests claimed that there was a particular god who caused rain, or wind, or healthy children, and so on. “There’s no rain. The rain god must be appealed to.” (Petronius, Roman, in the 1st century AD said: “It was fear that first brought gods into the world.”) Different beliefs in the supernatural, different gods, developed in different cultures. A cult of a Great Goddess concerned with birth and death flourished around Catal Huyuk in Anatolia, Central Turkey, where samples of woven cloth were found c6000BC Artifacts document men’s mental activity. By 6000 BC, some groups had boats, looms, potter’s wheels, oil lamps, simple bows and arrows, harpoons, grindstone, ax (in Sweden), copper (in Anatolia), iron (from meteorites), flint sickles (a great technological advance). Cultures, if not civilizations, of farmers developed in Meso-America as well as Eurasia. More food from farming enabled the world’s population to rise 17X from c8K BC to c4K BC. In Mexico, Amerindians domesticated corn that led to the rise of sophisticated civilizations, the Olmec, then Aztec, and Mayan c5000BC Civilization/city life and shrines/temples to gods appeared at the same time in history. In a broad sense, the settled

3 communities can be considered communities of obedience where priests/gods ruled, with a god(s) who compels obedience. as opposed to the nomadic peoples who can be considered communities of will, where the chief is voluntarily followed because of his leadership/hunting abilities. Slaves existed from day one.

“Civilizations” developed first in the irrigable river valleys, the Nile, Indus, and Tigris-Euphrates (Sumer), where a surplus of crops (due to farming based on irrigation which was a community activity) could feed non-working priestly/ruling and artisan classes. A denser population and differences in abilities led to social classes, a governing structure, and more formal rules for behavior & the specialization of labor, artisans & craftsmen, who developed technologies, i.e., “civilization.” Sumerians were the first group that can be called a civilization. The temple community organization helped Sumerians create conditions for the development of civilization. Priests told people how to gain a god’s favor, for example, for a bountiful crop, for success at the hunt, and how to qualify for the afterlife, don’t kill your neighbor, don’t steal, etc. Sumer’s chief god was An/Anu, god of the sky, next was Enlil, god of the storm, then Earth goddess Ki or Nintu, then Enki, lord of the creative forces of the Earth. All first known gods were anthropomorphic.

The city was the property of the city god. Temples were a god’s earthly home and the storehouses of grain. The large irrigated fields were owned by gods and administered by priests. Priests administered and recorded the surplus of agricultural products to support themselves and artisans. Temples were dedicated to one god. More refined and varied beliefs in gods developed. Rich persons dead were buried with gold and silver ornaments for the next life.

Religion and government were/are the two principal means of social control. In the beginnings of civilization, they were the same institution. The temple system with its priests was the nucleus and the guiding intelligence about which Mediterranean primitive civilizations grew. Temples were the repository of knowledge and tradition, on how to live one’s life and a binding force to keep the community together. This or that god commanded one to sacrifice, worship, act according to certain rules, etc. Men never questioned what the priests said. It was a basic principle of all known early societies that civil authority derived from the gods, with no separation of church and state.

The first records of any city-states were in Sumer, cities of Eridu, Nippur, Ur, Uruk (first large walled city, six square Sumer kilometers, c50,000 population, bureaucracy), Assur, Umma, Kish, Lagash, and others. Their origins are unknown. Sumerian “cities” differed from Neolithic villages in that the use of irrigation required community cooperation. These city- First states were the basic units of Sumerian civilization. Sumerians had sailboats (sailed only with the wind), wove baskets city- and cloth. Sumerians sailed/rowed, plundered when they could, traded when they had to, used balance scales. Sumerians states were the first merchants/traders. Oars were more reliable than sails on the Mediterranean. Oars required slaves/oarsmen. Sledges and pack animals were used for cargo, as the wheel was not yet developed. The 3 main social groups were the nobles (kings/priests), commoners, and slaves. Almost everyone was a farmer.

Sumerian priests taught that Man had been created expressly to free gods from having to work. Man was thus obliged to work ceaselessly. The priests said that their first duty was to attend to the gods’s wants, i.e., ceremonies and sacrifices, then to instruct the people as to what the gods wanted from them. The community arose around the altar of seed-time sacrifice. “Religion” put concepts of morality and proper behavior outside the control of ordinary persons.

Before writing, the spread of knowledge was oral, simple, and slow. Farming was probably women’s work. Men hunted, and later, when they domesticated sheep, goats, or cattle, became herders. Women were the property of their fathers, then their husbands. Marriage was a matter of property.

In the Mid-East, everyone worshiped numerous gods. As farming developed, worship of gods associated with the hunt (developed during nomadic hunter/gatherer times) was supplemented by worship of gods and goddesses associated with agricultural fecundity, Mother Earth, rain, sun, etc. c4000BC By 4000 BC, the horse (Ukraine), the water buffalo (China), and the donkey (Egypt), were domesticated. Earliest Egyptian records indicate numerous gods; 3 main gods, Ra/Re (Sun god), Osiris, & Set. Egyptians mined and smelted copper ore in the Negev. They used papyrus for writing. (Papyrus is the pith of the stem of a plant abundant in the marshes of the Nile delta). How to make paper was a state secret. Egyptians made reed boats with push sails, not used on the Mediterranean, only for the Nile. Megaliths (large stone structures) began to be erected in the British Isles and NW France.

3761 BC Year of creation for Jews, its theology had common themes with Egyptian and Mesopotamian myths. c3700BC 1st evidence of wheeled vehicles, in Sumer. So, Homo sapiens/Thinking Man didn’t think of the wheel for c200K yrs. c3500BC Pictograph Writing. After cave paintings came pictographs, the first order of words. The second order of words combined pictographs, i.e., a pictograph for a mouth with a pictograph for vapor meant “words.” Then ideograms, the sign for words and the sign for vapor meant speech.

Plow The most powerful invention in all farming was the plow; it increased yields, so supported more people and a larger class of non-farmers who advanced civilization. The plow was first developed in the Mid-East, and was just a piece of forked wood that loosened the soil. The plow required a draft animal. Its use spread slowly; i.e., Aryan invaders around c1500

4 BC brought the plow to India. The plow was also in Denmark by 1500 BC, but plows only came to China, separated from the Med civilizations by mountains/deserts of central Asia, c2000 years later, c350 BC. Peoples of some geographic areas, isolated and/or with climates unsuited to farming, with no animals suitable to pull plows, never developed farming, thus limiting their population. They developed cultures but not civilizations. Every community/culture believed that it was at the center of the world and all other peoples inferior.

c3400 c3400 BC: Menes, king of the Upper (Southern) Nile, conquered the lower (Northern) Nile kingdom and unified Egypt. He ruled from Memphis (near Cairo). The Egyptian Kingdom lasted c3,000 years until Alexander the Great conquered it in Egypt 333BC. C3200 BC. were the first known Egyptian hieroglyphics/symbols for words. Egyptian doctors practiced surgery . Egypt was the Nile and the Nile was Egypt. The Nile flowed north, the winds blew south; so, drift north, sail south, in reed sailboats with push sails. Easy. Each of the various Egyptian tribes had numerous gods and goddesses, in total perhaps 2,000. The gods were the highest, then the dead, then the pharaoh/god king, then priests, then the people. Egyptians traded with Minoans (Crete); had symbols for 1, 10, 100, etc, i.e., a base ten numbering system.

What As explained by the priests, Egyptians knew that the sun went sailing over Egypt in a boat, and that a pig ate the moon Egyptians every month. Egyptians saw no reason to change, barely changed in 3,000 years. Egyptians knew that the Lower Egyptian knew god Ptah created the world. Their 365 day calendar had 12 months of 29 or 30 days (tied to the moon’s c29.5 day phase), with five days added at the end. The year started when the Nile flooded, in the Spring, and coincidentally, it was also the first sighting of the star Sirius. Egyptians used sundials during the day and split the day into two 12 hour parts. Math was limited to add, subtract, multiply, divide. Egyptians and Creteans had candles. Cretan civilization paralleled Egypt’s.

Egyptians had no concept of progress, i.e., a sense of improvement over the years and centuries. They dug canals to irrigate and tame the Nile. Yearly Spring flooding made the soil fertile. Egyptians traded with Phoenicians. c98% of the people were illiterate. They used skins, grew grains, irrigated, fertilized, built shelters, carved, used fire, baked bread, mined and smelted ores, wove wool and flax, used a forked wood for plow, had laws, a numbering system. Egyptians practiced medicine, but knew/believed there was a divine origin of diseases. Thus, doctors sought divine guidance.

Sumerians in cities, developed metal working, had irrigation, a four wheeled cart, sun-dials, and, most importantly, developed a written language. Early pictographs developed into wedge-shaped symbols, cuneiform, using a triangular stylus on soft clay tablets (Sumerians didn’t have papyrus), with c2,000 characters, first as representing syllables, which c3000BC combined with other syllables, denoted words. Sumerian cuneiform writing was not deciphered until the early 1800s. Sumerians/Babylonians used a base 60 place value counting system and the abacus.

Sacrifice of animals (and/or humans) was the center of almost all known religions’s rites. There were numerous gods in different temples, sun gods, bull gods (male fertility), hawk gods, mother or Earth goddesses (Ishtar), water god, heaven god, goddess of birth, cow deities, etc. People invariably worshiped both good and evil gods.

Bronze Neolithic Stone Age developed into the Bronze Age as men learned to smelt metals. Use of bronze first developed in the Age Mid-East: Egypt, Crete, and Anatolia. Two soft metals, copper 90% and tin 10%, combined to create a very hard metal, bronze. Discovery of bronze may have occurred in more than one locale. (Bronze Age only spread to N. Europe and China over 1,000 years after it began in the Mid-East.) Sumerians perfected metallurgy to make weapons. Tin had to be obtained from as far away as Central Europe, and, later, Cornwall (SW England). Most of Europe remained in Neolithic barbarism. The Western world consisted of the civilizations centered around the Mediterranean. Simple oil lamps used.

Astronomical observations were important for farming, i.e., when to plant. Astronomers were the first “scientists” to see order in nature. Babylonians developed a relatively accurate calendar based on astronomical observations. They thought that the Earth was a sphere. Their place-value system of numbering developed in Sumer but without a zero.

Phoenicians (Canaanite Semites) occupied present Lebanon/Northern Israel and became seafarers. Akkadians, Semites from Syria, conquered Sumer and adapted their sign-for-a-sound writing to their own speech. Eventually this developed through the Phoenicians into the modern Western alphabets. c3000BC to c2400 BC. Stonehenge and many other stone rings built in Britain, Ireland, and Normandy. Oriented to the solstices. c2700BC Botany/Biology: Sumerians listed 100s of animals and 250 plants. Sumerians were first known to depict humans in art.

Chinese used wheeled vehicles and the loom. Chinese emperors claimed their status came from the heavens. Chinese developed pictograph writing and began to make silk, wrote on it. The secret of silk was not known in the West for 3,000 years. Dragons symbolized power, happiness, immortality, procreation, fertility, activity, warding off evil spirits, and knowledge, and pervaded Chinese art and mythology. Chinese developed the magnetic compass.

Sepulchral iconography appeared on the first great pyramid, the step pyramid, the tomb of king Zoser/Djozer, built c2630- c2611. The Egyptians had no word for religion as there was nothing else that governed their lives. Egyptians lived to die, c2630BC spent their lives (and fortunes) preparing for death and the afterlife, immortality. Egyptians never disputed the priests’s teachings that gods controlled all natural events. Pyramids signify an extensive governing organization.

5 Egyptians (and Sumerians) put stars into constellations and assigned seasonal appearances to them. Egyptians used three writing systems, pictorial hieroglyphics, a simplified version called hieratic, and its derivative, demotic.

The Pyramids were built from c2630-c1830 BC. The Great Pyramid of Cheops/Khufu was built c2589-c2566 BC, using c2.4M limestone blocks, each c2.3-15 tons, and c100,000 workers. Its base is almost a perfect square. Its sides are precisely north-south and east-west. Without metal, obsidian (glassy lava) was used to cut the stones. Egyptians were skillful stone cutters, sculptors. Levers, rollers, and ramps were used to move the heavy stones.

Technology: Egyptians built boats with planks from Lebanon, enabling them to sail the Med, rougher than the Nile. They used square “push” sails. (Triangular lateen sails, allowing sailing into the wind, slowly developed in the Med over the c2600BC centuries and were not fully developed until the 15th century AD in Portugal.) Horses were used in Central Asia. c2500BC Camels were domesticated in Central Asia, enabling caravans to cross the vast deserts. Egyptians began to use oxen to pull plows. The wheel reached the Indus Valley and most of N. Europe1,000 years after it was developed in Sumer.

c2500- Rise and fall of the Indus River Valley (Pakistan) civilization. Its major cities were Mohenjo-Daro and Harappa, gone now. 1500 BC This was the third great river valley civilization. It was larger than Mesopotamia or Egypt, until Aryan invaders destroyed it c1500 BC. Its cities exhibited complex town planning and engineering knowledge. It had toilets in private houses, public baths, a drainage system, paved streets, a written language, which has not been deciphered. No tombs or temples have been found. Oven burnt brick used for irrigation canals. Nothing but the Aryan/Hindu caste system has survived. c2400BC Political Theory / Religion: In Egypt, a god-king/pharaoh, son of Ra, the sun-god, creator of the universe, judge of mankind, ruled. The Pyramid Texts indicate that the pharaoh ruled according to principles, the main one being Ma’at, truth and justice. This was the first evidence of association of a concept of a deity and morality, a useful concept for the ruling class.

Osiris Egyptian beliefs predate history. The Pyramid Texts also told of Osiris, who reputedly had brought civilization to Egypt, being cut into pieces by his evil brother, Set, then put together by his wife and resurrected. Osiris was the most notable (but not only) myth of resurrection until the story of Christ. Other resurrected gods were Tammuz in Mesopotamia, Attis & Adonis in Syria. Osiris, a god, was the son of the god, Hermes and the goddess Rhea. Pyramid Texts also described the embalming procedure used on Osiris (remove organs, dry body, wrap it); thereafter used by all who could afford it. Middle East Egyptians knew that Osiris was the judge of persons wishing to ensure a favorable journey to eternal life in the afterlife. Myths On death, one had to prove to Osiris, who resided in the afterlife, that one had lived a virtuous life, that one had not done various specific named bad acts. Fail the test and one is eaten by a combination crocodile/lion/ hippo. This was a precursor to the later Christian concept of judgment and Hell. Osiris thus granted salvation. Belief in an afterlife, Heaven and Hell/Hades, dependent on conduct in this life, was an effective means of social control. G. C. Lichtenberg, German, “Probably no invention came more easily to Man than when he thought up Heaven.”

The cult of the god Osiris became known and popular throughout the Mid-East. Other pre-Christ resurrection cults were of Tansley (Babylon), Attis, Adonis (Syrian/Greek), and Mithra (Persia). c2200BC Egyptians developed weight standards and developed the arch (but rarely used it). The arch takes nature apart and reshapes it, a great intellectual triumph. Egyptians made leavened bread, the first to do so. Sumerians and Egyptians developed wheeled war chariots, a powerful weapon. Almost everybody was illiterate.

Trigonometry, the branch of math that studies relationships between the angles and sides of triangles, developed in Egypt, Mesopotamia, and the Indus Valley. The practice of measuring angles in degrees, minutes and seconds came from the Babylonian base 60 number system. Mesopotamians learned to solve quadratic equations, i.e., equations where the highest power is 2. Thus, mathematical thinking was the first “modern” thinking. c2000BC Hinduism: is the Western term for the philosophic/religious traditions of India. Uniquely, it has no known single founder; has innumerable sects. It is the oldest known religious tradition, evolved with a skeptical tradition. Around 2000 BC, its Hinduism sacred texts, Vedas and Upanishads, were compiled. One of its roots was the ancient Vedic religion. Hindu Vedas, was the earliest Indian literature, painted a circular picture of the universe. A universal spirit pervades all things. Hinduism is an animistic tradition with millions of gods, not unlike that of the Egyptians. It does not have one dogma; it does not believe in any one philosophic concept, so it’s difficult to call it a religion in Western terms. Hinduism embraces vegetarianism and human sacrifice, asceticism and orgy, varied cults. It has pantheists, monotheists, and atheists. (Atheism is absence of Hindu a belief in a god(s)/supernatural force(s).) Caste System The religious activities of Hindus are devoted to ritual observances that permit every aspect of life to come into tune with the various gods. Hinduism ascribes different powers to different gods, similar to other god systems. The objectives of human life in classical Hindu thought were dharma (righteousness, ethikos), artha (livelihood, wealth), kama (sensual pleasure), moksa (liberation, freedom from samsara). Women were subordinate to men in all regards. While it embraced many sometimes differing beliefs, one of Hinduism’s two basic ideas is that one’s position in life, one’s caste, results from one’s karma, how one lived in previous incarnations.

6 What The Hindu scripture Manusmriti states that the castes were created by God. Right and wrong actions increase the positive Hindus and negative potential energy (apurva) of each person. Apurva is eventually released (in this or the next life) and causes Know good or evil to the person. So, misfortune is caused by one’s prior bad deeds, not from gods. Wisdom is the realization that everything is suffering. One’s caste determines: 1. Whom one may socialize with and marry, 2. Where one may live, 3. What one can eat and drink, and 4. What job one may have. That is, if one is born into the dung collector caste, one stays there, all because of how one acted in a previous life. This was/is slavery with a supernatural justification. As such unfairness in life was/is a “supernatural” belief which attributed one’s position to one’s past life, about which one can do nothing, even the lowest castes, those treated most cruelly, did not question it. Hinduism was thus a useful belief system for the ruling Brahmin caste, and of course, taught consistently by the Brahmins.

The Hindu divine trinity are Brahma the creator, Vishnu the preserver, and Shiva the destroyer and intellect. Accepting the Veda (including the 112 Upanishads, c700 BC) as the most sacred scriptures was/is Hinduism’s other key idea. The Rig-Veda (verses of wisdom), the Sama-Veda, the Yajur-Veda are books of hymns. The Atharva-Veda is a book of magic spells. Artifacts relating to an early Shiva have been found in Mohenjo-Daro and Harappa, the major known cities of the Indus Valley civilization. Hinduism’s four main castes were/are: 1. Brahmins - the priests, white, those with white skin are thought to possess goodness. 2. Kshatriyas - rulers and warriors, red skin, those with red skin possess passion. 3. Viasyas - commoners/merchants, professionals, yellow skin, have both passion and goodness 4. Sudras - artisans/laborers, black skin, attributed with darkness. Plus the Untouchables -diseased- in no caste - beggars - they wander the streets. In most Hindu sects, women have few rights. For millennia, widows were expected to immolate themselves. c2000BC Sumerian epic poem, Gilgamesh, (the historical king of Uruk, who lived c2700 BC), inscribed on 12 clay tablets, had themes seen in later Greek heroic epics and in the Bible, including a flood story (There are numerous somewhat similar Sumer flood myths from many cultures of a few persons surviving after receiving instructions from a supernatural being. One flood myth later appeared in Genesis.) One story of a great flood had also appeared in earlier Sumerian texts, where King Epic Zisudra built an ark and survived a great flood.

Greeks, Jews, Chinese, Japanese, Romans, (and much later, Aztecs and Incas), sacrificed humans. According to Genesis Jews 22, Jews stopped human sacrifice c2000 BC. (God/Yahweh told Abraham not to kill his son Isaac after all.) (Christians, Buddhists, and Muslims never practiced human sacrifice. Aztecs and Incas did so on a large scale.) According to the Old Testament/Hebrew Bible, Abraham led Jews (then a small tribe with a novel idea of creation) from Ur in Mesopotamia to Canaan (Israel/Lebanon). God’s covenant with Abraham, founder of Judaism, was that Abraham’s descendants would inherit Canaan. Judaism is most lasting and most influential religion of ancient Mid-East cultures.

The major classes in the earliest civilizations were: 1. Priesthood. Priests everywhere joined kings to keep the lower classes submissive. 2. Kings and their courts. 3. Peasants/slaves/serfs. (Artisans developed from the slave class). 4. Merchants, at first, shipowners. Separate minor classes were small retailers, gang workers, seamen, herdsmen, and mercenaries.

Mesopotamians worshiped gods of heaven, Earth, water, and the underworld. They used sundials and discovered / deduced what’s now known as the Pythagorean Theorem. The spoked wheel was used in Mesopotamia, but did not spread to Europe for 1,000 years. Mesopotamians used a curved bronze sickle, similar to ones in use today in Egypt. c1800BC Mid-East use of bronze (copper + tin) reached Europe and China. c1750BC Hammurabi, founder and warrior king of Babylon, promulgated the first secular Code of laws. Hit your father, lose your hand. Help a slave escape, die. Put out a nobleman’s eye or break his bone, lose one eye or have your bone broken. Put out a commoner’s eye or break his bone, pay one mina of silver. To divorce, return the dowry. Hammurabi said the code was given to him by the god Marduk, thus connecting religion and proper behavior.

Civilizations began to develop in places beyond irrigable river valleys. On Crete, the Minoan civilization (matriarchal religion, discovered only in 1900) flourished, and was the most sophisticated of all; bathrooms had running water, had elaborate art, buildings had light and air shafts. Minoans dominated the Med trade from c2000 BC to c1600 BC. c1750BC Shang, first known Chinese dynasty, united and ruled China until c1000 BC. Chinese ruling class, Mandarins, was a Shang meritocracy, except for the emperor’s family (hereditary). China had hundreds of local lords, roughly dominated by 12 Dynasty more powerful lords. Fully developed Bronze Age culture (i.e., bronze urns) in China and Viet-Nam by 1600 BC, over 1,000 years after Bronze Age in the Mid-East. Chinese made water clocks, developed pictographs for words. The earliest known Chinese writing was pictographs on bones and tortoise shells. Chinese “religion” emphasized ritual with little emphasis on theology. Slaves were buried with Shang kings to serve him in the afterlife. c1700BC Aryan speaking barbarian tribes, all Hellenes, first Ionians, then Aeolians, Dorians, Macedonians, and Thracians, migrated

7 southward through the Balkan Peninsula to present day Greece, a small mostly mountainous area. The Hellenes conquered the resident Aegean civilization, adopted the skills and arts of the far more sophisticated Minoan civilization of Crete which had, inter alia, pottery; and established cities. Minoan writing has not been deciphered. c1600BC Volcanic eruption destroyed Santorini/Thera. The resulting tsunami likely wiped out the Minoan civilization on Crete. c1400BC c1400 BC Chinese writing had 25,000 characters. The system of pictographs, still used, created the class of Mandarins who could write and govern. A Mandarin’s education was mainly learning to read. Only the wealthy could afford to study. c1360BC Pharaoh Amenhotep 4 / Akh-en-Aton (1375-1323 BC), husband of Nefertiti, said there’s only one god, Aten, the Sun god. He abolished other gods. After his death, polytheistic priests of Amon Re discarded this “monotheism.”

Jews Theology: Like all cultures at the time, Jews first had many gods and believed many myths, such as the myths regarding the origin of the world shared by various Middle Eastern cultures. Over centuries, Abraham’s tribe’s god Yahweh (originally a desert god associated with war) developed for Jews into being the greatest god of all and then to being the only God. Judaism became the first enduring monotheistic religion.

Date According to the Old Testament/Hebrew Bible, Exodus 20 and 21 (written hundreds of years later), Moses received the uncertain Ten Commandments on Mt. Sinai from Yahweh/God,. The Ten Commandments were instructions on how to live and gain probable favor with Yahweh. Moses was the first to proclaim that Yahweh created the world. (Yahweh means “He causes to be”). c1300BC Genesis 2:4ff shows Yahweh as the creator of the universe and mankind. Yahweh was transcendent. He created Nature but was not in it. The Moon and Sun were not gods but Yahweh’s creations.

Moses The Ten Commandments closely resemble parts of Hammurabi’s Code. According to the Old Testament, after getting the Ten Commandments from God, Moses said that God told him to kill all those who had worshiped a golden calf. 3,000 persons were slaughtered. Moses also said that God also told him to build an altar for the sacrifice of animals. He did so.

Moses led Jewish slaves from Egypt to Canaan, where they joined Hebrew tribes living there. Jews developed the notion that one God had made a paradise, from which Man, Adam (Hebrew for man) and Eve (Hebrew for life) through their own fault, were expelled. Jews were the first to insist that men (not gods) were responsible for their acts. Yahweh supposedly gave the pious a long life and the impious an early death. But some saw that many evil people prospered & lived long lives. (c1,000 years later, in the second century BC, Judaism adopted a personal post-mortem judgment and resurrection belief.)

The Argument from Religious Experience (I saw / felt / spoke-to God) (illustrated by Moses) is one of the oldest arguments for the existence of God. It is not a logical argument, so cannot be logically refuted, unlike arguments which purport to be logical. It relies solely on the authenticity of the experience, which can, of course, be assessed.

Olmec Olmec civilization, Central Mexico, first known civilization in the Americas, developed writing. (It declined c400 BC.)

13thCent. Moral codes are basically social codes. Various versions of the Golden Rule: the most basic moral principle: BC Hinduism: Do not to others what ye do not wish done to yourself...this is the whole Dharma. Heed it well. c1300 BC Zoroastrianism: Human nature is good only when it doesn’t do to another whatever is good for its own self. c1200 BC Golden Judaism: What is hateful to you, do not to your neighbor; that is the entire Torah; the rest is commentary c1200BC. Rule Buddhism: Hurt not others in ways you yourself would find hurtful. c500 BC Confucianism (Analects XV 24), Socrates, Aristotle, Hillel al Babli, Christianity (Luke 6:31, Matthew 7:12), Epictetus, St. Aristedes, Islam (Koran, Surah 59), Baha’i, John Wycliffe, Hobbes, Spinoza, Kant (his categorical imperative, 1781), and George Bernard Shaw (satirically), all later developed versions of the Golden Rule.

c1200 - Hellenes (1700 BC) were also influenced by the Mycenaean culture (centered around the northern Peloponnesian 800 BC peninsula). Barbarians invaded Greece, causing the so-called Greek Dark Ages. Hellenes civilization stagnated, its language ceased to be written for hundreds of years, cities fell, fewer and smaller communities, little or no trade. Hellenes city-states, the polis, the master institution of Greek culture, then rose in the 9th century BC as the political, social, and economic unit. Greece is largely mountainous, isolating its cities. Hellenes had metal armor by 800 BC. c1100BC The use of iron became widespread in Palestine and Syria, i.e., the Iron Age. It followed the Bronze Age. Iron, at first from meteors (9 to 1 iron nickel alloy, harder than bronze). Then from ores. Probably accidentally carbon from charcoal used to smelt iron mixed with the iron to become steel. The Iron Age spread slowly to Central Europe by the 8th century BC and to N. Europe in the 6th century BC. Metal was used in chariots, swords, shields, cups, and jewelry. The plow was improved with an iron tipped moldboard that turned the soil over. Farming yields could be 10-100 times better than hunting.

China: The Chou dynasty (rational philosophy) replaced the Shang Dynasty (mysticism), and ruled until 225 BC. Chou developed a philosophy with a mandate from heaven. Its claim to obedience was its religious superiority. Millet, adapted to the arid northern regions, was the staple diet in China, Korea and India until c1000 AD. c1000BC The East (East Asia) and the West, (lands around the Mediterranean) were connected by only the thinnest of threads, the caravan routes, nothing more than trails, which, collectively, centuries later became known as the “Silk Road.”

8 Technological Developments: Central Asian steppe horsemen, nomads, with their speed and agility, became a formidable military force, capable of attacking and conquering settled communities in hit, grab, and run tactics. Mayan civilization began to form in the Yucatan, lasted til c900 AD. Use of the camel enabled desert nomads and traders and armies to travel farther into previously inaccessible territories in northern and central Asia. First known arched bridge was built in Smyrna/Izmir (W estern Turkey). Semi-barbarian Dorians with iron weapons invaded and conquered Mycenaeans who had only bronze weapons.

Jews: Jezebel, Phoenician wife of Ahab, Israelite king, built a temple to the Canaanite pagan god Baal. So followers of c900 BC Yahweh killed her. The oldest books of Old Testament were written around this time. The Old Testament spoke to Jews and was largely silent about the rest of humanity, and barely mentioned an afterlife. The Old Testament (and later the New Testament) refer to magic, witchcraft and soothsaying as realities.

Date The Iliad (the wrath of Achilles against King Agamemnon) and The Odyssey (Ulysses’s wanderings back from the wars uncertain at Troy/Ilion), the greatest epics of Greek mythology/history, told of the heroic Greeks, how Troy was conquered. They 9th to 7th helped standardize the Greek language. The Iliad is the first great romance of high adventure, of deeds of chivalry and Cent. BC wild fighting, of brave men and noble women. The Odyssey is the first great novel of adventure in strange parts, of miscreants thwarted and brought to justice by the hero who wins and returns to his wife. These epics told of Greek gods with all human characteristics. Zeus, the “father of gods and men” was omnipotent. All human emotions were portrayed.

Homer: Both epics were (probably wrongly) ascribed to the non-literate blind poet Homer of Ionia. They contained numerous short Iliad, stories; were originally only oral, sung by wandering bards, with no fixed text, and not written until the Greeks developed Odyssey their alphabet from the Phoenicians c850 BC. When written, they were probably transcribed a century apart. They had different writing styles. For hundreds of years until Plato’s time, these epics were the basis of Greek religion, morals, the chief source of history, and even of practical information on geography, metallurgy, navigation, and shipbuilding. Virtually nothing is known about Homer; starting with whether he was one or several persons.

Beginning during the Greek Dark Ages, many Greeks sailed/rowed to Aegean islands and other parts of the Eastern Mediterranean. They colonized Sicily and the coast of Anatolia (W. Turkey) (including Miletus, an Aegean port town). The Greek economy was based on trade. They established over 100 trading ports around the Black Sea, in Italy, Anatolia, Libya, and S. France (Marseille), including Byzantium on the Bosporus (founded in 661 BC, later called Constantinople). some of which towns grew larger than Athens. They traded grain, salt, copper, millstones, gum. A feeling of national consciousness developed based on a common language, albeit with dialects. They had numerous gods and built shrines/temples to their gods. Greeks (and later Romans) were expected to publicly worship the gods.

The Mediterranean civilizations all had widely differing alphabets (a system of writing that uses one symbol for one sound). c850 BC One such alphabet, the Phoenician (derived from the Sumerian), of 22 consonants, reached Syria, Arabia, Cyprus, Malta, Sardinia, and Greece. It was the basis of all modern European alphabets. Sometime around 850 BC, the Greeks added Alphabet seven symbols for vowel sounds to the Phoenician alphabet, and used it to record their speech. Greeks, with their new alphabet (of 14 consonants and seven vowels), wrote on papyrus from Egypt. Greek treatises (hand copied) on technical subjects were circulated throughout the Mediterranean by seafaring Greek traders. The Greeks stepped out of unrecorded history with a highly developed civilization, portrayed in their two epics. They started the modern world going.

(Some written languages are not alphabetical, i.e., Chinese pictographs, ancient Egyptian hieroglyphics, ancient Sumerian, and ancient Hebrew (No vowels in modern Hebrew).) Semitic Phoenicians from Tyre and Sidon (present Lebanon), were principally seafarers/traders.

814 BC Phoenicians founded Carthage (Tunisia), and dominated points west on the Mediterranean, and Cadiz just beyond the Strait of Gibraltar on the Atlantic, sailed possibly to England. Carthage reached 1M people, made woven goods, became the greatest sea power of its time, came to dominate the Med, settled E. Spain. Centuries later, Carthage rivaled Rome.

753 BC In myth, Romulus killed Remus (both sons of Mars, god of war) and founded Rome. In fact, barbarians speaking a primitive variant of Latin had settled there. The Etruscians (Tuscany) conquered and ruled the town called Rome.

c750 BC Religion: Classic paganism was in full flower in Greece: gods Zeus, Athena, Hera, Poseidon, Apollo, Artemis, Aphrodite (and 41 more, each with specific powers), coupled with remarkable tolerance and scepticism in religious matters, permitted speculation about social institutions. Greek gods were immortal glorified humans, with human emotions, i.e., lust, pride, Greek envy, etc. (contra the rigid priest-dominated society in Egypt.) The 12 main gods lived on Mt. Olympus, Greece’s highest gods mountain, and paid little attention to the Greek people. The goddess Nemesis punished the arrogant. “Know thyself “ and “Nothing too much” were inscribed on Apollo’s temple at Delphi. First practical arches introduced by Etruscians.

c620 Greek city governments were “democracies” but limited to city-born free males. (Usually also limited to property owners.) For Athens, Draco codified the existing harsh oral laws (death penalty for minor offenses), hence draconian.

6th The 6th century BC marked a zenith of human wisdom and achievement in 1. Confucius/K’ung fu-tzu/Grand Master Cent. K’ung (551-479 BC), 2. Buddha (528 BC), 3. Zoroaster (ethical dualism), 4. Jainism (self-denial, against the caste BC system), and 5. the Jews. King Ashurbanipal had all books in Nineveh copied and put in his library.

9 Reason, In addition to the above philosophical/religious schools, the most important step in the history of knowledge It all developed in Greece and India. Greeks began to think rationally, to ask “how” do crops grow, instead of started supernatural explanations for phenomena. In Greece, for the educated, reason took precedence over all other with the forms of acquiring knowledge. The masses continued ignorant and superstitious. Greeks The Greeks started with the development of a new communications device, their alphabet and papyrus, and a new method of acquiring knowledge, systematic study / organized knowledge / science/ episteme / rational thinking. Reason/Science is the systematic attempt to provide accurate verifiable explanations for natural phenomena. Most people today applaud new developments in science. It was not always so. The history of advances in knowledge has been the slow uneven triumph of reason over the constant efforts of priests of all beliefs to oppose all advances in human knowledge based on reason and inconsistent with their particular beliefs.

Scientific thinking originated in Greece with the Ionian philosophers, Thales, Anaximander, and Anaximenes, all from Miletus, and Pythagoras of nearby Samos (in the Aegean). While virtually all belief systems, theocratic or secular, believe that their belief system is the one true belief system, Greeks, as seafarers, having invented gold and silver coins, traded with other cultures, and saw that other cultures all had their own myths/ belief systems, thus questioning all myths. The Greeks had no class of priests to dictate the nature of the world. Thus, thinking Greeks had no well-organized enforcers of myth and superstition to constrict their thinking. Greeks were the first to look for general principles beyond observations. Pre-Greek thought was undirected, thinking in images. Greek thought was thinking in words.

India/Hinduism (also without a controlling priesthood) contemporaneously also saw an explosion in rational thinking. Six darshana (philosophical schools) tried to answer the fundamental questions: Is there a God? Is the world real? Samkhya believed there was no God and that the world was real due to the interaction between the two substances, prakriti and purusha. Yoga believed in a supreme being (Isvara) and that the world was real. Vedanta believed that the world was not real as it was an emanation of Brahamian, the only substance that truly exists. Mahabharata, sacred epic poem, to be read literally and figuratively, good v. evil, described heaven and hell, some concepts later in the Bible.

Date Zarathustra, Gr. Zoroaster, Persian, founded Zoroastrianism, wherein the basic fact of existence was the universal Unknown opposition of the two creative cosmic powers, a good god, Spenista Mainyu/Ormuzd (light, truth, frankness), and evil god, Angra Mainyu/Ahriman (secrecy, cunning, darkness, diplomacy. True religion was in Man’s allegiance with the one true god, Ahura-Mazda, the only true god against the evil Ahriman. Such dualism appeared later in Gnosticism, Manichaeism, Judaism, and Christianity (to a very limited extent). Dualism explained the existence of evil, the basic problem for Monotheists. (See Problem of Evil). At the end of time, Ahura-Mazda will emerge victorious and all humans shall resurrect. Before Zoroaster, Persians worshiped the Sun, Moon, fire, winds. Mithra was a popular Zoroastrian god. c600 BC Philosophy/Science: Thales (c630- c546 BC) of Miletus (a port city on the Aegean in Anatolia). One of “Seven Wise Men” of Greece. He was the first known philosopher and first scientist. (It was the same thing then.) Before Thales, Greek knowledge was practical, Greeks knew hunting, crops, and households. Thales was well traveled, said to have learned Thales land surveying and thus geometry in Egypt, and possessed astronomical knowledge from Babylon (the 24 hour day, 360 of degrees to a circle, the discovery of a cycle of lunar eclipses, permitting them to be predicted). Miletus He founded Greek geometry; saw that any triangle whose hypotenuse is the diameter of a circle and whose opposite angle is on the circumference of the circle, is a right triangle (Thales’s Theorem), and that the hypotenuse of a right triangle squared = the sum of the squares of the other two sides. (now known as the Pythagorean Theorem). Thales realized it; Pythagoreans later proved it. Athens was at the time just another Greek city, of no particular importance.

Thales was the founder of what is known as the Ionian school of natural philosophy. Some members of this school argued with him, using reasoned arguments; thus began the history of philosophical argument and debate. He proposed that the bright band in the night sky (now known as the Milky W ay) might consist of distant stars. (Galileo confirmed this 2200 years later in 1610 with his telescope.)

Geometry maybe the most elementary of sciences, enabled Man, by purely intellectual processes, to make predictions based on observations about the physical world. It became the basic discipline for measuring all static objects. Geometry became the foundation for a rational system of philosophy that underpins Western culture to this day. Thales was/is erroneously reputed to have predicted a solar eclipse in 585 BC.

Thales’s Thales’s big question: Does everything (trees, fields, plants, animals) change, or is there something that does not Question change? He was the first thinker to propose a single universal principle of the material universe, a substratum that underlay all change. His answer was water. W rong, of course, but his significance and probably the most important insight in the history of knowledge is that he didn’t resort to an animistic, supernatural explanation, but he assumed the world could be understood rationally by the human mind. He thus rejected the Homeric/Greek gods.

At least since Thales, underlying all advances in thought, knowledge and philosophy, there has been a persistent conflict between those who believed in supernatural causes for events and conditions and those who believed that nature follows

10 natural laws/principles, i.e., that there is Order in Nature, and that Man can understand such causes.

Philosophical reasoning proceeds mainly by clarification and argument. Philosophers argue for their opinions. They present reasons, leading to new conclusions, that are hopefully more reasonable than competing views. Thales made knowledge public, not a priestly mystery. The search for something permanent is one of the deepest of the instincts leading men to philosophy and religion. Religion promises permanence in two forms, God and immortality.

Thales’s influence gave rise to the expression “thinking about the world in the Greek way,” i.e., rationally. His idea to think about the world rationally spread throughout the known Western world (the world around the Med.). Greeks then developed organized knowledge for all who could read (a tiny minority in any case). The world that Thales tried to understand was the world of things he could see and experience, not thoughts in people’s minds

594 BC Thales is also thought to have discovered that amber (solidified sap), rubbed against wool, would attract light objects (Greek: elektron = amber). This is electrostatic attraction, different from magnetism, which Thales also studied.

Solon the Lawmaker laid the foundations for Athenian democracy, moderated Draco’s harsh laws, covering all areas Solon of life, trial by jury, a constitution, cancelled all current land debts, freed people who had fallen into slavery for debts. Solon gave male citizens who did not own land the vote in the assembly and on juries (not in the U.S. until the 1820s). Greeks invented politics, the idea of deciding public affairs by discussion in a public setting. But Greek cities’s citizenships did not include women, slaves, freedmen, even city-born Greeks whose father was born outside the city.

c590BC Philosophy/Science: Anaximander (610-547 BC), Greek, also from Miletus, first known cartographer, made charts of the Med and the stars. A student of Thales, he theorized that all nature was made up of varying amounts of four elements, water, fire, air, and earth. He thought the Earth was a curved solid mass shaped like a cylinder suspended in space. His On Nature, introduced a concept of evolution, that is, he thought life started in slime and moved to drier places. He held that all things come from a single primordial source, unlike any known substances, infinite, eternal, ageless. If water or air were the primordial substance, it would have eliminated all the others. He said that Man was descended from fishes, but through some intermediate creatures. He was the first to state what later became known as the principle of sufficient reason, that is, there’s a reason/cause for everything that happens. (See Leibniz 1710)

He believed that “justice” consisted of one not overstepping eternally fixed bounds, one of the most profound of Greek beliefs. He introduced the sundial to Greece. It had been used for centuries in Mesopotamia and Egypt.

Anaximenes (c585 - c528), third and last of the Miletean philosophers, said rainbows were natural phenomena, not divine. Re Thales’s question, he said air was the unchanging substance, and all things were made up of air in different densities. Fire was rarified air. The next stage of Greek philosophy was more religious, less scientific.

c586 BC Theology: King Nebuchadnezzar had exiled Jews from Judah to Babylon. In “Babylonian exile,” Jewish scholars began to compile their holy scriptures, now known as the Old Testament out of Arabian, Assyrian, Persian, Chaldean, Jews Mesopotamian, Egyptian, and their own myths. The Old Testament has three parts, written over several centuries, The Law/Torah, The Prophets, and The Writings. The story of the baby Moses was identical to the earlier myth of Sargon1.

Old The Old Testament depicts God as cruel, jealous, and vindictive. God demanded human sacrifices, Leviticus 27: 28-29: Testament Judges 11: 29-40; 2 Samuel 21:1-9. God killed the first born of every Egyptian family (and all Egyptian animals), Exodus 11 4-6, 11-7, 12:12. 12: 29. He drowned every human and land animal not on Noah’s ark. Genesis 7:4, 7:21-23. An uncircumcised boy is to be abandoned by his parents and the community. Gen. 17:14. He killed every human in Sodom What and Gomorrah except Lot. Gen. 19:24-26. He said, “I the Lord thy God (repeated numerous times) am a jealous God, Jews visiting the iniquity of the fathers upon the children onto the ...fourth generation.” Ex. 20:25, 34:7; Numbers 14:18. A girl Know was the property of her father who could sell her as a wife or slave, Ex. 21:7. Sorcery is an abomination, Deuteronomy 18: 11-12. A child born out of wedlock can not enter into the congregation of the Lord; even to the 10th generation. Deut. 23: 2. God killed those who complained. Num.11:1, and those who offered incense. Num. 16:35. God gave Phinehas and his sons everlasting priesthood for killing an Israelite for having a foreign wife. Num. 25:13.

The Old Testament commands killing blasphemers Lev. 24:11-14, 16,23; homosexuals Lev. 20:13; perjurers Zechariah 5:4; those who hit or curse a parent Ex. 21:15, 17; Lev. 20.9; non-virgin brides Deut. 22. 20-21; rape victims whose cries for help are not heard Deut. 22:23-24; thieves Zech. 5:3-4; those who disobey their parents Deut. 21:18-21; Unchaste priests’s daughters Lev 21:9; those who work on the Sabbath Ex. 31:14-15; Num. 15:32-36; adulterers Lev. 20:10-12, Deut. 22:22; persons who believe in other gods or who worship idols, the Sun, or the stars. Deut. 13-7-11; taking the Lord’s name in vain Lev. 24:16; sorcerers Ex. 22: 18. Lev. 20:27; men who have sex with their father’s wife, men, mother-in-law, aunt, daughter-in-law, or an animal Lev. 20:11-15, 20 (Sex with one’s daughter is not mentioned.) ; women who have sex with animals Lev. 20:16; dissidents Num. 11:1-2, 16, 21:5-6, 26:10, Ex. 32:27; the sick and crippled Num. 5:2-4.This is harsh. A man with a blemish, or lame, blind, or has a flat nose, may not approach the altar. Jews believed that Jerusalem was the center of the Earth. Jews could not charge interest to other Jews Deut. 23:20. Slavery of foreigners was encouraged. Non-betrothed virgin rape victims had to marry their ravisher, who paid 50 shekels

11 to the bride’s father Deut. 22: 28-29. Women could never initiate a divorce. Husbands rule wives Gen. 3-16. Love thy neighbor as thyself. Lev. 19:18. Genesis said both that God created the Earth in 6 days as well as in just a moment; and that he made the Sun 3 days after he made light. (Over the ages, theologians have tried to reconcile Biblical inconsistencies.) The account of the creation of the world in Genesis appears to have been taken from writings in the library of King Ashurbanipal at Nineveh written around 650 BC and from other ancient civilizations’s writings of the Phoenicians and the Assyrians. Neither the devil nor Hell is mentioned. Many parts of the Torah/the law were also taken from Hammurabi’s harsh Code, i.e., “an eye for an eye.” God commanded that the Bible be taken literally Deut.13-1.

Before 586 BC, Jews suffered numerous disasters. Rabbis said it was Yahweh’s punishment for their apostasy. Jews were always God-obsessed. Jews believed the purpose of life was to serve God and prepare for the world to come (like Egyptians). Life is a precious gift from God. During the Babylonian Exile, marriage with gentiles was banned. Jews knew that they were the chosen people because: 1. They were given the law (the 10 Commandments and the Torah). 2. They had an eternal covenant with God that He would never desert them. 3. They were to witness to the world that God is and will be forevermore.

Pagans at the time had good and evil gods who caused good and evil. Jews said Man alone was responsible for his acts. Judaism, in its expectation that a Messiah would come and deliver them from their suffering, and was largely indifferent towards unbelievers. (Cyrus the Great let them return to Jehud Province in 538 BC and rebuild the temple.)

c570 BC Philosophy/Science: Xenophanes of Colophon (now Turkey) speculated that as fossil sea shells were found on mountain tops, mountains must have risen and fallen in the past. He criticized Greeks’s anthropomorphism, i.e., describing Greek gods like themselves. “If horses could paint, they would paint gods as horses...Ethiopians’s gods are black and snub- nosed; Thracians’s gods have blue eyes and red hair.” (Thracians were redheads.) Xenophanes posited one god greater than all other gods; “he sees over all, thinks over all, hears over all... without toil sets all things in motion by the thought of his mind.” He said also that rainbows were natural phenomena, a kind of cloud.

Greek culture: Art changed from archaic frontal style to more human. While Greek painting was merely an adaption from other cultures, Greek sculpture was new, realistically human. Greeks had several concepts of love: 1. the generative principle of the cosmos, 2. philia / friendship, 3. the emotional attraction, 4.eros, akin to sexual love, the torment of a passion, 5. sexual relations, and 6. agape, love of God and/or his creatures.

According to the historian Herodotus, Phoenicians sailed around Africa, taking 3 years. (Not done again for 1,900 years). Thebes, Athens, Macedonia, Sparta, Phoenicians, Rome, Etruscans (Tuscany), Persia, Syracuse (Sicily), Carthaginians, Corinth, all fought one another intermittently and entered into treaties governing commerce, property, naturalization, status of aliens, right of asylum, extradition, and diplomatic privileges.

c540- Philosophy: Pythagoras (c570 - c490 BC) of Samos, intellectually one of the most important persons who ever lived, 450 BC one of the first to say Earth is a sphere, but it may have been a member of his school. He was religious, but was antagonistic toward the Greek gods, who were not gods in the theological sense as they were as immoral as humans.

Pythagoras was founder of a group of scholars known as Pyhthagoreans, who thought mathematics was the key to Pythagoras understanding the universe and that numbers could have real influence on material things. They discovered that the length of a vibrating string was proportional to the notes produced. He and his followers believed things are numbers and vice versa, verging on nonsensical numerology. They tried to explain the world in terms of whole number ratios. They believed that the whole universe was based on a mystic order, or kosmos. Pythagoras treated women as men’s equals, property was held in common, with a common way of life, scientific and mathematical discoveries were deemed collective. Pythagoras was concerned with the immortality of the soul. He said planets traveled around the Earth on crystalline spheres. He was/is incorrectly credited with the idea of the music of the spheres.

Nature Pythagoras’s big insight, that there’s something about the real world that is intelligible in mathematical terms, is probably can be the second great advance in the history of human thought. Said, “Reason is immortal, all else mortal.” He put knowledge measured and science as a path to salvation. He and his disciples led a simple life. After his death, his disciples were credited with the proof of what came to be called the Pythagorean Theorem, although the theorem itself was known to Thales and may have been known to the Mesopotamians/Babylonians 1,000 years earlier. This is the most important single theorem in the whole of mathematics. Pythagoreans said the Earth rotated on its axis.

Triangles in semicircles, i.e., right triangles (Thales’s Theorem), are the basis of trigonometry. The Pythagorean movement as such died out as they could not understand or accept the concept of irrational numbers, like ð (pi), i.e., a number that could not be expressed as a ratio between two whole numbers, like 1/3. They believed that three kinds of people went to the Olympics, merchants, the lowest rank, then athletes, and highest, spectators/thinkers.

Philosophy/Science: Alcmaeon, dissected humans, noted the optic nerve and the Eustachian tubes, saw the difference between veins and arteries, recognized the brain as the seat of intellect, and the connection between the brain and sensing organs. Suggested health was a balance between opposing humors. Illnesses caused by the environment and lifestyle.

12 c530 BC Confucianism: without deities/gods, thus not a religion, established harmony and justice as its central idea. Confucius, a conservative, stressed the importance of a central government and filial piety. The ideal relationship among human beings is jen (humanity or goodness), the perfect virtue of men, He said, “Where wealth is centralized, the people are Confucius dispersed. Where wealth is distributed, the people are brought together.” His teachings gradually became China’s official state doctrine. He disclaimed having any divine inspiration and had no interest in cosmology, the branch of philosophy that deals with the origin and structure of the universe. He taught respect for the individual in a time when life was cheap. Confucianism is practical, social, ethical, full of advice on how to behave, more code than creed, with no church or clergy.

Confucius taught that all eminence should be based entirely on merit (ability and moral excellence which essentially meant learning Confucian texts), except for the hereditary ruling (Chou) imperial family China. One’s birth meant nothing. The prevailing feudalists wanted their positions of eminence and power to be passed down to their sons. Confucius assumed men were unequal, measured by their understanding of written (Confucian) texts. Confucius was more concerned about the fate of society than the souls of its inhabitants. (Modern Confucian scholar Tu Wei-Ming said, “We can realize the ultimate meaning of life in ordinary human existence.”)

Confucius: “To be able to practice five things everywhere under heaven constitutes perfect virtue. These are gravity, generosity of soul, sincerity, earnestness, and kindness...Hold faithfulness and sincerity as first principles.” “The essence of knowledge is, having it, to apply it; not having it, to confess your ignorance.” Confucianism stressed the relationship between persons, based on proper behavior and sympathetic attitude. His “Golden Rule,”Do not impose on others what you do not wish for yourself.” Analects 15 24.“The proper man understands equity, the small man understands profits...Wisdom, compassion, and courage are the three universally recognized moral qualities of men.” “In a country well governed, poverty is something to be ashamed of. In a country badly governed, wealth is something to be ashamed of.” Analects 8. The cautious seldom err, Analects 4:23.

Confucius’s sayings were later collected in a book called the Analects, then incorporated into the Thirteen Classics, which were to China as the Bible was to the West, to teach Chinese officials how to rule. Confucius’s exception for the ruling family from the merit qualification was a politically expedient corollary to Socrates’s Royal Lie (see 420 BC) and St. Peter’s later instruction to obey all human authorities 1 Peter 2:13-14, 17. Chinese used iron weapons 200-300 years after Assyria, Egypt, and Europe. Chinese planted crops in rows, hoed weeds, used manure for fertilizer, not done in the West for 2,000 years.

The Persian empire arose under Cyrus the Great, a Zoroastrian, who conquered Mesopotamia. With 40 million people, it was far larger than all the Greek city-states. c529 BC Scribes wrote for king and commoner (normally both illiterate). Thus were powerful figures.

528+ BC Philosophy: Siddhartha Gautama Buddha (the Enlightened One) (c563-c483 BC), born wealthy in North India. At 29, he left his wife and infant son to wander and think, for 15 years. In 528 BC, he said he had found the way out of the eternal cycle of birth, death, and rebirth, attained the Awakening, Buddha realized the Truth, All acts, good and bad, have consequences. Longing hate, and ignorance lead to new suffering. To break this chain, one must release all passions. Thus the Truth consists of four “Noble Truths,” namely: 1. Man’s existence is full of sorrow, duhkha, (and we are doomed to an eternal cycle of death and rebirth unless we find Nirvana (obliteration of desire), 2. Man’s sorrowful condition is due to Man’s craving (trishna), i.e., three selfish Desires (a. Desire to gratify the senses, b. Desire for personal immortality, and, c. Desire for prosperity, worldliness), 3. But, Man can find emancipation and freedom from desire - nirvana, 4. by seeking the middle way between self-indulgence and self-mortification, known as the “Noble Eightfold Path,” the eight elements of which are: 1. Right Views (truth) 2. Right aspirations 3. Right Speech 4. Right Conduct. 5. Right Livelihood. 6. Right Effort. 7. Right Mindfulness 8. Right Rapture /Concentration.

“When a man has pity on all living creatures, only then is he noble.” All desires must be overcome before Man can become serene. Men must lose themselves in something greater than themselves. Buddha specifically disclaimed any interest in the riddle of creation. As no god was involved, Buddhism could be considered an ethical doctrine rather than a religion. But a theology developed about Buddha, that he was a god.

Buddha’s idea of social equality contradicted the caste system, led by the ruling Hindu Brahmins. His ideas spread across India, and then to China. (The Brahmins, by the 11th century AD, however, drove this egalitarian Buddhist teaching out of India, but many Buddhist teachings remained integral parts of Hinduism.). Buddhism’s emphasis on social equality, its doctrine that many human ills are caused by poverty, have inspired reform movements and anti-colonial nationalistic movements in many countries. Buddha focused on suffering, but ended up denying the existence of the self: only events exist. Buddhism eventually split into three main streams of thought: 1. The Theravada (stress the brotherhood of monks, the sangha as the principal means of achieving nirvana).

13 2. The Mahayana (1st century AD, taught the existence of souls called bodhisattva, who achieved sainthood but declined entering nirvana so they could help others achieve sainthood). 3. The Tantrics (6th century AD, expanded the number of supernatural deities beyond the bodhisattva, including demons who can be called on for help through rituals).

Buddhism and Jainism, both atheistic, took reincarnation to be a basic principle of the universe, and both sought to escape from the circle of births and deaths through correct knowledge and conduct. Buddha and Lao-Tse both advocated Christ’s later admonition to turn the other cheek. The path Buddha taught is primarily a study of your own mind and a system for training your mind.

c510 BC Mahavira (c540-c468 BC) founded Jainism, promoted self-discipline above all else. Jainism was a reaction against the formalism of the Brahmanical religion. Following the ascetic teachings of jina, one achieves enlightenment (perfect knowledge). The meaning of life is to use the physical body to achieve self-realization and bliss. Everyone is responsible for his actions and all living things have an eternal soul, jiva. Jainism includes strict adherence to ahimsa, a form of non- violence that goes far beyond vegetarianism. Jains refuse food obtained with unnecessary cruelty.

509 BC Rome revolted, won its independence from the Etruscans, and formed a republic with a ruling Senate, not elected, just the wealthiest c300 men. The Senate ruled, but Tribunes, representatives of common citizens, were also in the government. The city’s motto was Senatus Populsque Romanus (SPQR), The Senate and People of Rome. Families were the basic units of Roman society. Worship of family gods was important. As in Greece, slaves did the hard work.

508 BC Cleisthenes took control in Athens, put all citizens in ten new tribes, each of which elected 50 members by lot each year for a new council of 500, which administered Athens’s foreign and financial affairs and prepared the business to be debated and voted on by the assembly, i.e., all male citizens. This was the basis for Athenian democracy.

Heraclitus of Ephesus (a Greek port in Anatolia) shifted the focus of Greek philosophy from what things consisted of c504 BC (Thales, Democritus, Anaximander) to the problem of change. One of first dialectic philosophers; his chief idea was that “All is flux. Everything flows and nothing stays.” “You cannot enter the same river twice...(true, in a narrow sense, by his definition. But, in another equally valid sense, one can, “Ole man river just keeps rolling along.) Nothing endures but change.” Fire, symbolizing change, was the basic reality as well as his answer to Thales’s question, “Is there something unchanging?” To his idea of fire he added the idea of reason as the universal law. Change was not a haphazard movement but the product of God’s universal reason (logos). “The one is the many; being is becoming; substance is change. A man’s character is his fate.” The soul was a mixture of fire (noble) and water (ignoble).

In contrast, Parmenides, from South Italy, the most Indian of the Greek philosophers, believed that nothing ever changes: that there is only one, infinite, and eternal and indivisible reality, and we are part of this unchanging One, despite the illusion of a changing world from our senses. He invented metaphysics based on logic. He considered the senses deceptive, and condemned the multitude of sensible things as mere illusions. The only true being is “the One,” which is infinite and indivisible. It is not a union of opposites as there are no opposites. Dark is just “not light.” (Metaphysics is that branch of speculation dealing with first principles of things, including such concepts as being, time, space, cause, substance, essence, identity, The word metaphysics comes from chapters in Aristotle’s writings after Physics (meta = after) and came to be known as the science of things transcending what is physical or natural.

c500 BC The cultural dominance of Mid-East ended. The four major civilizations of Eurasia, 1. Greek, 2. Mid-East, 3. Indus and Ganges Valleys, and 4. China, developed in their separate ways in rough balance. (Europe’s dominance, The Rise of the West, came 2,000 years later.)

Jews: By 500 BC, the religion of Yahweh had undergone far reaching transformations from the cult of one tribe into a world religion claiming universal validity for itself and error for other religions.

Overview: Athenian thinkers were the first modern men. Thus, it took c3.5 million years from when Hominids/ humans first Greek evolved to develop writing and systematic thinking, just c2,700 years ago. In the beginning, all systematic search for Thinking knowledge was called philosophy. Philosophers were simply thinkers, mathematicians, physicists, and psychologists. (philo = love-of, sophy = wisdom/knowledge) Athens had a public library by 530 BC.

The Hellenes, adopting the arts and skills of the Creteans/Minoans, evolved a new culture of scientific inquiry, individual dignity, civic duty, and human freedom that inspired the western world for 25 centuries. While the Hellenes did not progress as far as modern Man in the physical sciences, the Hellenes probably carried philosophy, especially ethical philosophy, farther than we have. Even modern physical sciences have been partially based on Hellenes/Greek ideas. Incredibly, the Greeks never caught on to the usefulness of positional notation.

Athens, at its peak, had c260,000 inhabitants, c50,000 of whom were adult male citizens/demos, and c100,000 were slaves. These 50,000 demos met periodically in “town meetings.” The Greek polis / town was the model for the later basic principle of European society, the primacy of the territorial state over all competing principles of social cohesion. A tomb from c500 BC in Burgundy had a 4-wheel chariot, personal property, and a gold diadem (indicating a social

14 hierarchy, a warrior caste, and an artisan class).

5th Cent. Shinto, native religion to Japan, and a form of national patriotism, started around 500 BC, perhaps earlier, the origins BC of its beliefs are unknown. Shinto says Japan is a divine country; the emperor is a descendant of the gods. Shinto has Shinto thousands of spirits, polytheism, known as kami, who are paid tribute at shrines. There is no overall dogma, but adherents must remember and celebrate the kami, remain pure and sincere, and enjoy life. Shinto sees death as pollution and regards life as the realm where the divine spirit seeks to purify itself by rightful self-development. Shinto dealt with ordinary lives. There was no word for Shinto until Buddhism was made a state religion in 604 AD and Shinto had to distinguish itself from Buddhism. Shinto is non-exclusive. One can be Christian and Shinto.

Drama developed out of Greek worship ceremonies/festivals to the god of wine, Dionysus (He could turn water into wine, like Jesus.) where one actor recited lines as Dionysus and a chorus (representing the people) responded. Aeschylus (c525-465 BC) invented drama by introducing a second actor into his plays. His plays dealt with age-old problems of the conflict between Man and gods. He wrote Agamemnon (whose hubris led to his death).

Greeks were a relatively insignificant group of rival cities in a small area, and Athens was not the largest or richest Greek city, Sparta, essentially one big army camp, was larger. However, the Greeks had a common language and religion, paganism, the numerous gods. Militarily, the Greeks developed the phalanx, a mass of citizen/farmer/infantrymen in close formation, with overlapping shields, virtually unstoppable. Cavalry could not defeat it. It broadened the class of citizens who took an active part in polis affairs. In Athens, basic education was for all men. Beyond that, tutors or men like Plato.

490 BC Persia, then the largest Western empire, under Darius 1, attacked Greece. Persia’s attack united the Greek cities, and, at Marathon, 26 miles from Athens, the Greeks won. In 480 BC, the Persians tried again, took Athens, but the Greek fleet at Salamis and the Greek army at Plataea defeated the Persians. One key to Athens’s victory was her fleet of 200 new triremes (3 levels of rowers), who though outnumbered, outmaneuvered the Persian fleet. The fleet enabled Athens to take the battle to Asia Minor. The Greeks were mariners and explorers. The sea was home to them. Thus, while Athens is remembered for many things, its military skills made them possible. Greece’s “Golden Age” started. Herodotus (c484-c421 BC), invented history by telling why big events occurred. He told a coherent story, traveled widely, explained how Greeks beat the more numerous and better armed Persians in 490 and 480 BC; namely, 1. Persian arrogance, 2. The Greeks were fighting for their homes. (Athenian citizens fought for “their” city), 3. Persian soldiers were slaves, did not believe in their cause. He also described Indian cotton to Greeks.

Athens, not then the dominant Greek city, became the focus of all that was most significant in Greek civilization. From 500 to 300 BC, the center of Western civilization shifted from Mesopotamia/Persia to Athens. Before Socrates, none of the great Greek mathematicians or philosophers were Athenians. Athens was a democracy (for free males); women could not own property. In Sparta, a military camp, they could. Athens dominated Mediterranean trade. In the 5th century BC, due to the Greek philosophers, reading and writing first escaped from the temples and king’s court, and was the first beginnings of the free intelligence of mankind, a dominant power in human affairs.

c470 BC Drama: Sophocles (c496-406 BC), the second great Greek tragedian, added a third actor into the developing tragic drama; wrote Oedipus. Said, “The gods plant reason in mankind, of all good gifts the highest...Live well, die well. Wisdom outweighs any wealth...Numberless are the world’s wonders, but none more wonderful than Man.”

Sophism Sophism: Athens became the center of a new kind of teacher, the Sophists, who taught wealthy young men the verbal skills and knowledge to advance in a democratic polis. Sophists rejected earlier Greek philosophers’ speculation about the nature of the universe and the place of divine forces in it. They taught rhetoric/argument, that language was susceptible to analysis and manipulation according to logical rules, and also, using precise rules of logic, could unravel the mysteries of the universe. They were the first Humanists. Sophists took a relativistic attitude toward moral values and thought that the only worthwhile object of study was human behavior as the pursuit of one’s own material interests was the only valid end. Sophists caused Athenians to consider whether their ideas and customs were founded on truth or simply conventional ways of behaving. Sophists rejected the rationalistic speculations (all knowledge comes strictly from reasoning) about the nature of the world in favor of focusing on observation of events and phenomena. Sophists used skeptical arguments, using readily seen and observed examples to undermine earlier philosophers’s theoretical claims based solely on reason.

Drama Drama: Euripides (c484-406 BC), third and last great Athenian tragedian. His gods were mortal, cruel, and selfish. Said, “Cleverness is not wisdom...Love is all we have...Much effort, much prosperity...Question everything, learn something. Answer nothing...Talk sense to a fool and he will call you foolish...Slavery is not to speak one’s thought... Those whom God wishes to destroy, he first makes mad...No one who lives in error is free.”

c450 Mo-tzu (479-438 BC) Chinese, taught universal love for the common plight of ordinary people; posited a law of inertia.

Anaxagoras (c500 - 428 BC), last great Ionian philosopher, first philosopher to move to Athens, first to introduce a dualistic explanation of the universe, taught Pericles the Orator, who was the greatest Greek statesman 430 BC.

15 Mind Anaxagoras’s main contribution was the concept of mind (nous) as distinguished from matter, as the primary cause of Matter physical change, a major development in philosophy. He also taught the atomistic explanation of universe. Held that all natural objects are composed of infinitesimally small particles he called seeds, each containing mixtures of all qualities, albeit in differing proportions, and that the mind, or intelligence acts upon masses of these particles to produce objects we see. He said the Moon was a rock and the Sun was made of hot iron constantly emitting light and heat.

He said, “Nothing can be known; nothing can be learned; nothing can be certain; sense is limited; intellect is weak; life is short.” Similar to Anaximander, he believed that Man and animals sprang from moist warm clay. His answer to Thales’s question (Is there anything that does not change?) was air. Anaxagoras regarded the conventional Greek gods as mythical abstractions with human qualities i.e., anthropomorphic . (He was reportedly sentenced to death for impiety as he said the Sun and Moon were not gods and that Pericles saved him. This story is false.) He postulated a Teleological (Design) Argument for a god, i.e., We can think of no natural explanation for the universe / Earth, so we infer some supernatural being must have designed it. This is an argument by inference. Teleology means purpose in nature.

c450 BC Leucippus (c490-c430 BC) formulated the Atomist Theory, Democritus, later (see 430 BC) elaborated and explained it, that everything is made up of tiny indivisible particles, atoms, his correct answer to Thales’s question, before philosophy turned from the study of nature to the study of Man under Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle. Leucippus said every event has a natural cause and thereby prepared the way for a coherent theory of motion and change.

Sophism Philosophy: Protagoras (c481- c420 BC) of Abdera, Thrace, NW Greece, likely the most influential Sophist, was best known for saying “Man is the measure of all things,” a radical notion at the time. That is, our knowledge is measured by how we perceive it. Wind may feel cold to one person and warm to another. Both persons are correct. This doctrine is at the heart of relativism. As a Sophist, he taught that self-interest was the only valid end. He was also first to systemize the study of grammar, parts of speech, etc. Said, “As to the gods, I have no means of knowing that they exist or that they do not.” He did not seek to prevent anyone from worshiping the gods as it was a politic thing to do and made for a stable society. Sophists were probably the first Empiricists in Western philosophy. Empiricism is not a static concept. Within empiricism different philosophers have different emphases and refinements. For example some hold that knowledge can come indirectly from experience. The role of our senses can differ as well.

449 BC Concurrently, Rome prospered, copied Greek culture (like the English copied the 18th Century French). Romans adopted Greek gods (and renamed them, Zeus became Jupiter, etc.), copied the Greek alphabet, philosophy, drama, the Macedonian order of battle, Spartan armor, studied Solon’s laws and around 449 BC, Romans codified their 12 Tables of Laws, which became a great legal system with justice, and a bill of rights for all citizens. The separation of powers, instituted first by the Greeks, was also contained in the constitution of the Roman Republic.

c445 BC Empedocles (c490-430 BC) , born in Sicily, discovered air was a separate substance. He originated the cosmogenic theory of the 4 classical elements, earth, air, fire and water (propelled by the opposite forces of love and hate), when mixed in different proportions made all matter. He illustrated centrifugal force by twirling a cup of water around. He knew that the Moon shines by reflected sunlight.

c435 BC Thrasymacus: There is no justice except in the interest of the stronger. Governments make laws to benefit themselves.

431-404 Peloponnesian Wars: Pericles (? -429 BC) made Athens powerful and the center of art and literature, and was responsible BC for the Parthenon (temple on the Acropolis, completed in 432 BC) and other great works. Pericles caused Athens and its Delian League allies to fight Sparta and its Peloponnesian (Peninsula) League, over 27 years. Sparta, with Persian Pericles money, finally won, but all parties were severely weakened. At the end of the first year of the war, 430 BC, Pericles gave an eloquent funeral oration for those who had died in the war. He extolled democracy. “Power is in the hands not of a minority but of the whole people. Everyone is equal before the law. Our political life is free and open.” During the Age of Pericles, the grandest time in Athenian history (He ruled for 30 years), Athenians became deeply attached to their democracy (which excluded women, resident foreigners, and slaves). Among other things, Pericles decreed that Athenians could not marry foreigners. His mistress, Aspasia was from Miletus. He died of the plague.

c430 BC Philosophy: Democritus (c460-c370 BC) of Abdera, father of materialism, traveled widely (Egypt, Ethiopia, India). Following Leucippus, he answered Thales’s question (Is anything unchanging?) by postulating that 1. Everything is made Atomic of tiny discrete particles called atoms (Greek: atomos = indivisible) 2. Atoms were perpetually in motion, 3. Such motion Theory was inherent, and 4. Weight was not a property of atoms. (Incorrect). He and Leucippus thus invented Atomic Theory. He also said that we live in an infinite universe, with many worlds. Like Thales, he speculated that a bright band in the heavens was distant stars. (Galileo in 1613 confirmed this.)

Democritus thought spiritual reality does not exist, that the soul and even thought was material. He wrote 70 books on math, ethics, history, music, etc. Only bare fragments of his writings survive. Democritus developed a set of rules for human behavior; be moderate in all things and cultivate culture, as the surest way to achieve the most desirable goal of life, cheerfulness. There was no solid evidence for the Atomic Theory for over 2000 years. He said that the best form of government was the democratic. And, “A wise man limits his ambition to his ability.”

16 c425 BC Diagoras, a Sophist and wit, burned a wooden image of a god to cook turnips and said that if it really was a god, it should save itself with a miracle. Disbelief in the gods was a crime. He was sentenced to death. He fled to Sparta.

c425- Philosophy: Athens in the 5th century was an open market for ideas, with a middle class eager to learn. Before Socrates, 399 BC Greek philosophers had focused on trying to understand the natural world, had disregarded the gods, knew atomic theory. Heraclitus had shifted the focus of philosophy to the nature of change. Then the Sophists and Socrates shifted the concerns of philosophy to the study of Man and his behavior.

Socrates Socrates (470- 399 BC) and his student, Plato concentrated on abstract principles and the conduct of Man. They even resisted study of the material world. Socrates’s main concern was morality, ethics. Socrates, from a middle class Athens family, took no money for his teachings and questioned others, particularly other Sophists and the elders of Athens. Like the Sophists, Socrates engaged in a relentless analysis of any and all subjects. The Sophists sought to show that there Ethics was no absolute truth, no absolute moral standards. Socrates sought to find truth. To that end, he sought precise definitions of ideas. Anything less than an absolute definition was doxa, mere opinion, as opposed to true knowledge, episteme. Knowledge was virtue. To Socrates, wisdom was knowing what you did not know. Said, “The only true wisdom is knowing you know nothing.” (a paradox) (Ontology is the study of the nature of all existence.)

In place of the Sophists’s self-centered rhetoric, he introduced dialectic (starting with an incontrovertible statement based on simple experience and building on it with clear and logical rules). Dialectic was crucial in the development of philosophy. It dominated philosophical thought for 2,000 years until the 16th century when the Scientific Method (observation, measurement, hypothesis, prediction, and experiment) took over. The Socratic Method was to ask questions to elicit a clear and consistent expression of something supposed to be implicitly known by rational beings.

Socrates said, “Follow the evidence, wherever it leads...The unexamined life is not worth living...There is just one good, Follow knowledge, and one evil, ignorance.” By knowledge, he meant the knowledge of the craftsman as well as of a the scholar...”The important thing is not to live but to live honorably.” These sentiments were then revolutionary. He just evidence asked hard questions, claimed not to know anything. The pleasantness of an idea didn’t make it true. He wanted men to learn to live peacefully together. His needs were simple, “How many things there are which I do not want.”

To overcome the relativism of the Sophists and Heraclitus, Socrates wanted to find some immovable foundation on which to build the edifice of knowledge. He found it within Man, and he called it the psyche, the soul. The immovable point in this conception of the soul was, for Socrates, Man’s conscious awareness of what words mean. To know that some things contradict others, that justice cannot mean harming others, represented for Socrates an example of the type of knowledge one could attain just by using the powers of reason. To attain reliable knowledge, state a presumably obvious proposition and examine, through dialectic conversation precisely what it means. No writings of Socrates survive; what we know comes from Plato’s writings, which were extensive.

Socrates and Plato disdained Athens’s democracy, believed that the best government was by philosopher kings. Those who know should rule, others to obey. But, until the kings became philosophers, he expediently accepted his Royal Lie: “Those who rule deserve to do so.” He said people won’t accept rulers unless they feel the rulers are superior, i.e., philosopher kings. (Protagoras had said that all men possessed “political arts” so all should participate in governing.)

Socrates divided philosophy roughly into five areas: 1. Logic, what is valid. What can be profitably argued and proven. 2. Ethics, which actions are right and which ends are good. 3. Aesthetics, Beauty and art and taste, and judgement. 4. Epistemology, The study of knowledge. Do we really know anything, and if so, what, and how? 5. Metaphysics, The search for ultimate categories, to understand the ultimate scheme of things.

414 BC Athens sent a fleet with 6,000 men to conquer its rich and prosperous colony, Syracuse, in Sicily. Syracuse put them all in a quarry, where they starved to death. This greatly weakened Athens, contributing to its decline.

411 BC Theatre: Aristophanes introduced comedy, satire, to Greek theater; wrote Lysistrata. (Women withhold sex to force men to make peace. Make love, not war.) He even, gently, satirized Socrates for questioning the existence of Zeus.

c400 BC Hippocrates (c460-c370 BC) “Father of Medicine,” rejected divine causes of diseases. The Bhagavad Gita, Hindu sacred poem, in Sanskrit, described a talk between Lord Krishna and Prince Arjuna. One’s true self is one’s undying soul which is divine in nature.

Socrates continually denigrated Athenian democracy and common men. He so enraged Athens’s elders by his incessant questions that they tried him for impiety and corrupting the young, trumped-up charges. “Socrates acted 399 BC wickedly, and is criminally curious into things under the earth, and in making the worse appear the better cause.” But, there was no law against impiety. He was tried essentially for practicing free speech, a principle venerated in Athens. Ironically, neither Socrates nor Plato favored free speech. At his trial, the most famous trial until Jesus’s, he lectured the judges,

17 “Are you not ashamed that you give your attention to acquiring as much money as possible, and similarly with reputation and honor, and give no attention or thought to truth and understanding and the perfection of your soul?” They forced him to drink poison/hemlock. Socrates, awaiting his trial, had asked Euthyphro, “Is there a universal concept of goodness? Is an act moral in and of itself, i.e., independent of God, (if so, God is just a conduit for moral knowledge), or because God commanded it, (if so, morality is based merely on God’s whim.)” This Euthyphro Dilemma has been commented on extensively by theologians through the ages, but has not been resolved. Cicero (65 BC) said Socrates “was the first to call philosophy down from the heavens and to place it in cities, and even to introduce it into homes and compel it to inquire about life and standards and goods and evils.” Socrates’s, Plato’s, and Aristotle’s philosophical conceptions of the divine and ethics had great influence in Medieval Christian and Muslim theology, but had little effect on the masses of Greek people, who remained pagan, i.e., popular culture versus elites. (“The music is nothing if the audience is deaf.” Walter Lippmann.)

387 BC Philosophy: Plato (c427-347 BC), from a wealthy Greek family, on Socrates’s death in 399 BC, Plato traveled abroad and in 387 BC, returned to Athens and founded the Academy to research philosophy; wrote Dialogues re the imprisonment and death of Socrates, with Socrates as principal speaker, and Symposium (on the nature of love). Plato rejected the world of sense in favor of the self-created world of pure thought. Most of Plato’s writings were of conversations with Socrates. Their ideas were almost indistinguishable. Plato believed that a Demiurge, a minor god, shaped the Earth. Politically, he said that impiety should be punished by 5 years in prison, death for a second offence.

Plato Plato ruled out senses as a reliable source of knowledge, and focused on ideas, which exist in a world of their own. Plato’s theory of Ideas or Forms was his most significant philosophic contribution. It supposed that everything we see, everything we observe with the senses, is no more than appearance. When one says “red” or “good,” is that something that exists separately, apart from red objects or good thoughts? There is a basic reality, but it is something we cannot see; true reality is an essential Form or Idea and it is permanent and unchanging. He saw God as the essence of the Good. He said all claims must have valid bases. Plato denigrated Democritus’s materialistic thinking, wanted to burn his books.

Ideas Plato developed an idealistic metaphysics which postulated an ultimate eternal and immutable reality of pure Ideas or and Essences. He felt that true knowledge can be obtained only by understanding the Ideas or Forms. Universals like “good” Forms and “catness” were Plato’s answer to Thales’s question. Philosophically, it’s fine. As science, it’s useless. Reason was judgment based on good evidence. Knowledge through the senses was inferior to intuitive knowledge For Plato, the meaning of life was to attain the highest form of knowledge, which is the Idea (or Form) of the Good. Humans have a duty to pursue the Good. In The Republic (360 BC), Plato said that the Idea of the Good is the child or offspring (ekgonos) of the Good, the ideal or perfect nature of goodness, and so an absolute measure of justice.

He maintained that phenomena perceived by the senses are merely imperfect copies of the reality of external Ideas. “Catness” is the essence of a cat. Beauty was a Form, which objects (or people) can sometimes attain. This was confusingly called realism. In contrast, Nominalists thought that abstract concepts like “red” and “good” were mere “names” and that the only real things were real things. Said, “Knowledge is the food of the soul.”

Political Theory: Plato was the first political theorist. Plato grew up in Athens a time of doubt and questioning about all human relationships. Athens was largely a democracy of free male citizens. (Sparta was a military dictatorship of warriors.) Socrates and Plato assumed Man was the most important being in the world. Like educated Greeks, Plato Plato’s believed the Earth was a sphere. Plato was concerned with the ordering of public affairs. His political thought was Republic incidental to his idealistic metaphysics. He wrote The Republic, the first book on political theory. Said, To participate in civic life was a citizen’s highest aspiration. The Republic is a utopian dream of a city in which human life is arranged according to a novel and better plan, a stable conservative hierarchy, with separate social classes. The state is the soul writ large. (Aldous Huxley took The Republic to its logical conclusion in Brave New World in 1932.) Plato also said that there was a Great Chain of Being with God at the top, then Man, then animals to plants. Plato’s ideal society, was ruled by philosopher/kings who lived simply and communally, even with wives in common; (a shocking concept to upper class Athenians, children would not know their parents), with professional soldiers, and lastly, the workers, artisans, farmers, entertainers, i.e., a class society. Each person contributes what he does best, not interfering with others’s roles. To be a philosopher/king would be an economic step down, as kings have no wealth. Plato did not question the legitimacy of the non-philosopher/kings who then ruled Athens, a prudent cop-out. Plato’s Distrust Wilfully and completely recasting human conditions, as Plato advocated, was a new idea in Man’s development. of Democracy Greek law was simply tradition, not a matter of legislation. Plato distrusted democracy as he thought it would devolve through anarchy into despotism. He thought that rule by one man who is restrained by law is monarchy, the best form of government. Rule by one man unrestrained by law is tyranny, the worst form of government. Rule by a few restrained by law, aristocracy, is the second best form of government. Rule by a few unrestrained by law is oligarchy, the second worst form of government. His principal contribution was the idea of an aristocracy of intelligence. His second great idea was equality of opportunity. He said women could be trained as warriors like men.

18 Using Socrates’s dialectic, Plato looked into the natural world using abstract and theoretical concepts, rather than careful investigation and the derivation of a hypothesis to explain it. He and Socrates felt that experiment and observation (empiricism) were not only irrelevant but positively misleading in the search for knowledge. This hindered the progress of science. Plato’s theory that true or perfect reality could only be discovered through contemplation or revelation became, through the teachings of St. Paul, 45 AD, a cornerstone of Christian thought.

Plato used the allegory of the cave to illustrate the nature of human knowledge. Imagine a cave with a wall down the middle. On one side of the wall are fires and people and animals. On the other side of the wall are prisoners so bound Allegory so that all they can see their whole lives are the shadows on their side of the cave of the persons and animals on the of the other side of the wall. If taken outside the cave, Man would at first be uncomfortable but gradually realize that he had cave been seeing only shadows of real things in the cave. The goal of education was to take people out of their caves. This refuted the skepticism and relativism of the Sophists. Knowledge was possible. After death pious persons’ souls went to a beautiful place. Plato and Socrates considered almost all the great questions of philosophy through the ages.

Plato brought philosophy to its maturity. Plato’s comprehensive treatment of knowledge was so powerful that his philosophy became the most influential strand in the history of Western thought. Plato brought together all the major concerns of human thought into a coherent organization of knowledge. Plato and Aristotle (335 BC) gave people the freedom to think, and the legacy that a science of nature was possible. Alfred North Whitehead in 1929 said that European philosophy was a series of footnotes to Plato. In Plato (and Augustine, Aquinas, Descartes, Spinoza, and Kant), there is a blending of religion and reasoning. c370 BC Callicles: Weaker folk make laws to restrain the strong, but nature’s true justice is that the more able rule. c350 BC Heraclides, pupil of Plato, credited with saying that Earth rotated, suggested that Venus and Mercury orbited the Sun.

4th Philosophy, Lao-tzu: Tao /The Way/The Path, developed in China, without a deity. It means the cosmic order of nature Century that cannot be grasped by human intellect. Lao-tzu focused on nature. Taoism is mystical, devoted - even more than BC Buddhism - to transcending everyday life and finding the Tao, the universal way of things, the all pervading principle of all that exists; the virtue of power of every individual is a manifestation of Tao. The meaning of life is to realize the temporal Tao nature of the existence, and one is expected to live simply, conduct one’s life by way of Xiuzhen and Xiushen, as a preparation for the spiritual transcendence thereafter. The Tao is the infinite potential energy of the universe. Qi is vital energy/matter in constant flux that arises from the Tao. Qi is regulated by the opposites of Yin and Yang. Everything is made of Yin and Yang. “He that knows others is wise. He that knows himself is enlightened.” c340 BC Philosophy: Diogenes (412-323 BC), exponent of the Cynic school of philosophy (almost the opposite of its current meaning), held that happiness consisted in the satisfaction of one’s basic needs and decried the pursuit of wealth. “I am a citizen of the world.” He sought virtue and moral freedom in liberation from desire. Cynics disdained democracy.

c335BC Philosophy/Science: Aristotle (384-322 BC), the founder of life sciences, Macedonian, a doctor’s son, Plato’s pupil for 20 years. On Plato’s death in 347 BC, he traveled, founded several schools, tutored Philip of Macedonia’s son Aristotle Alexander (soon to be Alexander the Great) for 3 years, then in 335 BC opened his Lyceum in Athens devoted to science. Plato’s Academy had ignored science. He came at the end of Greece’s creative period, and it was 2,000 years before the world produced any scientist who could be considered near his equal. He taught at the Lyceum just 12 years. Science During his time away from Athens, he did most of the scientific thinking for which he is known. He said philosophy is the science of the universal essence of that which is actual. He and Plato both regarded philosophy as concerned with the universal. But, rather than Plato’s universal in abstract ideas, Aristotle’s universal was in things.

Contrary to Plato, Aristotle believed that knowledge comes only from the senses. To Aristotle, philosophy was reasoning. In ethics, he stressed that virtue is a mean between extremes and that Man’s highest goal should be the use of his intellect. Aristotle said that precisely defining terms was Socrates’s main contribution to philosophy. Aristotle posited three basic presuppositions as the basic laws of thought (whose aim is truth). These laws are fundamental axiomatic rules upon which rational discourse itself is based. Basic 1. the law of identity A is A, (This of course assumes but does not prove that A exists) Laws of 2. the law of contradiction B cannot be both B and not B. Contradictory statements can’t both be true. Thought 3. the law of the excluded middle A is either B or not B. A proposition is true or its negation is true. Von Liebniz (1710), Kant (1751), and Schopenhauer (1819) later proposed additional laws of thought.

Aristotle criticized Plato’s Republic for ignoring the complexity of society, the pleasure of ownership, of family, of participating in ruling. Aristotle’s Metaphysics coined the word physics, from the Greek word for nature. Where Plato developed a world in which the physical sciences had little if any real reason to be, Aristotle developed a world where such sciences were developed largely by observation of what is, but still more based on speculation on what ought to be. Both taught that the highest occupation of Man was the discovery of nature’s laws.

In Organon, Aristotle taught that Man could reason about the world he saw. His studies and writings covered almost

19 all the then known sciences. They constitute one of the most amazing achievements ever credited to a single mind. He commented on natural things. He made the study of all sciences respectable. Aristotle said that to be educated is to be able to distinguish between sense and nonsense in all areas of knowledge.

Teleology: Aristotle believed that purpose was the fundamental concept in science, a teleological concept. All actions, plants, and animals, had a goal/telos/purpose, which was some good. To him, God was the prime mover. He said, “Nature makes nothing without some end in view, nothing to no purpose, it must be that that nature has made all things specifically for the sake of Man.” Plants and animals grow to fulfill themselves. An acorn, for example, has an inner goal to become an oak tree. “It is in the nature of a stone to move downward, and it cannot be trained to move upward even though one throws it in the air 10,000 times.” For him the meaning of life involved achieving eudaemonia (happiness or well-being or flourishing). He said, “All men, by nature, desire to understand, desire knowledge...The good life involves friendship with virtuous men and development of the intellectual virtues.” He said the telos of human life was happiness.

Aristotle founded Systematic Logic, his most influential achievement, the discipline dealing with the principles of valid inferences. Logic is the systematic building of ideas from other ideas. Aristotle invented the syllogism. Scientific knowledge, said Aristotle, comes from syllogisms, where a major premise and a minor premise (with a common term) reach a correct conclusion. For example: Major premise; All men are mortal; Minor premise: Socrates is a man; Conclusion: Socrates is mortal. Syllogisms used two known facts to prove a third previously unknown fact. The syllogism provided an intellectual structure for the reconciliation of opposing views. Induction and Aristotle divided Systematic Logic into Deduction and Induction. Deduction goes from universally valid statements to Deduction particular conclusions (like the syllogism above. Socrates is a man.) A deduced conclusion is by definition accurate because the premises are by definition accurate. Deduction and Induction are both largely reducible to a syllogism. Premises may be explicit/expressed or implicit from the context of the syllogism. Implicit premises may of course err.

Induction: where particular observed instances or phenomena, premises, are used to prove general principles. As all particular instances of any given premise cannot be known, The validity of any argument by Induction is based on probability; the better the premises, the surer (but not 100% sure) the conclusion. Example: First Premise - All trees I have seen in Wyoming are pines. Second Premise - I have seen a lot of W yoming. (An inductive argument can have 1 or more premises.) Conclusion - All trees in Wyoming are pines. The conclusion is reasonable (albeit here wrong) until and unless more accurate premises are found.

A conclusion based on Induction was not good enough for Aristotle to be accepted as knowledge, as an induced conclusion is not by definition 100% sure, Aristotle said that, “To be acceptable as scientific knowledge, a truth must be a deduction from other truths.” (Nicomachean Ethics 6) (Hume similarly distrusted Induction, see 1739) Aristotle divided sciences into three categories: 1. the theoretical (physics, mathematics, metaphysics for disinterested knowledge,), 2. the practical (ethics and politics, for the guidance of conduct), and 3. the productive/poetical (for guidance of the arts).

Aristotle taught to understand the world we see, with real objects (called substances). “A substance is a combination Aristotle of both form and matter. Matter does not exist by itself, nor does form.” He said matter is pure potentiality and form is what matter becomes when it becomes anything. (Example, marble is matter; the statue carved from it is form). We understand the forms of things, and forms can be in our minds, whereas things themselves cannot be in our minds, i.e., “the knower is one with the thing known.” This is an ultimate solution to Thale’s question. Real things are real things and there’s nothing else. For Aristotle, experience was the sole fount of knowledge.

Alexander the Great, then conquering the known Western world, sent Aristotle reports and zoological and botanical samples, and put numerous collectors of natural objects to serve him. With this help, Aristotle established a museum of natural objects. He listed 560 different species, described animals’s anatomies. Thus, public knowledge now came into being. Plato never would have established a museum of things. (more Alexander at 334 BC)

Aristotle taught empiricism, the method of gaining knowledge based solely through experience, experiment, and observation. As an observant scientist, he described the birth of bees in a hive, he investigated the pairing of insects, the courtship behavior and mating habits of birds, the behavior of drones in a beehive, that a cuttlefish attaches itself to a rock in a storm. He saw that blood carried nourishment to the body. He classified 500 species of animals into eight classes. He founded anatomy, embryology, and physiology. He described the internal anatomy of shellfish, fish, and squid. Until Plato and Aristotle, Greeks had principally studied Homer’s epics for knowledge in all areas.

To the question, “Why do cats have kittens?” Aristotle said, “There’s a Formal Principle which passes from the parent to the child.” This is as bad as Plato’s “catness;” it doesn’t answer what the formal principle is. But it was accepted for centuries. This time marked the beginnings of a moral and intellectual process, an appeal to righteousness and to the truth from the passions and confusions and immediate appearances of existence.

20 Political Theory: Aristotle’s fundamental ideas were much like Plato’s, but he added an empirical, inductive method, which marked the beginning of political science away from ethical and philosophical musings about the state. Where Plato saw the state as originating from the necessity of division of labor, Aristotle saw the state as organically evolving from the household or village. He saw the husband as ruling over the family as a monarch rules his subjects, due to his superior intelligence. He believed that slaves had no intelligence at all, a shameless rationalization of class prejudice. He perceived that the ultimate political problem was to strike a balance between liberty and authority. The goal of the state was to produce cultured gentlemen. In Politics, c322 BC, “The only stable state is the one in which all men are equal before the law, a democratic state.” But he also said, “Man is by nature superior to the female.”

Aristotle said, “Man is by nature, a political animal, meaning only Man could make communal living possible. He separated kings who ruled by an admitted and inherent right and tyrants who ruled without the consent of the governed. He believed the city state was the ideal form of political organization (with separation of powers), slavery was necessary Aristotle and just, workers were incapable of being in government, Greeks were superior to others, education was important (for Political males), law should govern, not individuals. Good consists of people achieving a state appropriate to their nature. His great Theory contribution to law was to say epieikeia/equity/fairness had to be a part of any legal system. He said there is a Scale of Being with minerals at the bottom and Man at the top, similar to Plato’s chain of being.

Aristotle rightly thought that under unequal economic conditions, the poor view the system as a conspiracy against them and would see no reason to follow the rules. Similarly the rich would come to feel that they were better than their fellow citizens and see themselves above the law. Aristotle argued, “We must regard every citizen as belonging to the state.” (Cf. Kant: (1755) “Every human being is an end in himself.”)

Aristotle’s crowning achievement was to rethink the questions raised by Plato and to develop a metaphysical system as original and as well thought out as Plato’s. He rejected Plato’s theory of Forms. With Aristotle, there is a mature discipline with two carefully worked out but competing points of view.

Aristotle established different methods and different criteria of knowledge for different subjects. His many books were taken around the known world by Greek travelers. And the idea grew that there was only one truth, not numerous truths, about something, plus the idea of a relationship between knower and the thing known. The world is rational and Man can understand it. Now there was a new paideia/curriculum for all (all male citizens) to learn, i.e., science. The spirit of inquiry exploded as the seafaring Greeks exported it. Greek was the language of the Mid East.

His Metaphysics’s four causes in science: 1. Material cause, what something is made of, wood. 2. Formal cause, tells what a thing is, plans for a chair. 3. Efficient cause, that which initiates change, carpenter. 4. Final cause, the purpose of the object, place to sit.

Aristotle distinguished between essential and accidental properties of things. Essential properties of something are properties that determine what a thing is, i.e., an apple, while accidental properties determine how a thing is, such as big or small or green or red. Both Plato and Aristotle’s arguments were based on the use of opposites in argument (dialectic) and the self evident nature of geometric forms. In Metaphysics, Aristotle said that true knowledge is the knowledge of ultimate causes. Forms, or universals, exist only in things. And, “Define your terms.”

Aristotle posited a Cosmological / First Cause Argument for the existence of a god, his main argument for God: In Physics (VIII, 4-6) and Metaphysics (XII 1-6). He said that there is an underlying essence of which the universe is composed, and a Prime Mover/God organized and set into motion this pre-existing essence, but then left it alone (Akin to Deism, see 1624). The Cosmological Argument is part of classical natural theology, the attempt to infer the existence of a supernatural being within the context of the natural universe itself without recourse to faith or revelation. Most arguments of natural theology begin with a natural phenomenon, a fact that purportedly requires an explanation, but this fact cannot be explained by other natural phenomena, thus one posits a supernatural cause to explain it. Cosmological arguments posit a mystery, God, to explain a mystery, What caused the world/universe? They are known as “God by Default” or “God by Inference” arguments. That is, “We can’t explain the origin of the world with our current knowledge, so we infer that a supernatural force (to believers, their particular God), must have done it. (Al Ghazali (1085), Aquinas (1273), and von Leibniz (1710), all later developed cosmological arguments for God.)

Like most Greek thinkers, Aristotle believed the Earth was a sphere. In Egypt he had seen stars there that “were not seen in northernly regions,” which could only occur on a curved surface of the Earth.

Aristotle Aristotle dominated Western science, such as it was, for c2,000 years. Despite his greatness, he erred. He believed: errors 1. Re the natural world, that all matter is made up of four earthly elements: water, earth, fire, and air, and a heavenly element, aether. He didn’t accept Leucippus/Democritus’s atomic theory and, due to the deference given Aristotle throughout history, atomism was ignored for 1,000 years. 2. That men have more teeth than women, 3. that the brain cools the blood and is unrelated to thinking,

21 4. That the speed of light was infinite, a view then generally, but not universally, held. 5. That the speed of light was faster than the speed of sound as seeing was more noble than hearing. 6. That heavy rocks fell faster than light rocks. (Philoponus, Galileo and Newton, inter alia, refuted this.) 7. That the Earth was the center of the universe; i.e., that the Moon, the Sun, the planets (from the Greek word for wanderer) and stars circled the Earth on four crystal spheres. (Ptolemy, astronomer in Egypt, c150 AD, bought it and refined the theory into the Ptolemaic universe which, in the Middle Ages, became official Christian dogma.) 8. That rocks fell and water ran downhill because everything had its “natural” place. 9. Earthquakes are air escaping from underground pockets.10 Rainbows are caused by clouds acting as a huge lens. 10. Sheatfish suffer from sunstroke as they swim so close to the surface. 12. His idea of a Prime Mover/First Cause for the universe was not fully refuted until the 18th century. (These incorrect scientific beliefs hindered the development of physics for c2,000 years.) 13. Socially: Slaves deserved to be slaves as they allowed themselves to be enslaved, i.e., natural slaves, a Fallacy of the Consequent (circular reasoning), which, applied to Socrates’s Royal Lie, i.e., Rulers are justified as they are rulers (also circular reasoning.) makes the Royal Lie a theory of injustice. In his Nicomachean Ethics, he wrote, “ Watch virtuous men to learn virtue.” [a Fallacy of the Consequent] 14. As a corollary to the concept of natural slaves, war was OK to capture natural slaves. 15. Women were inferior “on account of a kind of inadequacy.” thus must be subordinate to men, 16. Foreigners were inferior as they did not speak Greek (both Fallacies of the Consequent). (His theories of women’s inferiority and “natural slaves” helped justify slavery and the subjugation of women for 2,000 years. Both books of the Bible and the Koran (later) reflected the same attitudes toward women and slaves.)

Aristotle said that for a tyrant to retain power, he should kill any rival of merit, prohibit common meals, clubs, literary assemblies, potentially dangerous education, employ spies, keep people busy with war or great works, and feign piety.

Philosophy: Four schools of philosophy flourished in Athens, the Academic (Plato), Peripatetic (Aristotle), Epicurean (Epicurus, 300 BC), and Stoic (Zeno). [Aristotle walked around as he taught, hence Peripatetic.] Most of Aristotle’s works (and most Greek works) were lost to Christian Western civilization from the 5th to 12th centuries AD.

Babylonians had collected astronomical data since the 8th century BC. In the 4th and third centuries, they discovered mathematical regularities in the observed data, such as the periodicity of ellipses and mathematical coordinates defining the exact path of the Moon and Sun. By 380 BC, they had developed the then most accurate calendar.

334 BC Alexander the Great (355-323 BC) first conquered Greece, ending the Classical and beginning the Hellenistic Age of Greece. He then conquered Asia Minor and Egypt, founding Alexandria, and putting one of his generals, Ptolemy 12, to rule Egypt. Ptolemy’s daughter, Cleopatra 7 (not the more famous later Cleopatra) ruled Egypt with her husband/brother Ptolemy 13. (Alexander named 17 towns after himself.). In 330 BC, Alexander then burned Persepolis, Persia’s capital, defeated Samarkand. Alexander killed Greeks, Pisidians, Thracians, Illyrians, Cappadocians, the Thebian Sacred Band, Paphlagonians, Galatians, Armenians, Persians, Indians, Egyptians, and others, so earned the title “the Great.”

Alexander died in 323 BC in Babylon at 32 after conquering the three great empires. Egyptian, Persian, and Indian. Alexander spread Greek culture, cross pollinating Greek, Persian, and Egyptian law and customs, but his empire fell totally apart after his death. After Alexander (Aristotle’s patron), died, Aristotle was condemned as godless. So he left Athens and died within a year. The Ptolemys, Macedonian Greeks, continued to rule Egypt for three centuries.

After Alexander, Cynics thought that that knowledge was impossible, and that attachment to material things was the root problem, and so advocated a return to nature. (Diogenes, 340 BC).

Pyrrho, a soldier of Alexander’s, taught skepticism. His skeptics agreed that knowledge was impossible and thought that the search for knowledge caused angst, so one should avoid having any beliefs at all, an intellectually lazy and popular position. There are different schools of skepticism. Pyrrho’s philosophical skepticism, is the most extreme.

c325 BC c325 BC Mauryan dynasty, first Indian empire, began. Emperor Asoka unified India, adopted Buddhism, started India’s golden age. He proscribed respect for the dignity of all men, and above all, religious tolerance and non-violence. The Hindu Brahmins did not give up and eventually ousted Buddhism from India. (See 150 AD)

Epicurus (341-270 BC), from Samos, student of Democritus and a confirmed Materialist and Atomist, set up a school in Athens called The Garden, accepted women (other schools didn’t), taught that pleasure / happiness / tranquility c300 BC (avoidance of pain) is the supreme good, achieved through a life of simplicity, ease, and moral rectitude, not sexual lust, Epicurius drink, or revelry. Barley bread and water was their preferred food. Epicureans believed that the universe was a machine and humans had no special status, and that superstitions and fear of death caused angst. They also said that organs develop from exercise and weaken when not used (correct).

He taught that the greatest good of all is prudence: it is a more precious thing even than philosophy, and that two of the greatest sources of fear were religion and the dread of death. Epicurius said that sight was caused by light entering the

22 eye. This was not accepted as accurate until al Haytham explained it c1300 years later. He taught that nothing is to be believed except that which was tested through direct observation and logical deduction. He valued science solely as providing naturalistic explanations of phenomena which superstition attributed to gods.

Epicurus stated the “Epicurean Paradox,” previously argued by Skeptics and later called the Problem of Evil, i.e., how to reconcile the existence of evil and suffering in the world with an omniscient, omnipotent, and benevolent god(s) .

Epicurus said, “The gods can either take away evil from the world and will not, or, being willing to do so, cannot, or The they neither can nor will, or lastly, they are both able and willing. If they have the will to remove evil and cannot, then Problem they are not omnipotent. If they can but will not, then they are not benevolent. If they are neither able nor willing, then of Evil they are not omnipotent. Lastly, if they are both able and willing to annihilate evil, how does it exist?”

As evil/suffering is clearly abundant in the world, an omniscient, omnipotent, and benevolent god can not exist.

The logic of the paradox is simple and irrefutable. So believers in an all-powerful, all-good, benevolent God ever since have suggested ways to get around it, i.e., by making evil subjective, or saying evil is just the absence of good, thus not a thing, or, evil is to be overcome by will and discipline, or by having an evil god, or by making evil retribution for sin, etc. Shang Ti, in ancient China, addressed the Problem of Evil, as did Krishna in the Bhagavad Gita, Ireneaus (177 AD), Carneades (see 150 BC), Augustine (413 AD), Aquinas (1273), von Leibniz (1710), and Hume (1751). The Book of Job, also pre-dating Epicurius, stated that Man’s limited knowledge cannot understand the ways of God.

Another answer, from the gospel of John (New Testament), is that God wanted Man to know evil as well as good, in order to worship God more completely. Plato, Aristotle, and Plutarch, early cosmologists, said God can only be good, and separated good from evil into two distinct metaphysical statuses, where evil was reducible to some source other than the good but also somewhat subordinate to good. (Some, like John Stuart Mill (1859), just said God is not all-powerful and all-knowing.) Pantheists said/say God is immanent in the world and working to bring good out of evil, though evil, despite God’s efforts, will continue to exist. Some deny evil exists. However, Judaism, Christianity, and Islam are so committed to the existence of evil that a reason to reject evil would be a reason to reject these religions. Nonetheless, the Epicurean Paradox / Problem of Evil remains the fundamental refutation of the possibility of a monotheistic benevolent, omniscient, and omnipotent God.)

Resurrection myths: In the Hellenistic period, a number of religious cults focused on the concept of resurrection, including the Eleusian Mysteries the Orphic Mysteries, as well as the myth of Dionysus, resurrected by his father Zeus. Later, under the Romans, Christianity, with Jesus’s resurrection as a central tenet, began. Hellenistic nobility commissioned works of art, sculptures, literature, and great architecture.

300 BC Philosophy: Zeno the Stoic (c335 - 263 BC), set up a school in Athens and taught that as one couldn’t change much in life, happiness consists of conforming one’s will to divine reason, accept one’s place in the world. The Stoics most Zeno important political contributions were their ideas of universal law and universal reason, and their concept of the the brotherhood of Man. Reason, their god, was the means to happiness. Stoics viewed the entire universe as a manifestation Stoic of God and happiness as surrendering the self to the divine order of the cosmos, as living in harmony of nature, contra the Greek emphasis on Man’s relation to the polis, thus preparing the way for Christianity. Everything had a purpose related to Man. Some animals one eats; others provide wool, etc. Cruelty affords Man the opportunity to exercise virtue. The mixing of barbarians and the eclipse of the city state after Alexander facilitated these ideas.

Edith Hamilton (The Greek Way) said, “The fundamental fact about the Greek was that he had to use his mind. The ancient priests had said, “This far and no farther. We set the limits on thought.” The Greeks said, “All things are to be examined and called into question. There are no limits on thought.” Unfortunately, three concepts pervaded and limited great Greek thinking: 1.the idea that the city was the ultimate political organization, 2.slavery was legitimate, and 3. Greeks had little to no knowledge of the world beyond the Med.

Also limiting Greek thought: Tools for measurement are essential to studying the natural world. Greeks had no clocks for short time intervals, no telescope, no microscope, no accurate scales, no really efficient numerical notation. Greeks had seen, but used only for sewers, the arch, and, as seafarers, never saw the importance of roads. c300 BC Science: Library of Alexandria. Ptolemy Soter/Savior, Macedonian, ruler of Egypt (due to Alexander), founded and supported a museum (temple of the muses) in Alexandria, in effect the first university in the world, with c500K scrolls. Science (There were many Ptolemys.) In two generations, it outshone Athens. It became the center of Greek (and all Western) learning. Its scholars included Euclid (geometry), Hero (50 AD, designed a primitive steam engine), Eratosthenes (just below). Herophilus (studied the brain’s functions, dissected humans, discovered nerves, described the optic nerve, founded a medical school, as famous as the Library), Apollonius (mathematician), Hipparchus, astronomer (see 140 BC), and Archimedes (see 220 BC). Ptolemy brought in Jewish scholars and Alexandria became the largest Jewish city.

Ptolemy in Alexandria also established a temple, called the Serapeum, which had three gods: 1. Serapis, 2. Isis (the

23 moon cow goddess), and 3. Horus, the child god with the idea of immortality predominant. Later, under the Roman Empire, Alexandria became the greatest trading center in the Western world.

Science: Euclid took the Pythagorean Theorem to Alexandria around 300 BC, whence it entered the body of scientific Euclid knowledge. Euclid did not invent geometry, but he did compile Elements of Geometry, used into the late 20th century, the most translated and copied book up until modern times (except for the Bible). It was the most influential work in the history of mathematics. Euclid started with a few self-evident axioms (parallel lines don’t meet, non-parallel lines in the same plane meet somewhere, etc) and then constructed by Deduction a series of theorems all derived from the basic axioms. Euclid also said that the Earth was a sphere. His [wrong] reason: the most harmonious geometric form was a sphere. All books in Egypt and new books brought into Egypt were copied for the Library. Printing was not used. Face to face and hand-copied letters were the only way scholars communicated.

Science: Eratosthenes (276 BC-194 BC), (from Cyrene in Africa), Greek, became director of the library. He compiled a chronology of events dating from the establishment of Troy, and, c250 BC, very accurately calculated the circumference (and thus the radius) of the Earth by noting that the sun was directly overhead at Aswan, but 500 miles away in Alexandria, at precisely the same time, it was angled 7% from the vertical. He realized this could only come if the Earth were round. (He was high by only 16%). He also mapped the Nile and drew a map of the known world with lines of latitude and longitude. Around 275 BC, Egyptians dug a canal connecting the Nile and the Red Sea.

270 BC Philosophy/Science: Aristarchus (310-230 BC), Greek, of Samos, said that the Earth itself revolved and also revolved around the Sun 300 times bigger than Earth (see Heraclides 350 BC). This was not widely accepted. It was called blasphemous. Muslim scholars also hypothesized about this heliocentric theory, but, as it was contra to both Aristotle, and later, Ptolemy the astronomer, it was ignored in the W est for 18 centuries until Copernicus revived it.

265 BC Rome ruled and unified all Italy. 300,000 persons were under Roman control. Romans developed the arch (semicircular until the pointed Gothic arch); used it in bridges, aqueducts, buildings. (Pantheon had a span of 164 feet.) Romans first enslaved conquered people but found that making them citizens worked better. Rome began barbaric gladiator games. c221 BC Political Theory: China, first truly united under Ch’in (Pure) rule, first built a network of roads and then, finished the Great Wall (1,500 miles, and with hundreds of thousands of soldiers guarding it) to keep the starving and destitute Mongols out. Most importantly, Emperor Shih Huang-ti abolished feudalism, introduced bureaucratic government based on Confucian China principles, control of the economy, and belief that most knowledge is dangerous. He standardized writing and the width of carts’s axles throughout China. He caused all books but those on law, herbal medicine, horticulture to be burnt. China was then the largest nation, made gunpowder. Chinese used seed drills and iron plows.

The two basic ideas in science in China were that 1. there are 5 elements: water, metal, wood, fire, and earth and 2. there were two fundamental forces, Yin (clouds, rain, female, inside, cool, dark) and Yang (heat, warmth, sunshine, male). Chinese reported Halley’s comet in 240 BC. (Comets, shooting stars, eclipses have through the ages been considered signs from a supernatural power.) There was no contact between China and the West. Chinese developed a harness where the horse’s chest, not its throat, pushed; not used in the West for 650 years. c220 BC Archimedes (c287-212 BC), born in Syracuse, Sicily, an Athenian colony. At the Library of Alexandria, he was a hydrologist and mathematician; discovered that a body weighs as much as the fluid it displaces. This is thus called the Archimedean Principle. He worked out the mathematical law of the lever (force multiplies by the ratio between the lengths of the two arms). He also calculated a very accurate value for ð by using 96 polygons, getting 3.1418. (ð = 3.14159265+.) He invented the compound pulley, and calculated the surface area and volume of a sphere. Formulas he deduced: Volume of a sphere = 4.189 (ð x 1 1/3) x radius cubed. Volume of a sphere = 2/3 that of a cylinder with same diameter and height; Surface of a sphere = 12.566 (4 ð) x radius squared or 4x a circle the same size; Volume of a square pyramid or a cone = 1/3 base x height. Archimedes wrote about the water screw then used in irrigation to raise water. It was thus later named after him. c200 BC Comparing Rome and Greece: Rome had virtually no indigenous culture. All Roman culture was derivative from Greek. Cato the Censor (234-149 BC), a Roman official, opposed Greek culture as weak and immoral and tried to maintain Roman customs. He was a cruel man who carried on a lifelong war against everything young, gracious, or pleasant. Romans enjoyed gladiatorial shows (murder as a popular sport). Romans were more practical than Greeks and bent Greek culture to their needs. Cato disliked women asserting even minimal rights.

Roman The keystones of Roman success were law, citizenship, and roads. Rome’s. Whereas Greeks were concerned about Law, abstract standards of justice, Romans wrote their 12 Tables of laws. (The Greeks didn’t have a common law.) Used until Roads, fall of Rome, 410 AD, and in the Eastern Roman empire, (Constantinople), until 1453, when it fell to the Ottoman Turks. Citizens Romans fiercely respected their laws. The 12 Tables were posted every place Rome conquered. Romans had one important belief that the Greeks did not, that a small idea that works is better than a grand idea that does not. People from Spain to Persia all wanted to be Roman “citizens.” Roman roads were so well built they can still be used. With water brought from the mountains by an aqueduct, Rome reached 1 million persons. Rome destroyed rival Carthage.

24 168 BC Antiochus 4, ruler of Syria, severely persecuted Jews/Macabees. Jews revolted, won Jerusalem/Judea. Rabbis told Jews that Yahweh would eventually vindicate His suffering people punish their Gentile oppressors, and usher in a new supernatural order resurrecting the dead into the Kingdom of God. Halley’s comet was seen by the Babylonians in 164BC.

c150 BC Carneades, Head of Plato’s Academy, a less extreme Skeptic, who simply wanted proof before accepting an idea, The accepted the logic of the Problem of Evil, said. “The existence of God is not self-evident, and therefore needs Problem proof...Those who affirm positively that God exists cannot avoid falling into an impiety. For if they say that God controls of Evil everything, they make him the author of evil things; if on the other hand, they say He controls some things only, or that He controls nothing, they are compelled to make God grudging or impotent, and to do that is quite obviously an impiety.”

146 BC Greece in decline: The power of Greece had declined, and by 146 BC, the remnants of Greece were absorbed into the Roman Republic, becoming merely a backwater in the Roman sphere, but Rome adopted Greek culture. c150 BC- Overview. These three centuries were the high point of classical civilization. Roman empire grew to the time of Christ to 150 AD include most of what Rome knew as the world, from mid-Scotland to the Caspian and Persian Gulf, and from Romania to the Sahara. Romans built 50,000 miles of roads plus bridges and aqueducts. The Segovia, Spain aqueduct, built in 100 Roman AD, ran ten miles, with hundreds of arches, laid with no lime or cement, still stands. The Roman empire did not include Empire India, China, Japan or the (to them) unknown Americas. It was the highest point that Western Man attained until the discovery of America. By 89 BC, all free inhabitants in Italy were “citizens” of Rome. Romans never considered dealing with other states as sovereign states.

Romans were indifferent to science and geography beyond their empire. They made no attempt to learn about India, Buddha, Zoroaster, Persia, China, Huns, or Negroes. While there were many schools in the empire, there was no true intellectual progress. Romans’ cardinal virtues were wisdom, courage, moderation, and justice.

History after the Greek era is very largely the history of the three ideas: 1. Science, 2. Of a universal righteousness, and 3. Of a human commonweal spreading out from the minds of the rare and exceptional persons where they originated. Men always faced the greatest political problem, i.e., how to live in peace and freedom. The Greeks usually chose freedom (at the cost of constant conflict, both with other Greeks and with others).

140 BC Hipparchus, at the Library of Alexandria, made the 1st systematic catalog of 850 stars, calculated the length of a year and lunar cycle, the distance to the Moon, said the Earth was closest to Sun on Jan. 4, furthest on July 4, developed a scale of magnitudes for stars to indicate their brightness; adopted the Babylonian 360 degree circle to Western math.

c136 BC The Han Empire in China was as large and rich as the Roman empire and was developing a culture more sophisticated than the Roman Empire. Emperor Wu-ti made Confucianism China’s official philosophy. All sons were co-heirs of their father. Meng-tzu / Menicus (371-289 BC) slightly altered Confucianism by arguing that the ultimate justification of rulership was the welfare of the people. He said that one who practices the principles of harmony and righteousness with sincerity radiates the spiritual influence of the universe. Men are born good. If he keeps his original nature, he will stay good. Man inherently has a sense of shame, a sense of courtesy and a sense of right and wrong.

c124 BC China’s Imperial University was founded. Between 100 BC and 200 AD, the Chinese invented the crossbow, papermaking, a seed-planting machine, a rotary winnowing machine, the rotary fan, and wheelbarrow.

c100 BC The Celts (N. Europe) developed the iron plow, Greeks the waterwheel to grind grain, Indians the toe stirrup.

73 BC Third Roman slave revolt, this one under Spartacus, lasted two years. Finally all the rebels were massacred.

c65BC Philosophy: Marcus Tullius Cicero (106-43 BC), Consul, leading lawyer of Rome, prolific author, philosopher, and letter writer, doubted the existence of supernatural powers, “As a philosopher, I have a right to ask for a rational explanation of religious faith.” In his On the Nature of the Gods: 45 BC “So various and so contradictory are the opinions of the most learned men on [the nature of gods] as to [acknowledge that] philosophy is the child of Cicero ignorance.” He said that “in the first place it is improbable that the material substance which is the origin of things was created by Divine Providence. It has and always had a force and nature of its own...that which we call Nature is therefore the power which permeates and preserves the whole universe.” Also said, “To think is to live...A house without books is like a body without a soul.”

He didn’t convince enough Romans to save the Republic, but was the first man to see that a near-universal belief in a constitution will ensure peace and freedom. His 800 remaining letters provide the most important source of knowledge of life in Rome. Cicero, in his writings, applied the principles of Greek ethical thought to the rough life of a Roman merchant or politician. He introduced Aristotle and other Greek philosophers’s works to Romans. He sought to resolve the conflict between peace and freedom by establishing a government of laws, not men. Like the Greeks, the early Romans chose freedom (over peace). With Roman power consolidated, civil conflict arose. A series of ruthless men offered to be tyrant to secure peace, including Gaius Julius.

Ethics: Cicero’s last book, On Duties, 44 BC, dealt with numerous common problems: how to treat inferiors, how

25 honest must one be in business, when to protest? Answer, “W here is there dignity unless there is honesty?” Always do the right thing, what’s legal, open, honest, fair, keep your word; a wrong action can never be really advantageous as it is wrong; a modest and profound directive, more understandable than Plato or Aristotle. Greek stoicism became the dominant philosophy among educated Romans.

63 BC Rome under Pompey, captured Jerusalem, conquered the Jews in Judea, made Judea a Roman province.

58 BC Titus Lucretius Carus (c96-c53 BC), an extraordinary intellect, revived the philosophy of Epicurus, proponent of atomism, wrote De rerum natura/ On the Nature of Things, the greatest classical statement of a system of atheism, which combined stoicism and Epicureanism. Nature was depicted as a landscape of plants and animals transforming and progressing from primitive to more advanced stages across the ages, including human’s rise from savagery to civilization, Lucretius an early depiction of evolution. Nothing is ever generated from nothing; nature consists of atoms moving in a void. To make it relevant and understandable to the people, the poem expressed forgiving yourself for being human; it’s better to love than to hate, to live fully, even if imperfectly. Man’s soul is composed of atoms, thus dies when man dies. As this contradicted Aristotle, it was ignored. (In 1473, the book was put into Latin, so atomism became known in the West.)

c50 BC Gaius Julius (100 - 44 BC), Roman consul and general, conquered Gaul (likely killing one million and enslaving another Julius million), and after a failed attempt in 55 BC, invaded Britain in 54 BC, but left shortly to quell a revolt in Gaul, had a short Caesar dalliance with Cleopatra in Egypt (a common name in the Ptolemy family). In 49 BC, Gaius Julius returned to Rome where the Senate, under Pompey, his rival, ordered him to disband his army. Instead, he “crossed the Rubicon” River and conquered Rome and Pompey, becoming Julius Caesar/dictator.

45 BC Julius instituted the “Julian” calendar of 365.25 days. (Designed by astronomer Sosigenes of Alexandria.) Not changed until 1582, when it was off by just ten days. (A year is 365.242 days.) Julius named July after himself.

c44 BC Brutus, Cassius, and others murdered Julius in the Senate, as he was considered a threat to their aristocracy. Most Romans thought Julius’s death justifiable. Mark Antony/Anthony then inaugurated the system of institutional tyranny that was the Roman empire. (With Julius gone, Cleopatra returned to Egypt, murdered her brother/co-ruler, and attached herself to Antony.) Mt. Etna, Sicily, erupted, darkened the skies for three years, caused crop failures as far away as China.

43 BC Roman Republic (which had begun c500 BC), weakened and became the Roman Empire. Augustus/Octavian (63 BC-14 AD), and Antony caused Cicero to be murdered and nailed his severed hands to the Senate rostrum because Cicero exposed Antony’s attacks on Romans’ freedoms.

27 BC Augustus (after defeating Antony), received imperial power to be exercised only in emergencies, shared power with the Senate, consuls, and tribunes. The empire stretched from Belgium to Syria. Augustus’s “Augustinian Age” of promoting farming and the arts was the golden age of Latin literature. He made his stepson, Tiberius, his successor. But then Tiberius’s son died and he went to Capri and never returned. Anarchy and corruption ruled. Evil, mad, corrupt emperors followed. Not withstanding their emperors, Romans built a state, roads, a system of law, schools (for free males) throughout the empire. Romans developed the truss bridge. Shortsightedly, they neglected science.

c25 BC 19 BC: Virgil (79 -19 BC) wrote The Aeneid, which told of the wandering of Aeneas after the fall of Troy, ended up in Rome. As Homer’s epics did for the Greeks, The Aeneid taught Romans about their past.

c1 AD Chinese used an adjustable caliper, built suspension bridges of cast iron, invented the wheelbarrow, pendulum, and a water-powered bellows used in working cast iron. World population: rough estimate: c300M, c60M in China.

c30 AD Religion, Jesus: Roman Judea at the time had many Jewish sects, some chiefly spiritual (like the Essenes), many that hoped for a warlike Messiah to liberate them from Roman rule. Several sects worshiped a god who had died and was resurrected, like the Osiris myth. An itinerant charismatic Jewish teacher named Jesus, from Nazareth, was preaching in synagogues and elsewhere a simple and profound doctrine, of a loving universal Fatherhood of God and the imminent coming of the Kingdom of Heaven. He sought to prepare his fellow Jews for the kingdom of God. “The kingdom of God is at hand.” His teachings were not reasoned arguments like those of Socrates or Aristotle, but pronouncements from an all-knowing God. Many of his prohibitions dealt simply with thoughts, forbidden lustful “sinful” thoughts, or, “Love” thy neighbor.” Jesus’s teachings was a prophetic teaching. This outline accepts the existence of the historical Jesus.

Love & According to the gospels (written much later), Jesus approved of the harsh Jewish laws, Matthew 5: 17-20, Matt.15:4, Charity Luke 29:9-16, Mark 7:9-10, but added compassion and tolerance based on love and mercy, i.e., The Sermon on the in the Mount, “Blessed are the poor, the meek, the pure in heart.,” When some Jews were stoning an adulteress, he said, “He New that is without sin among you, let him first cast a stone.” “Love your enemies; do good to them.” Matt. 44. “Judge not lest Testament you be judged,” Luke 6:37, Matt. 7:17, and, “Give to him that asketh of thee, and from him that would borrow of thee, turn thou not away.” He accepted the Jewish doctrine that all other religions were false. Jesus, possibly an Essene, disdained wealth, said “If thou wilt be perfect, sell what you have and give to the poor, you will have treasure in Heaven, and come and follow me...a rich man shall hardly enter into the kingdom of Heaven...It is easier for a camel (or a rope, same word) to go through the eye of a needle than for a rich man to enter the Kingdom of God. Matt. 19:21, 23-24.”

26 Jesus was reputedly baptized by John the Baptist. The later Biblical reports of Jesus’s death state that c30 AD the chief Jewish rabbis and elders convicted Jesus for blasphemy, claiming to be God, not for preaching any new and different moral standards from traditional Judaism, They then demanded that the Roman governor of Judea, Pontius Pilate, kill Jesus for treason, for setting himself up as king of the Jews. Mark 15:26, Matt. 27:11-23, John 19:7,12,14-15, and Acts 3:14, 5:30. Pilate complied, had Jesus crucified. Reputedly, after three days in a cave/tomb, Jesus came back to life and forty days later ascended bodily into Heaven. A disciple, Peter and several others reputedly saw the risen Jesus. 1 Corinthians 15:5; John 20-21; and Matt. 28-16-16.

Jesus’s apostles began to spread his teachings. Jesus always considered himself Jewish. At first, his disciples continued c40 AD their allegiance to Judaism. The Greek speaking among them proselytized Greek areas of Palestine. Jesus’s younger brother James was a leader of the nascent “Christian” Jews. Christ means “the anointed one.” Followers of Jesus were first called Christians in Antioch around 40 or 47 AD. Peter became “bishop” of Rome.

c45 AD Saul of Tarsus/Paul , a Roman (? - c64 AD), who never met Jesus, was a rabbi, and theorist before he heard of Jesus. Paul converted to Jesus’s teachings after believing Jesus rose from being dead, then walked throughout Asia Minor, Greece, and Italy, preaching Jesus’s thoughts in Greek and infusing Jesus’s teaching into a Greek theological framework. Paul taught a concept not found in Jesus’s sayings, that of a sacrificial person who is offered up to God as Saint an atonement for sin. He planned to use the Roman capital as the base for his operations. Paul wanted to admit gentiles Paul without demanding circumcision. James, Jesus’s brother, and Peter wished their sect to be simply reformed Judaism. When Paul preached in Athens, he noted the open-mindedness of the teachers he met. Acts 17:16-32. Jesus had said that he would come back, which would be the end of the world, fulfilling Jewish prophesy, and would occur soon, before the deaths of some who were hearing him. This imminent end of the world, was a chief attraction of the Jesus’s message, but what was most convincing was Paul’s claim that Jesus arose from being dead, a miracle, said Jesus, God’s son, was sent to Earth to die for humans and thus save them from going to Hell for Adam’s original sin. He explained in majestic terms the crucifixion, which was a great disappointment and puzzle to many of Jesus’s followers.

Paul preached to Jews and non-Jews (The Old Testament spoke only to Jews.). He was a great missionary and an organizational genius. In his travels, Paul founded many churches, to which he wrote letters/epistles (later made parts of the New Testament.) Paul preached the ancient religion of priests with an altar and the proprietary bloodshed, concepts his audiences were familiar with. As taught by Paul, Jesus morphed from being a mere Jewish prophet into the traditional Jewish Messiah that many Jews were eagerly awaiting. He made Jesus’s teachings into a form of worship familiar to his audience. He taught Jesus to be still part of Judaism. Jesus’s virtues of faith (the greatest virtue), hope, and charity undercut the four Roman virtues. Jesus’s message was love, mercy, compassion, charity.

The number of converts to the movement grew steadily, mainly in urban areas. The countryside remained pagan. Jesus’s message appealed particularly - but not exclusively - to the poor and humble, who found a message of hope not in the secular world, but in the coming Heaven. As the end of the world was imminent, the study of the natural world was unnecessary. This basic Christian belief discouraged the study of the natural world, science, for over 1500 years. Paul Argument made clear that the kingdom of Jesus was in Heaven, not on Earth. And that unbelievers risked eternal damnation. The From reward for the faithful was resurrection and eternal life in Heaven, as Jesus had been resurrected. The new “Christian” Miracles Jews believed that loving God was the meaning of life. To achieve this, one must ask for forgiveness of sins and receive God in one’s heart. Paul was as responsible as anyone for the spread of belief in Jesus’s divinity, “Christianity.”

Paul’s argument for Jesus’s divinity was/is the Argument from Miracles, i.e., Jesus performed miracles and his resurrection was a miracle. Therefore, he is a god. The logic is irrefutable, but not the premises. Paul wrote re such premise, ”If Christ has not risen, then our preaching is in vain and your faith is in vain.” Corinthians 15:14. The Christological Argument for God is that Jesus was a great moral leader who claimed to be God and he wouldn’t lie.

Religion, Reincarnation/Heaven/Paradise/Immortality: As life is hard for most persons, an appealing thought is to imagine an afterlife which is better than the miseries and injustices of the present life. Neanderthals buried food with their dead for an afterlife. As such religions as the Egyptian, the cults of Serapis and Isis, Mithraism (Sun worshipers) in Persia, Hinduism (a better reincarnation), Sikhs, Judaism, Mahayana Buddhism, Islam, and the Incas, Christians taught that there is an afterlife, Heaven or Hell, dependent on one’s actions in this life. Heaven is an attractive proposition for rich and poor. The concept makes the governed classes less likely to revolt, as they could look forward to a better life beyond death, dependent, of course, on their acting virtuously (i.e., obediently) in this life. It also quiets those who see evil men prosper in this life, knowing/believing that evildoers will get their comeuppance someday.

Seneca the Younger (4 BC - 65 AD), Roman philosopher, said, “Religion is regarded by the common people as true, by the wise as false, and by rulers as useful.” (Edward Gibbon in 1776 and various other men have said the same thing (see 1532, Force, Fraud, Favors). Seneca said, “Every man prefers belief to the exercise of judgment.” Seneca also said that comets came at regular intervals and were heavenly bodies obeying the great laws of the universe. Said that philosophy was for the edification of the soul, and, “Man is a reasoning animal.”

27 c50 AD Hero (c10-70 AD), Greek, a teacher at the Library of Alexandria, calculated the formula for the area of a triangle when the height is not known: Area = square root of s(s-a)(s-b)(s-c) where a, b, and c are the sides, and s is half the perimeter. He also devised a primitive steam engine, where escaping steam is directed back, and the vessel rotates in reaction. He described the five simple machines for moving weights: wheel on axle, lever, pulley, wedge, and screw.

67-70 AD The gap between Jesus’s sect and other Jews widened when Christian Jews did not support the Jewish uprising in Jerusalem wherein the Jews revolted but were crushed by the Romans and later dispersed from Judea.

c70-100 Christianity, like the world’s now largest religions were, in their beginnings, quite unlike the priest, altar, and temple cults AD they became. Heaven was available to everybody. The first written stories about Jesus, by Matthew, Mark, Luke, and John, somewhat duplicative accounts of his life and sayings, appeared c40 years after his death (in Greek, which the Gospels original 12 apostles did not speak or read) and became the Four Gospels. The oral tradition of early Christianity was gradually replaced by composed narratives, the earliest of which was probably the Gospel of Mark.

The central doctrine of Jesus’s message was to atone for Adam eating an apple from the tree of knowledge of good and evil. Genesis 2:16-17. Because of such “Original Sin,” all future humans were doomed to Hell, but could be saved through Jesus. Christianity focused on sin. Saving one’s soul from Hell was the only really important thing. Unless forgiven, committing a mortal sin (serious and knowingly) condemned one to the fires of Hell forever, a very powerful threat. Confession and penance forgave the sin. Jesus did not speak of Mary, his mother. (The concept of the Virgin Mary was derived from Diana of the Ephesians. The third ecumenical Council at Ephesus, 475 AD, affirmed Mary’s divinity. Like Jesus, she is believed to have ascended bodily into Heaven.) The imminent Second Coming made science superfluous. Jesus made a distinction between the religious and the secular, “Render unto Caesar, etc.” Luke 12:17; Matt.22:21. Numerous sects grew. The beginnings of Christianity were a struggle between the teachings and spirit of Jesus, love and compassion, and the limitations amplifications, and misunderstandings of the inferior men who worshiped him.

83 AD Dioscorides’s De Materia Medica, listed 500 medicinal plants, the definitive medical and botany text for 1,600 years.

98- Emperor Trajan’s rule was the apex of Roman territory, Britain to Persia. Roman schools educated all free males. 117 AD Rome gave its citizens free daily grain rations. Orators incited idle mobs, which could crown an emperor or kill him.

120 AD Epictetus (c65-135): The good life is a life of inner tranquility coming from conforming nature to reason and to truth.

c100- Hsiung-nu nomads from Mongolia exploded into China. The Han Dynasty resisted, destroying much of China. The Hsiung- 300 AD nu, now known as Huns, were driven west, across the vast empty steppes of Central Asia to the Black Sea, forcing the Goths and Vandals living there further west. Buddhism reached China. Chinese used wood pulp paper for writing and used center rudders on boats.

Roman paganism was without creed or dogma. It just required certain rites be observed. Theology, as the dogma of a particular religion, developed with the rise of Christianity. Jews of course, had their theology. In the East, the Hindus, Buddhists, and Confucians found no need for theology. The idea of a creator God of Jews and Christians grew.

c150 AD Science: Ptolemy/Claudius Ptolemeus astronomer, mathematician, introduced longitude and latitude into maps. He wrote Almagest, much copied from Hipparchus, with Earth at the center of the universe, Aristotle’s and everyone else’s view, and the authoritative (but incorrect) text for astronomers (and the Christian Church) for 1,600 years.

Ptolemy explained that planets’s apparent irregular movements were because they moved in circles. He cataloged 1,028 Ptolemy stars and the size and distances to the Moon and Sun. He posited that the planets (each with its own internal motive power) revolved on transparent celestial perfect spheres, one sphere carried the Sun, one the Moon, and the five then- known planets (Mars, Mercury, Jupiter, Venus, Saturn), and the 8th sphere held the stars. Astrology (the influence of the celestial bodies on earthly events) became the prevailing “science.” The days of the week were named after the planets and the sun. (Tycho Brahe disproved the notion of celestial spheres only in 1572.) This became Christian thought.

c150 AD Christianity: Marcion, a leading Christian Jew in Rome, proposed that the God of Jesus was wholly a God of love, incompatible with the vindictive God of the Old Testament, which often depicted God as a warrior leading peoples in war. Marcion proposed one gospel to be the sacred writings as authoritative for “Christians” and omitting the Old Testament /Hebrew Bible. However, the wider Christian Jewish community kept the Old Testament/Hebrew Bible, but Jesus’s Christian Jewish movement was becoming an institution apart from traditional Judaism. Christian Jews’s insistence that Jesus was divine and Jesus’s teaching that God is merciful caused an inexorable split with traditional Judaism.

c150 AD In India, under attack by the Brahmins, Indian Buddhism declined. It never offered a complete religion, i.e., no ceremonies for birth and death, marriage, illness, and other events of private life.

c160 AD c160: Galen, Greek, compiled a system of medical knowledge used until c1600. Doctors must know logic and medicine.

c177AD Irenaeus, Christian bishop of Lyon, a century after they were written, asserted that the 4 gospels of Matthew, Mark, Luke,

28 and John were divinely inspired. Addressing the Problem of Evil, Irenaeus said that God had not made humans or the world flawless. Genuine human perfection can only come about through Man achieving it through his free will. Evil can exist in an imperfect world. In other words, humanity would have to suffer for tens of thousands of years so later some generation could achieve perfection. (Hume refuted the free will argument, see 1751) c200 AD Sextus Empiricus, skeptic, doubted the validity of Induction, said suspend judgment of all beliefs, act on habit.

Various Christian writings were written between c50 and c150 AD. By about 200 AD, most Christians, but not all, had accepted a certain collection of such scriptures as divinely inspired, whose reading became the basis of the various Christian sects’s worship. This collection from the larger group of Christian writings came to be called the New Testament. New Testament The New Testament begins with the 4 gospels. Most features of Jesus’s birth in the gospels, such as the star in the East compiled (taken from Virgil’s account of Augustus’s birth), virgin birth, resurrection, ascension, etc, had appeared in various other myths around the Mediterranean in previous centuries. Marcion (see 150 AD) may have edited Luke’s gospel and Paul’s epistles (most probably not actually written by Paul.). It included also various beliefs of the popular pagan cult Mithraism, but excluded writings of the Gnostic Christians and various other Christian sects. Gnostics believed that salvation comes not just from worshiping Christ but in psychic learning to free one’s self from the material world. What Christians retained the Jewish Old Testament/Hebrew Bible. Thus the active interference of Satan in magic which the Christians Jews had taken from Persian myths, became part of Christian thought. Christians were apolitical as they had no influence Know on the state. Christianity believed that Man’s duty to God was more important than Man’s duty to the state (Stoicism).

Ask and The New Testament in several passages unequivocally promised/promises that God will give believers what they pray ye shall for, “Whatsoever ye shall ask in prayer, believing, ye shall receive.” Matt. 21:22. “Ask, and it shall be given to you.” Matt. receive 7:7. “Anything that they shall ask, it shall be done for them of my Father which is in heaven.” Matt. 18:19. “What things soever ye desire, when ye pray, believe that ye receive them, and ye shall have them.” Mark 11:24. “W hatsoever ye shall ask in my name, that I will do.” John 14:13. “If ye ask any thing in my name, I will do it.” John 14:14. Theologians through the centuries have explained why these words do not really mean what they plainly say.

Slavery The New Testament endorsed slavery. Paul: “Slaves, be obedient to your masters. Serve wholeheartedly, as if you were serving the Lord.” Titus 2:9-10. Similar, Ephesians 6:5, 6, 7, and 1 Corinthians 7:21, “Slaves, obey in everything those who are your earthly masters...Whatever your task, work heartily.” Colossians 3:22-24. (The Old Testament/Hebrew Bible contains similar passages, Lev. 25:44-46, and, If a slave owner beats a slave who survives for a day or two and then dies, there is no punishment as the slave is the owner’s property.” Exodus 21:20-21.) In Luke 7:2, Jesus cured a slave but did not free him. (The Koran later also endorsed slavery. Muhammad owned slaves.)

Homosexuals and effeminate men don’t go to Heaven. Romans 1:31-32; 1 Corinthians 6:9-10, 1 Timothy 1:10. Women Women: “Let your women keep silence in the churches; for it is not permitted unto them to speak; but they are were commanded to be under obedience, as saith the law.” 1 Corinthians 11:3, similarly 14:34-35, 5:33, and Colossians men’s 3:18, “Let the woman learn in silence, with all subjection. “Suffer not a woman to teach, nor to usurp authority over the property man, but to be in silence.” 1 Timothy 2:11-12, similar Titus 2:4-5. “The weaker vessel” 1 Peter 3:7; similar 2 Peter 2:8. “Wives, submit yourselves unto your own husbands, as unto the Lord....The husband is head of the wife...Let the wives [be subject] to their own husbands in everything.” Ephysians 5:22-24. (The Koran later said the same thing.) Jews Jews: Paul wrote that the Jews killed Jesus. 1 Thessalonians 2:14-16. Repeated in Matt. 27:11-23; John 19:7, 12,14- 15, and Acts 3:14-15, 5:30, 7:51-52, 10:39. Matt. 3:7 referred to Jews as vipers. Sex: Looking lustfully on a woman is a sin. Matt. 5:28. Children Children: Jesus, “He that curseth father or mother, let him die the death.” Matt.15:4, Mark 7:9-13, (O.T. Deut. 21:18-21). Disciples: Jesus, Any man... who hate not [all his family] cannot be my disciple.” Luke 14:26. Babies Babies are born in a state of sin (because of Adam’s Original Sin, desiring knowledge). 3 Romans 5:12-21. Kings Rulers: “All authorities are appointed by God and therefore should not be resisted.” Romans 13: 1-7; 1 Peter 2:17, This passage, and the phrase “Render unto Caesar, etc.” supported the concept of the divine right of kings.

Many sayings attributed to Jesus were parables, sometimes obscure, causing millennia of interpretations. Like other ancient works, such as the Icelandic Sagas, the Illiad, and Syrian and Mayan epics, the Bible glorified murder and cruelty. c250 AD Americas: Mayan civilization in the Yucatan and Central America began its classical period, large scale construction, monumental inscriptions, intellectual and artistic development, under a priesthood of mathematical diviners. Its civilization lasted until c900. Its hieroglyphics were not deciphered until the 1990s. Aztecs built the Pyramid to the Sun.

c260 Plotinus (205-270 AD), Egyptian, founder of neoplatonism, synthesized the ideas of Plato and other Greek philosophers. He believed that all reality is caused by a series of outpourings (emanations) from a divine source.

277 AD Christians crucified the Persian Mani, founder of Manichaeism, which posited a evil god (darkness) opposing a good god (light) in the cosmos. Manichaeanism thus solved the Problem of Evil, blaming “Satan” for the evil in the world. Mani made no claim to divinity, said Moses, Zoroaster, Buddha, Jesus, were true prophets. He just clarified what they said.

29 321 AD Christianity strengthened: Sol Invictus/Unconquered Sun was the then pagan god of the Roman Empire. Emperor Constantine made Sunday, the day honoring Sol Invictus, as the holy day and day of rest for Christians. He also made Sol Invictus’s birthday, just after the winter solstice, Dec. 25, a popular pagan feast day, as Jesus’s birthday. The Church used the political structure of the Roman Empire. Rome thus became important to Christians, its dioceses were the administrative divisions of the Romans. Constantine thus made Christianity the Western world’s religion. Christianity developed into a political system, made laws revoking many civic privileges of Jews, kept Jews out of the military, made sexual relations with Christians a capital offense; at times banning pagan idolatry and sacrifices

4th There were numerous deeply held but contradictory beliefs among early Christians about the nature of God and other Century issues. Docetists (Christ’s body was a phantom); Manichaeists (see 277 AD). Ebionism (Jesus was mortal and Mosaic AD law/law of Moses governed). Gnostics, developed in Alexandria, spread widely (various sects who claimed superior knowledge. Gnostics thought it unworthy of the son of God to be born a human and to die on a cross.). Sabellians said Christian Jesus was one aspect of God-God was creator, Savior, and Comforter. Marcionists (the Old Testament/Hebrew Bible Sects was a work of an imperfect cruel God, ignore it); Donatists of Africa (strict moralists who didn’t accept the spiritual authority of those clergy who had betrayed Christians during Emperor Diocletan’s reign and regained power under Constantine). Arians of Egypt and Syria, founded by Arius, who said that as Jesus at one time did not exist, he was not equal to God; thus at one time the Trinity did not exist, very logical. They all knew that their beliefs were the true Christian beliefs.

325 AD Principally to resolve the Arianism dispute, Constantine, not then a Christian, convened, presided over, and dominated, Council the Council of Nicaea (now Iznik, Turkey). Nicaea “resolved” the dispute of one God or two (i.e., God the father and of Jesus) by declaring Jesus co-equal and co-eternal with God the Father. Arian and non-Trinitarian beliefs were not Nicaea consistent with orthodoxy and so deemed heretical. (The Arian movement did not die out.) The Council mentioned the Holy Spirit/Ghost. (Church councils in later centuries firmly established The Holy Ghost/Spirit as part of the Trinity.)

The Council also decreed that after ordination, priests should not marry. The Council prohibited clergy from charging interest for a loan and moved the date of Easter from the time of Passover, saying the Jews had defiled their hands with Nicene enormous sin. Easter combined the Jewish Passover with pagan celebrations of a resurrected God. The Council also Creed produced the Nicene Creed, the basic set of beliefs of Christians: There have been versions and revisions, but basically it’s, “I believe in one God...Creator of Heaven and Earth...and in one Lord Jesus Christ...and in the Holy Ghost,.etc..”

Constantine issued decrees enforcing Nicaea’s acts. The Church, of course, said it was the only path to salvation, based on administering the sacraments. All the Church’s Councils failed to deter diverse Christian sects growing. In the 4th century, there were 45 “councils,” 13 adverse to Arianism, 15 in its favor, and 17 for the Semi-Arians. As noted, Christians ignored science. Jesus’s “religion” had no priests or altar or consecrated temples. It had no rites or ceremonies. There was no “pope,” i.e., one ruling bishop over all other bishops, as we know him today. The bishop of Rome was just that, elected by the people of Rome. Rome was just one of several Christian communities, equal in authority over Christians in their area. The bishops of the largest Christian communities, Rome, Athens, Antioch, Byzantium, and Alexandria also had different theological opinions/dogmas. These bishops tended to exercise authority over bishops of smaller locales. Bishops were popularly elected. The bishop of Rome claimed ascendancy from Peter. As Christianity institutionalized, Jesus can be seen as the seed rather than the founder of Christianity.

c330 Hilary, Bishop of Poitiers, “It is a thing equally deplorable and dangerous that there as many creeds as opinions among men, as many doctrines as inclinations, and as many sources of blasphemy as there are faults among us, because we make creeds arbitrarily and defend them arbitrarily. Every year, nay every moon, we make new creeds.”

331 Constantine rebuilt Byzantium, the Greek trading post on the Bosporus, naming it Nova Roma, and made it his capital. So Nova Roma (later called Constantinople and later Istanbul) became as important to Christians as Rome.

c337 The Western part of the Roman empire was ruled from Ravenna, Italy, but atrophying. The Eastern part was ruled from Nova Roma. On his death in 337, Constantine willed the Empire to his three sons. (Nova Roma was renamed Constantinople.) Latin was its language until the 7th century, when Greek was adopted. (It became the greatest and richest city in the West for 1000 years.) But, massive corruption and quarrels in the Church and the government weakened the empire. Germanic peoples and Goths began to move into the outlying parts of the Empire.

374 Ambrose, Bishop of Milan, promoted the independence of the Church from the Roman empire. (He was later deemed a saint. The concept of “saint” developed slowly.) In 378, Visigoths killed the Roman emperor at Andrianople.

381 The Second Ecumenical Council in Constantinople reaffirmed Jesus’s co-equality with God and said the Holy Ghost/ Spirit was also fully God. The bishop/patriarch of Constantinople was given authority over Asia Minor and the Balkans.

Emperor Theodosius promoted the Trinitarian doctrine (decided at Nicaea) in the empire. He made Christianity Rome’s official state religion. This shut out Greek thinking. Bishops were given civil administrative and judicial duties. The Church 392 became a political as well as religious system. Theodosius united the empire. When he died in 395, it split for good. He was as important as St Paul and Constantine in making Christianity the dominant Western religion.

30 c400 John Chrysostom, Patriarch/bishop of Constantinople (398-404) opposed slavery, child prostitution. He deposed bishops who had bought their offices. He was particularly vitriolic against Jews, calling them “lecherous, greedy, rapacious, odious assassins of Christ”. “It is incumbent on all Christians to hate Jews.” Jews could not hold office, serve in the army, proselytize, or marry Christians. Chrysostom has been forever quoted by anti-Semites.

Greek philosophy had opened the Western mind. The Romans closed it when they adopted Christianity as the imperial religion and accepted the Bible as dogma. Christian thinking (The Lord says.X., a proclamation, was the opposite from the Greeks. Let us examine, a discussion.) Rome’s cardinal virtues of wisdom, courage, moderation, and justice were replaced by Faith, hope, and charity. The Church took over the empire culturally. Christianity was largely an urban religion. A school for priests grew up in Alexandria as the Church became more institutionalized. Priests began to wear the costumes of Egyptian priests, wear mitres. By the fourth century, Christianity had spread throughout the empire, as a priestly religion, familiar in form to the older ones. Ceremonies became more ornate. Romans had zero interest in science.

405 Jerome with others, produced the Vulgate Bible, in Latin from the original Hebrew and Greek, now the official Catholic version. He also urged the ladies of the bishop of Rome’s court to adopt an ascetic life, angering the bishop. (later deemed a saint. There was no formal canonization process until c1200.) He and Tertullian disparaged marriage.

410 The Visigoths, under Alaric, went south and sacked Rome. They were paid off and withdrew. While not a decisive military victory, it was very important symbolically, and did mark the decline of Pax Romana, that had unified much of Europe and the Mediterranean. When the barbarians poured into the empire, there was no popular uprising against them. In 416, Rome hired the Visigoths to defeat barbarians who had taken over much of Spain. Rome lost control of its northern European possessions. Other Goths advanced into Gaul/France. The empire disintegrated. The Roman emperors in Ravenna were helpless.

Decline Overview: The Roman part of the empire “declined and fell”. Rome, mostly pagan, corrupt, was nominally Christian. and fall Citizens of Rome were devoted to consumption of material goods, while the great mass of people in the empire, including of the barbarians, lived miserably. The Western empire’s wealth (and grain) was shipped to Rome. The Eastern part of the Roman empire, including Greece, ruled from Constantinople, became far richer than the Western. Goths and Vandals, forced out Empire of Central Asia by the Huns, spread into Europe. Rome was weakened by the pressure of the Arabs from the South and its wars with Persia and oblivious to the growing threat from the barbarians from the north.

Numerous theories have been advanced to explain Rome’s fall: lead poisoning, plague, non-Italians in places of power, incompetence /decadence of the emperors. Pagans (and later Gibbon) blamed the wimpiness of Christianity. H G Wells said that Rome declined as there was no free mental activity, no organization to develop knowledge; it respected wealth, despised science, gave government to the rich. It was a colossally ignorant and unimaginative empire. There was no day or even decade when Rome fell. It just declined. Rome’s demise is considered the dominant historical event of Europe.

413- Christianity defined and defended: Aurelius/Augustinus/ St. Augustine (354- 430), the first of the two great Christian 427 theologians (he and Thomas Aquinas), a “Doctor of the Church,” a Berber, born in present Algeria, who at first had rejected the anti-rational mysticism and intellectual confusions of Christianity, became a famous Manichaean teacher in Milan (as Manichaeanism gave a rational answer to the Problem of Evil, see 300 BC), heard Ambrose (see 374) preach. He had a mistress. He then moved to Rome and, at 32, in 386, gave up his mistress, converted to Christianity, primarily due to his belief that Christ performed miracles. He became a priest in 391 and Bishop of Hippo (Algeria) in 396. He said that the essential nature of Man is will, and no man wills the true God to be God unless he is touched by divine grace. Theology is faith seeking understanding. Said, “If you can understand it, it is not God.”

City In 413, he completed the first part of De civitate Dei/The City of God, (22 volumes) the most elegant defense of Christianity of of the time. It was Augustine’s answer to the pagan charge that Christianity facilitated the 410 sack of Rome. He finished God it in 426. City of God also laid out a plan of world history. It postulated that there are two cities in eternal conflict, the City of Man, material, fleshy, selfish, downward turning, (“Cursed is everyone who places his hope in Man.”) and the City of God, spiritual, turning upward. It is within the heart and soul of every true Christian, and cannot ever be conquered. Earthly power could never compare to the glory of the spiritual inner city, which could exist in a beggar as well as a holy man. Vegetables as well as all the animal kingdom were cursed because of Adam’s Original Sin. Christians must renounce earthly glory and be willing to live in small isolated places where the glory of the Heavenly City could more easily be seen. Give yourself to God and God will give you eternal peace.

The goal (telos) of Christians is in another life, to love God, not of this world. All study of Nature was futile due to the impending end of the world. Augustine argued that although Christian doctrines could not be justified by reason, they should not be rejected as there were many marvels in the natural world that could not be rationally explained. He cited the case of peacock meat that did not rot and mares in Capadocia that were impregnated by the wind.

Like Plato, he said that Universals were the true reality. Augustine wrote, “I have not been able to discover in the accepted books of Scripture anything at all certain about the origin of the soul.” He said, “I come to understanding only through belief.” The City of God‘s philosophy of history dominated Western thought for c1000 years. He was the greatest

31 Torture Christian scholar since St. Paul. He synthesized Greek philosophical thought and Christian belief, thus creating theological sinners systems basic to Christianity. Said, We can know what God is not, but we cannot know what He

Kill Augustine said, “As sinners, humans are utterly depraved, lack the freedom to do good, and cannot respond to the will heretics of God without divine grace.” He asserted that God had foreordained, from eternity, those who would be saved. He developed the principle of a just Christian war that became the foundation for all future discussion of the topic.

He also said that torture was fitting for those who broke the laws of God. Heretics should be examined by beating them to death. Augustine disfavored priests to have wives or concubines. He also said believing in witchcraft was heresy. (The Hammurabi Code, Roman, & Jewish law also outlawed witchcraft, thus accepting its existence.) Augustine also justified slavery as the result of Adam’s Original Sin. Augustine argued: 1. There is unity in truth. 2. God reveals Himself through Scripture and Nature. 3. Scripture requires interpretation, and. 4. Religion trumps science. The Problem Augustine, in Free Choice of the Will, addressed the Problem of Evil: God created a perfect world of everything physical of Evil and spiritual, but knew Man, Adam, of his own free will would turn away from God, thus evil came to the world. Augustine said Epicurus (in the Epicurian Paradox) ignored the potential benefits of suffering in the world, and evil was a necessary component in a larger context. Evil is a deficiency or distortion in things that are themselves good but not perfectly good. Moral evil represents the absence or privation in something that is in itself good, thus the action as such is not evil. He argued that evil is not anything positive. God is not the cause of evil because evil is not a thing, thus cannot have a cause. Without freedom, Man could not love God. Evil was not willed by God even though God willed Man to have freedom. Augustine explained that earthquakes and famine, i.e, natural evils, punish Man for Adam’s Original Sin. [But: If the world were perfect, things couldn’t go wrong. Would a just God punish innocent babies and children?]

Augustine’s several arguments to exonerate God from any charge of moral imperfection became the foundation of theological optimism, accepted later by Thomas Aquinas and von Leibniz. (Other theologians have similarly disputed the premise that evil exists, or say humans can’t understand how God works. (i.e., God’s answer to Job.)

Augustine rejected taking the passages in the Bible literally (naive literalism), especially the harshness in the Old Testament/Hebrew Bible. As a technique for finding meaning in the Scriptures, use “careful interpretation,” exegesis. This permits one to provide meanings, possibly quite different, from what the plain words say, i.e., the “surface meaning.” The six days of creation became six eras (the Day-Age Theory), etc. He said the Bible had been “accommodated” to the limited understanding of the primitive people who were its original audience (Accommodation). Augustine made the Bible into the arbiter of human knowledge, not just a guide to goodness. He could be called the father of theology.

Augustine believed that, as God had created the natural world “out of nothing,” studying it could only be good and lead to a greater appreciation of God’s wisdom. But, at the same time, he said, “There is another form of temptation, even more fraught with danger. This is the disease of curiosity. It is this which drives us to try and discover the secrets of nature, those secrets which are beyond our understanding, which can avail us nothing and which Man should not wish to learn.” “Seek not to understand that you may believe, but believe that you may understand.” His theory of the divine nature of knowledge dominated W estern thinking for centuries, and it was not until the 13th century that it was challenged in the universities in Oxford and Paris and by the rediscovered teachings of Aristotle. Greeks had found joy and beauty in the every-day world. Christians will find it in the next life. He wrote, “Si comprendis, non est Deus.” If you can understand it, it is not God.

City of God,18:46, rejoiced that the Jews were doomed to wander the world. Their plight was proof that Christ was the Messiah. Augustine said, “All diseases of Christians are to be ascribed to demons.” “The greatest good is wisdom.” Augustine said that the Earth could not be a sphere as this was not mentioned in the Bible and because “ln the day of judgement men on the other side of a globe could not see the Lord descending through the air.” F. W. Farrar, “Augustine’s Saviour was not the Saviour of the world. He was only the Saviour of the Church, and in the Church itself, of only a mere handful of the elect, whom he saves only under strictly ecclesiastical conditions.”

Pelagius, Welsh cleric questioned the doctrine of Original Sin, preached that when men act virtuously, it is from their own moral effort and will therefore go to Heaven. Many theologians agreed. Augustine had it declared heretical in 416.

Carthage Proconsul Martianus Capella compiled a curriculum of the seven liberal arts, rhetoric, grammar, argument, geometry, music, arithmetic, and astronomy. Standard reference for Western education for the next six centuries.

415 Hypatia (c360-415) Alexandria, woman scholar, taught math, philosophy, astronomy. A mob of Christian monks killed her.

c450- c450-c1000. Overview, the Dark Ages: With the fall of Rome, the Dark Ages of W estern civilization began, lasted until 1000 c1,000, among the worst periods in Western history. Western civilization collapsed, resulting in misery and suffering everywhere in the West. Over the c500 years of the Dark Ages, the sum of human knowledge in the West actually shrank. Dark Roman legions withdrew from Britain. Vandals from Asia went west, fighting as mounted archers, with short composite Ages bows, conquered Spain, then Roman North Africa. China and the Islamic empires flourished.

32 Rome dwindled from one million people (c25% slaves) to 50,000. There were few roads, no maps, no Roman schools, no books. No news, no travel. Intellectual stagnation, less farmland, fewer farm animals, constant danger from marauders, little money, commerce by barter, churches were the only source of information. Early Christian ascetics/hermits, at first living alone, in time banded together and formed communities, which became monasteries. W hat little intellectual activity survived did so only in monasteries, with Latin texts, studying theology. Knowledge of Greek ideas/texts disappeared as few spoke Greek. (Greece was ruled from Constantinople.) Local dialects were not understood 100 miles away. For almost all the people, i.e., peasants/slaves/serfs, the Dark Ages were not much different from any other time. They continued to live in poverty, ignorant even of the next village, in hunger, danger, superstition, and privation.

Huns Empire of the Huns: The leader of the Huns, Attila, for a time ruled an empire from the Rhine to Central Asia. Attila invaded Gaul but was beaten there in 451 and retreated. Many learned men of Gaul fled from the Goths and the Vandals and settled in Ireland, establishing centers of learning. Vandals under Gaeseric sacked Rome in 455. In 476, Ostrogoths under Theodoric, took Ravenna deposing the last Roman emperor and conquering most of Italy.

Barbarian Huns, Ostrogoths, and Vandals settled in various Roman provinces and were gradually absorbed into the local cultures and the Church. Gold, which Rome paid as tribute to the barbarians, gradually filtered back to the merchants in Rome, who sold goods that the barbarians grew to like. Germanic Anglo-Saxons took over Britain

The early Medieval civilization that arose from the fall of the Western Roman empire resulted from the coalescence of 1. the German princes who moved from Scandinavia into the West, 2. the Greco-Roman legacy, and 3. the Church. Rome dead became more powerful than Rome alive. Christianity, the only surviving remnant of the Roman empire, spread. As the only institution which preserved something of a tradition of the defunct imperial tradition, the papacy at Rome slowly achieved increasing influence, at times more powerful than any king or emperor.

While Jesus appealed to the poor, the bishops (There was no “pope” yet) became rich. Whatever their rivalries, the local rulers were Christian. The Church replaced the Roman empire as the unifying element of Europe. It controlled the arts, education and the language, Latin. The only educated people in the West were clergymen.

The Middle /Dark Ages were a great experiment in theocratic government. After the barbarians had destroyed Roman society, Christians began to see more value in Augustine’s City of God. Christians looked inward, and cared about their souls. Poverty was now the measure of a Christian. As saving one’s soul was all important, and the world would soon end, the study of science was futile and in any case could only support Scripture. Theology became the chief if not only subject of thought and study in the West for c1,000 years; science was ignored. Any subject studied was for a Biblical purpose. The Church dominated all thought as it was the only cultural institution. Virtually anyone who contributed to intellectual life was a churchman. Jews were similarly God-obsessed, as later were Muslims.

As the early Church spread, it made compromises, accommodating itself in some degree to the thoughts and behaviors of its local converts. Thus, certain pagan fertility rites became Church feasts and festivals. In Germanic lands, the tribal chief was also the religious chief and, upon converting to Christianity, became head of the Church in his land. Such chiefs evolved into kings and, claimed the right to, for example, appoint bishops. [The Christmas tree came from pagan Germans later in the 600s]. The Eastern part of the empire (Constantinople), and China were less affected by the Dark Ages. The emperors in Constantinople, the largest and richest city in the world, ruled in splendor.

What today is China, Turkey, Iran, and Afghanistan were then more advanced than the collapsed Roman Empire. Empires of Ghana, Mali, and Songhai in Africa, the Maya, Aztec, and Inca in America, the Srivijaya and Majapahit in Southeast. Asia, all rose. In all communities, violent death was common.

c458 Indians used ten “Arabic” numerals including a zero, first known usage of a zero; not used in Europe. (Babylonians had used a place value system 2,000 years previously, but without a zero.) Northern Europeans developed a plow with wheels and the horse collar.

c497 The Ostrogoths took power in Italy. In 497, Clovis, new king of the Franks, adopted Christianity. He and his sons made the Franks the most powerful of all the barbarian successors of Rome for three centuries.

529 Roman Emperor Justinian, lived in Constantinople, founded a university, but under pressure from the Christians, closed Aristotle’s Lyceum and Plato’s Academy in Athens. They had lasted 1,000 years and their closing marked the end of Greek higher education in the West. Greek academies, however, continued for centuries more in Constantinople.

Justinian promulgated the Codex Constitutionum, codifying the then large body of Roman law. It was in effect for 1,000 years and is the basis for modern civil law. It is the prime legacy of Rome to legal history. Inter alia, it stripped all rights from non-Christians, and enacted harsh penalties against Jews and pagans. Not believing in the Resurrection and Last Judgment was a capital offense. Justinian built Sancta Sophia (Gnostic/Greek goddess of wisdom) Basilica in Constantinople, consecrated in 538, the greatest building of the Byzantine empire and the West for 1,000 years, The Eastern emperors in Constantinople were closer to the Christian patriarch than the Roman emperors were to the bishop of Rome/pope and were usually canonized by the patriarch’s decree. The Byzantine empire, nominally Roman, was

33 essentially Greek. Justinian covertly obtained silkworms from China, still an industry in Turkey.

534 Benedict of Nursia (c450-c543), repelled by the licentiousness of the Roman Church, founded a monastery on Monte Cassino (Benedictines), devoted to poverty, prayer, and good works. Benedict wrote a set of rules for communal life, Regula Monachorum, which is still followed. This founded monasticism in Western Europe. Benedictine monasteries spread all over Europe and the monks copied, preserved, and classified Greek and Roman texts. These monks also proselytized throughout the Roman empire and into pagan regions. [Benedict was formally canonized in 1220.]

Dogmatic theology, i.e., Christian dogma, contributed to the decline of the Greek ideal. Superstition replaced rationality. Faith replaced virtue. Based on scripture, the Earth was flat, surrounded by mountains, and the center of the universe. Justice in Heaven, up above, replaced Justice on Earth. Obedience to the Church replaced reason.

542 Plague, started in Constantinople from rats from Egypt, spread over Europe. [Not as bad as the plague in 1347-1349].

c549 John Philoponus (c490-570) of Alexandria, Christian philosopher, scientist. Initiated and anticipated the eventual liberation of natural philosophy/science from Aristotle. He saw that heavy and light objects fell at the same rate. He developed the theory of impetus (a decisive step away from Aristotle) and which led to the notion of inertia.

c550 By 550, Europe had disintegrated. Europe has never again been one nation, ruled from a central city, speaking one language, obeying one set of laws, possessing a single culture, albeit with regional differences.

During the Dark Ages, the three main problems for people in the West were: sustenance, protection from murderers / thieves, and the most important, God. With the decline of secular education, monasteries attracted intellectuals and became the only centers of learning, but the “learning” was theological, not scientific. Christian theology replaced Greek math and philosophy as the principal subject of study. Scholars sought to “draw forth the internal juice and marrow of the Scriptures to explain things.” Large numbers of the West’s most intelligent persons retreated to monastic life and did not assume the leadership roles in society that would have benefitted from their talents. Roman naturalism and rationalism gave way to the mysticism and transcendentalism of the Church. These changes did not occur in the other great civilizations, the Persian, the Indian, or the Chinese.

Except for medicine, scientific inquiry in the West virtually stopped. Medieval science was teleological. The universe / natural world was important only to show how it fit into God’s plan. Romans had never been particularly interested in scientific inquiry. The universe of Augustine was static. All that mattered was preparation for the next life (not unlike many religions). The attitude towards the natural world was apathetic, if not pessimistic.

Feudalism: was not a uniform system. Europe was in chaos, the most successful killers came to control the most land, so became lords, and protected his vassals, but at a high price, i.e., ½ of a vassal’s crop or taxing for the right to run a mill. In any geographic area, only a lord/king was autonomous. (Sir Walter Scott, “W hat can they see in the longest kingly line in Europe, save that it runs back to a successful soldier?”) The Church supported the lords and vice versa. Lords frequently used Jews as their tax collectors, causing peasants to dislike Jews, but staying loyal to the lord.

591 The bishop of Rome in time became the preeminent bishop, then pope. (Latin, papa, father) Bishop of Rome St. Gregory the Great (540-604), a monk, from a wealthy family, became most influential in transforming the bishop of Rome into the pope of the Church with power over other bishops then largely autonomous, as well as secular rulers. He did so by acting like a pope, sent numerous letters to bishops simply lecturing and instructing them on Church matters, often criticizing them for simony or other actions. He directed bishops to seek out and care for the poor. He also ruled Rome. Addressing the Problem of Evil, Gregory said, “If the work of God could be comprehended by reason, it would be no longer wonderful, and faith would have no merit if reason provided proof.” He made his family home into a monastery. Gregory reproved Bishop Desiderus of Vienne for teaching grammar. He also said all sexual desire is sinful in itself.

604 Japan adopted Buddhism as a state religion. Shinto continued to be Japan’s predominant religious tradition.

610 Islam/Submission: Muhammad/The Praised One (c570-632), born Ubu’l Kassim in Mecca, largest city (20,000) of Arabia, orphaned young, first a shepherd, then servant to, then husband of, a older rich widow, Khadija. In 610, reputedly, he got Islam his first message from God, Allah, through the archangel Gabriel. A monotheist, he began to write the Koran/Qur’an (taking 22 years to finish it) with guidance from Gabriel. He also began to denounce the polytheistic faith of his fellow tribesmen.

622 In 622, Muhammad and 75 followers were forced to flee Mecca, went to Jathrib, later renamed Medina (City of the Prophet). This was the Hegira/Emigration, day one of the Islamic calendar). He said Abraham, Moses, and Jesus were prior prophets (but not divine), and proclaimed himself prophet for the authentic “religion of Abraham,” whose teachings had been distorted by Judaism and Christianity. Like Christianity and other state-supported religions, life was proclaimed a test, and how well one performed on this test determined whether one goes to Jannah (Heaven) or Jahannam (Hell). Islam had/has no separation of church and state (unlike Christianity). Islam, as an offshoot from Judaism, was the culmination of the trend towards monotheist, eschatological, egalitarian, and universal religions.

34 624 In 624, Muhammad married ten year old Aisha, daughter of Abu (father of) Bakr/Bekr, Muhammad’s most faithful follower. Muhammad owned slaves, one of whom bore him a son. One of his daughters was Fatima. All told, he had 11 (or 13) wives, a common practice then to care for widows. After failing to convert the Jews of Medina and nearby towns to Islam, Muhammad simply killed the men, enslaved the women and children, and gave their land to Muslims.

630-650 Muhammad took Mecca in 630. He pronounced rules for the fair treatment among all his followers, including slaves. As he got older, he stressed the importance of warfare/violence to spread Islam. In 632, Muhammad died and reportedly ascended into Heaven on a winged horse. On his death, Abu Bakr/Bekr became first caliph/successor. A split developed between Shi’ites who said that only descendants of Muhammad (by any of his wives or slaves) could lead Islam, while Sunnis said the Muslim community should pick a leader of utmost piety. (85% of Muslims are Sunni.) The split was based in a rivalry between Aisha and Fatima, a daughter of Muhammed. Bakr soon died in 634.

c642 Muslims set out to conquer the world for Allah. The rest of Arabia and Egypt (importantly including Alexandria and its Greek scholarship) fell soon. Islam came to dominate most of the eastern parts of the Roman Empire (except Asia-Minor). Omar Omar/Umar, the second caliph, a powerful but humble man, by 642, conquered Syria, Persia, and Alexandria, the then capital of the Western world’s scholarship, obtaining the Greek texts taken there after the fall of the Western Roman Empire. Omar said, “Burn the libraries, for all their value is in the Koran.” Nonetheless, Muslims in Alexandria embraced Greek learning, becoming physicists, mathematicians, astronomers, often building on Greek texts. [Note. In translation from Arabic to English, Arabic names can have several different spellings.] c644 The third caliph, Uthman/Othman (596-656), a baser and vainer man, compiled the presumably authoritative text of the Koran,/al-Qur’an (Recitations) from statements of Muhammad, purportedly inspired by talks with the archangel Uthman Gabriel. and destroyed all other versions. Such human editing what to exclude lessens the Koran’s purported divine source. It has 114 suras / chapters. The Koran’s message of mercy for the downtrodden inspired many, but taught Muslims that modernity and secular culture were incompatible with moral and spiritual health. Islam was also an ideology, as it prescribed how to build a state. It made it the duty of every Muslim to struggle for the creation of a universal Islamic state. Islam’s earthly mission was political, to reform society and form a nation. Muhammad saw a purpose in nature. The The Koran has many messages of tolerance and mercy. But it also instructs Muslims 1. to hate and kill non-Muslims (see Koran: next paragraph), idolaters, apostates (leaving Islam), and blasphemers; 2. to lash adulterers; 3. that women are chattel; What 4. that only believers go to Paradise; 5. that (contra Islam’s rigid repressive views re sex) martyrs (those who die in battle Muslims spreading Islam) go straight to Paradise where 72 virgins (or possibly, based on modern scholarship, 72 white raisins) Know await them; 6. that God turned Sabbath breaking Jews and sundry other persons into apes 2:65-66; 7. that the Earth is fixed and does not move. 27:61. 8. That Jews are the greediest of all humans 2:96, that non-Muslims will burn in Hell (repeated over 200 times.); 10. that Christians and Jews must believe Allah’s teachings or he will turn them into apes; 11. that Muslim women may not marry non-Muslims. 12. that a woman is worth one-half a man 2:282,13. Males inherit twice as much as females: 11, 4:176, Men are in charge of women as Allah made men to be better than women 4:34, 12, Muslims should not have any non-Muslim friends 4:89. and Gabriel took Muhammad on a winged horse to Jerusalem and to the 7th level of Heaven, where he spoke to Abraham, and then back to Earth.

Infidels The Koran commands hating and killing non-Muslims in numerous passages. “W ar is ordained by Allah, and all Muslims must be willing to fight, whether they like it or not. 2:216 [Christians and Jews] and the pagans, resent that any blessing should have been sent down to you from your Lord. 2:105...[We] shall let them live awhile, and then shall drag them to the scourge of the Fire. 2:126 The, unbelievers are like beasts...Deaf, dumb, and blind, they understand nothing. 2:172. Slay them wherever you find them. 4:89 and 9:5. Fight the disbelievers Be harsh with them. 9:73. W hen you fight with disbelievers, do not retreat. Those who do will go to Hell. 8:15-16 Don’t bother to warn the disbelievers 2:6... Believers, do not make friends with any but your own people. 3:118... We will put terror into the hearts of the unbelievers... 3:149-51. Let not the unbelievers think that we prolong their days for their own good. We give them respite only so that they may commit more grievous sins. 3:178... Do not be deceived by the fortunes of the unbelievers in the land. Their prosperity is brief. Hell shall be their home.3:195–96 Do not seek the friendship of [Christians and Jews], who have made of your religion a jest and a pastime. 5:57... They are liars all. 6:29... Make war on the infidels who dwell around you. 9:123. (There are numerous similar statements in the Koran.) Thus, the 3 major Western religions, Judaism, Christianity and Islam, were all relentless against those of other faiths.

Notwithstanding such commands to hate, under some caliphs, Muslims in some locales tolerated Christians and Jews, especially in Spain, considering them “People of the Book.” Muslims translated captured Greek texts into Arabic (which were, centuries later, translated into Latin and became the basis of W estern intellectual studies.).

The five Pillars of Islam are: Profess one’s faith, Pray 5x each day, Give alms, Fast in Ramadan, Go to Mecca once.

Muslims were/are God-obsessed like the Jews and Christians. All three religions preached an imminent Judgment Day. The ultimate objective for Muslims (like the Jews and Christians) was to seek the pleasure of God / Allah by living in accordance with the Divine guidelines as stated in the Koran.

35 Never has a religion spread so fast or so far so quickly. By just 650, Muslims had conquered all of the Middle-East and all the North African lands on the Mediterranean (except Carthage and Tangier). The Sunnis accepted the Sunna, a body of sayings and customs of Muhammad, as of equal authority with the Koran. The split with Shi’ites endures. There are also smaller Muslim sects. Muhammad, unlike Jesus, did not claim to be divine.

Technology: Chinese built a iron-chain suspension bridge 580, block-printed books 640, developed porcelain c700. Persians developed the windmill to grind grain c640. China, India, and Japan did not seek to spread their religions.

675 Eleventh Council of Toledo reaffirmed the doctrine of the Trinity, also decreed if a bishop seduced a nobleman’s wife, daughter or niece, he’s deposed and excommunicated.

683 Thirteenth Council forbade clergy who had converted to Christianity from living with their wives, forbade clergy to sue other clergy, forbade Jews to have Christian wives, slaves, or concubines, thus freeing all Christian slaves of Jews.

677 Hui-neng: “Perfect Buddha wisdom is in everyone. To learn one’s Buddha nature, one’s mind must be free.”

692 Muslims completed their Dome of the Rock in Jerusalem.

c700 The Venerable Bede, a monk in England, established the birth of Jesus as the first year of the Christian calendar.

c711 Muslim Empire. Muslims, having conquered North Africa, then took Spain in 711 (crossing the Strait of Gibraltar) Muslims also expanded into Sub-Saharan Africa, India, and South-East Asia. Muslim scholars seized on Greek learning, established libraries in Baghdad, Cairo, Cordoba (400,000 volumes), Toledo, and Basra (S.E. Iraq), which became centers of Muslim learning. Euclid’s Elements of Geometry was translated into Arabic. Virtually the only science studied in the West during the Dark Ages was done by Muslims, largely math, optics, and medicine.

Muslim mathematicians combined Greek math with Indian (Indians had a zero and the decimal system). It replaced the cumbersome Roman numerals. This greatly simplified calculation. It was the most important single innovation that the Muslims brought to the West. The decimal system did not take hold in Europe for 500 years,

718-719 Christian Constantinople withstood a one-year Muslim siege, Islam’s first serious defeat.

732 The Eastern regions of Christianity spoke Greek, the West, Latin. This contributed to their separation and mutual distrust. In the East, the Greek Church remained subservient to the emperor in Constantinople who decided matters of faith and appointed bishops as well as patriarchs. For centuries, the pope and the emperors of the Holy Roman Empire (“HRE”) competed for power. In 732, Charles Martel, de facto king of the Franks, allied with the pope and saved Christendom Charles by defeating the Muslims advancing from Spain at Tours and Poitiers, France. The Muslims retreated to Spain, where, Martel in 788, they built the Great Mosque in Cordoba. In philosophy, inhibited by the Koran, the Arabs were better as commentators than as original thinkers. They, and not Christians, inherited Greek learning.

750 In one century, Arabs, now Muslim, went from being insignificant desert tribes to being the most powerful force on Earth. The Islamic empire became the most advanced civilization in the Western world. The great Greek philosophers had been translated into Arabic. The wealthy families rivaling for the caliphate schemed and murdered each other. Nonetheless, By 750, Islam ruled from Spain across Africa to the Indus River. War against infidels was/is a prominent feature of the Koran. Islam’s strength came in part from its teaching that civil government was religious government. In addition, it was the best social and political order the times could offer (albeit disgraceful in its treatment of women). W herever it went, it found oppressed, apathetic, unorganized, uneducated peoples living under unsound selfish governments.

Christendom and Islam both developed doctrinally developed religions, demanding belief in their doctrines and teachings and rejecting all deviations of thought as dangerously heretical, and thus to be eliminated by force.

c750 Virgil the Geometer, Irish-born priest, citing Greek texts, said the Earth was a sphere. Pope Zachary told St Boniface such teaching was perverse and abominable. Nonetheless Virgil was made bishop of Salzburg in 767 and later a saint.

751 Arabs captured two Chinese paper makers in battle at Talas; then established paper mills in Samarkand and Bagdad.

753 The Donation of Constantine: Pope Stephen 3 showed Pepin the Short, son of Charles Martel and father of Charlemagne, a document that the Roman Curia had forged and back-dated saying that Emperor Constantine in 320 had donated dominion over Rome and the West to the then Pope Sylvester in Rome and his successors. Pepin bought it, and so then gave the Papal States to Stephen 3. (It was proven a forgery only in 1440 by Lorenzo Valla.) Christianity and Islam lived separate lives and not until c1000 did a freer cultural interchange begin to develop.

Mayans in the Yucatan used positional notation with a symbol for zero (before the Europeans). Sixteen Mayan 776 mathematicians attended an astronomical congress at Copan, the center of Mayan science. Mayans used a base 20 arithmetical system. Mayans had a coastal trade using large canoes without sails. (Mayans were in decline c900).

36 c780 Jabir ibn Hayyan used the scientific method for chemistry, developed processes as distillation, liquefaction, filtration.

787 The Second Nicaean Council met to restore the use of holy images, icons; said images of Jesus, saints, and Mary, should be displayed everywhere; all visual art works must be faithful to the Bible. Sculpture was condemned as sensual.

The struggle between ecclesiastical and secular power was the center around which Medieval political theory was built. Proponents of Church supremacy cited the Bible, the Donation of Constantine, and Augustine, and argued that soul saving was inherently more important than concerns of earthly life. As noted, the universe of Augustine was static and unchanging. It was made for Man to bring him closer to God, and prepare for the next life, no other reason. Monarchs argued for the divine right of kings, also citing the Bible. Popes had lands and troops. To exercise temporal power, the pope crowned (and excommunicated 8) emperors of the Holy Roman Empire (“HRE”).

c800 Charlemagne (742-814) was the most powerful man in Europe as king of the Franks and the Lombards. He conquered (killing around one million) and ruled all Western Europe, except Scandinavia and Southern Spain. In 799, Charlemagne restored Pope Leo 3 to the papacy. In 800, Leo crowned him Emperor of the HRE, not to his liking. There already was an emperor in Constantinople. There were at least 300 petty kingdoms/principalities in the HRE. Leo 3 separated the W estern part of the Church from the Eastern part and became supreme bishop of the W est.

Charlemagne appointed bishops. Although illiterate, he sponsored a revival of the arts, established schools in every monastery, teaching Capella’s 7 liberal arts. The main source of knowledge were the texts of Isidore, archbishop of Seville, on grammar, rhetoric, medicine, mathematics, and history. The erudite atmosphere in monasteries led to the founding of universities, whose diplomates could teach in any Christian country. In the 9th century, Irish scholars, fleeing from the Scandinavians, migrated to the continent. By 800, monasteries were becoming corrupt and dissolute.

After Charlemagne’s death in 814, the HRE split into its German and French parts and largely disintegrated into numerous smaller kingdoms, cities, principalities, bishoprics. The HRE was, as Voltaire in 1756 said, neither holy, nor Roman, nor an empire. It exercised no effective power beyond the Germanic states and Italy. (Charlemagne was canonized in 1165; but 600 years later, demoted to “blessed”.) The HRE was a disorderly and primitive community compared to the Muslim empire. Slowly, stirrings of commerce began to reappear. Towns began to grow.

c820 Amir ibn Bahr al Jahiz’s Book of Animals described 350 kinds of animals, also said species evolved seeking food.

c825 Muhammad ibn Musa al Khwarizmi (780 - 850) Persian mathematician, astronomer, geographer, used positional notation, the zero, and the base ten decimal point system from India. His book, al-jabr / Algebra (825), was the first book on the systematic solution of linear and quadratic equations, using letters for unknowns. Thus al Khwarizmi is the Father Algebra of Algebra. Algebra and geometry deal with static structures, not bodies in motion (dealt with by calculus (Newton and von Leibniz seventeenth century)). Algebra gave math a new much broader development path.

Algebra rests on certain general properties of numbers, i.e., Communicative law for addition: Numbers add up the same no matter which order you add them up. Associative law for addition: Numbers add up the same no matter how you group them. A+(b+c) = (a+b)+c Communicative law for multiplication: Numbers total the same no matter how you multiply them. AxBxC = AxCxB. Associative law for multiplication: Numbers total the same no matter how you group them. A(bc) = (ab)c. Distributive law: If numbers are added and multiplied, the way they are grouped affects the total: a(b+c) = ab+ac.

846 Science: Sea Navigation: Polaris, the North Star, is directly above the North Pole. As such, at the Equator, it is just barely visible over the horizon looking north. Between the Equator and the North Pole, i.e., from any given latitude in the northern Polaris, Hemisphere, looking north, Polaris is thus at the same angle above the horizon. It was thus a very simple task to the determine one’s latitude just by measuring the angle of Polaris above one’s northern horizon. North Star An astrolabe measures the angle of a star over the horizon (its declination), and so determines one’s latitude. Being over the North Pole, Polaris’s declination was the same every day. For other stars, an astrolabe’s star map could be turned to match the sky at any time. Then seeing the star’s declination for that day in an almanac gave one’s latitude. Greeks first invented a land astrolabe around 200 BC. Muslims perfected it to help them pray toward Mecca. Around 846, Arabs perfected an astrolabe for use at sea. This marine astrolabe was not used in the West for centuries.

846 Theology: Muhammad Sahih al Bukhari, a compiler of Hadith (sayings and events of Muhammad), collected c300,000 Hadith attestations, cut them down to 2,602. These are considered by most Sunni Muslims as the most trusted collection of Hadith, a few of which encourage scholarship. Like the Bible, there are many internal contradictions in the Hadith.

c862 Johannes Scotus Erigena /John the Scot, Irish, translated works by Pseudo-Dionysius, reputedly a disciple of St. Paul, from Greek to Latin, bringing neoplatonism to Christian theology. It greatly influenced Medieval thought. (See Dispute About Truth p.40) His greatest work, On the Division of Nature, divided all things into four categories. All things made by God have God, the Creator, as their First Cause. In 1225, Pope Honorius 3 ordered all copies burnt.

37 877 The Council of Ratisbon (now Regensburg) decreed that monks may not study law or medicine.

879 The Far East: Construction of Angkor Wat, Cambodia, originally a Hindu temple, still the world’s largest religious structure, began. (Completed c1150). Chinese used printed paper money and adopted the moldboard plow.

c880 Science: The major scientific advances during the Dark and Middle Ages were from Muslim Arabs and Persians. Al-Dinawari’s Book of Plants described 637 plants, described plant growth, made him the founder of botany in Islam.

10th Muhammad ibn Zakariya Razi/ al Razi /Rhazes (865-925) wrote a vast nine volume medical encyclopedia, The Large century Comprehensive; discussed and critiqued Plato and Aristotle. He was considered the greatest doctor of the Middle Ages. Al Razi also wrote a medical manual for the general public, and did chemical experiments free from alchemist notions. Science He was the first to describe smallpox and measles and distinguish between them. He wrote over 100 medical books. The in Islam obliteration of Western, i.e., Greek, scientific knowledge of the Dark Ages was so total that the West eventually had to re- learn its philosophy, science and math from the Arabs, then Muslim. Arabic name Astronomy: Abd al Rahman al Sufi/Azophi (903-986) Persian astronomer, without a telescope, discovered a galaxy other prefixes: than our Milky Way, the Andromeda Galaxy (965). Sufi also corrected several of Ptolemy’s star list.

bin/ibn= Al Jayyani developed spherical trigonometry (polygons, especially triangles on the surface of a sphere). son-of. Ibn Junus, Egyptian mathematician and astronomer, made astronomical observations with an astrolabe 1.4 meters large, abu = so precise that 19th century astronomers relied on them. father-of. Abu Nasr al Farabi (872-950) Persian, broke with Plato and Aristotle moving from metaphysics to methodology. He al = the. was the first Muslim to develop a non-Aristotelean logic, categorized logic into two separate groups, idea and proof,

advocated a prophet-imam rather than Plato’s philosopher-king. Said religion is a symbolic rendering of truth, and absent abd = a prophet-imam, democracy was the most ideal state. He was considered second in knowledge to Aristotle. servant Arabs calculated the angle of the ecliptic (orbital plane of Sun’s planets) and the procession of the equinoxes. of. Al Masudi wrote a descriptive geography of the world. Muslim scholars also translated Indian texts into Arabic

In 10th century Europe, the “manorial” system and the use of the heavy moldboard plow (on larger fields than prevailed in S. Europe), caused an agricultural surplus that enabled both urban and rural life and a standing army.

The Papacy was under the control of the rich and corrupt Roman family of Count Theophylact during the 10th century. 904- His wife, Theodora had him appoint her lover as Pope John 10. John 10 named the 5 year old son of the Count of 1044 Aquitaine as the Archbishop of Reims, named a 10 year old boy as a bishop as a token of his affection. Theodora also caused popes Anastasius 3 and Lando to be named. Theodora’s daughter, Marozia, was, at 15, the mistress of Pope Sergius 3. She had their son named Pope John 11 at 21, after imprisoning John 10, who quickly died. Her grandson was at 18 Pope John 12, & killed by a cuckolded husband. Popes Benedict 8, John 19, & Benedict 9 were her descendants. Benedict 9, named pope at age 11, dissolute, in 1044 sold the papacy to his godfather, who took the name Gregory 6.

932 Spain was the jewel of Islam. Cairo and Cordoba both claimed to be the califate. Toledo was the repository of all the Greek, Mid-East, and Asian texts (and some Chinese and Indian) that Islam had collected. Christians, Muslims and Jews lived there in relative harmony. A great school of translator/scholars worked there, translating Greek texts into Arabic and, later, into Latin. By 932, Muslims had introduced irrigation and new crops to Spain and made Andalusia into a rich agricultural cornucopia. Although “written” by Muhammad, with a purported authentic version prepared by Uthman c650, the text of the Koran was only finalized in 935. This undermines its claim to divine authorship.

Cordoba was the grandest city in the West, with 500,000 people, 700 mosques, 300 public baths, bookshops, over 70 libraries. The central library had 400K books, more than all of France). Other Spanish Muslim cities and industries prospered. However, Castillians/Christians began to retake Spain from the Muslims; took Madrid in 939. The recapture of Spain by Christian forces took over 500 years.

Theology: Based on Revelation 20:7-8, many Christian Europeans feared an apocalypse at 1000. So, leading up to 1000, business declined. There was widespread lawlessness. The Med became a no-man’s zone where Muslim, Moor, Egyptian, Frank, Christians, Vikings, and Greeks plundered, traded and intermixed cultures. Russia adopted Christianity c988.

c1000 Viking Leif Ericsson wintered in Newfoundland, called it Vineland, didn’t return. Merchant guilds organized in Europe.

c1000 1000. Overview: 1000 is the arbitrary end of the Dark Ages and start of the Middle/Medieval Ages. There were no sharp demarcations between Dark Ages, Middle Ages, Renaissance, Enlightenment. These are oversimplifications, albeit not Middle without some logic. Cultural change came to different locales at different times. By 1000, all of Europe, (save a small area Ages south of the Baltic Sea and part of Spain) had come under Roman or Orthodox Christianity. Spain, under benevolent

38 Muslim rule, flourished. The center of wealth, power, and culture began to shift from Italy to Northern Europe.

The two major occurrences decisively affected the balance of the known world during 1000-1500 were: 1. the outpouring of Turkish, Mongolian, and Tungusic peoples from the Eurasian steppes, reaching a climax under Genghis Khan in the thirteenth century, and 2. beginning c1300, the rise of a vigorous civilization in Western Europe.

Universities developed: centers of intellectual ferment, dealing with Aristotle, Muslim, Christian, and Jewish philosophy and science: Fez, University of al Karaouine 859. Public hospitals in Muslim countries became colleges of medicine beginning in the 9th century. Cairo, Al-Azhar University c975. Salerno, medicine 1050. Bologna, law 1088. Paris, theology c1090. Oxford c1096. Theological scholarship continued in monasteries.

c1020 Physics/Optics: The most brilliant of the Muslim scholars in Toledo was ibn al Haytham / al Hazen (965-1039) who Optics recognized that each point of an object reflects light into the eye. Pythagoras and Aristotle had thought vision was something emanating from the eye. Al Haytham said that was absurd. He wrote The Treasury of Optics, 7 volumes Al (1011-1021), the definitive work on optics. He explained how lenses worked, described the structure of the eye. Haytham He studied and wrote about mirrors, made parabolic mirrors (now used in telescopes), said that light entering a denser medium, bent toward the perpendicular as it slows down, invented the camera obscura, and discovered Fermat’s principle of least time (Light travels between two points over the shortest time path.). Al Haytham laid the foundation for all future work on optics, including the microscope, not developed / invented until c 1595. (There is no clear distinction between inventions and developments.) (He erred on rainbows, accepted Aristotle’s explanation),

Al Haytham developed rigorous experimental methods of controlled scientific testing to verify theoretical hypotheses and substantiate inductive conjectures. His Scientific Method was very similar to the modern Scientific Method and consisted of the following steps: 1. Observation, 2. Statement of problem, 3. Formulation of hypothesis, 4. Analysis of experimental results, 5. Interpretation of data and formulation of conclusion, 6. Publication of findings. He discussed the theory of attraction between masses (later called gravity), and was aware of the magnitude of acceleration due to gravity and discovered that the heavenly bodies were accountable to the laws of physics. He said that a body moves perpetually unless a force acts on it. (650 years later this was Newton’s 1st Law of Motion.)

c1000- Abu Rayhan Muhammad ibn Ahmad Biruni (973-1048) Persian, first Muslim scholar to study India, developed a 1048 Scientific Method. He introduced the experimental method into mechanics, was the first to conduct experiments related to astronomical phenomena. He wrote 146 books, including 35 on astronomy, nine on geography, 23 on astrology. He observed and described a solar eclipse. With al- Khazini combined hydrostatics with dynamics to found hydrodynamics. Biruni He said astronomical data work as well if the Earth rotated and revolved around the Sun as the earth-centered Ptolemaic model. He amazingly said that the Earth’s diameter was just 1/4 of 1% less than current knowledge.

He said there was an attraction of all things to the center of the Earth and that an object’s weight = the weight of the water it displaced (Archimedes had said it before). He measured the weight of cold and hot water, of salt and fresh water. He speculated that the Milky Way galaxy was a collection of numerous nebulous stars. He rejected Aristotle’s view that the planets had circular orbits as well as Aristotle’s notion that the motions of the heavens begins from the right side and from the East. Biruni and al Haytham, deduced that the speed of light was finite. Biruni said that the speed of light was faster than the speed of sound (Aristotle had said this was true because seeing was nobler than hearing). Along with al Kindi and Avicenna, he was one of the first chemists to reject the alchemists’s theory of the transmutation of metals.

Religion: Heterodox religious movements proliferated in Italy, the Rhineland, Flanders, and France, all more or less associated with Manichaeism. They had a purified spirituality, declared that the soul (created by God) was a prisoner of the body (which had been created by Satan). Thus, the genuinely spiritual abstained from sex. The less spiritual simply cursed marriage. Catharism (the Pure) was the most powerful/widespread of these “heresies.”

In China, the bureaucratic reorganization of the first Sung rulers took full effect. China’s social and economic structure achieved a new and lasting balance between the feudal (officials, landlords, peasants) and the new (merchants, artisans). Scholar officials became the dominant class. The state encouraged education, creating a large urban literate class. Through innovation, China developed the most advanced agriculture, industry, and trade in the world. Chinese ocean trade (using cotton sails, the compass, the astrolabe, an adjustable centerboard/keel, and far larger vessels than the West had) flourished and displaced Muslim traders in the Indian Ocean and farther East. Chinese perfected gunpowder and used movable type to print. Paper was used in Cairo.

Dispute Theology: The Dispute about Truth. The principal burning theological question in the Middle Ages in the West was, “If About there is a City of God - faith- and a City of Man -reason, Do they have different truths?” This question is irrelevant now, Truth but big then. Seven themes dominated this theological question, which dominated theological thought for centuries:

1. Boethius (c480-524), Roman philosopher, In his treatise on the Trinity, Consolation of Philosophy (524), wrote, “As

39 Boethius far as you are able, join faith to reason,” i.e., God can be understood by Man. The truths of faith and reason are the same. He translated Aristotle’s work on logic into Latin, the only important parts of Aristotle available til the 1100s.

2. Pseudo-Dionysus (c500), a monk using Dionysus’s name, wrote The Names of God. Contra Boethius, he said that God cannot be comprehended by finite human understanding. Only the truth of faith from God matters.

3. Abu Ali al-Husain ibn Abdallah ibn Si’na / Avicenna (980-1037), Persian, most renowned Medieval Muslim mathematician, physician at 21, philosopher, most influential name in medicine from 1000 -1500. Widely traveled. He wrote the million word Book of Healing, an encyclopedia with sections on astronomy (he refuted astrology), geology (he Avicenna postulated that mountains were formed by upheaval of the crust of the Earth (ref. Xenophanes 570 BC)), physics (1. He built an air thermometer, 2. Like al Burini, he deduced that the speed of light was finite, 4. He developed a precursor to Newton’s second law, of momentum). He discussed psychosomatic illnesses. He was the first to divide human perception into the five senses of hearing, sight, smell, taste, and touch. He described melancholia.

Avicenna developed a system of logic different from Aristotle’s. He said that cause and effect are simultaneous and therefore God and the world are co-eternal. He said he read Aristotle’s Metaphysics 40 times and did not understand it. He said the five internal senses are common sense, representation, imagination, estimation, and recollection. Reason has two faculties, the practical and the theoretic. His Book of Healing was used for centuries in the West. He also wrote The Canon of Medicine which was used in medical schools until the early 19th century. It introduced experimental medicine and clinical trials, as well as systematic experimentation and quantification into the study of psychology. He gave philosophy, i.e.,science, equal status with theology as systems for explaining the cosmos. Not a Christian, Avicenna showed Aristotle’s power of argument by syllogism (335 BC) to European/Christian scholars. He thus showed Christians there was more to scholarship than theology, even though he saw the universe as emanating from God. He said that God is the eternal unmoved mover.

Peter 4. Pierre de Pallet / Peter Abelard (1079-1142), Brittany, theologian, poet, philosopher, defeated his master, William Abelard de Champeaux, in debate, forcing Champeaux to modify his views, resulting in the eventual triumph of nominalism over realism, until then dominant. [Nominalism said that abstract terms, or universals, represented no objective real existence but were mere words, names. Realism at that time misleadingly said Universals (concepts, colors, etc.) were real things]

Abelard took the Aristotelian dialectic of logic and applied it to the scriptures. Like al Haytham, he laid down basic rules for argument and investigation, advancing the development of the Scientific Method, later perfected in the 17th century: 1. Use systematic doubt and question everything. 2. Learn the difference between statements of rational proof and those merely of persuasion. 3. Be precise in the use of words, and expect precision from others. 4. Watch for error, even in Holy Scripture.

In 1121, Abelard wrote Sic et Non / Yes and No, a collection of 188 apparently contradictory quotations from Church officials on many aspects of Christian theology, using dialectic for reconciling the contradictions. The Church declared it and him heretical. He claimed that his reasoning was simply finding the truth to benefit the Church. He was the most popular teacher of his day. Because of him, Paris became a great center of Christian theology and dialectic. In 1122, he said, “I must understand in order that I may believe.” Doubting leads to questioning; questioning leads to truth. He loved and secretly married a student of his, Heloise. Abelard was the hero of the love-passion, i.e., love frustrated by tragic obstacles. They named their son Astrolabe. After many travails, he founded a convent at Paraclete, where he installed Heloise. She later became abbess. Their reputed love letters were later published.

Saint 5. Bernard (1090-1153), founder of and Abbot of Clairvaux monastery, a Benedictine, criticized Abelard for presuming Bernard to understand God by reason. He pronounced himself “visionary of the century,” as he had been selected by God to guide Christianity along the right paths. Said that knowledge was only justified when it promoted purification of the soul. Like Hugo’s Javert, Bernard pursued Abelard relentlessly, convinced the pope to send him to a meager life in a monastery.

Averroës 6. Abu al-Walid Muhammad ibn Ahmad ibn Muhammad ibn Rushd/Averroës (1126-1198), Arab, of Cordoba, wrote explanations of Aristotle. He was the last and greatest of Arab Aristotleans. He said that there was one eternal truth which could be comprehended through the Koran or by natural knowledge, with the aid of Aristotle and other philosophers. He rejected the theological control of philosophy. “Knowledge is the conformity of the object and the intellect.” He wanted Islam to consider women equal to men. Avicenna and Averroes unified religion and philosophy by saying everything emanated from Allah. They wanted to infuse Islam with philosophy, i.e. reason, but failed, as Islam was as God-obsessed as Christianity, and not receptive to speculation regarding spiritual matters. (More Averroës c1150)

7. Thomas Aquinas/Thomas de Aquino (c1225-1274), leading philosopher of the then Christian Church. He constructed Thomas the second great synthesis of Christian thinking after Augustine. Aquinas realized the intellectual power of reason and Aquinas wanted to base religion on more than just faith. He wanted to unite Augustine’s two cities of God and Man. So, he said Man is between them. Man has a body and a soul. There is unity in truth. (More Aquinas 1273.)

40 The obsession with theology in the Dark and Middle Ages reached ludicrous (by modern standards) levels, i.e., the argument over “Universals” or “How many angels can dance on the head of a pin?” Aquinas and Abelard were pioneers of the Scholastic philosophy, the attempt to explain and define Christian doctrine using Aristotlean logic, to put together a coherent system of traditional thought

1046 Politics: King Henry 3 of France deposed two pope pretenders and installed Clement 2 as pope. Clement 2 that day crowned Henry emperor of HRE. Under Henry 3, the Medieval HRE peaked, from Hamburg to Sicily to Hungary. Several monastic orders were founded in the eleventh century. They followed Benedict’s rules.

1054 Religion: An emissary of Pope Leo 9 “excommunicated” Patriarch Michel 1 of Constantinople, who “excommunicated “ the emissary. This was the culmination of a linguistic (Latin v. Greek), political, doctrinal, theological, and geographic schism in Christianity, called “ the Great Schism.” This break has never been healed.

Religion, Investiture Contest: The most significant conflict between secular and Church powers in Medieval Europe: who may appoint church officials?, intensified when Pope Nicholas’s decreed only cardinal/bishops could elect a pope, and a Church council said laity had no role in appointing other Church officials, such as bishops or abbots, as had been the custom. Selling a bishopric, simony, was lucrative for a king, and a good investment for the “bishop” who bought it and in turn sold parishes to priests. Bishops were often princes with huge estates. The Church was rich. Simony was of course a sin. The Church had a monopoly on marriages, forgiving sins, extreme unction. Only a priest could perform the miracles of the mass. Despite the disreputable clergy, the spirit of Jesus ennobled many lives.

1059 Peter Cardinal Damian found that every cleric of every rank in Milan had practiced simony. Damian, echoing the Church’s anti-reason world-view, declared all worldly sciences “absurdities” and “fooleries.” He wrote On Divine Omnipotence, which said that God can do things contrary to the law of contradiction and can undo the past. Thomas Aquinas later rejected this. It is not followed now. Usually, only the clergy were literate, kings were not.

1066 William of Normandy, natural son of the Duke of Normandy, invaded England, defeated Harold at the Battle of Hastings, became king. Normans introduced a single set of common laws and had trained professional judges.

Omar Khayyam (1038-1123), author of The Rubaiyat, deduced how to solve cubic equations, power higher than two.

1073- New Pope Gregory 7 wanted a “religious society,” administered by a secular arm and a religious arm, who were to 1085 cooperate. He told Henry 4, the HRE emperor, that he could not appoint bishops. Henry defiantly appointed his chaplain as Bishop of Milan. So Gregory excommunicated Henry. The German dukes sided with Gregory against the French Henry. The controversy led to 50 years of civil war in Germany, and the disintegration of the HRE. Gregory 7 also required priests to be celibate to prevent them from passing church lands to their sons. His Dictatus (1075) stated that the Church never erred and never would until the end of time, and popes can’t be judged by humans. Due to Gregory 7, the Church was unified and directed from Rome. Its dominant men were Italian, Spanish, or from S. France, their education classical; the liturgy was in Latin. Gregory 7 canonized himself, the only pope to do so.

1076 “Going to the law” meant having a priest pray for advice, trial by fire, or trial by drowning, or going to an astrologer. The Roman laws of Justinian had been lost since 603. In 1076, a Digest of Justinian’s Laws was found in a library in Ravenna near Bologna. This put all Roman law in the hands of all the people, who could then approach the law in a rational way, a tremendous step forward. Bologna, relatively independent from both the pope and the emperor, became a center of the teaching of law. The University of Bologna was founded in 1088, specializing in law.

1076 Theology: Anselm (1033 -1109), Archbishop of Canterbury, propounded an Ontological Argument for the existence of God, [Ontological arguments derive from sources outside observing the world, i.e., from reason alone.] Anselm started Anselm with the idea of a perfect being. “Lord, thou art a being than which nothing greater can be conceived. God exists in the understanding. If God exists in the understanding, we could imagine Him to be greater by existing in reality. Therefore, God must exist.” Anselm thus defined God as perfect in every way, all-good, all-knowing, all-powerful, the Christian position today. (Anselm was later canonized.)

The monk Guanilo of Marmoutiers, a contemporary of Anselm’s, pointed out the error of Anselm’s syllogism. He stated, Guanilo “W e have in our mind the idea of a perfect island. Such an island must exist, as, if it didn’t, it wouldn’t be perfect.” If Anselm’s argument is valid, then every perfect thing a Man can think of must exist in reality. This is clearly false. Anselm’s argument was forgotten until Descartes and Leibniz somewhat revived it. Aquinas (1273) rejected it as it was illogical to jump from idea to reality. Kant killed it (see 1781). Anselm said that the theory only works for God (Can a perfect God be both all-merciful and all-just? An all-merciful God forgives sin. An all-just God punishes sin. Or, an omniscient god knows everything that will happen. Can he also be omnipotent, and change what will happen?)

Daily life: The Chinese built a mechanical water wheel clock and use a spinning wheel, print books with movable type. The European dietary staple for centuries was simply bread, of varying grains. Ten percent of Britains were slaves.

1085 Science: Toledo fell to the Christians (in a friendly takeover), and its huge library, a literary treasure, including Aristotle’s

41 Toledo works, became available to European scholars, who flocked to Toledo, including Adelard of Bath. He translated Arabic Library works on meteorology, optics, acoustics, botany, and Euclid’s Geometry from Arabic to Latin, and thus brought them to Europe. Adelard’s exposition of the rational and secular investigative approach he found in the Arab texts most influenced European scholars. He wrote on the astrolabe. Then more Christian and Jewish translators in Toledo and Seville put Arabic texts into Latin. Arabs thus gave present arithmetical notation and numerous other scientific works to Europe. The reintroduction of Greek learning to Europe appeared first as Latin translations of Islamic texts, either original Arabian works such as al-Khwarizmi’s Algebra and al Haytham’s Optics, or as Arabic translations of, and learned critiques of, Aristotle’s works. However, Muslim theologians, quoting al Ghazali (1058-1111), the most influential theologian of Islam in the Middle Ages, stifled Muslim efforts at free inquiry and limited scholarship to studying the Koran and the Hadith. Al-Ghazali was the earliest philosopher to deny the necessary connection between cause and effect. He intended to prove that miracles are possible and God can intervene in the natural setting of causes and effects. Latin remained the language of all scholars, and of course the clergy, in the West. al Al Ghazali distrusted human reason, wrote The Incoherence of the Philosophers, which condemned Muslim Ghazali philosophers, particularly Avicenna, for advocating doctrines incompatible with their faith. Al Ghazali also posited a Cosmological Argument for God/Allah, based on the impossibility of an infinite regress of causes. Muslim scientists laid the foundations of modern science with their introduction of a Scientific Method and a modern empirical, experimental, and quantitative approach to scientific inquiry. The Golden Age of Muslim science ended with al Ghazili. Science in Islam has never recovered from al Ghazali’s stultifying influence. Science in Islam barely exists today.

1090 Technology: Although basic science stagnated during the Dark and Middle Ages in the Christian West, technology advanced. By 1090, 5,000 watermills were in use in England. As towns developed, piracy evolved into trade. Europe had no paper, necessary for scholarship. Muslims controlled Egyptian papyrus. Parchment was expensive and scarce

c1095- Selling indulgences: Purgatory is where moderate sinners who died were purified for varying periods to qualify to enter 1272 Heaven. The Old Testament/Hebrew Bible described the concept of praying for the dead (to reduce their time in Purgatory). Venal sins were assigned varying periods time in Purgatory. A moderate sinner could easily incur a debt of 300 years in Purgatory. German pagans had a custom of paying money to commute the penalty for a crime. The church adopted the pagan custom by selling indulgences (which forgave various sins at different prices depending on the sin, which reduced one’s time in Purgatory). One year of penance was 26 solidi of silver, or, if one couldn’t pay, 3,000 lashes.

1096 First crusade: Pope Urban 2 called for a holy war army to defeat the Muslims who had captured the Holy Sepulchre in Jerusalem. He promised the absolution of all their sins for those who enlisted to fight the infidels. He promoted a salvation fervor throughout Europe. Sinners by the thousands joined to inflict on the Muslims what they had been inflicting on their fellow man. Christian mobs slaughtered thousands of Jews and stole their wealth on their way to Palestine. Urban 2 also decreed that those who died in such battle would be martyrs, and go to heaven (like the Koran’s promise to its martyrs.). In 1099, Crusaders captured Jerusalem, torturing and slaughtering 30,000 to 40,000 Jews and Muslims, men, women and children. Urban 2’s Pax Ecclesiae/Peace of the Church banned fighting near churches, harming clerics, pilgrims, women, and peasants. Bishops were great landowners, feudal lords.

1123 First Lateran Council, Rome: Priests can’t marry, co-habit, or sell ecclesiastical benefits. Clerical marriages were invalid.

1139 Second Lateran Council: Innocent 2 called the Second Lateran Council held to minimize effects of the schism which had arisen after Pope Honorius 2 died and the setting up of Petris Leonis as the antipope Anacletus 2, a rival of Innocent 2. It repeated 1st Council’s canons. Told clergy to dress modestly. Prohibited jousts and use of the bow and arrow or crossbow against Christians, condemned usury. Priests couldn’t marry, co-habit, or study Roman law. (Before 1000, 11 popes were sons of popes or priests. After 1139, celibacy was required of priests; so after 1139, only six popes were known to have had children, in the 1400s and 1500s.) Eastern Orthodox priests could marry.

1140 Gratian, a Bolognese jurist, wrote a lawyer’s textbook, heavily influenced by Abelard’s Yes and No, taking hypothetical cases and discussing the pros and cons with Aristotle’s rules of argument/deduction.

1143 As we have seen, belief in the supernatural was, in the West, (more or less, until the Enlightenment in the 18th century) a cultural universal. Dogma, i.e., beliefs of a particular supernatural entity that has control over natural events, however, is/was not a cultural universal. It is a subset of supernaturalism that developed to present Christian supernatural beliefs as truth as opposed to the pagan supernatural beliefs of the Greeks and Romans. (The Koran was translated into Latin.)

1146 At the Second Crusade, which began with a massacre of Jews in the Rhineland, Bernard, Abbot of Clairvaux said, “[A] Christian glories in the death of a Moslem because Christ is gloried.” (Onward Christian Soldiers) The Crusades brought new ideas into Europe, simply from contact with a different culture.) The Crusades were the first examples of overseas imperialism, gave Christianity a militant tone.

1147+ Religion: Cathars, a Gnostic Christian sect widespread in Southern France, believed in purifying themselves, clean living, chastity, poverty, vegetarianism, no priestly hierarchy, no war, no capital punishment, and equality of the sexes. A dualistic system; things of the spirit were created by God and were good. Evil things were created by Satan. Man’s soul, a good,

42 was trapped in Man’s evil body. The organized Church was evil. The Cathars were the first mass heretical movement after 1000 to seriously threaten the bureaucracy of the Church, albeit not the holiness of the Church’s teachings. Popes, starting with Eugene 4 in 1147, sought to crush them. (See 1184 and 1208)

c1150 Science: Ibn Rushd Averroës of Cordoba (1126-1198), known in the West as The Commentator, corrected many of Avicenna’s commentaries. He believed that Man thinks by abstracting the forms behind things and that the human intellect is the receptacle of these “intelligible” forms. His ideas exerted an important influence on Medieval thinking. He joined those who called for a return to Aristotle’s attitude towards nature, ie, study it. He developed the teachings of Averroës Aristotle on lines that made a sharp distinction between religious and scientific truth, and so prepared the way for the liberation of scientific research from the theological dogmatism that restrained it under both Christianity and Islam.

Franciscans (later) generally favored Averroës’s ideas, Dominicans (with Aquinas) attacked him. Averroës and Avicenna achieved a momentous unification of religion and philosophy by envisioning the universe as a series of emanations from Allah, from the first intelligence to the intelligence of humans. So they could claim that there was only one truth, that appeared like two truths, religion for the uneducated masses and philosophy for the educated elite. Averroës was far more influential in Jewish and Christian thought than in Islamic as his doctrines were condemned by Muslim clergy, citing al-Ghazali (1085). A year before his death in 1198, a Muslim mob burned Averroës’s books. Many of Averroës’s students fled to Padua to continue teaching his philosophy of empirical investigation of a rational world. Padua was under the protection of Venice, anti-pope, anti-clerical and an equal of Constantinople or Paris. He also advanced a First Cause/Cosmological Argument for God, “God is the eternal, unmoved First Mover, who exists necessarily by his own nature and who eternally generated the first created being... The First Intelligence creates the second intelligence and also the first celestial sphere... to the Tenth Intelligence.”

Averroës was the last great Muslim scientist. There have been no scientific advances coming from Islam for almost 900 years. Muslims have translated virtually no scientific texts into Arabic for 1000 years. Science under Islam is mired in creationism, denying evolution. The seventh century mentality and knowledge in the Koran stifles science in Muslim lands. (The Christian Church similarly consistently has fought science that did not correspond with its immutable “God-given” beliefs. Unlike science, there is no mechanism to test or revise the core beliefs of religions in light of new knowledge.)

Technology: How to make paper reached Europe only c1150 through Muslim Spain. Chinese used moveable type in printing. China had far bigger, better, more reliable sailing ships than Europeans. Books were rare, treasures; hand copying was very expensive. Knowledge was thus largely memorized. Communications between anyone, much less scientists who would benefit by trading ideas, was very slow. Hand copied letters were still the only form of written communication.

1150- Overview, In the post millennium activity, numerous cathedrals were built in France (costing 25% of GNP.). The greatest 1250 civil works since the pyramids and no comparable projects were built until the 19th century. The skilled men who knew how to build them, calling themselves freemasons, were the elite of workmen. Troubadours sang of chivalry and courtly love. Latin was the universal language of W estern scholars/theologians.

Scholasticism began early in the twelfth century. It had certain characteristics. 1. It was confined within the limits of orthodoxy. 2. Aristotle became increasingly accepted as the supreme authority. 3. There was a great belief in “dialectic” and in Syllogistic reasoning. 4. It was discovered that Aristotle and Plato did not agree on the question of universals. The downside to dialectic was the belief in reasoning on matters that only observation could decide.

The astrolabe (originally a Greek invention) finally arrived in Europe from the Arab East. The astrolabe and the magnetic compass were used in navigation. Chinese had used the magnetic compass since the fourth century BC. Later star-angle measurers were made by Hooke 1666, Halley 1692, and Thomas Godfrey and John Hadley 1731.

Daily life: As the horse became the main element in warfare, the landowner was the most powerful warrior. Murder was common. Merchants were the first to want rational factual information. A new class of urban merchants contributed to the new prosperity. Water mills and windmills began to harness energy for commerce. Paper began to be made from rags. The use of iron became common, even in workers houses. An urban wage laboring class developed. Merchant towns won self government. All these factors threatened the Medieval theocracy.

Traveling entertainers, jongleurs/minstrels, brought news in the form of stories or poems. Translations of Aristotle into Latin were beginning to be available to those who could read. (Greek had been largely forgotten in the West). Missing mass was a mortal sin. The mass was essentially a magic show, with the priests dressed in splendor, with incense, holy water, speaking Latin to God, which peasants did not understand, performing magic, changing a wafer and wine into the flesh and blood of Jesus, i.e., transubstantiation, and instructing the people how to be saved from the fires of Hell. Church paintings were used to tell Scripture stories to the illiterate populace. Peasants had no Bibles so the mass and the priest were their only contact with God.

1175 More universities founded in the, 12th and 13th centuries, Modena 1175. Cambridge 1209. Valladolid 1212. Salamanca

43 1218. Montpellier 1220. Padua 1222. Naples 1224. Toulouse 1229. Siena 1240. Lisbon 1290, all under Church control, Pope Alexander 3 forbade the clergy to study physics. so, effectively, no one in the West studied physics. .

1179 Third Lateran Council: decreed only cardinals can elect the pope, condemned usury, sodomy by priests, plundering, and tournaments. Clergy can’t have women in their houses, can’t charge to perform burials or marriages. Jews can’t have Christian servants. Evidence of Christians always to be accepted against Jews in court.

1182 King Philip 2 expelled Jews from France and took their property. Paris became the intellectual/artistic capital of Europe.

1184 Pope Lucius 3’s bull, Ad abolendam /To do away with instituted bishop-led local inquisitions to punish heretics like Cathars. (See 1147) These inquisitions were not effective, as bishops often lived in Rome and didn’t visit their dioceses often and the right to know one’s accuser often led to the accuser’s death. Trials/punishments for heresy were common and institutionalized in the Episcopal Inquisition (1184-1230s), the Papal / Roman Inquisition (1233+), the Spanish Inquisition (1478-1834), and the Portugese Inquisition (1542-1860).

1190 Religion: Moses Maimonides / Moshe ben Maimon (1135-1204), Spanish Rabbi. Greatest figure in Jewish history since Moses. Codifier, judge, and commentator on the Bible and Talmud. His Moreh Nebuchim /Guide for the Perplexed, sought to show that the teachings of Judaism were in harmony with philosophical thinking and offered insights that reason alone could not obtain. His Guide cited Aristotle, and to a lesser extent, Plato. He said that, “Thou shalt not kill” and “Love thy neighbor as thyself ” were admonitions that applied only to fellow Jews.

1198 Innocent 3 became pope. He regained control of the Papal States in central Italy; he nominated HRE emperors. In 1199, he sent a priest, Domingo/Dominic de Guzman, a Spaniard, to convert the Cathars. Dominic concluded only priests who displayed genuine humility and zeal could succeed. (See 1202 and 1208)

c1200 Mongols: A new wave of tough horsemen burst out of Mongolia to create the largest empire the world has seen. Genghis Khan conquered Northern China and west to the Caucuses. Genghis was the most religiously tolerant leader in the world. Genghis By 1231, the Mongols/Huns were stopped only at Vienna. Kublai Khan, a grandson of Genghis, and Timur u-lang/ Tamerlane (Tammer the Lame) expanded the Mongol empire, but it withered after they died.

13th Overview; Arbitrary end of the Middle Ages. Two consciously rival intellectual traditions arose in the 13th century as a result century of the infusion of Aristotelianism into Western thought. One, led by Dominicans (Aquinas (1273) and Albertus Magnus) Christianized Aristotle by asserting the superiority of revealed truth over any mere human reasoning - thus preserving central Christian doctrines which could not be rationally proven, but also trusted in reason insofar as it did not contradict Christian truth. The other tradition, Franciscan (founded 1210), stuck more closely to the Augustinian and Platonic intellectual traditions. National epics were written in the local languages, Beowulf, England 900. Edda, Scandinavia 1100. Cantar del Cid, Spain 1140. Perceval, France1175. Niblengun, Germany 1205. Chanson de Roland, France 1200. Parzival, Germany 1210. (largely based on the French Perceval.) There also came a revival of religious fervor (cathedrals and crusades ) and a new spirit of scientific inquiry (led by Albertus, Fibonacci, Grosseteste, and Roger Bacon). Terror of magic and witchcraft was widespread.

1202 Mathematics: Leonardo Fibonacci/Leonardo da Pisa wrote the first Latin treatise on Algebra, Liber Abaci,/ the Book of Computation. It introduced to Europe the use of Indian-Arabic numerals, including the zero. His 1220 book, Practica Geometriae, applied Hindu-Arabic numerals to geometry and to trigonometry (the math of triangles).

1202 Pope Innocent 3 ordered the Fourth Crusade in 1202, and the Children’s Crusade of 1212, where, 1000s of children went to Marseille expecting to sail to Palestine and, according to Wells, the shipowners sold most as slaves in Egypt.

1208- Final Solution for the Cathars: Innocent 3 sent Pierre de Castelnau to South France to convert the Cathars (see 1147). 1209 Castelnau excommunicated Count Raymond 6 of Toulouse, a protector of the Cathars. So a knight of Raymond killed Castelnau. Innocent 3 then ordered what became known as the Albigensian Crusade against the Cathars. He said all Crusade property of convicted heretics could be confiscated. Nobles from North France went south to join the crusade and to grab against some land. Arnaud, the Cistercian abbot/commander led a brutal massacre against the town of Beziers. He reputedly Cathars said, “Kill them all, the Lord will recognize his own.” Afterward, Arnaud wrote Innocent and portrayed the murders as part of a divinely engineered event. He wrote, "Our men spared no-one, irrespective of rank, sex, or age, and put to the sword almost 20,000 people. This great slaughter wiped out the whole town. Divine vengeance raged miraculously." The Cathars were wiped out. All the 9 crusades against Muslims over 2 centuries (the last in 1270, except arguably the 1st, were a disastrous bacchanalia of indiscriminate slaughter, confusion, anti-Semitism, with tens of thousands of crusaders, pagans, Jews, and Muslims murdered. It is undecided whether the Christians murdered more Jews or Muslims. The bloodiest, most “successful” crusade was the crusade against fellow Christians, the Cathars. The crusades to the Holy Lands brought wealth and influence to the mercantile city-states of Italy, who later financed voyages of discovery. The crusades were extensively ridiculed in Charles Mackay’s 1841 book, Extraordinary Popular Delusions and the Madness of Crowds.

c1210 Religion: By 1200, as at 800, most monasteries had become prosperous and corrupt. In response, Francis of Assisi

44 Saint (1181-1226), a layman, founded his lay order (Franciscans). Monks had to live on what they could beg. “Go two by two, Francis declare to all men peace and penitence.” His simple dignity was a rebuke to the princely style of the Church hierarchy. Innocent 3 reluctantly recognized Francis’s order, which captured for the Church the outpouring of religious enthusiasm that Francis and his order generated. Canonized 1228. His successor, Brother Elias, gave up poverty and lived in luxury.

Religion: The advent of Aristotlean logic posed a problem for the Church, as empirical observation was contrary to Augustinian thinking. The Bishop of Paris thus banned the teaching of Aristotle. This was revoked in 1234. Aristotle’s influence was so great that in the Middle Ages, that he was known simply as “the philosopher.”

1215 Political Theory: Under pressure, King John signed the Magna Carta/Great Charter, giving rights to English nobles (not to commoners). It was the most important landmark in the tradition of the supremacy of the law over the king’s will.

Fourth Lateran Council, convened by Innocent 3, was the most important council of the Middle Ages. It defined transubstantiation, arranged for a new crusade, required annual confession, and communion at Easter, and outlawed trial by ordeal among priests. This opened the way for trial by jury in secular trials. The Council officially sanctioned torture in aid of Inquisitions. Jews and Muslims must wear yellow badges so that, inter alia, Christians wouldn’t have sex with them. Jews couldn’t hold public office and had to live in ghettos. The Council also decreed that God created the universe out of nothing Genesis 1 1-31. Councils over the centuries purported to decide eternal truths by majority vote. Not logical.

Saint Dominic, Spanish, founded the Dominicans (vow of poverty) to assist in punishing heresies. He decreed that his friars Dominic were “not to learn secular sciences or liberal arts except by dispensation.” (later rescinded). Sainted by Gregory 9 in 1234.

1217 Religion: Averroës’s clear analyses of Aristotle were widely read. Averroës subjected all but divinely revealed truth to the cold light of Aristotle’s reason. He and Maimonides revived Aristotle’s philosophy. Pope Honorius 3 sent Dominicans (and in 1230, Franciscans) to Paris to try to stem the tide of free thought. The Dominicans bitterly attacked Averroësism, (adopted as well by Maimonides) said it was subversive of the merits of the saints. It was too late. Jews in Spain under the Muslims prospered, became noted scholars, physicians, and treasurers managing public finances.

Albertus Science: Albertus Magnus/Albert the Great (1193?-1280), Dominican, in Paris, teacher of Thomas Aquinas, was the Magnus first representative of humanism in the Middle Ages. As a scientist, he stressed importance of observation and experiment, empiricism. He advocated the peaceful co-existence of science and religion. He is considered to be the greatest German philosopher and theologian of the Middle Ages. He said that the Earth is a sphere. Said, “Natural science does not consist in ratifying what others have said but in seeking the causes of phenomena.” His superiors accused Albertus of sorcery and forced him to stop the study of science and study only theology. (In 1310, Dante made Albertus’s doctrine of free will the basis for his ethical system. Albertus was canonized in 1931).

1229 Council of Toulouse formed the first court of the Inquisition and also forbade non-clergy from having a Bible. The 1234 Council of Tarragona prohibited anyone from having a Bible in the Romance language.

1233 Religion: Pope Gregory 9 established the “Roman” Inquisition under his direct control. He assigned Dominicans to administer it. The Church was relentless in punishing heresy, the greatest sin. It used torture and burning routinely. The Church in the 1200s derived income (greater than that of all the secular rulers combined) from its large land holdings, fees to perform marriages, confirmations, etc, and from fees from the ecclesiastical courts.

c1225- Science: Bishop of Lincoln Robert Grosseteste (1168-1253), was the central figure in England in the important intellectual 1253 movement of the first half of the 13th century. Familiar with Aristotle. He wrote about the nature of scientific inquiry. Science, he said, began with Man’s experience of phenomena and tried to determine the causes/reasons for such experience. Then, to analyze such causes, break them down into their component principles. Then reconstruct the principles into the observed phenomenon based on a hypothesis, and finally, to test and verify the hypothesis by observation. Grosseteste analyzed the sciences, showing how some were dependent on others. Optics and astronomy were subordinate to geometry. Optics was the basic physical science. Like al Haytham, he wrote about direct visual light rays, reflected light, refracted light, and the formation of a rainbow. Grosseteste and his student, Roger Bacon, further developed the Scientific Method advanced by al-Burini, al Haytham, and other Arabic scholars. Their method of investigation was more important than their results.

1242 Science: Ibn al-Nafis said the heart had 2 separate ventricles, one pumped blood to the lungs and the other to the body.

Roger Bacon (c1214-1294) English philosopher and greatest scientist of his time, student of Grosseteste, studied and Roger taught at Oxford until c1241, where he became well versed in Aristotle, when he joined the faculty at Paris to teach Bacon Aristotle. (Aristotle had been banned at Paris as a non-Christian and was being reintroduced.) He suggested lenses to help eyesight, sailing west to reach China, wrote about China’s gunpowder.

1243 Dominicans forbade members of their order from studying medicine and “natural philosophy, i.e., science.” Both the

45 Dominicans and Franciscans condemned research by experiment and observation.

1247 Roger Bacon returned to Oxford; became interested in mathematics and science. In studying the natural world, he advocated reading more than Scripture, such as non-Christian scholars as Aristotle and al Haytham (Optics). In an age when experimenting could cost a man his life, he experimented. He became a Franciscan monk around 1252.

1252 Innocent 4's papal bull, Ad exstirpada, authorized torture by inquisitors to extract confessions of accused heretics.

1258 Hulagu Khan, another grandson of Genghis Khan, leading a Mongol army, looted and destroyed Bagdad, the religious capital of Islam, including libraries, scientific institutions, laboratories, and massacred 200K-1M Muslims. The Mongols then imposed a Pax Mongolia, permitting trade with the West and tolerant of Christians and Muslims, and made Peking/Beijing their capitol. The empires of Persia, China, and the Ottoman Empire were all larger than Western states. In the thirteenth century, Zen Buddhism came to Japan and became popular with the Japanese military.

1267 Bacon: In 1257, for seeking scientific explanations for matters previously ascribed to supernatural powers, Bacon’s order forbade him to lecture, ordered him to Paris to be kept under surveillance in a Franciscan friary there. He was kept there for ten years. W hile there, in 1264, he proposed to Cardinal de Foulques to write a book on science which would benefit the Church. De Foulques soon became Pope Clement 4 and in 1266 asked Bacon to prepare a book containing treatises on grammar, logic, mathematics, physics, philology, and philosophy. So in 1267 Bacon wrote Opus Majus for the pope, recommending that sciences be taught at Paris, the principal Catholic university.

Opus Opus Majus discussed experiments with light shining through water droplets showing the colors of the rainbow. It foresaw Majus the principles of telescopes and microscopes. Bacon built a magnifying glass. Bacon wrote, “We can shape transparent bodies and arrange them...that the rays will be bent in any way we desire, and under any angle we wish; we may see the object near or at a distance. Thus from an incredible distance we might read the smallest letters...So also we might cause the Sun, Moon and stars in appearance to descend here below.” (His predictions were not at once fulfilled. The microscope was not made until 1595, the telescope 1608.) He devised formulas for extracting phosphorus, manganese, bismuth. He said that the Earth was a sphere.

Roger Bacon in Opus Majus said, “If in other sciences we should arrive at certainty without doubt, it behooves us to place the foundations of knowledge in mathematics.” He thus revived Pythagoras’s great 5th century BC insight that things in the world could be understood in mathematical terms. (Galileo and Descartes adopted this same emphasis on math 400 years later.) Bacon explicitly credited al Haytham’s development of the Scientific Method. His discussion of optics in Opus Majus was based on al Haytham’s work. Clement 4 died before reading it and Bacon returned to Oxford, starting to write General Principles of Natural Philosophy (science).

1268 The next year, 1268, Bacon’s On Experimental Science, urged using Induction. For Roger Bacon, there were four obstacles to understanding the truth of things: 1. Frail and unsuitable authority, 2. Uninstructed popular opinion, 3. Long custom, and 4. Concealment of one’s ignorance in a display of apparent wisdom.

Bacon said natural science led to knowing about things as well as knowing God, both types of knowledge forming a unity Bacon under the guidance of theology. Thus, study all disciplines, observe the natural world. In 1271, he wrote Compendium confined Studii Philosophiae attacking clerical ignorance. Even though his writings showed that he wanted to strengthen half his Christianity, in 1278, his order imprisoned him in solitary confinement for having “suspected novelties” in his teaching. adult life He was released only in 1290 at age 80 when a new friar took over the Franciscans. Thus the Church imprisoned or confined the greatest scientist of his time for almost half of his adult life simply for his ideas. He was of greater significance to mankind than any king or emperor of his time.

Having the power of Heaven and Hell is heady stuff, most corrupting. Franciscans became rich and corrupt. Some Franciscans, called Spirituals, stuck to Saint Francis’s original values. For this, many were burnt by the Inquisition.

1269 Kublai Kahn from Peking asked the pope to send 100 scholar/teachers to educate his Mongols; but there was no pope. In 1271, new pope Gregory 10 sent 2 Dominicans (who traveled with the Polos, see 1295). They quickly turned back.

1273 Theology: Thomas Aquinas (c1225-1274), the leading philosopher of the then Christian Church, and greatest proponent Thomas of papal supremacy versus kings, was first a Benedictine (studied at Monte Cassino), then a Dominican. He represented Aquinas the revival of the theological spirit of the 13th century. He first studied in Paris, a hotbed of doctrinal discussions, including the doctrine of Universals, important then, but immaterial now. He said that God was the First Unmoved Mover. Albertus, Grosseteste, and Roger Bacon had practically initiated the experimental method in science. But Aquinas gave all his thoughts to bringing science again under theological methods and ecclesiastical control. He realized the intellectual power of reason, “Reason in Man is like God in the world.”and wanted to base religion on more than just faith. Said, all knowledge proceeds from first principles, which were themselves based on faith.

46 Aquinas believed one could know God through reason, and thus devised rational arguments to prove God’s existence. He thought a loving God had placed Man here on Earth full of intellectual puzzles, equipped with a thinking brain to deal with these puzzles. Said that all knowledge proceeds from first principles, which were based on faith-enabled “apprehensions of intelligible form.” Had God really meant for Man not to think? Had God intended Man to pass though this Earth with blinders, only with his eyes on another existence in the future after he is dead? The question as posed, of course, answers itself. So, he said, Man is at the juncture between Augustine’s two cities of God and Man, ie, Man has a body and a soul. There is unity in truth. Natural reason can prove some things, i.e., the existence of God, but not other things, like the Trinity. Faith is god’s gift that lets Man surrender to the authority of God. Faith is more than belief, which is filled with doubt; fearless certainty lets Man know they possess absolute truth. Faith is the greatest virtue. Faith is a gift of God that allows the intellect to surrender to the authority of God by believing in the unknown and the unseen.

In his great work, Summa Theologica (1273), Aquinas worked out a new philosophical and theological system which attempted to reconcile reason (natural theology) and revelation (revealed theology).There are 2 sources of knowledge, the mysteries of the Christian faith and the truths of reason, He subordinated philosophy to theology, natural law to the dogma of the Church. Revelation gives men mysteries, to be believed even though they cannot be understood. Aquinas’s position was between Plato’s Nominalism and Realism (every existing thing requires two elements, its form and its matter, The form of a man is his humanness, a universal. The matter of a man is his individuality. This is the opposite of its current meaning.) Also, There can be no falsehood anywhere in the literal sense of the Holy Scripture.

He argued that these subordinations benefit natural law and philosophy. He said that reason can only take one so far and then faith “perfects” reason. Summa was organized according to the dialectic method of the scholastics. He posed a question, cited sources that offered an opposing view, and resolved them by arriving at his own conclusion. He disputed Averroës’s contention that philosophical truth is derived from reason and not from faith. Aquinas thus fused Christianity with Greek and Arabic science. This became known as scholasticism. The basic tenet of scholasticism is that there can be no contradiction between the truths which God has revealed, and the findings of the human mind in science and philosophy, and Scholastic scholars sought to prove this. He was hard on atheists and other heretics. He said “the sin of unbelief (thinking wrongly) is greater than any sin that occurs in the perversion of morals.”

Thus the scientific and metaphysical system of Aristotle became dominant in the high Middle Ages and was considered to be in accord with Judaic-Christian scriptures (including all Aristotle’s erroneous beliefs, such as that the Sun revolved around the Earth.). Greek, i.e., Aristotlean, scientific ideas thus became Christian dogma. But dogma, as the word of God, cannot be revised, whereas scientific ideas change in the light of new knowledge/ideas.

Aquinas, in Summa, posited that there were areas of truth related to Revelation (which was reserved for theology) and truths in the natural world which reason could handle. “Even God cannot make the sum of a triangle’s angles add up to more than two right angles.” In Summa, Aquinas also said that heretics should be excommunicated and killed. Summa argued that punishment depends on whom one harms. Striking someone in authority gains a greater punishment than striking a low born person. Strike God, the infinite majesty, and get the greatest punishment, Hell.

Aquinas In Summa (1,q.2,a.3), Aquinas posited five proofs for the existence of God. Rather than Anselm’s ontological approach 5 Proofs of beginning with the idea of God, he rested all five of his proofs upon the ideas derived from a rational understanding for God of the ordinary objects that we experience with our senses. In Man’s ordinary experience, he sees things /events causing other things/events. The chief characteristic of all sense objects is that their existence requires a cause, which itself requires a cause, etc. Thus, all five proofs are based on causality and the impossibility of an infinite regress, and are Cosmological Arguments. They thus appeal to Man’s “common sense,” i.e., “There’s just got to be something that caused the universe.” Until the 17th century, it was “common sense” that the Earth was immobile and the Sun revolved around it. Common sense, but as we now know, wrong. Aquinas’s Proofs tell of aspects of God’s nature.

1. Aquinas’s Proof from Motion: Nothing moves unless something causes it to move, which itself was caused to move, and so on. So, there must have been a First Mover. That was God. This makes God unchangeable and eternal.

2. Aquinas’s Proof from Degree of Perfection: “We see that things in the world differ in goodness or perfection, measured against some maximum goodness or perfection. As humans are good and bad, maximum goodness cannot rest in humans. Thus there must be some other maximum to set the standard for perfection. That is God.” [This is similar to Anselm’s Ontological Argument and suffers from the same logical flaws as did Anselm’s argument. For example, substitute “smelliest” for “perfection” and the argument is shown to be fallacious.] (Descartes and Spinoza also posited such argument. Guanilo 1076, Hume 1751, and Kant 1781 refuted it)

3. Aquinas’s Proof from Necessary versus Possible Being: There are things that are possible to be and not to be, i.e., a tree. If all things in reality were only possible, then there was a time when nothing existed. But if there were a time when nothing existed, then “[B]ecause that which does not exist begins to exist only through something else existing. But things do exist, so not all things are merely possible, there must exist something the existence of which is necessary.” So, “Some being having of itself its own necessity, and not receiving it from something else,” is God. This is a variant of the Proof from Efficient Cause Argument, just below. W ithout God’s perpetual creative support, the world lapses into nothingness. This

47 Aquinas makes God pure actuality. (von Leibniz also advanced this argument, see 1710.) 5 Proofs for God 4. Aquinas’s Proof from Efficient Cause: Aquinas adapted Aristotle’s, Maimonides, and al-Ghazali’s Cosmological /First Cause Argument for God, but said that not only was God the entity that caused the universe to develop but he created the essence of the universe as well. A statue requires as its cause a sculptor, and quarrymen, and so on. But we can’t go back infinitely, so there must have been a first cause. That was/is God. This argument makes God all-powerful.

5. Aquinas’s Proof from the Order of the Universe, the Teleological / Purposeful Design Argument. “Some intelligent being exists which directs all natural things to their ends and this being we call God.” The Teleological Argument infers that the world was designed and asserts that the design is a good if not excellent design. The Teleological Argument had been posited by Anaxagoras, Plato, and Aristotle but was not important until Aquinas expounded it.

All Aquinas’s arguments are God by Default or God by Inference arguments, i.e., “We don’t know how X happened, so we infer that a God must have done it.” It posits a mystery, a God, to solve a mystery, the origin of the universe. Cosmological arguments by themselves don’t get one very far. Cosmological Arguments only say that a supernatural force caused the universe; they assert at most that once there was such a force. They do not show that such supernatural force is active today or that such force was benevolent or wise or even competent (a god worthy of worship), or a Christian, Jewish, Sumerian, or Muslim God, or his/its character, motive or purpose, if any, or a personal god that answers prayers, etc. And they do not explain why if the universe needed a cause/mover/designer, why such force did not also need a cause/mover/designer. (See Hume’s 1751 and 1779 and Russell’s refutations 1912)

Aquinas described a hierarchal and interconnected seamless universe, the Chain of Being (akin to Plato’s), with God at the top, then angels, then Man, then animals, plants, air, earth, fire, water.

Political Theory: Aquinas also advanced law by defining it as “an ordinance of reason for the common good, promulgated by him who has care of a community.” Greeks had thought law was impersonal and entirely rational. Here law was a volitional act of Man. Government was/is to lead citizens to live virtuously. Contra Aristotle’s ideal of a city state, Aquinas argued that a nation is preferable as it is more self sufficient and resourceful.

Summa Theologica amassed an array of authoritative opinions and carefully reasoned answers to questions of faith and morals. It soon became the most authoritative exposition of Christian theology, using Aristotelian logic to expound Christian doctrine. Aquinas answered Socrates’s Euthyphro Dilemma as: God commands something because it is good, but it’s good because goodness is in God’s character and merely expressed in moral commands. Aquinas listed God’s attributes as simplicity, actuality, perfection, goodness, infinitude, immutability, unity, and immanence (permanence). Aquinas said, “We cannot know what God is but what he is not.”

Re the Problem of Evil, he adopted Augustine’s privation argument re evil, as well as Augustine’s so-called Aesthetic Argument for God: (Beauty exists, so God must have done it, a variant of the Design Argument.)

Aquinas’s attempt to reconcile faith and reason was disputed from both sides; 1. by strict believers who said that reason intruded improperly into the mythical communion between God and Man, as well as 2. by those who saw no evidence for a god and believed that reason did not have to accede to the ruler of the City of God, whoever/ whatever he/it may be. Aquinas died at 47. He was canonized in 1323. All of Christian thought may be seen as variations on the essential positions of Augustine, a Platonist, and Aquinas, an Aristotelian. Similarly, the history of philosophy may seen as be variations on the works of Plato and Aristotle.

1277 The Condemnation of 1277: Bishop Tempier of Paris prohibited the teaching of 219 philosophical and theological theses, errors, in the university of Paris, on pain of excommunication, including certain teachings of Averroës, Aquinas, and Aristotle. However, within 50 years, Aquinas was seen as the Church’s most eminent scholar.

Overview: While Europe emerged from its Dark Ages, the largest empires, the “gunpowder empires,” China, India, and the Ottoman Empire, were at their peak. Constantinople was the largest and most sophisticated W estern city.

1280 Mechanical clocks, using weights or springs, began to replace water driven clocks, let men standardize the day and fostered belief in a world where quantitative measurement and mathematical certainty could be applied to nature.

c1290 Religion: John Duns Scotus (1265-1308), from Duns, Scotland, a Franciscan, a popular professor at Oxford, was one who disputed Aquinas’s fusing of theology and Aristotelean philosophy/logic. Scotus made things safer for the scientist (and the theologian) by separating experiment and scientific reasoning from theology. Whereas Aquinas said that what is logically necessary must necessarily be so, Scotus said that God is not circumscribed in any way whatsoever, least of all by the human mind. God is absolutely free and absolute freedom means being free of reason, as well as all else.

England expelled its Jews and confiscated their property, citing usury. Many Jews “converted” to Anglicanism and stayed.

48 1294 Pope Boniface 8 ordered all 6,000 persons in the town of Palestrina slaughtered, to wipe political rivals, the Colonnas.

1295 China: Marco Polo (1254-1324), born in Korcula (then under Venice). In 1271, with his father and uncle (who had been there before) went by caravan to the Mongol court of Kublai Khan at Peking. Their trip took three years, transferring from caravan to caravan. [Caravans traverse back and forth in limited territories. Only the most expensive goods could profitably be transported over the Silk Road.] They stayed, getting rich trading. Polo became a diplomat for Kublai.

Marco Polo’s boat trip back to Venice in 1292 took 2 years. In 1298, as a war prisoner in Genoa, Polo told his adventures. Polo Rusticello da Pisa wrote them up. It was a best seller. China’s grandeur was described. Polo’s description of Asia (China, Burma, Siam, Java, and Sumatra) was virtually the only Western knowledge of Asia for centuries. Polo noted that the great Chinese junks had bulkheads and used a center rudder, better than the steer boards used in the Mediterranean. Polo asserted that the Earth was a sphere and that China could be reached by sailing west from Europe. China kept its lead in grandeur over Europe until the dawn of scientific discovery and the spread of printed books and education in Europe in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. Europe was still c98% illiterate, including the feudal lords.

1296 Pope Boniface 8's bull, Unam Sanctum, decreed that belief in the sovereignty of the pope over every human was necessary for salvation, the most extreme claim ever previously made by a pope. In 1300, he instituted the year of the Jubilee, when plenary indulgence was granted to all Christians who visited Rome, preformed certain ceremonies, and donated money. Originally planned as an event each century, it was so profitable, it was changed to every 25 years.

c1300+ Overview: 1300, arbitrary end of the Middle Ages and beginning of The Renaissance, which started in Florence. The forces of nationalism and royalty began to assert themselves, at the expense of the power of the pope. Popes had made 14thcent. Hadrian’s Tomb on the Tiber into a fortress to escape the starving populace. The center of Western civilization, such End of as it was, through the Dark Ages, was Rome. The Renaissance/rebirth did not look forward; it looked back to Greek and Middle Roman rational thinking & knowledge, art, architecture, literature. Humanism, the spirit of inquiry, and the notion that Man Ages was the center of concern developed. Mechanical engineering & city states flourished, & evolved into nation states. Piero Scaruffi says that the greatest invention of the Renaissance was the knowledge of self. The world began to be known.

Universities, all under clerical control, founded in the 14th century: Rome 1303. Orleans 1309. Florence 1321. Timbuctou U. of Sankore 1327. Pisa 1343. Grenoble 1339. Valladolid 1346. Prague/Praha 1347. Milan/Milano 1361. Krakow 1364. Vienna/W ien 1365. Heidelberg 1386. Cologne/Koln 1388. Ferrara 1391. Universities collected Spanish Muslims’s translations of Greek texts into Arabic, then into Latin, which helped spread the Renaissance. The Renaissance spread slowly from Florence to the rest of Europe, reaching northern Europe only two centuries later.

Daily life: The fastest transportation was still at walking speed. Roads were wagon trails. Wagons on the main road from Frankfurt to Berlin were limited in width to the space between two houses (still there) in Gelnhausen, a small village east of Frankfurt. Few traveled. Craft guilds were organized to protect their monopolies. The idea of self-governing city-states spread. Three field rotation (wheat/rye, oats/legumes, fallow) and the horseshoe in N. Europe increased crop output, spurred growth of cities. Many complained about the Church’s corruption. Venice signed a trade treaty with Egypt.

c1305- Pope or emperor: who was more powerful? It fluctuated, depending on the strength of the particular emperor or pope until 1378 the so-called Babylonian Captivity (1305-1378). In 1303, Boniface 8 sought to tax French King Philip 4. Philip 4 and the Orsini family imprisoned Boniface, who soon died. His successor was poisoned. In 1305, Philip 4 pressured the college of cardinals in Rome to elect his bishop of Bordeaux as Pope Clement 5. This lessened the prestige of the pope.

Popes Clement 5 set up his court in Avignon, part of the Papal See, never going to Rome. The new nation states of Europe, even lived in the Christian ones, thereafter paid only lip service to the sovereignty of the pope, seeing him, accurately, as merely a tool Avignon of the French king, It also sparked the Conciliar Movement. (Bishops in councils wanted to set church policies, rather than the pope). The chronic warfare and extreme disunity in western Europe ironically contributed to its rapid cultural and economic growth, as unending competition among rival polities and philosophies kept society fluid and encouraged innovation. Italy, trading importing goods from the Orient for sale in Europe, developed managerial and banking systems.

1306 Religion: King Philip 4 expelled the Jews from France, stole their property. Jews, prohibited from owning land, gravitated to finance. The massacre/expulsion of Jews became a regular feature of Medieval European life. In 1307, Pope Clement 5 and King Phillip 4 trumped up false charges against the Knights Templar and stole all their property.

1307 Science: Theodoric of Freiberg, a Dominican, following al Haytham, did the first known scientific experiment in Western Europe, figured out what caused a rainbow, different angles of reflection and refraction of sunlight on raindrops. (Persian astronomer Quth ash-Shirazi may have provided an explanation a few years earlier.) The dissemination of ideas among/between scholars still relied on hand-copied letters or treatises, very inefficient

1310 Dante Alighieri (1265-1321) in 1296 was banished for life from Florence for backing the wrong politician. His Commedia/ The Divine Comedy (1310), a journey through Hell ( lots of clergy & sinners, interesting place), Purgatory, Heaven (boring), Divine was a masterpiece of literature. Dante in Heaven met all the great competing theologians who lived together in peace and Comedy harmony. Dante wrote, “[God’s] will is our peace.” So, are we free? Is there any aspect of us where God does not intrude?

49 Dante’s answer, We achieve a higher freedom by devoting ourselves to God. Thus the Middle Ages ended in splendor and abject failure, unrealistic. Divine Comedy was anti-clerical but deeply Christian. Dante’s De Monarchia (c1317) argued for a world monarch to assure peace, necessary for human happiness. It was later put on the Index. (See 1559)

1317 Religion: Christian horror of witchcraft was so severe that Pope John 22, in Avignon, issued a bull, Spondent pariter, aimed at alchemists, but which crippled the emerging science of chemistry.

1320 Pope John 22 authorized the Inquisition to prosecute sorcery and urged princes to fight it. Christian fear of and hatred against the study of Nature was felt for centuries. Chemistry came to be known as one of the “Seven Devilish Arts.”

1324 Political Theory, Democracy: Marsilius of Padua / Marsiglio da Padova (c1275-c1343) wrote Defensor Pacis, “the Democracy greatest and most original political treatise of the Middle Ages.” Marsiglio held that the legislator is the majority of the people, and that the majority had the right to punish princes. He wanted the HRE separate from the pope. He applied Marsiglio popular sovereignly to the Church as well. It started the new form of opposition to the pope. Local councils, including da Padua the laity elect representatives to the General Council which has the power, inter alia, to excommunicate the pope and interpret Scripture. He wanted to preserve the unity of the Church, but democratically, not by papal absolutism.

Building on Aristotle’s doctrine that the end of government is to enable persons to live a good life, said a state was necessary, with a hierarchy within that state, and a sovereign to adjudicate conflicts, and make and enforce law. Popular sovereignty/democracy is desirable as pooling political wisdom brings better laws and can better perceive flaws in laws, so fewer will be harmed by laws, such laws are more apt to represent the common good, such laws are more likely to be obeyed. The executive should spring from the common will. So, elect a king. For publishing his democratic ideas, He was excommunicated.

Philosophy: William of Ockham /Guillermo de Occam (c1290-c1350), separated faith from knowledge, philosophy c1331 from theology, logic from metaphysics, a Franciscan, was one of the principal agents of the dissolution of the Medieval William synthesis of philosophy and theology. Like Duns Scotus, he said that faith and reason have nothing in common. No of other Christian thinker of the Middle Ages rejected so many or so important then-current assumptions as did Occam. Ockham He rejected Aristotle’s and Aquinas’s concept of a “prime mover” who keeps things going and reintroduced the concept of impetus, a precursor to inertia. He said God was the originator of impetus. God’s will is not fathomable as it cannot be understood through human reason, but rather through faith and theology.

Occam also disputed Aquinas’s fusing of Aristotelean logic with theology. He rejected Aquinas’s impressive system of natural philosophy based primarily on the notion of causality. Occam developed a strictly, and in a sense, skeptical view regarding knowledge. God can affect our intuitive cognitions. Thus what we know depends on God’s will. “To say that some things are caused by other things gives no warrant to argue that God is the cause of the natural order.” He concluded that we can know nothing about God but only that the unaided reason cannot discover God. Against Aquinas’s notion that universals as such have some form of existence, Occam argued that the only real things were real things; and universals were merely words/names, i.e., nominalism.

Occam’s razor: He said, “It is vain to do with more what can be done with fewer.” i.e., “Cut away the irrelevant, accept Occam’s the explanation with the fewest assumptions.” (N.b. The simplest explanation is not always the most accurate.) He Razor advocated the primacy of logic in all disciplines. Like Abelard, Albertus, Aquinas, Averroes, and Duns Scotus, Occam made a distinction between theological and philosophical/reason-based truth. He wrote, “The Truths of God (dealing with salvation) are infinitely more important than truths of nature (which deal with mere bodily comfort.).” Occam’s theology thus for 300 years built a wall to protect Christian theology from reason. So reason, freed from the Church, flourished. Then, in the Age of Reason, 18th century, reason burst through the wall and demolished faith. Politically, he favored a monarchy bound by natural law (respect private property.) and by international usages. The state should promote virtue, dispense justice, make laws, and, most importantly, punish law breakers. Occam rejected the pope’s power in the secular realm. In 1339, his works were put under a ban and solemnly condemned.

c1339 Philosophy: Humanism, the concentration on the human rather than the divine. Francesco Petrarch (1304-1374), the first great Humanist, loved the joy of living. He is often considered the father of the Italian Renaissance. He started a search Humanism of monasteries for forgotten Latin manuscripts. Humanists believed that knowledge came from human observation and analysis rather than supernatural powers, that the “liberal studies,” history, moral philosophy, rhetoric, letters (grammar and logic), poetry, math, astronomy, and music, were the key to true freedom. At 35, Petrarch was one of Europe’s most famous scholars, poet laureate of Rome. He wrote of the joys and sorrows of real people. He emphasized the use of pure classical Latin, so scholars could use Cicero as a model for prose and Virgil for poetry. Humanists were of course skeptical of supernaturalism/religion. By 1348, many German states/principalities/fiefdoms had expelled Jews and stolen their property.

1347- Bubonic and pneumonic plague, Black Death, from bacteria in fleas on rats, migrated from Asia on a ship that docked in 1349 Messina, killed 1/3 to ½ of Europe and much of the rest of the world. The plague caused a movement to the cities. Farm land reverted to forests. It was the modern world’s most devastating natural disaster. Survivors inherited land, money,

50 Black houses, clothes. Trade fell drastically, but it caused two significant results: excess clothes were made into paper, which, Death in the 1400s, helped the spread of printing, and labor, being scarce, went up in value, prompting investments in technological innovation in industry, textiles, mining, and banking.

1352 Giovanni Boccaccio (1313-1375), wrote The Decameron (100 Tales), celebrating the sensual nature of Man. W ith his friend Petrarch, he attempted to revive classical, i.e., Greek, culture. The humanism stimulated by classical learning penetrated every aspect of cultural life, broadening it beyond the confines of the religious symbolism central to the Medieval mind. Thomas a Modena, Italian, is credited with making made the first spectacles.

c1376 Religion: John Wycliffe/Wyclif (1320-1384), English theologian, a forerunner of the Reformation, taught theology and philosophy at Oxford. Criticized the hierarchy of the Church. In 1382, with others translated the Vulgate Bible into English. John Gospels. Said, “This bible is of the people, by the people and for the people.” He preached against the corruption in the Wycliffe Church. He said that Christ is Man’s only overlord, the Scriptures are supreme authority, and the Church bureaucracy was not needed to attain the state of Grace. He taught that property was a result of sin, that Jesus and the apostles had no property, as should modern clergy. This was a rebuke to the priests, but not to Christ. Said, “I believe that in the end, the truth will conquer.” So, the Church expelled him from Oxford, condemned him as a heretic, ordered him jailed. But he died as a parish priest. In 1408, the 3rd Synod of Oxford prohibited unauthorized-Wyclif- versions of the Bible.

1378- Great Western Schism began. While the popes resided in Avignon (1305-1378), the so-called Babylonian Captivity, they 1417 appointed 134 new cardinals, 113 of whom were French. In Avignon, the popes (all French) and his cardinals lived in splendor, discrediting the papacy and giving rise to critics like Geert de Groote (see 1380 just below) and Jan Hus, (1398), some calling for the pope to return to Rome. So in 1377, Pope Gregory 11 returned to Rome, ending the Great Babylonian Captivity. He died. Western Schism Romans pressured the cardinals to elect an Italian as pope. So they elected Urban 6. He stayed in Rome. Soon the French cardinals, now a majority of cardinals, elected a French pope, Clement 7, who moved to Avignon. So, there were 2 popes, in Rome and in Avignon, the Schism. The nobles of Scotland, France, Spain and S. Italy supported French Clement 7. England, Germany, Scandinavia, and N. Italy supported Urban 6. Urban 6 and Clement 7 each called each other the Antichrist and excommunicated and cursed the other’s adherents. Each pope’s policies favored his patrons’s interests. The Schism discredited the Church.

1380 Religion: Geert de Groote (1340-1384), a lay man, walked around Holland, like Wycliffe, preaching a purer simpler form of Christianity. (Clergy were worldly and corrupt). His teachings attracted many, including scholars. The Brethren of the Common Life developed out of his preachings. After his death he was accepted by the pope.

1381 English Peasants Revolt. The 1348 plague had caused great social and economic disruption. Needing money, King Richard 2 imposed a poll tax on all Englishmen. Preacher John Ball voiced the peasants’ response, “Good people, Peasants things cannot go right in England and never will, until goods are held in common and there are no more peasants and Revolt gentlefolk, . . We are all one and the same. In what way are those we call lords greater masters than ourselves? How have they deserved it? Why do they hold us in bondage? If we all spring from a common father and mother, Adam and Eve, how can they claim or prove that they are lords more than us, except by making us produce and grow the wealth that they spend?” “When Adam delved and Eve span, who then was the gentleman?” The peasants revolted, burned manor homes, and advanced on London. King Richard promised them reforms. The peasants dispersed. Richard then reneged on his promises and with the assistance of the nobles, arrested hundreds of rebels, and hanged Ball. Other similar revolts similarly failed. In 1396, France expelled 100,000 Jews.

c1397+ Florence: Cities became sovereign states, speaking their local languages which diminished the use of Latin, the common language of scholars. Florence emerged as a leader in commerce and the arts. In 1397, the Medici family began lending money on an international scale, opening banks throughout Europe. Florentines thus became with their gold florin, which was accepted everywhere, the first international bankers. The wool industry was Florence’s largest, but entrepreneurs of all descriptions came and flourished. The temporal power of the Church was curtailed. Church lands were confiscated. Burghers and merchants ruled. The Republic of Venice became a leader of diplomacy and international agreements due to its far-flung sea trade and contacts with Muslims.

Humanism Humanism characterized the next 100 years of Florentine and European thought. Augustine’s ascetic in the cave was gone. In his place was the man of the world. Education was for public life (thus principally for males), not Church life. Aquinas’s synthesis of faith and reason was unraveling. Humanists ridiculed Scholasticism as a preserve for meretricious verbalism and futile triviality. Many simply quietly began to ignore the Church.

Civic humanism: Florence gave humanism a new direction, away from Petrarch’s intellectual life as one of solitude to one of civic participation. Cicero became the Humanist’s model, as an intellectual and as a man of civic duty.

1398- 1398-1415. Theology: Jan Hus/John Huss (1374-1415) priest, influenced by Wycliffe, preached against the corrupt 1415 clergy and the power of the pope; became Rector of Karlova/Charles University in Prague. In 1410, the Archbishop of Jan Hus Prague excommunicated Hus and his followers and burned Wycliffe’s books. (See Council of Constance 1414)

51 c1400 Overview: Innumerable small states/principalities/free cities/bishoprics with varying degrees of independence/ sovereignty peopled Europe. While Latin remained the language of scholars and clerics, literature from Dante and Chaucer (Canterbury Tales) appeared in the local languages, although books (hand copied) were still expensive. Modern conceptions of God emerged between 1400 and 1800. Universities, all under clerical control, founded in the 15th century: Leipzig 1409. St. Andrews 1411. Rostock 1419. Leuven/Louvain 1426. Caen 1431. Poitiers 1431. Catania 1434. Barcelona 1450. Glascow 1451. Greifswald 1456. Istanbul 1453. Freiburg 1457. Basel 1460. Munich 1472. Ingolstadt 1472. Tubingen 1477. Copenhagen 1479. Aberdeen 1494. Santiago de Compostella 1496. Madrid 1499. Valencia 1499. In 1400, a Florentine brought Ptolemy’s second century map, Geographia, with grids, including the Canaries, Iceland, and Ceylon from Constantinople to Florence. Its view of the world had been forgotten for 1,000 years.

1404 Christine de Pizan, a widow with children, wrote powerfully against the prevailing male domination of all matters.

1405 Starting c1405, the Chinese general, Zheng He/Cheng Ho, sailed from Nanking with 300 ships (many 5 times larger than Western ships) and 28,000 men, to dominate Indian Ocean trade. In 7 trips, he sailed as far west as Hormuz (mouth of Zheng the Persian Gulf) and to East Africa and Malaysia. He had doctors, merchants, bankers, boat repairers, gifts of tea, silk, He and porcelain. He brought back to China exotic animals like giraffes. Abruptly in 1433, just a few decades before Columbus’s journey, the Ming/Enlightened Dynasty abandoned its ocean dominance and sealed itself off from foreigners, forbidding even the construction of seagoing ships. They could have sailed east to the Americas. Mings felt they couldn’t learn anything from inferior peoples. In fact, as Polo had described, their culture then was richer and grander than the West. In China, faster growing varieties of rice increased crop yields (and population).

1409 Religion: Council of Pisa. The Conciliar Movement emerged as the best way to resolve the disgraceful Schism begun in 1378. Bishops from both camps met in Pisa and “deposed” both popes, and elected John 23 as pope. But the two sitting popes refused to resign, so there were three popes. (John 23 in 1411 also excommunicated Hus.)

1414- The Council of Constance, also convened to end the Schism, was the high point in the Conciliar movement to reform the 1418 Church. HRE Emperor Sigismund promised Hus safe conduct to the Council in 1415. Hus came. He was promptly imprisoned and burned at the stake. The then Rome-based Pope Gregory 12 said, “W hen dealing with heretics, one is not obligated to keep one’s word.” Gregory 12, resigned and two years later, in 1417, the Council elected Pope Martin 5, who ruled from Rome and so resolved the Schism. Under pressure, Pope Martin 5 agreed to convene councils every seven years. Hus was widely loved and respected. His murder sparked a revolution in Bohemia for 20 years. Heresy continued. Starting in 1417, successive popes worked steadily to undermine those conciliar reforms that diminished their powers. The council ordered that Wycliffe’s remains be dug up and burned.(Done in 1428, 44 years after he died.) The Church has never decided the legitimacy of either line of popes.

1419+ Prince Henry the Navigator (1394-1460) of Portugal, a poor nation, in 1419 set up his court and a school of navigation at Sagres. He had German mathematicians, Italian map makers, Jewish and Muslim scholars. He sponsored numerous Prince explorers to sub-Saharan Africa, at first to counter Islam, and to find gold, grain, but above all, to obtain slaves for the Henry sugar plantations in Madeira, and then later to seek a better route to Asia. Portugal was also developing the lateen (triangular) sail (used by Arab traders) permitting ships to sail into the wind, and the sleek caravel, larger sleeker ships with multiple masts vastly improving ocean navigation with an astrolabe, enabling captains to return to where they started. They also had the magnetic compass. The Portugese systematically collected wind and current records and made maps of wherever they sailed. Henry’s captains constructed instruments and trigonometric tables to measure the latitude of all the places they sailed to. However, they were deathly afraid of sailing beyond Cape Bojadour in W. Africa, until Dom Gil Eannes in 1434 did so. Each year, they sailed further and further south toward the Cape of Good Hope. No Arab dhow reached Europe.

1421 Austria expelled thousands of Jews, stole their property. The Bible was always cited when Jews were persecuted.

1430 Aeneas Sylvius, later Pope Pius 2, visited England; wrote of primitive huts, peat fires, no chimneys, bread unknown in places, food was vegetables, sometimes bark, swarming with vermin, never a bath, no plumbing, straw beds.

c1430 New Style in Architecture. The Florentines began to build in classical Roman/Greek forms, abandoning the Middle Age Gothic style. Buildings were constructed with Man as their focal point. Geometry, trigonometry, and algebra were refined and used to a greater extent than previously imagined. The Arts New Style in Painting. The Florentines also began to paint in perspective, based on al Haytham’s views on optics and a book by Leon Alberti, with a vanishing point where all parallel lines converged. Never done before. Perspective not been used outside Western art. Perspective put Man’s viewpoint paramount, created a sense of movement in space. Sienese painters did not use perspective for 100 years. In 1420, 95% of paintings were religious, by 1520, 80%.

1431- Council of Basel/Ferrara/Florence: Bishops and lesser clergy (a majority) met in Basel (outside the lands of the pope and 1449 the HRE) for the purpose of reforming the Church (i.e., weakening the pope.). It claimed supremacy over the pope, prescribed an oath for new popes to take, and took other actions weakening the pope. After moving to Ferrara and

52 Florence, the council ended in Lausanne inconclusively. The weak pope survived.

1437- Religion: Pope Eugene 4 issued bulls urging inquisitors to be more diligent finding & punishing magicians and witches 1445 who, for example, produced bad weather. He also declared Joan of Arc a heretic. Pope Callixtus 3 in 1456 cleared her.

c1440+ Trade with the East. After Ptolemy, map-making had deteriorated into useless religious cosmography. In the 1300s, the more accurate ancient Roman and Greek maps of the Mediterranean began to reappear. Venice and Italian cities monopolized trade with China through the Muslims who dominated the Indian Ocean. Ships couldn’t make long sea trips. The best Western ships, Arabian dhows, were clumsy. Europe needed pepper from S.E. Asia to preserve meat, then obtained by caravan for gold, in short supply in Europe. Apart from the Silk Road, spices (pepper) from the Spice Islands, the Moluccas, went by Chinese junks to Malacca (Malaysia). Muslim merchants brought them to Calicut (S. tip of India), then by dhows up the Red Sea, then by camel to Alexandria or Damascus. Italian merchants then took them to Europe. A trip could take a year. A better route to the East was needed. China, centrally governed, rich, and self sufficient, had declined to explore the world. The Koran in turn contained warnings that discouraged Arab traders from venturing west beyond Madagascar. Merchants ruled the numerous diverse cities of Europe. They looked outside Europe’s boundaries. Formal diplomacy developed in the 15th and 16th centuries, with permanent embassies established between cities.

1442 Pope Eugene / Eugenius 4 decreed “that from now on and for all time, Christians shall not eat or drink with Jews, nor admit them to feasts, nor cohabit with them, nor bathe with them. Christians shall not allow Jews to hold civil honors over Christians, or to exercise public offices in the state.” Eugene remitted the sins of anyone fighting the Saracens/Muslims.

c1444 Astronomy: Cardinal Nicolas of Kues/Cusa (near Trier) (1401-1464) deepened the gap between rational and theological knowledge. “One cannot say anything authoritative about God due to His incomprehensibility. One can only acknowledge this impossibility.” He also wrote Reconciliation of Opposites. “If the universe is infinite then the Earth is not necessarily, or even possibly at its center. And if that is so, the Earth may well be circling the Sun.”

c1450 Neoplatonism: In the second half of the 15th century, a dramatic upsurge in interest in Plato occurred. Cosimo de Medici, the de facto ruler of Florence and head of the banking family, founded an academy where Plato was the chief subject of study. Cosimo commissioned the priest Marsilio Finici to translate and comment on Plato’s works. Finici sought to synthesize Christianity and Plato’s works. This neoplatonism was based on two central ideas, the neoplatonic hierarchy of substances and a theory of spiritual love. Like Aquinas, Plato had postulated a hierarchy of substances, or “great chain of being” from plants to animals to Man to God. Man was the link between the material world and the spiritual world, and Man’s highest duty was to ascend toward a union with God. The principal Medieval question remained, “How shall I be saved?”

Hermeticism: Finici also translated the Greek work, Corpus Hermeticum, sparking the Hermetic movement. It was a new view of mankind, that humans had been created divine but had freely chosen to enter the material world, but could regain their divinity through a regenerative experience or purification of the soul. Thus regenerated, they had knowledge of God and of truth and had the ability to employ the powers of nature for beneficial purposes. (Hermeticism has survived as a very minor fringe cult/sect.)

1450+ Voyages of Discovery: Around 1450, Prince Henry’s school developed the Mariner’s Quadrant, a star angle measuring device like the Greek/Arab astrolabe. It became widely used in the West, especially among the Portugese. By promoting sea travel, Prince Henry made Portugal a first rate power. He reduced the size of the world. Spanish, English, Dutch, French, Portugese, sailed the seas. Forests of Western Europe were cut down for the ships the new nations’s navies needed. England denuded much of Ireland’s forests around Dublin.

1452 Pope Nicholas 5 authorized the Portuguese to “attack, subject, and reduce to perpetual slavery the Saracens, pagans, and other enemies of Christ southward from Cape Bojadour.” This further legitimized slavery by Christians. He repeated his advice in 1455. Portuguese sailors reached further and further down the west coast of Africa.]

1453 The end of the HRE in the East: Muslim Seljuk Turks captured Constantinople, converting the Christian churches, like St. Sophia, into mosques, obliterating their paintings depicting people. Greek speaking refugees fled to Italy with manuscripts of Greek works, which also helped spread the Renaissance and revive scientific inquiry. The Metropolitan of Moscow said Constantinople fell as it had deserted the true Orthodox faith. The HRE in the West was by then little more than a loose association of c300 German feudal princes under the nominal head of an emperor.

c1454 Printing, Gutenberg Bible: The Chinese and Koreans had been printing with movable type for centuries. Parts of the Koran Gutenberg had been printed in Cairo in the tenth century. Block-printed books had been printed in Germany and Holland in the 1430s. Printing Then, Gustavus Adolphus Gutenberg of Mainz (c1400- c1468) developed a printing press system using movable type, System plus a stamping mold to cast type, plus a lead alloy (lead, tin, and antimony) for the type, and a compatible ink with an oil base. Of crucial importance was the manufacture of paper. Only in the 1300s was suitable paper made in Germany . (Remember. Never think particular invention, think system). He printed a 42 line Bible in Latin. Printing with movable type reduced the price of books by 90%. The format of Gutenberg’s printing copied the monotonous format of then existing hand copied texts, and such monotonous format still dominates most printing.

53 The classical texts printed brought classical ideas, long buried, to the middle class, and encouraged a new less formal style of writing, thus securing Boccaccio’s and Petrarch’s ambition. A fortuitous conjunction of events, the availability of rag paper (from the plague), the printing press, and the sudden appearance of a large number of worthwhile manuscripts, including many Muslim translations of Greek texts into Latin, helped spread the Renaissance. Printing spread rapidly to the mercantile cities of Europe. Printing became one of the first capitalist enterprises.

c1455+ The European state system, the feudal system, was breaking down. Self-governing mercantile cities and nations were growing. Nation states, always despotic, developed out of city-states. The new kings of the new nation states, France, European England, Germany, even Spain, sought more independence from the Church. Milan established the first permanent foreign State embassy, in Genoa, in 1455. The Renaissance spread slowly, from Italy throughout Europe, but not to Russia/Muscovy, System isolated behind hostile states. While complaints about ignorant and incompetent parish priests were common, people were clamoring for meaningful religious expression. Thomas a Kempis, The Imitation of Christ (1418), “At Judgment day, we will be not judged by what we have read but how we lived.”

With the growing independence of non-Italian states, the pope became merely one of the Italian princes, engaged in Italian power politics. The new national monarchies in France, Spain and England had power in their states that neither the pope nor the emperor could interfere. The nation state dominated men’s thoughts, which destroyed what was left of the Roman belief in the unity of civilization. During the fifteenth century, the modern outlook had spread to the great majority of cultivated Italians, although not with the respect for science that came in the seventeenth century.

Peasants unaffected: Most persons, peasants, even in Europe, lived on as before. To the common man, year after year, things did not change. The Medieval world was a world without facts, just Man’s experiences. Little travel; seven miles was the longest journey one took, as it enabled one to return home that day. The elders and priests ruled. They were the judges. The priest was still the source of information. Villages fifty miles apart spoke different dialects. Even Medieval elites/priests knew little more than Archimedes, except possibly regarding medicine, math, and astronomy.

c1456 Science: Georg von Peuerbach, Austrian, published a book on how to calculate sines and chords of angles for trigonometry, the method of calculation using ratios of the sides of triangles and the angles between them.

1464 Johann Mueller’s (1436-1476), Epitome showed flaws in Ptolemy’s geocentric theory. In 1472, he tracked a comet.

1478 Religion: With Pope Sixtus 4's approval, Ferdinand and Isabella instituted the Spanish Inquisition under their control for Spain and its colonies. Isabella named her confessor, Tomas Cardinal de Torquemada, a Dominican, as Inquisitor- General. In its first year, the Inquisition burnt 2,000, fined or imprisoned for life 17,000 victims. Torquemada in 18 years, burnt 10,227. One of the tortures used was pouring water onto a cloth on the face of a bound prisoner, causing agonizing suffocation. (Sixtus 4 named five of his “nephews” as cardinals and restored the Sistine Chapel.)

1483 Theodore of Gaza put Aristotle’s Historia Plantarum, a good book on botany, into Latin giving it wide readership.

1484 Pope Innocent 8 issued the bull, Summis Desiderantes, which let inquisitors in Germany torture and kill men and women for sorcery and magic as heresies. Innocent 8 had two German inquisitors, Jacob Sprenger, Dean of the U. of Cologne, and Prior Henrich Kramer, both Dominican monks, write a book giving a juridical and theological justification for the persecution of witches. They defined witchcraft as female, especially midwives. “All witchcraft comes from carnal lust, which was in women insatiable.” It instructed torture for all accused witches. Not confessing showed the devil gave the accused strength. From 1450-1750, it is estimated that c100,000 people, 80% women, were tried for witchcraft; c12,000 were confirmed executed. Some estimates go much higher. Innocent 8 had a son marry his former mistress. When he died, he left 2 or perhaps16 children. He named Giovanni Medici as a cardinal at 13.

1486 Science: Giovanni Pico della Mirandola (1463-1494). One of foremost Humanists of the Renaissance. At 24, he wrote Oration on The Dignity of Man as a preface to 900 theses, which he publicly offered to defend. He wrote, “Man is the spiritual center of the universe,” He imagined God saying to Man, “We have set thee at the world’s center that thee mayest more easily observe whatever is in the world...so that thee may fashion thyself in whatever shape thou shalt prefer.” Pope Innocent 8 prohibited even the reading of the 900 theses. The Vatican said 13 of the theses were heresies, so imprisoned Pico. He recanted. He was absolved of heresy in 1492. He died at 31.

c1490- Science: Leonardo da Vinci (1452-1519), the natural son of a Florentine notary, one of towering men of the Renaissance, 1519 painter, sculptor, architect, engineer, scientist. He was responsible for the Renaissance of science. In 1490, da Vinci observed capillary action of liquids in small bore tubes. Only 17 of his paintings survive (including the Mona Lisa (1506) da Vinci and the Last Supper (1498)), but thousands of annotated sketches of everything from geology to botany to mechanical devices to medical devices to anatomy to military devices to architecture to animals survived. Said, “Mechanics is the paradise of the mathematical sciences because by means of it one comes to the fruits of mathematics...Nature never breaks its own laws.” Also, “All our knowledge has its origins in our perceptions.” ... “Whoever in discussion adduces authority uses not intellect but rather memory.” He made no attempt to exploit his mechanical genius. He was the first to note the true nature of fossils. In 1510, he designed a horizontal water wheel, a turbine. He discovered that being at rest was not the supreme

54 principle of the world (as Aristotle thought); restlessness and force were. In 1492, he designed a flying machine.

1492 Religion: Ferdinand and Isabella conquered Moorish Granada/Alhambra, Islam’s last foothold in Iberia. Torquemada, then decreed all Spanish Jews to leave Spain or convert to Christianity in three months. He used unspeakable torture on Jews and Muslims whose forced conversions to Christianity he thought insincere. One of the tortures used was pouring water onto a cloth over a bound prisoner’s face, causing agonizing suffocation. Pedro Arbues, a Spanish inquisitor said, “Innocent or not, let the Jew be fried.” In 1502, all Muslims were told to leave Spain for Muslim lands.

Ferdinand sent 100 Moorish/Black slaves to Pope Innocent 8, who kept some and gave some to his cardinals and papal officials. (Despite the Bible, various popes condemned certain slavery, i.e., in 1435, Eugene 4 condemned slavery in the Canaries. Paul 3 in 1537 issued a bull against slavery of American Indians. Urban 8 in 1639 prohibited enslavement of South American natives who joined missionary communities. Benedict 14 in 1741 condemned enslavement of Brazilian natives, but slavery of Africans remained sanctioned by the Church.) (Contra, Pius 9 1870)

America: Sponsored by Ferdinand and Isabella, Cristobal Colon/Christopher Columbus (1451-1506), Geneoan, like Columbus most educated people, believed the Earth was round. He sailed west from Palos, Spain in 1492 with 3 small ships bound for Asia. Only the Santa Maria was decked, The others were caravels (with hulls shaped like Arab dhows), one initially lateen-rigged. He was an experienced Atlantic sailor. He had been to Iceland. The prevailing currents and winds of the N. Atlantic are roughly clockwise, west from the Canaries to America, up the Gulf Stream, and East to N. Europe. He had vastly underestimated the distance to China, based on an incorrect small Earth diameter from the holy Second Book of Esdras which was copied by the Greek Posidenius and Florentine map maker Paolo Toscanelli, who had told Columbus of the gold, silver, gems, and spices to be found by sailing west. Columbus had a magnetic compass.

After 70 days, he landed probably on the Caribbean isle of Samana Cay/San Salvador. Columbus called the inhabitants “Indians,” thinking he had gotten to the East Indies (or possibly derived from Los ninos in Dio (The children in God), used by Columbus’s priest). He returned to Spain in 1493 with gold, 2 natives, cotton, some animals and birds. He sailed again in 1493 with 17 ships and 1500 men. He made 4 trips to the New World, to Cuba, Puerto Rico, Bahamas, Jamaica, S. America. Until he died, he thought that he had reached the East Indies. Against Isabella’s wishes, Columbus enslaved all the natives he encountered. As agreed, he was made Admiral of the Seas and governor of lands he found. To Europeans, he found a new world. To Amerindians, Europeans were invaders/killers.

1492 Martin Behaim, Nuremburg geographer, constructed the first terrestrial globe. It did not portray the Americas.

1493 Religion: Rodrigo Borgia/Pope Alexander 6, had been appointed as a bishop, then cardinal, by his uncle, Pope Calixtus 3. He bought the papacy, had several children, appointed his 18 year old son, Cesare Borgia, as a cardinal (also appointing as cardinals a nephew and the brother of one of his mistresses). He urged Cesare to create a state out of the Papal States in Italy. Alexander 6 gave away many of the Church’s estates to his children. Sicily expelled its Jews; Portugal in 1495, stole their property. The Inquisition was later used in the Americas.

1497 Girolamo Savonarola (1452-1498), Dominican priest, ruler of Florence 1494-1498, anti-Renaissance, against clerical corruption, carried out the Bonfire of the Vanities, which burned gaming tables, pagan books, lewd pictures, made sodomy a capital offence. He criticized the degenerate Alexander 6. So Alexander tortured and burned him.

1497- 37 years after Prince Henry died, Dom Vasco da Gama (1462-1524), not believing Columbus had reached India, sailed 1499 around the Cape of Good Hope to Zanzibar and then with an Arab pilot, to Calicut in S. India, a trip over twice as long as Columbus’s, destroying the monopoly of Venice and the Muslims in Eastern trade. By 1500, 700 kilos of gold and 10,000 slaves arrived yearly in Lisbon from W. Africa. By capturing Malacca in 1511 (dominating the Straits of Malacca) and the Spice Islands/the Moluccas in 1512, the Portugese soon dominated the Asia spice trade, displacing Muslim traders.

Giovanni Caboto/John Cabot, a Venetian, and his son, Sebastian, sailing for Henry 7 of England, sought a north route to India, explored Labrador, Cape Breton, and the St. Lawrence river. First since Vikings to reach N. America.

1499+ Guru Nanak Dev founded Sikhism in Punjab. Its principal belief is faith in waheguru, a non-anthropomorphic universal God. It is the universe and created the cosmos. Successor gurus through 1708 developed its dogma.

1500+ Overview: Before 1500, civilization was essentially land-centered. Land travel was still rare and at walking speed. Slavery was widespread, especially in Italy. By 1500, Classical Latin (not Medieval Latin) became the language of Western 16th diplomacy and scholarship. At 1500, the Christian Church reigned supreme in Europe, intimately associated with the Century temporal rulers. It levied taxes, recorded births, marriages, deaths, baptisms, monopolized scholarship, controlled estates and the courts, ruled central Italy, the Papal States. However, theocratic rule had failed. In the 1,000 years of theocratic rule, the population of Europe had less than doubled. The corruption of the Church was beyond the imagination of modern man. Every possible action by the clergy required a bribe or payment. Peasants were no better off in 1500 than in 500. The theocratic state was running on empty. Renaissance ideas challenged it. Christian teaching, which was supposed to be comprehensive, did not mention the newly-discovered Americas. This embarrassed the Church. The Church saw

55 that the ideas of the Renaissance disseminated by printing undercut the Church’s monopoly of communication; so in 1501, Printing Pope Alexander 6 stupidly ordered burning all books questioning the Church’s authority. It was too late.

Printing: Before 1500, most texts were printed in Greek or Latin. By 1500, throughout Europe, books were being printed everywhere. 80 printing presses had printed 40,000 works; books began to be printed in the national languages, which opened up a wider market for printers, although Latin remained the language of clerics and scholars. Printing spread news and knowledge everywhere. Printing helped move Man away from respect for authority to respect for common empirical facts. Printing helped destroy the oral society. Printing took from the universities and monasteries their monopoly on learning and gave it to the middle class, a huge shift in power. Local language scripts and spellings became standardized. “How To..” books were the most numerous. Euclid’s Geometry was printed in Italian.

c1500+ Overview: Gold from the Americas made Spain the greatest Western power for over a century. The Spanish enslaved American natives as well as Blacks. The West, divided into c500+ states, was still only one, and not the greatest, of civilizations. The Muslims ruled far larger areas. Japan, China, Aztecs, Incas, and Hindu Indians flourished. China (100M people, more than all of Europe) under the Ming Dynasty (1368-1644), was the most powerful and advanced nation. But the West, from the depths of the Dark Ages, open to innovation and eager to seize power, was emerging as a new civilization with religion as its heart. By 1,500, it equaled the other great civilizations.

The Rise The Rise of the West is the key to world history from 1500. Europe began to out-pace, out-gun, out-invent, out-think, out- of the sail, out-produce, out-trade and dominate all other civilizations. Several factors contributed to such rise: West 1. The West was largely uninhibited by its own past. It adopted freely from the classical, Muslim and Byzantine traditions, 2. Popular participation in economic, cultural, and political life was far greater in western Europe than in the other civilizations, 3. Westerners were tough, 4. The West had the best military technology, 5. They were inured to a variety of diseases, and, 6. as previously noted, the West’s disunity / diversity and internal warfare and competition encouraged innovation and technological development.

The second knowledge explosion in human history began in Europe, continues today. The Scholastic philosophers of the 13th and 14th centuries, based their work on Aristotle, used Deduction. This method, however, did not develop science to any great extent. However, using Induction, advocated by Roger Bacon (c1267) and others, there was great progress in physical sciences (partly based on Greek ideas that were dormant from c500 to c1500). From 1500-1550, numerous Europeans crossed the Atlantic, for gold, God, and conquest. At the same time, Russians went East to conquer Siberia. The world was Europeanized, although the West’s contacts with India, China, and Japan were limited to trading outposts on their coasts.

From 1500 to 1800, the world’s population doubled from c400 million to c800 million, based mainly on improvements in farming. (The world’s population at 1 AD had been c300 million (including c100 million in Europe and Russia, i.e., the W est.) By 1500, it had increased only to c400 million, an infinitesimally small rate of growth).

For 1,000 years, Western men had given responsibility for their moral lives to surrogates for God, i.e., the Church, in order to achieve salvation; but now they learned that the Greeks and the Romans did no such thing. The Church weakened. In concordats with Austria (1448), France (1516), and Spain (1526), the pope was forced to concede far-reaching rights over the national churches. Henry 8 (see1532) simply declared himself head of the Church in England.

Towns and a mercantile class grew. Literacy increased slowly in towns. Towns administered the granaries, set all retail prices, acted as banker, sold annuities on lives and inheritances. Europe became immensely rich from trade with Asia and the Americas. No European state dominated all others. The West adopted Chinese gunpowder and since then, the superiority of firepower over manpower and tactics has stayed the central idea of military thinking.

1502 Science: Americus/Amerigo Vespucci, Italian merchant, explorer, map maker, after his second voyage to the new world in 1502 where he went far south along S. America, first to say and map the Americas as separate from Asia.

1509 Religion: Desiderius Erasmus (1466-1536), Rotterdam, reputedly the natural son of a priest, was educated by the Brethren of the Common Life, who cared little for personal possessions. He became a priest and eventually a monk. He Erasmus taught Greek at Cambridge for two years, became a friend of Thomas More. Contrary to the Church’s rules, he read Plato and other Greek writers. He was the most influential Christian Humanist. He spoke Greek as well as Latin (All clergy spoke Latin). He sought to uncover the pure and simple elements of the Church that had been obscured by the excessive In rationalism of Scholastic doctrine and the corruption in the Church. (He never returned to Holland.) Praise of Folly What Erasmus saw in Rome and in monasteries led him to write The Praise of Folly (1509). It ridiculed the brainsick fools in monasteries. They have little religion in them yet are “highly in love with themselves and fond admirers of their own happiness.” They behave as if all religion consisted in minute punctilio, the precise number of knots to the tying on of their sandals...how broad and how long their girdles.” They are “pompous foolish clergy, for their petty obsessions with such matters as pardons and indulgences and trivial calculations of a soul’s exact duration in Purgatory and emphasis on irrelevant minutiae of dress and discipline.) “These theologians are happy in their self love. They look down on all men as though they were animals that crawled along the ground.” “Closely related are those who have reached the foolish but

56 comforting belief that if they gaze at a picture of Polyphemus, they will not die that day... They calculate the time to be spent in Purgatory down to the year, month, day and hour...[and numerous more examples]. Things like that are so foolish that I am almost ashamed of them myself; yet they are accepted not only by the laity but by professors of theology themselves.” (Ref. Dilbert)

His chief complaint was that the whole point of religion had been lost. Erasmus was relentless in his ridicule. Praise is considered one of the most influential works of literature in Western civilization, one of the prime catalysts of the Protestant Reformation. Only the Bible outsold it in the 16th century. Erasmus published Aristotle’s works. Erasmus first favored the Reformation (see 1517). He disapproved of Luther’s theology and his derogation of human reason; but he defended Luther only for the sake of freedom of conscience and because he agreed with Luther’s criticisms of the Church. Later, Erasmus opposed Luther and tried to reform the Church from within.

Erasmus quotes, “In the country of the blind, the one eyed man is king...Of two evils choose the lesser... Fools are without number... Prevention is better than cure... War is delightful to those who had no experience of it... I am conquered by truth...Where there’s life, there’s hope...The worst peace is better than the most just war... He who allows oppression shares the crime...By identifying the new learning with heresy, you make orthodoxy synonymous with ignorance.”

1512 Michelangelo Buonarriti (1475-1564), Florentine, sculptor, painter, architect, poet, another towering figure of the Renaissance. His paintings gave strong expression to the new humanism of the time. It took him five years to paint the Sistine Chapel. Italian literature declined after the deaths of Dante, Petrarch, and Boccaccio.

1512-17 The Fifth Lateran Council Pope Julius 2 reasserted papal authority. Can’t print books without Church permission.

1513 Vasco Nunez de Balboa (1475-1519) sighted the Pacific Ocean from a mountain top in Darien (Panama). Ponce de Leon, Spanish governor of Puerto Rico, discovered Florida. Claimed it for Spain. Piri Reis, Ottoman cartographer, drew the most accurate map of the world, the first known to include Antarctica.

1514 Astronomy: The Julian calendar was seen to be out of sync with the seasons. The pope’s secretary asked Nicolaus Copernicus (1473-1543), a well educated priest/mathematician/scholar who had studied law, medicine, & astronomy, with a doctorate in canon law, to resolve the problem of the calendar. Copernicus declined, saying he couldn’t explain why the calendar was out of sync with the seasons until the relationship between the Sun, Moon, and Earth was better understood. In 1514, he wrote a 40 page manuscript, Commentariolus, suggesting a sun-centered / Heliocentric system better explained certain observed anomalies among the observable skies and continued his astronomical studies, reading Aristarchus and Nicole Oreseme and possibly Seleucus of Selencia describing heliocentrism.

1514 Between 1494 and 1514, printer and scholar Aldus Manutius, in Venice, had printed the complete works of Plato, Aristotle, Pindar, Herodotus, Sophocles, Aristophanes, Xenophanes, Demosthenes, Dante, and Petrarch.

1516 Sir Thomas More (1477-1535) lawyer, statesman, author, Speaker of the House of Commons, Privy Counselor, Lord Chancellor (thus the second greatest man in England.), good friend of Erasmus, sought more radical reform and more Thomas rational theology. He wrote Utopia in 1516, describing an ideal community where everything is done in the best possible More way, communal ownership of land, all houses the same, coined the word communism, favored educating men and women, and religious tolerance. More opposed Luther and Tyndale’s (see 1536) efforts to have the Bible put in English. Catholics and Anglicans have declared More a saint, long after Henry 8 had him killed. (See 1532 Henry 8)

State of the Church: The Church was arrogant and corrupt, but powerful as the biggest game in town and with a monopoly on dispensing the sacraments. Church offices were bought and sold. Priests married and had mistresses. Monks carried relics around and charged a fee to touch them. Bishops sold indulgences until the pope took over the business. Many clergy were incompetent. Numerous reformers openly criticized the Church for its numerous offenses. Heresies and heretics (in Rome’s view) grew. Pope Leo 10 (who had been made a cardinal at age 13) continued the sale of indulgences on a grand scale to pay for the building of a new St. Peter’s basilica. Johann Tetzel, commissioner of indulgences for Germany, a Dominican agent of Pope Leo 10, sold indulgences from a schedule with different prices for different sins.

1517 Protestant Revolt: The boiling point of dissatisfaction with the Church came when Martin Luther (1483-1546), an Augustinian monk and professor of theology at the University of W ittenberg. repelled by Tetzel and the corruption in the Church, sent his 95 Theses (in Latin) to his archbishop and reputedly nailed them to the door of All Saints Church in Martin Wittenberg. Luther had read Erasmus and other Christian Humanists. Luther took the Bible literally. He rejected Luther allegorical interpretations. He said Man could be saved by faith in Jesus alone rather than the Church’s teaching that Man could be saved by faith and good works. Men did do good works, but out of gratitude to God. The basic issue was, Is the Bible true because or the church, or is the Church true because of the Bible? Luther’s main arguments with Rome related to purgatory, devotion to Mary, most of the sacraments, priestly celibacy, and papal rule.

He burnt the volumes of canon law, saying that they were meant to subvert civil government (ie, the German princes) only to exalt the pope. Like Muhammad, Luther at first only wanted to bring his Church back to its original holy pure roots away

57 from the corrupt institution it had turned into. The Church’s reaction caused him to feel he had to oppose it Regarding Hus, he said, “If John Hus was a heretic, then there is not a single Christian under the Sun

Luther Luther was brilliant, but not a modern man. He did not trust reason. “Faith is direct to God. Faith must trample underfoot hated all reason, sense and understanding.” “Reason, the Devil’s harlot.” and “Reason is the greatest enemy that faith has,... reason treating with contempt all that emanates from God.” “W hoever wants to be a Christian should tear the eyes out of his reason.” “Raising the issue of God’s existence reveals Man’s sinful state. Man, not God, needs to be justified. Only faith has the assurance that God will use the evil in the world for his own ends. Faith exceeds our present understanding.” “Reason is “God’s worst enemy.” “Reason must be deluded, blinded, and destroyed.”

and He said, “The aggregation of large libraries tends to divert men’s thoughts from the one great book, the sole source of libraries authority, the Bible, which ought, day and night, to be in every one’s hand.” Ritual was secondary. Also, Aristotle is “truly a devil, a horrid calumniator, a wicked sycophant, a prince of darkness, a beast, professed liar”

Luther spread his views through pamphlets and public debates, in German. His criticisms were distributed throughout Europe. “Print is the best of God’s inventions,” he said. By 1520, his various writings sold over 300,000 copies.

“Hier In 1520, he was excommunicated. In 1521, he had to appear before HR Emperor Charles 5's Diet of Worms. There he stehe reputedly said, “Hier stehe Ich. Ich kann nicht anders.” (Here I stand. I cannot do otherwise).” The Diet put him under the Ich.” ban of the empire, his works to be burned, and for him to be arrested. He took refuge with some princes. This Reformation should be called the Protestant Revolt. It started slowly but inexorably. (Inter alia, Luther said that flies were sent by the Devil to vex him while he was reading.) Luther believed in witches; said excommunicate them. Protestants joined in burning witches, the exact number unknown. The Church in turn called him a bastard, an atheist, a drunk, a blasphemer.

Luther Luther said, “The [Catholic] Mass is the greatest blasphemy of God, and the highest idolatry upon Earth, an abomination hated the like of which has never been in Christendom since the time of the Apostles.” The Reformation required everyone be the Mass able to read the Bible, causing Luther to support free education for all German youth and to create a Bible in German. (Romans 3:28 says, “...man is justified by faith without the deeds of the law.” In his translation of this passage, Luther inserted the word “alone” after the word “faith,” saying, “It’s my translation.”) There is other biblical support for Luther’s position, Ephesians 2:8-9. Luther also said that all maladies were caused by Satan; he poisons the air. Luther repeated the Bible’s promise in Matt 21:22 , “All who call on God in true faith, earnestly from the heart, will certainly be heard, and will receive what they have asked for and desired.” Any believer could thus prove the Biblical God exists merely by praying for something, with safeguards to prevent fraud or coincidence, which then came about

Luther Like the Bible and the Koran, Luther considered women to be the property of men. Said, “The rule remains with the on husband, and the wife is compelled to obey him by God’s command...Women should remain at home, sit still, keep Women house, and bear and bring up children.” Like Dante, Wycliffe, Hus, and the Waldensians, Luther said civil authority was derived directly from God, without papal intercession. He cited Occam in his denunciation of the papacy, and said the clerical hierarchy and canon law were un-Christian and worldly. For all its importance to W estern Christianity, Protestantism did not spread beyond western Europe. Eastern Christianity (Orthodox) ignored it.

Luther Luther’s theological positions changed with the political situation. When the Protestant princes were in conflict with the Emperor Charles 5, Luther said that Christians had the right to fight in self defense, and that the authority of a ruler politician should be respected only so long as he was just and untyrannical. When the peasants revolted against the German princes in 1525, however, Luther sided with the princes, saying, “God would prefer to suffer the government to exist no matter how evil, rather than allow the rabble to riot, no matter how justified they are in doing so.” Luther advised the princes, “Strike with the sword. Kill. Cut their throats. Burn, slay, crush the murderous and rapacious peasants.” The princes slaughtered over 100,000 peasants. Similarly, when he was at first in revolt against the Church, he demanded individual freedom of conscience. Later when confronted with the rise of the Anabaptists (Baptized Again) and other more iconoclastic sects seeking a purer Christianity, he asserted that the state should tolerate only certain sects and persecute the others. Anabaptists wanted simple Christian living, believed that the true Christian should not participate in or be governed by the secular state. All believers were considered equal. Anabaptists said that the Last Supper was a meal of fellowship according to Jesus’s example. So, Anabaptists were viciously persecuted and killed by both Catholics and Protestants.

Luther said each man can read the Bible as he wants. Many did, so Protestants soon split into different sects. Various factors contributed to the success of the Reformation, including a rising sense of nationalism, the invention of printing, resentment of the pope’s demands for money, the rise of humanism, the intellectual barrenness of scholastic theology and the corruption and low intellectual level of priests (both ridiculed by Erasmus). But most importantly, it flourished as the German ruling princes promoted it. It enabled them to escape the Church’s taxes.

1519- Portugese Fernando Magellan (1480-1521) was sent by Spain to determine if the world was actually round. In 1519, he 1522 sailed west and south from Spain, and around South America through the Straits of Magellan westward. He named the Pacific Ocean as it was so peaceful. He was killed in the Philippines, but one of his five ships, laden with spices (and 18

58 of the 270 men who started the trip) completed the trip in 1522. A sailor’s life was not easy. His voyage did not convince all Christians that the Earth was a sphere. This route to the East was too long to be commercially viable.

1519+ The Americas. In the Western Hemisphere, there were no animals suitable to pull plows or wheeled carts.(Llamas America /alpacas in the Andes could carry some goods but weren’t strong enough to ride or pull carts.) Amerindians were thus limited to planting seeds with a pointed stick. The most advanced Amerindian cultures, Mayan (defunct by c950), Incas, or Aztecs, were not as advanced as Sumerians of 4,500 years prior. As noted, they had no draft animals, no potter’s wheel, no wheeled carts, no metallurgy, or a merchant class. (Some pre-1492 Mexican toys had wheels.) The Mexaca/Aztecs and Incas were unaware of each other. The Aztecs were unaware of the potato, the Peruvian staple.

Conquistadores seeking gold, and missionaries, hand in hand, swarmed across the New World. Dominicans led the criticism of slavery in the Americas, and also manned the Inquisition.

In Mexico, the Aztec empire (c19M people, ruled by Montezuma, 5M under his direct control. Mexico City had c200K people) had built huge pyramids, used irrigation, crop diversification, primitive pictographs, developed a highly accurate calendar, used positional notation. The Aztecs felt they were the Chosen People. The scope of their human sacrifice was staggering. Estimates vary, but 20,000 per year is likely. The Incas and Aztecs ruled by fear and force.

1519 Eurasian diseases decimated the Americas. In 1519, Hernan Cortes/Cortez landed in Mexico with 668 men. In 1520, he captured Montezuma and began to loot the Aztec riches. The Aztecs rose up and drove Cortes’s men out. But then, smallpox brought to Mexico by a Spanish slave belonging to Cortes, within six months killed from 1/4 to ½ of Mexicans. As thus weakened, Cortes destroyed the Aztec empire in one year. Mexico was named New Spain.

Eurasian smallpox, measles, cholera, influenza, plague, TB, and typhus, killed far more than the murderous Spanish conquistadores, and killed numerous North American Indians, especially those of the Mississippi River System. Hispaniola’s Indian population of perhaps 100,000 was 300 by 1535. As Europeans had lived in contact with such diseases for hundreds of years, they were largely immune.

Columbian Columbus’s journey caused the greatest addition to human knowledge ever made by one man and the largest Exchange population/crop replacement in recorded history, called the Columbian Exchange. It spread crops around the world, greatly increasing output. [An acre of potatoes, the most important food import to Europe, grows in northern climates and can support twice as many people per acre as any other crop.] Explorers to the Americas brought 100s of new species of plants and animals (wheat, sugar, horses, cows, sheep, goats), plus guns, insects, diseases, and micro-organisms and vice versa, Thus there are tomatoes in Italy, hot peppers in Thailand, potatoes and corn in Europe, oranges in Florida, tobacco in Turkey, apples in the US, rice in Louisiana, etc.

The Church became the Roman Catholic (Catholic means Universal) Church. There were deep divisions between humanism and the dogmas of the Christian churches, although not necessarily against Jesus’s values. Erasmus’s De Libero Arbitrio/On Free Will, argued that human effort cooperates in the process of sanctification. Luther responded with On the Bondage of the Will 1525 where he argued that sin incapacitates humans from working out their own salvation and preached the complete sovereignty of God. Unredeemed humans are dominated by Satan, unless overpowered by a stronger power, God. A reformation also began under Ulrich Zwingli in Switzerland. All the Christian churches taught that God created all species independently, as the Genesis 1-21 said.

1527 King Gustav Vasa of Sweden and Finland took control of the Church, all its property, and appointments, and decreed that the “pure word of God” was to be taught in all schools, effectively sanctioning Lutheranism.

Medicine had stultified. An iconoclastic doctor, Parcelus, in Basel, threw a medical text of Avicenna into a student bonfire and sparked new interest in new and better methods of cure. A printer he had cured spread Parcelus’s fame

1525- Wars between Catholics and Protestants, fed by the mutual intolerance of Luther and the Church, engulfed Europe. The 1700 Church revived its Inquisition. Distain for a central authority like the pope and numerous Protestant sects developed as different groups interpreted the Bible in their own fashion. Calvinism, a very severe sect, grew strong in nominally Catholic France. Like, the Roman Catholics, Calvinists persecuted alleged witches. 1529, Suleiman besieged Vienna.

1532 The Incas, in Cusco, ruled an empire from Quito to Santiago. Incas were the ruling family only, perhaps a dozen people. In the 1400s, the Incas had built, used, and abandoned Machu Picchu, with exquisite stonework. The Incas also sacrificed Incas humans, but far fewer than the Aztecs. Inti, the sun, had its own full time priesthood. Inca emperors, to show their divine connection with the sun, wore suits of polished metal to reflect the sun’s rays. Thunder, lightning, the moon, stars, were also worshiped. Everywhere, herds and fields were reserved for the gods. They attributed a magical significance to numerous natural features of their surroundings, a cave or a spring.

A smallpox epidemic had spread from Spaniards in 1526 and killed the Inca emperor and most of his court. The new Inca emperor, Atahuallpa, never learned of the Spanish conquest of Panama, just 600 miles north. In 1532-34, Francisco Pizarro (c1470-1542) and 168 men captured Atahuallpa, obtained vast amounts of gold as

59 ransom and then killed him. The Inca empire, focused so completely on its emperor, then largely disintegrated in three years. Incas had bronze knives. The Spanish never learned of Machu Picchu, which had been abandoned.

Under Spanish rule, in 50 years, Peru fell from c12M people to c500K, from diseases brought by the Spaniards and from being worked to death as slaves in silver mines. (The silver mine at Potosi supplied Europe most of its bullion for 300 years. By 1650, Spain had obtained 16,000 tons of silver and 180 tons of gold objects.) The Inca’s writing, called khipu / quipus, was varying length strings with varying types of knots, tied to a larger string. It has not been deciphered.

Force Political Theory: The three stages of subjugation and control of a people are Force, Fraud, and Favors. (Frederick Fraud Schuman) A country, or tribe, or group is first simply defeated militarily and the victors rule by force and fear. Favors Eventually such technique becomes impractical, too expensive, then the conquerors rule by fraud, that is, superstition, religion, appeals to patriotism, myths, the caste system, all designed to keep the people docile and productive.

Gibbon, “The Roman emperors knew and valued the advantages of religion. They managed the arts of divination.” Diodorus Siculus, The myths about Hades and the gods, though they are pure invention, help to make men virtuous. Machiavelli, “Prudent rulers pay homage to popular superstitions,” i.e., religion... “There is nothing more necessary to appear to have than [religion].” ”There never was any remarkable lawgiver who did not resort to divine authority.” Napoleon,“Religion is what keeps the common people from murdering the rich.” “A nation must have a religion, and that religion must be under the control of the government.” He felt religion was useful for keeping common people quiet. “How can you have order in a state without religion?...When one man is dying of hunger near another who is [full], he cannot [accept this] unless there is an authority which declares -God wills it.” He also proposed using missionaries as spies. Baruch Spinoza, “Immense efforts have been made to invest religion, true or false, with such pomp and ceremony that it can sustain any shock and constantly evoke the deepest reverence in all its worshipers.” (See 1677 Spinoza ) Pope Leo 8, ”To despise legitimate authority, no matter in whom it is invested; is a rebellion against God’s will.” Martin Luther, “God would prefer to suffer the government to exist no matter how evil, rather than allow the rabble to riot, no matter how justified they are in doing so.” (See 1517 and 1543 Luther). Thomas Hobbes, “Force and fraud are in war the two cardinal virtues.” (See 1651 Hobbes). Robert Burton, Anglican, “The fear of some divine power keeps men in obedience...One religion is as true as another.” Leo Tolstoy, “Patriotism... for rulers is nothing else than a tool for achieving their power-hungry...goals, for the ruled it means renouncing their dignity, reason, conscience, and slavish submission to those in power...patriotism is slavery.” Frederich Nietzsche, “Morality is the best of all devices for leading mankind by the nose.” (See 1883 Nietzsche) Jefferson, “In every country and in every age, the priest has been hostile to liberty. He is always in alliance with the despot, abetting his abuses in return for protection to his own.” Similar, Burke (1790), Marx (1848), and Nehru (1947).

Then, when too many people see through the fraud, the ruling class uses favors to buy off the middle class (the class most likely to foment revolution) with favors, emoluments, limited wealth and influence. (Compare this to Weber 1904)

1532 Realpolitik, Niccolo Machiavelli: (1469-1527), There were many Italian small states; diplomacy was practiced continuously. Machiavelli, the first modern political thinker, was a Florentine diplomat and political theorist. His book, Political The Prince / El Principe, first privately printed when he was alive and seeking to regain political office in Florence, was Theory published. The Prince, the first purely secular study of political theory in the West, was a manual for how a prudent prince should govern. It cynically described how to manipulate the masses, largely through feigning religious piety.

Machiavelli revolutionized political philosophy by shifting the base of political thought away from the moral ground of Machia- Aquinas’s theory of natural law toward a new purely secular practical realistic theory of statecraft. Machiavelli saw velli Christianity’s role in politics as a disaster that destroys the power of the state to govern. He rejected the idea that popes were superior to kings. His advice to a prince: “As love and fear can hardly exist together, if we must choose between them, it is far safer to be feared than loved. If one must be cruel, be cruel quickly, and cause great injuries, for small injuries do not keep a man from revenge...Princes should leave things of injustice and envy to the ministry and execution of others, but acts of favor and grace are to be performed by themselves... The chief foundations of all states...are good laws and good arms...A prince should therefore have no other aim or thought, nor take up any other thing for his study, but war and its organization and discipline. But above all, a prince must refrain from taking property, for men forget the death of a father more quickly than the loss of their patrimony.”

The prince must cultivate the appearance of mildness, sincerity, and religiousness, but ignore such traits when necessary. A prince should use violence, cruelty, perjury, and hypocrisy whenever political exigencies required it. Any act to gain or retain power was permissible. Religion and patriotism were simply tools to be used to stay in power. Imperialism, the expansion of the state, is the basic trait of the state. As men are stupid, deceit is easy, and the crafty man will always win. He also argued that only under conditions of relative economic equality could a republic endure. Otherwise corruption or revolution would result. The Prince was later put on the Index. In his History of Florence, he wrote that “nearly all the barbarian invasions of Italy had been at the invitation of the pontiffs.”

60 The Prince stated openly what ruling classes had practiced for millennia but had not publicly admitted, i.e., the use of religion/superstition/myth to control the governed masses. Francis Bacon, “We are much beholden to Machiavelli and others, that write what men do, not what they ought to do.”

1532 A new religion established by fiat: Henry 8 (1491-1547), king at 18, wanted an annulment from his first wife, Catherine, as she bore only a female heir, Mary. But Catherine’s nephew, the HR emperor, had imprisoned the pope, Clement 7, for a year, so he refused to anull the marriage. So, in 1532, to divorce Catherine for Anne Boleyn, he broke with the pope, like Vasa of Sweden, confiscated the Church’s vast real estate and wealth, and established Anglicanism, declaring Henry 8 himself as its head. Henry appointed Thomas Cranmer as Archbishop of Canterbury, who then declared Henry’s marriage to Catherine void. Henry had secretly married Anne Boleyn. Thomas More, the Catholic Lord Chancellor, would not accept Henry as supreme in religious matters, so he resigned. Henry had him killed.

In 1534, at Henry’s request, Parliament declared him the head of the Church of England. Henry married six times, and, while head of his Anglican Church, murdered two wives, Boleyn and Katherine Howard. Virtually all English Christian clergy simply obsequiously signed on with Henry. An indifferent king, Henry 8 epitomized the lusty, vain Renaissance man, defying the Church. Catholic Christianity was not popular in England anyway as it came with the Norman invasion. After Henry’s death, his young son ruled for six years. Then his daughter Mary, a Catholic, ruled. Mary burned over 300 Protestants, earning the name Bloody Mary. She also had Cranmer (Luther called him an ass) excommunicated and burned at the stake.

1534+ Religion: John Calvin/Jean Cauvin (1509-1564) French theologian, first a Humanist and lawyer, left the Catholic Church c1530 and converted to a new Christian faith, close to Lutheranism, but believed in Predestination. In 1536, he published Institutes of Christian Religion, the first edition of an exposition of his religious philosophy. He revised and expanded it John throughout his lifetime. The sum of human wisdom is in two parts, knowing God (only possible by studying scripture) and Calvin knowing oneself. In 1536, said, “It is hard to find one monastery in ten that is not rather a brothel than a sanctuary of chastity. W hat frugality is there in their food? They are like so many swine fattening in a sty After various problems, he was invited to Geneva in 1541 to lead reforms in the Church, and with the city council, established a theocratic government. Theological law was city law. He preached thrift, responsibility, sobriety (invite someone to have a drink, be fined three sous; be drunk, three sous; dance, be fined three sous and jailed). Like Luther, he took the Bible literally, kept only the sacraments of baptism and the Lord’s Supper (Eucharist). Despite some opposition, he ruled until his death. Calvinism, in America, the Southern Baptist Church, became more widespread than Lutheranism. Lending money for interest, usury, was a sin for Christians. Thus money lending fell to the Jews, who also were usually prohibited from owning land, serving in the military, holding office, etc. But, with the rise of Protestantism, supported by the rich middle class, who were more likely lenders than borrowers, usury was dropped as a sin, first by the Calvinists, then by other Protestant sects and then by the Catholics in 1830, so usury became charging excessive interest.

The Roman Catholic Church was derived from three sources. Its sacred history was Jewish; its theology was Greek; its government and canon law were, at least indirectly, Roman. The Reformation rejected the Roman elements, softened the Greek elements, and strengthened the Judaic elements. Protestants rejected the Church as a vehicle of revelation; truth was to be sought only in the Bible, which each man could interpret for himself. When interpretations differed, there was no central authority to decide the dispute. So numerous sects emerged.

1536 The Portuguese Inquisition, under its king, began, mainly targeted Sephardic Jews, burnt 1,175 victims by 1794.

William Tyndale, British, published an English translation of the New Testament. For this, Henry 8 had him burnt.

1536+ Universities founded in the Americas: Buenos Aires 1536. Asuncion 1537. Santo Domingo 1538. Lima 1551. Mexico City 1553. Cordoba 1573. Harvard 1636. William and Mary 1693. Yale 1701, Princeton 1746. All church affiliated.

1539- America, Eurasian diseases: Hernando de Soto, explored Florida and the American Southeast for gold. No gold. When 1541 he marched through the Southeast, he passed through Indian town sites, empty due to Eurasian diseases. Mexico may have lost 75% of its population and some Caribbean island peoples were wiped out entirely.

1539 Ignatius of Loyola 1491-1556, a soldier, then wanderer, then priest, at 47, founded the Society of Jesus, Jesuits. They believed in absolute obedience to the pope, the use of education to achieve their goals, and to do “conflict for Ignatius God.” The Council of Trent (1545-1563) told the Jesuits to establish eight universities throughout Germany and more Loyola in England, Italy, and France. Math, scripture, cosmology, rhetoric, good manners, and geography were to be taught.

By 1556, when Ignatius died, they operated 74 colleges on three continents. He said, “I will believe white is black if the Church so defines it.” Jesuits became the most powerful force in the regeneration of the Church. Nonetheless the Church was losing authority, not at first to science but to kings/princes. Science had a very small part in the Italian Renaissance. The men of the Renaissance looked to antiquity, to the ideas of the Greeks, not to science.

1542 Pope Paul 3 set up the Congregation of the Holy Office of the Inquisition to conduct and oversee local Inquisitions.

61 1543 Astronomy: The first real incursion of science to the Renaissance was Copernicus (see 1514). He took the Earth (and Man) from the center of the universe. He had, in 1514, resurrected the notion of heliocentrism, then accepted by a few scholars. He completed his De revolitionibus orbium coelestium/On the Revolutions of the Celestial Spheres, in the 1530s, and lectured on heliocentrism. Without a telescope, he correctly fixed the orbits of the planets, some closer to the Sun than Earth, and some further out. Heliocentrism of course made scientific sense. The skies could be accurately observed and measured. In 1536, Nikolas Cardinal von Schoenberg in Rome asked him to make his theories known to scientists and to send the cardinal all related information. But Copernicus was afraid to challenge the Church’s Ptolemaic teachings by publishing his book. He had it published only in 1543 when he was dying.

He dedicated his book to Pope Paul 3. A colleague, Andreas Osiander, wrote a groveling unsigned preface as if by Copernicus presenting heliocentrism only as a hypothesis. But it did not gain Paul 3's favor. Copernicus said there was a divine design in the placement of the Sun at the center of the universe (as he knew it). He wrongly thought the planets’s orbits were circular. Heliocentrism contradicted Aristotle, Ptolemy, and Catholic dogma which had embraced the Earth- centered theory and was a very traumatic concept for Christians.

Taking the Earth from the center of the universe undercut the Church’s claim of God’s focus on the Earth and was considered an assault on the Church. Possibly due to Osiander’s preface, the Vatican did not immediately react to Revolutions (but later put it on the Index, see 1559) (Paul 3 had appointed his grandsons, at 14 and 16, as cardinals.)

Citing Psalms, John Calvin and Philipp Melanchthon criticized Copernicus. Luther bloviated, “This fool wishes to reverse the entire science of astronomy, but sacred Scripture tells us that Joshua commanded the Sun to stand still, not the Earth.” Luther also denigrated Seneca’s 1st century statement that comets follow natural law, “The heathen [Seneca] writes that a comet may arise from natural causes; but God creates not one [comet] that does not foretell a sure calamity.” The serious Christian opposition to heliocentrism came with Kepler and Galileo in the seventeenth century.

Einstein in 1953 said, “Copernicus helped bring about a decisive change in man’s attitude toward the cosmos. Once it was recognized that the Earth was not the center of the world, but only one of the smaller planets, the illusions of the central significance of Man himself became untenable.”

1543 Luther was a virulent Anti-Semite. His book, On the Jews and Their Lies (1543), is filled with hatred of Jews, whom he termed “poisonous worms”. He advised to burn their homes, synagogues, prayer books and schools, to take away their homes, placing them in forced labor camps, forbid them to teach or pray, or even to utter God’s name. He said, “We Luther are at fault for not slaying them.” “Jews and papists are ungodly wretches.” Luther deepened and strengthened the on Jews Church’s anti-Semitism. Luther was cited at the Nuremburg Trials as a justification for the Holocaust. Hitler praised and Luther in Mein Kampf, quoted him in his speeches against Jews. Muslims Regarding Muslims, Luther said: “The kingdom of Mohammed is a kingdom of revenge, of wrath, and desolation.”

1543 Anatomy: Andreas Vesalius (1514-1564), Belgian, published The Fabric of the Human Body, based on his dissect-ions of corpses, a complete, accurate description of the human anatomy, with 17 woodcuts and 600 pages of text.

1545 Science: Books were written about fish and birds, plants, metals. Authors strove for accuracy. Konrad von Gesner (1516-1565), Swiss, published in 1545 Bibliotheca universalis, a catalog of 10,000 then extant titles, with 3,000 authors. His 4 volume Historia Animalium (1551-1558) described all known plants and animals of the New and Old Worlds, and was the basis of modern zoology. His De Rerum Fossilium gave rise to the new science of paleontology. Arabic numbers finally replaced Roman numerals in the 16th century, greatly simplifying math.

1545- Counter-Reformation: The Reformation/Protestant Revolt destroyed the HRE. Kings and princes claimed a divine right 1563 to govern without the blessing of the pope. The Church made some efforts to reform, but the 18 year Council of Trent/Trento (Italy), stacked with Italians and Spaniards, rejected all compromise with Protestants. It did condemn the sale of Church offices, the sale of indulgences, and bishops’s worldly, i.e., corrupt, pursuits. The number of parishes a priest could have was limited. Bishops were required to live in their dioceses. Marriage was named as a sacrament.

The Council deemed celibacy and virginity superior to marriage, ordered seminaries in every diocese. Priests had to pass an exam to be ordained. Art and architecture were to become more theatrical (baroque), to appeal to and educate the illiterate peasants in the scriptures. Attendance at Mass was made obligatory and declared the only true and proper liturgical service, exacerbating Lutheran objections. The Council ordered all music to be more holy.

1546 Science: Gerardus Mercator (1512-1594), Flemish geographer, stated that the Earth had a magnetic pole. He was the first to use the name America for the new world. [In 1568, he devised a cylindrical projection for maps.] Dominican Giovanni Tolsani denounced heliocentrism in a work defending the absolute truth of Scripture.

1553 Michael Servetus, Spanish theologian, physician, had discovered the pulmonary circulation of blood, but didn’t accept Trinitarianism. So the Inquisition condemned him. He escaped to Geneva. Calvin, the “Protestant pope,” ruler of Geneva, recommended beheading. The city council merely burned him at the stake. The spirit of persecution lived.

62 1555 Peace of Augsburg between Catholics and Lutheran princes legally accepted Lutheranism. Religious war went on.

Pierre Belon described the basic similarities in the skeletons of all vertebrates, i.e., bones in limbs, from fish to man.

Religion: Bishops in Holland 1529, Venice 1543, and Paris 1551 had lists of books they banned, but Pope Paul 4 created 1559 the Index Librorum Prohibitorum/Prohibited Writings, (“the Index”) to protect the faith and morals of Catholics by making Index it a sin to print, publish, sell, or read books on the Index. Erasmus’s works were put on the Index.

Biology: Matteo Colombo, Italian surgeon, showed the circulation of blood from the heart to lungs and back.

1560 The Goa Inquisition targeted mostly Jews and Hindus. The West stayed ignorant of the Far East and vice versa.

1563 Johann Weyer’s On the Magic of Demons criticized witch hunts, said evidence from torture was useless.

Sea trade, slavery: In the century after Columbus, world sea trade blossomed; spread the ideas of the Renaissance. Bulk trade in slaves, sugar, rum, cloth, as well as luxuries, took over the Atlantic, and spurred Europe’s economy to change from agrarian to commercial. Spain and Portugal sailed to South and Central America. Dutch, English, and French sailed to North America. Slaves were needed for the sugar and cotton plantations. Slaves in Europe were generally domestic servants, although sugar plantations in Cyprus and Crete had plantation slaves.

St. Augustine, the 1st permanent European settlement in the US, founded in 1565, had slaves. Only 5% of the African slaves brought to the New World came to the North American colonies. Almost all went to the Caribbean, Brazil, or Spanish America. In the Caribbean, slaves’s infant mortality reached 75%.

1569 Pope Pius 4 ordered all Jews out of all lands under his control. The popes subsidized the arts, not science.

1572 Catholic-Protestant Wars: King Charles 9, Catholic, age 12, acting at the urging of his mother, Catherine de Medici, ordered the massacre of Huguenots to prevent the Reformation from gaining influence in France. In Paris, c3,000 were killed. In 40 days, throughout France c50,000 were killed. Pope Gregory 12 was so pleased that he commiss- ioned a gold medal inscribed “Slaughter of the Huguenots” and paintings to celebrate the killings of the “perfidious race.” This “St. Bartholomew’s Day Massacre” was a crucial turning point in the relations between Catholics and Protestants. It caused Protestants throughout Europe to no longer view the Catholic Church as misguided but as a force of evil itself. Catholic and Protestant armies slaughtered each other, and innocent non-combatants.

1572 Astronomy: Tycho Brahe (1546-1601), Danish astronomer noticed a new star in the constellation (group of stars) of Tycho Cassiopeia. [It was a supernova, a star in a massive explosion.] Like Copernicus’s 1543 Revolutions, this contradicted Brahe the Church’s teaching of a changeless universe. In 1573, he published his findings, i.e., that the universe did change. It made him famous and, to the Church, dangerous. Catholic theologians said he erred, blamed the Devil, and said that above the moon, the heavens did not change, that an unchanging heaven reflected God’s immutable love for the world. Danish king Frederick 2 gave Hven, an island in the Danish Sound, to Brahe. Brahe constructed large instruments to accurately measure the stars. He had no telescope.

1577 Brahe noted that a comet (also seen across Europe), had passed through where Aristotle’s celestial spheres were supposed to be, i.e., beyond the moon. He thus concluded that the planets moved freely in space and not on rigid spheres. Brahe also corrected all existing astronomical records, which were inaccurate. His data provided the best proof for heliocentrism, but, ironically, he still thought the Sun circled the Earth. When a new Danish king was not supportive, Brahe concluded his life’s work in Prague with an assistant, Johannes Kepler. During 1577-1580, Francis Drake, a successful English pirate, was the second to sail around the world

1579 Matthew Hamount, British, in Norwich, denied the divinity of Jesus. So Anglicans burned him at the stake.

1580 Humanism: Michel Eyguem de Montaigne (1533-1592), mayor of Bordeaux, example of Renaissance scepticism. Wrote Essays, the first book to reveal frankly the author’s mind and heart, started a new genre of literature that has Montaigne become the most important of all in subsequent centuries, the essay. In studying himself, he studied mankind, said Man was not superior to beasts. He also said, “Men are blind to the brutalities of their homeland while seeing clearly the brutalities of other cultures. [We are fierce; they are terrorists.]...The thing I fear most is fear...My trade and my art is living... Man is certainly crazy. He could not make a mite and he makes gods by the dozen...Nothing is so firmly believed as that which is least known...See and say yourself as you really are...Men of simple understanding, little inquisitive and little instructed, make good Christians.” He ridiculed witch hunts. His writings were put on the Index.

1582 Astronomy: The Gregorian calendar replaced the Julian calendar in accordance with Copernicus’s findings.

Science Galileo Galilei: (1564-1642), leading mathematical physicist of his time, taught math at Padua under relatively 1583- secular Venetian control, not under the Church in Rome. Einstein called him “the father of modern physics-indeed of 1596 modern science altogether”. A contemporary of Francis Bacon and Descartes, he saw that what was considered

63 Galileo “science” was a kind of abstract philosophizing. For example, Aristotle had said that objects rose or fell in order to reach Galilei their “proper place,” i.e., a qualitative, not quantitative characteristic. Galileo measured their weight.

In 1583, Galileo, at 19, determined that the period of a pendulum was solely proportional to the square root of its length. A one meter pendulum takes c2 seconds. In 1586 Galileo published an essay describing his invention of the hydrostatic balance, a precise scale. In 1589, at 25, he obtained the chair of math at the University of Pisa. During this period, he studied Copernicus. He ridiculed the Scholastics students, who dressed in togas, “like little wax Aristotles.” Scholastics ran Pisa and he left.

In 1590, at 26, he published De Motu/On Motion, which demolished Aristotle’s idea of two kinds of motion, forced and natural. He showed they were the same. He postulated that a body in motion would continue in a straight line until something stopped it. (As Mo-tzu, al Haytham, Philoponus, Avicenna, Occam had said. Newton’s 1st Law of Motion).

In 1590, Galileo described experiments showing that all objects, heavy or light, fell and accelerated at a constant and identical rate [c32 feet/sec/sec]. [John Philoponus (sixth century), Giovanni Benedetti, Italian (1585), and Simon Stevinus, Flemish (1586), had all said the same. Aristotle, without a clock, had said heavy objects fell faster.] In 1592, Galileo moved to the University of Padua and described problems in raising weights and showed that projectiles followed a parabolic path. (Aristotle had said projectiles follow two straight paths.) In 1593, he invented a water pump, powered by horses. His biggest error was his theory of tides. In 1596, he invented a primitive thermometer using the expansion of air to measure temperature. It was good but not great as it did not compensate for outside air pressure. (more Galileo, 1605, 1612+, 1633, 1634 et seq.)

1586 Political Theory, The Concept of State Sovereignty: The political units in Europe were essentially dynasties of landed estates, accumulations of property by families. Nations, as we now know them, did not exist. Jean Bodin, French, Jean formulated the first systematic concept of state sovereignty in his De Republica. “Sovereignty is supreme power over... Bodin its subjects, unrestrained by laws, absolute and unqualified.” Sovereignty was the essential attribute of the state. Rulers rule by divine right. 1 Peter 2:17. They are ethically, but not legally, limited by divine law or the laws of nature. This power rests with aristocrats in an aristocracy and with the king in a monarchy. This was between Aristotle’s concept of the state as a natural growth and the social contract theory. He saw states as originating simply from one person or group conquering and ruling another, rather than Aristotle’s concept that leadership came from preeminent wisdom or virtue. The Protestant princes, in seizing the Church’s estates, sought to seize the universities.

Bodin’s view was challenged by Monarchomachs, who argued that sovereignty rested with the people, as governments resulted from a tacit contract between a ruler and the ruled to escape the anarchy of the state of nature. (Althusius 1609, a Monarchomach, Hobbes 1651, Locke 1689, and Rousseau 1754, all later adopted Bodin’s social contract idea although, as Hume later said, there was no evidence that any state was formed in this manner.)

1588 The English sank the Spanish Armada, leaving Great Britain free to colonize North America.

1589 Philosophy: Christopher Marlowe (1564-1593), dramatist, wrote The Tragical History of Dr. Faustus (make a deal with the Devil, also Goethe 1808). Also, “I count religion but a childish toy, and hold there is no sin but ignorance.”

1589- William Shakespeare (1564-1616) world’s premier dramatist, without any personal dogma, respected but not world- 1613 renowned until the1800s. He summarized human emotions in simple and profound verse, told great stories, died at 50.

Shakes- He turned a phrase, still alive and relevant: “Salad days...What a piece of work is Man...star-crossed lovers...he did her peare wrong... It’s Greek to me...talkers are no doers...quiet as a lamb...naked truth...a plague on both your houses... .what fools these mortals be...small beer...the wish is father to the thought...act more in sorrow than in anger...fool’s paradise ...played fast and loose...budge an inch...sink or swim...let me tell the world...the devil can cite scripture for his purpose...what the dickens... as cold as any stone...the lady doth protest too much...the better part of valor is discretion...God save the king... It is a wise father that knows his own child...the long and short of it...eaten me out of house and home...Uneasy lies the head that wears a crown... we few, we happy few, we band of brothers...Beware the ides of March...Et tu, Brute...the most unkindest cut of all...a motley fool...forever and a day...not a mouse stirring...brevity is the soul of wit...the play’s the thing...O! woe is me... westward ho...men are men...nothing will come of nothing...prince of darkness...every inch a king...fortune’s fool...We have seen better days...The moon is down...double, double, toil and trouble...What’s in a name?...Shall I compare thee to a summer’s day?...What’s past is prologue... lily-livered boy...have not slept one wink..brave new world...keep a good tongue in your head..white as driven snow...death by inches..charmed life.”

Pierre Charron, (1541-1603) priest, in Les Trois Verities/Three Truths, argued that God existed, that the true religion was 1594 Christianity, and the true Church was the Roman Catholic Church. In 1601, he published his most remarkable book, De Pierre la sagesse, a complete popular system of moral philosophy. Said, with sense all our knowledge starts, and into sense all Charron may be resolved. The soul, in the brain is affected by the temperament of the person; the dry temperament produces acute intelligence, the moist, memory. Man’s qualities are vanity, weakness, inconstancy, and presumption. He founded his moral system on his view of Man. He was as skeptical as his friend Montaigne but more cynical. He became the

64 representative of the most intellectual skepticism. Jesuits called Charron an atheist.

1595 First true microscopes were made, building on Ibn al Haytham’s Optics (1011-1021), now credited to three different eyeglass makers in Holland, Hans Lippershey, Sacharias Jansen, and his son Zacharias.

Medicine: The Chinese published a pharmacopeia of c1,000 plants and c1,000 animals, with 8,000 prescriptions based 1596 on them, plus discussions of various medical matters. Chinese always applied knowledge to practical ends. The Chinese had no belief of a personal omnipotent deity as the source of power behind the universe.

1598 French King Henry 4 issued the Edict of Nantes. It allowed Protestants in France to practice their religions in peace (but not attend universities). (Louis 14 stupidly revoked it in 1685).

Giordano Giordano Bruno (c1548-1600), Dominican monk, who had secretly read commentaries by Erasmus, and in 1576 had Bruno been accused of heresy for reading them, said the Earth revolved around the Sun, and that the Earth may not be the only place in the universe that harbored life. “There is in the universe neither center nor circumference.” Said the Scriptures were for moral guidance, not to teach about physical things. He was twice excommunicated, hounded to Switzerland, then France, England, Germany, then lured to Italy where the Inquisition imprisoned him for six years, without pen or paper. In 1600, the Inquisition, Roberto Cardinal Bellarmino presiding, after a 7 year trial, he refused to repent, so as ordered by Pope Clement 8, burned at the stake. His writings influenced Galileo and other scientists.

c1600 Sugar: Muslims first brought sugar to Spain from Morocco, Spain took it to the Caribbean, was the largest industry in the world. Its use was the most profound change in Man’s diet ever. Sugar plantations needed workers. The solution was slaves purchased from Africa. Sugar Interests controlled Parliament.

The spice trade: The Dutch conquered Malacca, and controlled Indonesia (nesia = islands) and the spice trade from there.

1600 Science: William Gilbert (1544-1603), Queen Elizabeth 1’s physician, published De Magnete, which said that the Earth is a magnet and suggested that the planets were held in their orbits by some kind of magnetism. It was the most comprehensive treatise ever written on magnetism. Gilbert supported Copernicus’s Heliocentric theory.

17thCent. The Century of giants: Bruno, Gilbert, Francis Bacon, Fabricus, Calderon de la Barca, Cervantes, Galileo, Kepler, Herbert, Grotius, Mersenne, Descartes, Hobbes, van Leeuwenhoek, Pascal, Huygens, Harvey, Moliere, Fabricus, Wren, Hooke, Boyle, Steno, Borelli, Giovanni Cassini, Roemer, Shakespeare, Spinoza, Halley, Newton, von

Leibniz, Locke. Overview: It was a century of intense scientific activity and progress. The Scientific Method was the major development Secularism of the 17th century, the most valuable gift to the world, and the key to progress in many kinds of knowledge, infinitely more Ruled important than any particular invention. Science became the most distinctive human activity. Even so, the number of geniuses who influenced and advanced modern society through inventions or philosophical or economic or political thinking was (and is) infinitesimal and their audience was also small, only the educated elite. The masses continued unaware, ignorant, illiterate. In the 17th century, Secularism (the doctrine that morality should be based solely on the well- being of Man in the present life, without considerations relating to God) became the dominant characteristic of European intellectual thought, although not of the masses. The center of the Western world, with new trade routes going to America, was shifting to the cities of N.W. Europe.

c1600 Francis Bacon, Sir (1561-1626), lawyer, MP at 23, Later lord chancellor, one of the principal founders of modern science, an advocate of empiricism and advocate of modern Inductive method, studied at Cambridge, then a bulwark of Aristotlean Francis scholasticism. Only Anglican clergy could teach there. Most importantly, he taught scholars how to think. Catholic science Bacon rested on Aristotelian foundations, i.e., all species and the heavens were fixed by God for all time.

Galileo and Bacon were the first to forthrightly challenge Aristotle’s thinking that had dominated science and philosophy for 2000 years. A true Renaissance man and a firm believer, Francis Bacon wrote, “I have taken all knowledge to be my province” “The true and lawful end of the sciences is that human life be enriched by new discoveries and powers.” The basis of his philosophy was practical. He wanted to keep philosophy apart from theology. A failure of his was that he was ignorant of and deprecated the use of mathematics to physical inquiries. While he thought reason could show God existed, all else in theology was known only by revelation. He said, “A little philosophy inclineth Man’s mind to atheism, but depth in philosophy bringeth men’s minds about to religion.”

In Advancement of Learning 1605, he wrote, “Knowledge grows as we observe, measure, and describe objects or natural phenomena...We are not to imagine or suppose but to discover what nature is or to be made to do... They are ill discoverers that think there is no land, when they can see nothing but sea..”

Bacon favored Induction (going from specific examples to general conclusions) over Aristotle’s Deduction, as Deduction was often based on assumptions which were logical and intuitive, but false, and not based on nature or hands-on experimentation and measurement. In Induction, the specific premises support the conclusion, but don’t ensure it. As previously noted, the better the premises, the better the conclusion. Any serious scientific advance had to attack some

65 Aristotelean theory. The phrase “Knowledge is power.” paraphrases a statement by Bacon. 1597

1603 Hieronymus Fabricus, Italian surgeon, described one-way valves in veins. The heart pumped blood thru arteries.

Literature: Miguel de Cervantes Saavedra (1547-1616) wrote Don Quixote, a novel mocking chivalric romances of the day. Quixote tilted at windmills, forever being tricked and cheated, seeking the impossible dream of justice in an earthly 1605 paradise. “There are but two families in the world, the Have-much and the Have-little.” Don Quixote is the most translated book in the world. Quixote and Sancho Panza are the best known fictional characters in literature. Poetry in the vernacular languages began to appear.

1605- Galileo described acceleration of falling bodies, 1605, lectured on a new star beyond the moon, showing change in the 1609 heavens, 1606, invented and sold “Military Compasses” a/k/a proportional compasses, an early type of slide rule. In 1609, Galileo built a ten power refracting telescope and demonstrated it for the Venetian Senate from the top of Venice’s Campanile (bell tower). It could see ships 50 miles away. (Telescope probably invented in 1608 by Hans Lippershey, Dutch, but others also claimed the invention. A refracting telescope has a strong (short focal length) concave lens near the eye and a weak (long focal length) convex lens at arm’s length, the objective lens). The telescope released the human imagination more than any other device ever. (more Galileo 1610, 1612+, 1624, 1633)

1607 Jamestown founded; 1619 slaves arrived. 2 earlier colonies on Roanoke Island, NC, disappeared in 1586 and 1590. In 1620, Pilgrims sailed for Virginia; winds blew them to Plymouth, Mass. Pilgrims shared possessions in common.

1609 Political Theory; the concept of the Nation State: Johannes Althusius, a Monarchomach, defined state sovereignty as “the highest and most general power of administering the affairs which generally concern the safety and welfare of the soul and body of members of the state.” This power could not be absolute as it was limited by the laws of God, the laws of nature, and a social contract with the people. This of course differed greatly from Bodin’s absolutism, although Hobbes (1651) used the concept of a social contract as the basis of the most imposing intellectual justification of absolute state power ever presented, absolutism.

1609 Astronomy: Johannes Kepler (1571-1630), German, once Brahe’s assistant, had, in 1604, studied another widely seen Kepler’s supernova without a telescope. In 1609, he published Astronomia Nova /The New Astronomy, with a description of a new Laws supernova and introduced elliptical astronomy, and the first two of the still-valid three laws of planetary motion that explained the epicenters and eccentric orbits of planets. He put Copernicus’s general theory into precise mathematical formula. Before Kepler, the Copernican heliocentric theory had very few adherents. Kepler said, “God is praised through my work.” He published, On the Motions of the Planet Mars. His three laws of planetary motion are:

1. Planets revolve around the sun in elliptical orbits; (not circular but close to circular).

2. A radius vector joining a planet circling the sun sweeps out equal areas in equal times. (It goes faster when it’s closer to the sun). (This was not generally accepted until Newton’s Principia, 1687)

3. The further away from the sun, the longer a planet’s orbit around the sun. Specifically, the average distance to the sun cubed is proportional to the orbit time squared. This third law was published in 1618 and put on the Index.

Anticipating gravity, Kepler held that some force of mutual attraction held the moon in orbit around the Earth. The Protestant Consistory in Stuttgart told Kepler “not to throw Christ’s kingdom into confusion with your silly fancies.”

Kepler’s laws enabled persons to calculate the exact distance to the Sun of every planet. He was the first to say that planets’s orbits depended on physical mathematical forces, not divine will. Thus he joined physics and astronomy for the first time. Pluto (now termed a dwarf planet as it’s only .002 the size of Earth), and the farthest out, has an orbit of 247.92 years, Neptune 164.8 yrs, Uranus 54.02 years, Saturn 29.4 yrs, Jupiter 11.86 years, Mars 1.88 yrs, Earth one year/365.25 days, Venus 224 days, Mercury 88 days. Our Sun, as stars go, is not particularly large, but is 1.3 million times larger than the Earth and comprises 99% of our solar system.

1609 By 1609, the HRE was two hostile camps, the Protestant Union and the Catholic League. Bloody warfare continued.

1610- Galileo constructed a 30 power celestial telescope and saw the moon had mountains and valleys. He measured the 1611 heights of the moon’s mountains by the shadows they cast. Saw four moons around Jupiter. He saw Venus went through the phases of the moon, which proved that Venus orbits the Sun; he detailed stars previously too faint to see, far more than previously thought of, confirming Democritus’s and ibn-Biruni’s star speculations. He thus turned the telescope into an instrument of research. He returned to the University of Pisa.

He wrote and published his findings re the Moon, Jupiter, and the stars in Sidereus Nuncius /Starry Messenger with a map of the Moon that exists to this day (in the Vatican). It astonished the world. He showed his telescope to the Jesuits at the Jesuit Collegio Romano and was warmly welcomed. His observations were confirmed by astronomers in England, France, and by the Collegio Romano observatory of Christopher Clavius. While in Rome, he was made a

66 member of the Academia dei Linci./ Lincean Academy at a Collegio Romano banquet held for that purpose.

In a debate, he defended the Archimedean principle that bodies heavier than the water they displaced, sank, while bodies lighter floated, as against the Aristotelean (and Church) view that objects floated as they could not overcome the resistance of the water. Cardinal Barberini, later Pope Urban 8, supported him in this debate.

1611 Religion: King James published the Bible in English (i.e.,The King James Bible, cited herein), to unite Anglicans, using most of Tyndale and Wycliffe’s versions. James asserted the divine right of kings, citing 1 Peter 2:17 and Romans 13:17.

1612 Galileo privately circulated his Sunspots Letters which described that sunspots rotated, so concluded that the Sun itself rotated. [The Sun rotates once every 25 days.] Sunspots Letters also laid out Galileo’s view of the principle of inertia (pre-dating Newton’s first law of motion, 1687). Other European astronomers also saw sunspots. Galileo published Discourse on Floating Bodies, used principles of Archimedes to develop elementary hydrostatics.

1613 In 1613, the Lincean Academy published Galileo’s Sunspots Letters. Catholic clergy resisted. Monsignor Elci, head of the University of Pisa, forbad the astronomer Castelli, a student of Galileo’s, to mention sunspots to his students. Mention of sunspots was banned at Catholic universities across Europe, in Spain even until the 19th century. Galileo wrote a letter to Castelli describing heliocentrism, that the planets including the Earth, itself revolving, revolved around the Sun (geokinetic motion, earth-centered is called geocentric). Copies were circulated. One copy reached the Vatican.

1614 Opposition to Galileo: In December 1614, Dominican Friar Tommaso Caccini in Florence denounced heliocentrism and Galileo personally and even mathematics itself. “Geometry is of the Devil... Mathematicians should be banished as authors of all heresies.” Friar Niccolo Lorini told the Inquisition that Galileo was a heretic. In 1615, the Inquisition in Rome began to investigate Galileo. Monk Paolo Foscarini sought to reconcile Scripture with Copernicus.

1616 A committee of consultants told the Inquisition that heliocentrism was absurd in philosophy (science) and heretical. Pope Leo 10 saw it as an attack on the Church. The Sacred Congregation of the Index suspended Copernicus’s Revolutions until it could be corrected, as heliocentrism was false as it was opposed to Holy Scripture. The decree also prohibited any work that said the Earth moved. Roberto Cardinal Bellarmino, chief Catholic theologian, insisted physical reality was explained not by math but by the Scriptures and the Vatican. “To admit otherwise would discredit the Church’s deepest beliefs.” He was correct there. Bellarmino told Galileo not to hold or defend the Copernican theory.

1616 Bellarmino could have used Augustine’s method of interpreting the Scriptures not literally, go below the “surface” plain meaning (i.e, “What this passage really means is...”) to avoid conflicts between science and dogma, as modern Christian theologians routinely do, and, in fact, as Galileo himself suggested. Galileo was called an atheist. In 1616, Galileo published his theory that tides are caused by the uneven rotation of the Earth, his one major scientific error.

Bellarmino was a political theorist as well. He criticized Plato’s Republic, said that such form of aristocracy may work for a city state, but was not suitable for a nation. (He gave away all his goods, died a pauper in 1621, sainted in 1930.)

1619 Lucilio Vanini, Italian priest, wrote Dialogues Concerning Nature. Inquisition cut out his tongue, strangled, burnt him.

1620 Francis Bacon: (also 1600) In Novum Organum (a takeoff of Aristotle’s Organum), Bacon introduced a new system of logic. To find the essence of heat, 1. list all situations where heat is found. 2. list similar situations except no heat. 3. list situations where heat varies. The cause of heat is that common to all in list 1, lacking in list 2, and varies in list 3. This was Francis critical in developing the Scientific Method. Novum Organum is one of the greatest exhibitions of human genius in the Bacon history of human thought. It showed the modern world the way out of the scholastic method and reverence for dogma into the experimental method and reverence for fact. It denounced those who have “endeavored to found a natural philosophy on the books of Genesis and Job.” But said the end of science is the glory of the Creator.

In Novum Organum, Bacon said that mankind’s thinking was led astray by idolatry of five kinds: 1. Idols of the tribe, common to all people, i.e., the tendency to oversimplify, expecting more order in nature. 2. Idols of the cave, are errors caused by individual idiosyncrasies, prejudices, characteristics. 3. Idols of the marketplace caused by loose language, of the tyranny of words, and escaping their influence. 4. Idols of the theater, philosophical or religious systems that hindered the patient search for truth. 5. Idols of the schools, thinking some blind rule, like syllogism, can replace observation, judgment in investigation.

Bacon: “Nothing is terrible except fear itself.” In Essays (1625), “If a man will begin with certainties, he shall end in doubts; but if he will be content to begin with doubts he shall end in certainties...No pleasure compares to standing upon the vantage-ground of truth..Be so true to thyself, as thou be not false to others.” “Riches are for spending.” He identified the issue of selective perception, where man accepts results that agree with him and ignore those that don’t

1624 Galileo returned to Rome as he felt he had better proof of heliocentrism. The new pope, Urban 8, who in 1611 had defended Galileo’s anti-Aristotle arguments re floating bodies, told him to discuss heliocentrism only hypothetically until

67 he had definite proof. Galileo returned to Florence to put his proof in a book. Galileo was the first modern man to understand that math can truly describe the physical world. Said, “The Book of Nature is written in mathematics.” He and Francis Bacon resurrected Pythagoras’s vision of math not for its own sake but to clarify the nature of physical relationships. The Church was in the midst of its assault by Protestants, vying for its place as the interpreter of the Bible.

1624 Religion, deism: Edward Herbert (1583-1648), diplomat, metaphysical poet, historian, and philosopher, the Father of deism, advanced an anti-empirical theory of knowledge. Said the common articles of all religions apprehended by instinct, include the existence of God, duty of worship and repentance, future rewards and punishment. Herbert published On Truth which said “Instructed reason” is the surest guide to truth. To Herbert, the common beliefs of religions inferred a Deism God, but they did not infer anything beyond that. He then posited a religious philosophy consistent with what he saw.

Deism is belief in natural religion based on human reason rather than revelation; emphasizing morality but denying God interferes in the natural laws of the universe). An impersonal God created the universe but thereafter let it run according to its natural laws. Deism was thus not Christianity or any organized religion, merely a religious philosophy as it posited a divine creator. Organized clergy were simply human creations. It had no churches or priests or dogma. Jefferson, Washington, Hobbes, Locke, Paine, Voltaire, Franklin, John Adams, Madison, Pope, Rousseau, Adam Smith, Robespierre, Hugo, Ethan Allen, Twain and most of the philosophes of 18th century Enlightenment were deists.

1624 King James ordered the Jesuits out of England. Jan Helmont, Flemish, said air was not the only kind of gas.

1625 Political Theory, State Sovereignty: Huig de Groot/Hugo Grotius, Dutch, (1583-1645), the “Father of International Law,” defined sovereignty as “that power whose acts are not subject to the control of another.” State sovereignty was not absolute but subject to divine law, the law of nature, by international law, and by agreements between the rulers and the ruled. Grotius said that a nation was sovereign when it was free from control by another state. His great treatise, De Jure Belli ac Pacis / Concerning the Law of War and Peace (1625) was written in prison, from which he escaped in a trunk supposedly full of books, with the aid of his clever wife. He was revolted by the atrocities he saw being carried out in the then ongoing wars of religion of which “barbarous nations would be ashamed.” He compiled the rules he felt nations ought to follow. He combined custom and reason. He made the case for natural law in international relations.

1628 William Drummond, Scot: “He who will not reason is a bigot; he who cannot is a fool; he who dares not is a slave.“ William Harvey, British doctor, blood is pumped from the heart thru arteries and returns through veins to the heart.

1631 Jesuit Frederick Spee’s Cautio Criminalis condemned the cruelty and injustice of witch hunts.

1632 Augustine’s allegorical City of Man and City of God had become (as per Aquinas) Earth and the heavens, and to question this immutability was unacceptable. The heavens were the promise of God to the faithful. Galileo published Dialogo del due massimi sistemi del mundo / Dialogue on the Two Chief Systems of the World, The Ptolemaic and the Copernican, wherein an anti-Copernican simpleton quoted certain of Urban’s words from a private conversation he had had with Galileo. Pope Urban 8 took offense. In fact, Galileo’s proof was based on his incorrect theory of tides; so he had no real proof. But the merits of Galileo’s proof were irrelevant. He was charged simply with teaching heliocentrism.

1633 The Roman Inquisition, ten Dominican cardinals, convicted Galileo for “vehement suspicion of heresy,” not heresy, teaching heliocentrism contrary to a most certainly forged and unsigned document prohibiting him (and only him) from Galileo teaching heliocentrism “any way whatsoever,” even by way of discussion or speculation. The Church decreed that Trial scientific hypotheses could not contradict the Scriptures in any way. Repeatedly threatened with torture on orders from Pope Urban 8, Galileo recanted his belief in heliocentrism. He was 70. The Church forbade him from further scientific work, put his book on the Index, sentenced him for life to house arrest, and prohibited him from speaking about heliocentrism to anyone. The Church widely distributed his recantation. The Church won the battle; it silenced Galileo, but of course it lost the war. Science inexorably advanced. (Like Copernicus, Galileo still thought planets’s orbits were circular, contra Kepler’s ellipses.) Galileo returned to his house in Florence, but did not give up his studies. There he measured the force of gravity. In 1638, he tried to measure the speed of light but his instruments were not accurate enough. In 1638, he went blind. In his last years, he worked, unsuccessfully, on applying the pendulum to a clock. (Huygens succeeded in 1657.)

The conflict between Galileo and the Church was about the role of science itself in the world. Basically, Galileo’s whole being was an affront to the Church. Galileo intended to replace the Church’s authority with reason/science. Galileo risked his freedom for science itself, and the theory of another man, Copernicus. Galileo said that what he could prove by experiment and math was true. Said, “I do not feel obligated to believe that the same God who has endowed us with sense, reason, and intellect has intended us to forego their use.” Galileo caused an intellectual revolution by proposing that physicists should discard Aristotelian essences and that the only way to find out what was happening was to observe, experiment, and measure, empiricism. In experiment, to look for the nearest cause for a phenomenon (Occam’s razor), and realize that the universe could be reliably observed and should be reduced, if possible, to mathematics.

68 Theology: The Bible and the Koran (and the Book of Mormon) have messages of both mercy and intolerance, and statements about the world scientifically absurd. (Much modern Christian theology tries to explain how the absurdities in the Bible, (purportedly inspired by God) don’t mean what they plainly say. Some persons simply believe the Bible’s words as literal truth, biblical inerrancy. (Muslim, Jewish, and Mormon scholars have a similar difficulties with their scriptures.)

The Church’s treatment of Bruno, Vanini, and Galileo largely stopped scientific inquiry in Catholic Europe. So, the center of intellectual inquiry shifted to Protestant Northern Europe. Descartes (1637) stopped publishing in Catholic France. Galileo finished his scientifically most important book Discourse on Two New Sciences, a book on physics, but could not get it published in Italy. In 1638, it was published in Leiden in the Netherlands. The Church’s rigid adherence to Ptolemy (Earth centered universe) and hostility to science in general caused educated people to see scientific investigations as different from, and perhaps more valid than, religious beliefs.

c1633+ Science: Marin Mersenne (1588-1648), a French Minorite friar, mathematician, scientist, most importantly corresponded with all the leading thinkers of the day, spreading their ideas to each other. In 1634, he published Questions, and advanced the development of the Scientific Method that had been forbidden to Italians. His formula: 1. Reject all previous authority 2. Base all results on direct observations (empiricism), and 3. Ground all understanding of natural phenomena in mathematics (Descartes, Galileo, Bacon).

While Europe was in a time of rapid crisis, many Protestant sects, murderous religious wars, humanism spreading, the Muslim, Chinese, Japanese, and Hindu civilizations were scarcely affected. They stagnated in relative isolation.

c1637 Philosophy: Rene Descartes (1596-1650), with a Jesuit education, was the father of and major figure of modern continental rationalism, later advocated by Spinoza and von Leibniz, and opposed by the empiricist school of Hobbes, Rene Locke, Berkeley, and Hume. Both rationalism and empiricism contradicted Christian dogma. Descartes was the founder Descartes of modern philosophy and the most important philosopher since Aristotle. He brought together all the leading ideas of the 17th century. Deeply Catholic, he did more to undermine the Church’s authority than any other person, simply because he created a scientific methodology (discarding Medieval divine revelation) that revolutionized how mankind thought.

More than any man, he marked the intellectual transition from the Middle Ages to the modern world. He invented a method for effectively dealing with the material world.His basic idea was that all truth must be capable of proof; not just handed down from authorities. In 1637, after many years of study and travel, Descartes planned to write a book organizing all current knowledge into one great structure, a Treatise of the World. But, seeing Bruno, Vanini, and Galileo’s punishments, simply wrote Discourse on Method, an astonishing book wherein he first came to doubt everything doubtable, that is, everything but his own existence, therefore he existed. (“Je pense, donc Je suis.” “I think, therefore I exist.”) In order to think, it is necessary to exist. He wanted to make a clean sweep of all the comfortable old assumptions from his existence, to take nobody’s word for anything, to find something he could be sure of. Descartes classified ideas as: 1. Innate ideas, originate from within, such as the idea of self, 2. Adventitious ideas that come through the senses, and 3. Factitious ideas that are made up from the elements of ideas of other things.

The second principle he deduced was that as the mind cannot be doubted, but the body and the material world can be, they must be different, Cartesian dualism. (Anaxagoras had separated mind from matter c450 BC.) As the physical world was different from the mind, it could be studied by reason and mathematics. This was devastating to traditional religious views. From there, all that he had doubted into non-existence, minus all the useless lumber of ancient and Medieval learning, he demonstrated back into existence.

In Discourse on Method, he said that the body works like a machine and follows the laws of physics, whereas the mind (or soul) is immaterial and follows its own set of rules. His method to find truth: Discourse 1. Only accept a proposition that is distinct and based on clear and convincing evidence. on 2. Divide each of the difficulties into as many parts as possible and as may be required to resolve them better. Method 3. Direct your thoughts in an orderly manner, starting with the simplest and most easily known parts. 4. Record all steps completely and clearly.

In using this method, do the following; reduce the problem to mathematical forms; Use the fewest number of axioms (self- evident propositions) to shape it, use analytic geometry (which Descartes invented for the purpose), further reduce the description of the problem to a set of numbers; use algebra, solve the equation. This method was less empirical than Bacon’s. Descartes showed the basic weakness of the Argument from Religious Experience (I saw/felt/spoke-to God) one of the oldest arguments for a supernatural being) when he showed the uncertainty/unreliability of most everyday perceptions. Hobbes and A. J. Ayer also both later questioned the Religious Experience Argument for its unreliability.

Descartes invented the graph, which turns pairs of numbers represented by X and Y into meaningful shapes, (called coordinate geometry or Cartesian geometry.) This changed geometrical problems into algebraic problems and unified algebra and geometry, the first big step toward today’s integrated structure of mathematics. This was his most

69 important discovery. It allowed both geometry and algebra to address the same problems.

Descartes also said that a body will always move in one direction at the same speed, an iteration of the law of inertia, which Newton made his first law of motion. He also deduced that secondary rainbows resulted from two internal reflections in raindrops. He wrongly thought light traveled through ether, which filled space. (more Descartes 1644, 1664)

1638 Tokogawa Shogunate severed ties with the W est, isolated themselves off from all the benefits of the scientific revolution (for 200 years). Japanese abroad were not allowed to return. Japan’s foreign trade went down 99%.

1644 Descartes’s theology, however, was Middle Ages. He published The Principles of Philosophy (207 of them), his replacement for Aristotle. It repeated “I think, therefore I exist.” in Latin, “Cogito, ergo sum.” Much of The Principles of Philosophy was an explanation of his Ontological Argument for God, built on Anselm (1078). Descartes wrote, “God’s existence is inferred from the fact that necessary existence is contained in the clear and distinct idea of a supremely perfect being,” i.e., God’s existence is self-evident. “As we are finite, the idea of an infinite being must have come from such infinite being.” Descartes’s infinite being was not the God of the Bible. His God was derived from reason, not faith. But, “Divine authority takes precedence over all our perceptions.” “That our will is free is self evident.” He also said, “The greatest minds are capable of the greatest vices as well as the greatest virtues.” Also, “It is not enough to have a good mind. The main thing is to use it well.” Also, “As we cannot think of any limit to space, it must be infinite.” (ref. Democritus, al Haytham, Bruno, Galileo)

The world of the immaterial, i.e., theology, which had been the focus of scholarship for centuries, ceased to interest Renaissance thinkers. Before Descartes, theology was the predominant course of study, mathematical physics a minor science. After Descartes, it was reversed. This was one of the most radical changes in the history of thought. Universities established chairs in science. (more Descartes 1664)

John Milton, Brit. poet, wrote Aeropagitica: “Let Truth and Falsehood grapple in a free and open endeavor.”

1646 The Levellers, Brits. led by John Lilburne, argued for universal suffrage, equal electoral districts, biennial parliaments.

The Treaties of Westphalia (Muenster and Osnabrueck) ended the 30 Years War (1618-1648) between Catholics and Protestants, the bloodiest war before the 19th Century. It left much of Europe depopulated, destitute, and in ruin, traversed 1648 by pitiable bands of refugees. The Treaties codified/ratified the political realities, Switzerland and Holland became independent; 300 separate principalities, free cities and bishoprics; princes each chose their land’s religion. The treaties effectively ended the pope’s pan-Europe political power. So Pope Innocent 10 attacked it as null, void, invalid, etc. Cossacks slaughtered thousands of Jews.

1649 Politics: The Western state system rests on state sovereignty, international law, and the politics of the balance of power, i.e., if any one state becomes so powerful it endangers all other states, the other states will join to stop it.

1649 Oliver Cromwell (1599-1658), Prime Minister, admirer of Machiavelli, led a civil war, begun in 1642 against Charles 1. Cromwell made his famous plea to the Assembly of the Church of Scotland in an effort to change their allegiance to Charles, “I beseech you, in the bowels of Christ, think it possible you may be mistaken.” In 1649, Parliament declared, “the People are, under God, the original of all just power...Commons (themselves) have supreme power.” Charles 1 was beheaded. Parliament became the supreme power under Cromwell, the first true government of laws. The monarch’s power was reduced forever. Parliament (white, male, propertied, hugely unrepresentative, corrupt; 3% of British males could vote) now ruled. As head of the army, Cromwell brutally massacred tens of thousands of Irish men, women, and children. He introduced an extreme theocratic state, which, when he died in 1658, led to a restoration of the monarchy.

1650 Theology: Bishop James Ussher of Armagh, Anglican Primate of All Ireland, Privy Councillor, calculated that God created the Earth on October 22, 4004 BC and that Adam and Eve were driven from paradise 18 days later. This was consistent James with then current Christian thinking but no one had previously made such a precise calculation. Ussher Despite the fact that Anglican dogma was copied almost entirely from Catholic dogma, he had written in 1626 that “The religion of the papists (Catholics) is superstitious and idolatrous; their faith and doctrine erroneous and heretical;... to give them a toleration or to consent that they may freely exercise their religion is a grievous sin.”

1650- Overview: The failure of Europeans to agree upon the truths of religion, within as well as across state boundaries, 1789 furthered secularism and modern science. In states where the Reformation (the Bible rules) came closer to success, i.e., where lay and church forces joined to impose an almost religious conformity, it caused intellectual stagnation. Religion became more private. A merchant class grew. The collision and interaction between the Renaissance and the Reformation raised the intellectual and moral energies of Europe to a new height. No later time has been so revolutionary. The common languages, French, Spanish, Portugese, and German were used more. In France, nobles were only lightly taxed.

States turned to frontier and colonial expansion. Spain imported gold and silver. Furs from Siberia and Canada, gold and diamonds from Brazil (from 1695) were the most important imports. Europeans transformed the Caribbean into sugar

70 plantations based on slavery. Exploration abated; trade expanded. Thousands of Spanish and Portugese missionaries turned S. and Central America into Catholic countries. Islam spread across Central and Southeast Asia.

1651 Political Theory, The Social Contract: Thomas Hobbes (1588-1679) wrote Leviathan, a defense of absolute monarchy. The basis for his philosophy was a materialistic view of Man. He disputed Descartes’s separation of mind from matter. The two basic “passions” of Man were appetite and aversion. Happiness is getting as many of the good things one desires and power is the means of getting such objects. Thus, power is a basic characteristic of Man, which leads to aggression against others. In the state of nature there is no right or wrong, there is only self defense.

Thomas He wrote, [In a state of nature], ”no arts; no letters; no society; and which is worst of all, continual fear and danger of Hobbes violent death; and the life of Man, solitary, poore, nasty, brutish, and short.” So men enter into a social contract to establish a state to keep peace and order. (This notwithstanding that civilizations arose as communities of obedience, a fact later pointed out by Hume.) Because men are selfish by nature, a powerful absolute ruler, the Leviathan, is necessary. Leviathan changed the subject of political thought from theology to anthropology, specifically the anthropology of religious passions. He asked how and why do people believe God speaks to them. To understand that may lead to why religious convictions lead to political conflict/violence. Hobbes offended the theologians. Said also, “The Papacy is not other than the deceased ghost of the Roman Empire, sitting crowned on the grave thereof.” Hobbes felt democracy was dangerous. “A democracy is no more than an aristocracy of orators. The people are so easily moved by demagogues that control must be exercised by the government over speech and press.”

Hobbes’s philosophy was the most complete materialistic philosophy of the 17th century. He explained everything on mechanical principles. “All knowledge comes by way of the senses, and the objects of knowledge are material bodies obeying physical forces.” Religious doctrines were “insignificant sound.” Man is a group of material particles in motion. He so angered the Church that he was temporarily exiled to France. He also offended the rationalists by claiming that men, far from being capable of the highest intellectual achievements, were dangerous and aggressive creatures. Like Aristotle, Hobbes said science is the knowledge of consequences and dependence of one fact upon

1654 Science: Blaise Pascal (1623-1662) proved that air was not weightless, and that air pressure decreased with altitude; we live at the bottom of a sea of air. Also that a vacuum exists at the top of a barometer. Descartes disagreed, but Pascal was right. With Pierre de Fermat, he invented the mathematical theory of probability. Anticipating Popper’s 1920 falsifiability concept, he said that to show a hypothesis is evident, it is not enough that all phenomena follow from it; instead, if it leads to something contrary to a single one of the phenomena, that is enough to show its falsity.

Theology: After an epiphany in 1654, Pascal devoted his life to Christ. He wanted to keep science and religion united, “He who cannot believe is cursed, for he reveals by his unbelief that God has not chosen to give him grace.” There are two essential religious truths: there is a God, & there is a corruption of nature which makes men unworthy of him.(more 1670)

1656 Science: Christiaan Huygens (1629-1697), Dutch, made the first practical pendulum clock, patented 1657. It was spring- driven. So accurate that clocks could have minute hands. He made the first balance spring clock. (Hooke developed a balance spring watch at about the same time.) Huygens studied centrifugal and centripetal force and generalized the concept of the center of gravity in strict mathematical terms. Looking through a refracting telescope he built, Huygens discovered that Mars rotated (every 24.67 hours) and that Saturn had rings. Huygens and Galileo showed that force could act at a distance (magnetism, gravity) and need not be directly applied. (more Huygens 1690)

1657 Catholic fear of science continued: The Academy of Science was founded in Florence under the presidency of Prince Leopold de Medici. Its only fundamental law was “the repudiation of any favorite system or sect of philosophy, and the obligation to investigate Nature by the pure light of experiment.” This was hitting the Church in the head with a 2 by 4. The Vatican declared it irreligious and Pope Alexander 7 bribed Leopold to Rome by making him a cardinal. W ithout him, his Academy of Science faded and died in ten years. Around this time, ancient theories of the mystical power of numbers, 3 and 7 especially, became part of Christian tradition, slowing scientific thought. Theologic and metaphysical substitutes for scientific thought like the notion that the perfect line is a circle, so planets must travel in circles, led astronomy astray even after Kepler.

c1660 By 1660, the microscope was teaching scientists as the telescope did. Scientific academies were established, a most important development. The English Royal Society 1660, Academie des Sciences, Paris 1666. Their meetings and journals spread previously isolated scientific knowledge, breaking the monopoly of the universities, all under clerical control. Most of the members of the Royal Society were moderate Puritans and friendly to science. Its charter said their study of science was to glorify God. The center of activity in most spheres was moving northwest from Rome.

1661 Biology: Marcello Malpighi, Italian doctor, discovered blood capillaries with the newly invented microscope, closing the circle of blood circulation William Harvey had described. He wrongly thought humans pre-formed in the mother’s egg.

Chemistry: Robert Boyle (1627-1691), Irish, a leader of the Empirical school of natural science, established a lab at Robert Oxford to study chemistry. He rejected Aristotle’s view that logical argument was sufficient to prove a case. Boyle

71 Boyle published The Sceptical Chymist. It critiqued parts of alchemy (the attempt to turn base metals into gold) he thought ill- founded, although he experimented extensively in alchemy. Sceptical Chymist established chemistry as an experimental and rational science. Boyle described elements and compounds. He said there may be more than four elements, perhaps more than five. Chymist refuted Aristotle’s ideas on the chemical composition of matter. Boyle introduced the modern concepts of elements, alkali, and acid. Boyle also discovered that air was necessary for the propagation of sound. Theologians at Oxford (now Anglican) said his researches were destroying religion. In 1664, Boyle wrote that the study of nature is to the greater glory of God. (more Boyle 1666)

Descartes’s Treatise on Man and the Formation of the Fetus, printed in 1664, after he died, described animals as purely 1664 mechanical beings; there was no “vital force” that made animals different from other material objects. Louis 14 prevented his burial in France, afraid of his ideas. His Le Monde, also printed in 1664, affirmed Copernican theory. (He had written but abandoned the book in 1633 after learning of Galileo’s problems with the Church.) The Church did not want a rationally argued acceptance of religious belief (It simply wanted faith) and so put aside Descartes’s devotion and in 1663, put his books on the Index. Catholic universities condemned his books. Protestants as well criticized his books. The modern concept of the subject (versus object) is based on his philosophy. To avoid Louis 14, Descartes lived in Holland.

1663 James Gregory designed a reflecting telescope; corrected spherical & chromatic aberration of refracting telescopes.

1661- Physics: Isaac Newton (1642-1727), natural philosopher (scientist) and mathematician, the pre-eminent scientific genius 1675 of all time. In 1661, he entered Trinity College, Cambridge. There he invented differential calculus to deal with bodies in motion. Algebra and geometry deal only with static objects. Calculus is the mathematics of instantaneous rates of change, Isaac and it has two main branches. Differential calculus permits the calculation of these rates, such as finding tangents to Newton curves: given the rate of change of some quantity, it derives the quantity itself, while Integral calculus does the converse. (Von Leibniz (see 1710) independently and virtually at the same also developed calculus.) The plague closed Cambridge for 18 months after Newton’s his 1665 graduation, during which time he lived on his family farm. While there, alone, in 1665, he used fluxions /calculus to find the tangent and the radius of curvature at any point on a curve. He devised instruments to grind lenses with non-spherical curves. He conducted optical experiments with a prism and deduced that white light is made up of a spectrum of colored lights.

On the farm, he formulated his theories of gravity (with an inverse square force, i.e., it decreases as the square of the distance between objects) and planetary motion. He concluded that the force that caused an apple to fall was the same force that made the moon to “fall” towards the Earth and the Earth to stay in orbit around the Sun, gravity, thus unifying terrestrial and celestial mechanics. Newton did not understand why gravity acts (No one yet knows), only how. (Descartes had hypothesized that “vortices” caused gravity, as he did not believe that a force could act through empty space.) Newton would not hypothesize. In 1666, he introduced his works on calculus.

1664 Jean-Baptiste Polequin/ Moliere (1622-1673), great master of comedy in Western literature. Le Tartouffe/The Hypocrite 1664, skewered religious hypocrites; Le Misanthrope (1666) ridiculed social mannerisms; Le Bourgeois Gentilhomme (1670) ridiculed social climbers and many others. Nobles and the Church took offense and attacked him.

1666 Boyle (also 1661) published The Origin of Forms and Qualities, with his view that everything is built of atoms, his Laws of mechanical view of nature. Origin of Forms also explained gasses’s volume-pressure-temperature relationship, i.e., Gasses Boyle’s Law: At fixed temperature, for a fixed mass of gas, its volume times pressure is a constant. [P = absolute Boyle pressure, V = volume. The formula is PV = k (a constant)] i.e., double the pressure, halve the volume, etc. Richard Towneley and Henry Power suggested it to Boyle. He published it. (Charles 1787 & Guy-Lussac 1802 added to it.)

1668 John Wallis, Brit, suggested the law of conservation of momentum, later became Newton’s 3rd law of motion.

1669 In 1666, Newton measured the Moon’s orbit. He calculated the Moon’s period at 27.25 days. (Almost perfect). By 1669, Newton had worked out the details of his 1665 discovery that white light was made up of different colored lights. His first lectures at Cambridge (1669-1671) were on optics. He did not repeat any lectures but manuscripts were made. In 1675, Newton said that light was a stream of tiny particles/corpuscles. (more Newton 1672, 1683+)

c1670 Physics: Robert Hooke (1635-1703) Brit, assistant to Boyle, then in 1662 Curator of Experiments for the Royal Society; in 1666 he told the Society that all heavenly bodies mutually attract each other, and the closer the greater the attraction, but he did not know the degree of attraction.) Also that such bodies move in a straight line unless deflected. In 1670, he wrote Micrographia which explained combustion (something combining with oxygen). He proved experimentally that the center of gravity of the Earth and Moon is the point describing an ellipse around the Sun. He inferred that Jupiter rotated, invented a balance spring in a watch, regulated by a tiny pendulum (before Huygens). In 1672, he discovered that light diffracts/bends at the edges of objects. In 1678, he constructed a thirty power compound microscope and expounded the correct theory of elasticity.

1670 Pascal (see 1654), in Pensees /Thoughts , published 8 years after he died, proposed a cynical wager for the existence of God: “Belief is a wise wager. Granted that faith cannot be proved, what harm will come to you if you gamble on its truth

72 and it proves false?...If you win, you gain all; if you lose, you lose nothing. Wager, then without hesitation, that He exists.” Pascal’s argument fails as: 1. it gives equal validity to any religion, cult, or any god, and 2. one can’t choose to believe Bet God something one sincerely doubts. Diderot, a philosophe, a century later said, “An imam could reason the same way.” His exists strategy in Pensees was to use the contradictory philosophies of skepticism (Montaigne), and stoicism (Epicetus) to so confuse an unbeliever that he would embrace God; a bold and questionable strategy.

Pensees: “Saying God exists means adopting a entire way of life...Reason is inadequate to satisfy Man...Reason commands us far more imperiously than a master; for in disobeying a master, we are unfortunate, and in disobeying reason, we are fools. The supreme function of reason is to show man that some things are beyond reason. Man is but a reed, the most weak in nature, but he is a thinking reed...Thought makes the whole dignity of Man; therefore seek to think well; that is the only morality...Men never do evil so completely and cheerfully as when they do it from religious conviction...“If we violate the principles of reason, our religion will be absurd and ridiculous. Faith is different from proof; proof is human; faith is a gift from God...Atheism shows strength of mind, but only to a certain degree.”

1671 Geology: Nicolas Steno (1638-1686), Dane, a founder of modern geology, wrote Dissertation Concerning Solids Within Solids. Posited that fossils were once living organisms that were left in softer materials which hardened. He developed the principle of Superposition of geologic strata, i.e., younger strata are above older.

1672 Astronomy: Jean Richer and Giovanni Cassini, director of the Paris Observatory, calculated the distance to Mars, then by triangulation between Paris and Cayenne, S. America, to the Sun at c86,800,000 miles, low by only 7%. Distance of the Earth to Sun of c93 M miles is known as an Astronomical Unit (“AU”). The Earth circles the Sun at c67,000 mph.

1674 Biology: Antoni van Leeuwenhoek, Dutch, an unlettered but well self-educated linen draper, built a 275 power microscope, the construction of which he kept secret. His secret was the magnifying power of a droplet of molten glass. He discovered micro-organisms. Over 50 years he sent the Royal Society (He was made a member) and other scientific bodies over 500 reports with exquisite drawings of almost everything that could be examined by microscope. He saw and described blood cells, spermatozoa, and single-celled organisms like bacteria and swimming protozoans. His work became the basis of bacteriology and microbiology. [ Even though cells consist of trillions of atoms, they are still too small to be seen with the naked eye. 10 million would cover a pinhead] He is considered the father of microbiology.

1676 Astronomy: Ole Roemer (1644-1710), a Dane, wrote that the apparent anomalous behavior of the eclipses of satellites of Jupiter could be accounted for by a finite speed of light. [Aristotle had said the speed of light was infinite.] Roemer calculated the light reflected off Jupiter at two different times and estimated the speed of light at 144,000 miles/second. (Low by only c29%).

1677 Philosophy: Baruch de Spinoza (1632-1677), Dutch, most lovable of the great philosophers, one of the great rationalists of 17th century philosophy, paving the way to the 18th century Enlightenment and modern Biblical criticism; a Determinist, Baruch he applied Cartesian theory to philosophy and ethics, replaced Descartes’s “I think, therefore I exist” with, “Love your Spinoza neighbor and perfect your reason.” “Man is a social animal.” He denounced the clergy for exploiting the ignorant masses.

Jewish, he did not remain orthodox. In 1656, at age 24, without stating reasons, his synagogue in Amsterdam expelled him. He was offered 1000 florins per year to conceal his opinions. He declined. It did not disturb him. He was critical of the Jewish teachings, as well as those of other religions. He said happiness comes not from material goods or in unreflective attachment to the superstitions that pass as religion but from a life of reason. In 1670, he showed that Moses could not have written the Pentateuch in the form then written.

Defining God differently, the Pantheistic Argument for God: Spinoza was the most eminent expounder of Pantheism. God was Nature, the universe. the indivisible, uncaused, substantial, whole. He said that philosophy was independent from religion. Everything is One and God is Everything. “God’s decrees and commandments, and consequently God’s Providence, are, in truth, nothing but nature’s order.” Things happen only because of Nature and its laws, methodological naturalism. (Philosophical naturalism denies the existence of anything supernatural.) Whatever is the cause of itself, exists necessarily. Spinoza said that a god that demands worship is not worthy of worship Descartes had left the problem of how two radically different substances as mind and body combine in men and cause effects in each other. Spinoza said that the mind and body were two different expressions of one and the same thing, Man. “Will and Intellect are one and the same thing.” He argued that the mind’s intellectual love of God is our understanding of the universe, our virtue, our happiness, our well-being and our “salvation.”

He was critical of “opportunistic preachers “ who play on the hopes and fears in the face of a judging God. His essay, On Human Bondage, circulated privately 1673, argued that we are only a prisoner of religion or the state if we thought we were. A sensible mystic, Spinoza constructed the world’s first thoroughly logical, consistent metaphysical system and made the first attempt at an objective, scientific study of human behavior. He doubted the divine nature of those laws that simply were used as a means of social control of the Jewish people, i.e., no pork. They were valid as they promoted the well being of the community, but they were not divine. The highest virtue of the mind is to know God.

73 Freedom, individual liberty, was for Spinoza the chief end of human society. “Happiness is the rational understanding of life and the world.” He agreed with Hobbes that natural right is simply power and that Man is necessarily motivated by self-interest and that the state is based in a social contract to secure individual interests, especially security. The state should enhance Man’s chance of self-fulfilment. Obedience to the sovereign did not impinge on one’s freedom as one had willingly ceded to that sovereign the power to rule justly. The type of government most likely to respect and preserve Man’s autonomy, issue laws based on sound reason, and serve the ends for which governments were instituted, was democracy.

Stating the difference between philosophy and religion, he wrote, “Philosophy has no end in view save truth. Faith looks for nothing but obedience and piety.” Like Anselm and Descartes, he posited an Ontological Argument for God, but, of course, his god was nature. He made his living as a lens grinder, turning down prestigious teaching positions, and gave his family inheritance to his sister. Spinoza believed that women were naturally inferior to men. He died at 44, perhaps from the glass dust from his lens grinding. He is considered one of Western philosophy’s definitive ethicists. His most important ambitious work, Ethics/Ethica Ordine Geometrica Demonstrata, was published after he died.

In 1677, he posited an argument for God by redefining God: “God is this, that, love, truth, nature, beauty, or something else. The existence of this, that, love, truth, nature, beauty, or something else is obvious. Thus God exists. This is not Christianity or Judaism. He said, “There is no such thing as free will. The mind is induced to wish this or that by some cause, and that cause is determined by another cause, and so forth back to infinity.”

c1683+ Newton: From 1673 to 1683, Newton lectured on algebra and the theory of equations. (Later, in 1707, artist James Whistler published transcripts as Universal Arithmetic.) He estimated the speed of light at 16.6 Earth diameters/sec, low by c30%. He postulated that, due to centrifugal force, the Earth was not a perfect sphere but bulged at the Equator. [This was later confirmed; the Equator is 43 kilometers longer than the Earth measured top to bottom around the poles. Sea level at the equator is 13 miles further from the center of the Earth than at the poles.] He explained the mathematical theory on tides under gravitational attraction of Sun and Moon (1683).[Bermuda, being in the center of the Atlantic tidal basin, has very small tides, governed not by the Moon but by the Sun.]

1685 King Louis 14 revoked the Edict of Nantes saying that as there were no Protestants left; it wasn’t needed. Pierre Bayle, French Huguenot and fideist, spent much of his life proving the Revocation was “an example of grotesque intolerance based on moral and logical absurdity.” Bayle wrote Commenttire philosophique, a classic for toleration in 1687.

1686 Edmond Halley, British (1656-1742), astronomer said uneven solar heat on Earth caused atmospheric motions and established the relationship between barometric pressure and height above sea level. He had in 1678 identified 341 stars visible from the Southern Hemisphere, earning membership in the Royal Society. In 1690, he built a diving bell and a Edmond liquid-filled magnetic compass. He was denied a post in astronomy at Oxford due to his atheism. (Dissenters from Halley Anglicism and Catholics were not admitted to Oxford or Cambridge, the universities for the rich.)

1686 Ideas of The Enlightenment were spread by popular books, such as Bernard de Fontenelle’s Plurality of Worlds, which discussed heliocentrism, and by books about different cultures, which caused men to question the immutability of their own culture, and by Locke’s notion that the human mind was a blank slate capable of absorbing knowledge.

1687 Astronomy: Giovanni Borelli, an Italian astronomer, Robert Hooke (see 1665), Christopher Wren, and Halley, all attempted to understand what kept the planets circling around the sun. All thought the sun exerted some attractive force. They even suspected that it was an inverse square force, that is, it diminished as the square of the distance; a planet twice as far off would be attracted with one fourth the pull, etc. (They were right.) [Light and sound also diminish in such ratio.]

1687 Principia: In 1684, Halley had asked Newton’s help in calculating planets’s orbits (see 1660). Newton said that he had already calculated that such orbits were ellipses. Halley urged him to publish it. Newton put his notes into proper form, Principia presented them to the Royal Society in 1686 and in 1687, published, in Latin, Books 1 and 2 of Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica / Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy (i.e., Science), his work on motion and gravity. It rejected Aristotelian principles. It was an immediate sensation. In Principia, Newton did not use the system of calculus that he had developed, but put his arguments in the more cumbersome classical geometric reasoning. Geometry was unsuitable to account for the more subtle higher-order effects of interactions between the planets. Halley paid for its publication. Newton, by his rigorous and logical approach to science, destroyed the idea that the universe was governed by capacious gods who could determine the fall of an apple or the motion of a star at their whim. He replaced this with the concept of a universe running inexorably in accordance with predetermined inviolable laws of nature. Newton applied the laws of dynamics to celestial bodies. Newton himself doubted that the arrangement and interactions of the planets could be described mathematically and suggested that an intelligent designer, God, was necessary to ensure the stability of the solar system. (Laplace showed mathematically that the solar system followed Newton’s laws of motion a century later, (See 1799)

Principia described Newton’s Three Laws of Motion: (which he had formulated twenty years before), namely:

74 Newtons 1. The principle of Inertia: (building on Mo-tzu (450 BC), Philoponus (c549), al Haytham (c1000), Avicenna, (c1000), 3 Laws Occam (1331), Galileo (1633), and Descartes (1644)). An object stays at rest or in motion, as the case may be, unless of another force changes it, i.e., a moving object continues in a straight line unless some other object or force, such as Motion friction, or gravity, act on it. (This destroyed Aristotle’s concept that being at rest was matter’s natural state.)

2. A change in an object’s motion (acceleration or deceleration) is proportional to the force put on it, i.e., force divided by mass = acceleration. Or: force = mass x acceleration. (Velocity is a rate of change. Acceleration is the rate of change of a rate of change.). (Avicenna and Huygens had written this in quadratic form. Newton reformulated it. Gravity causes a falling object near Earth to accelerate toward Earth at c32 ft/sec/sec. Al Haytham and Galileo had studied it.

3. For every applied force, there’s an equal and opposite reaction. (Shoot a gun; there’s a recoil.)

Gravity Principia also described Newton’s universal Law of Gravitation, “Every particle in the universe attracts every other particle with a force proportional to the product of their masses and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them.” Newton said Hooke, Halley, and Wren believed in the inverse square ratio concept, but he had proved it, a big difference. The reality of gravity destroyed the Medieval picture of the world as a structure moved by an unseen but ever- present god. Principia showed that the motion of an object is described by a mathematical relation between the forces that act on that object and the acceleration it experiences. (Physicists then went looking for other laws of nature that could explain natural phenomena in terms of rate of change.) Newton coined the word gravity from gravitas (Latin for weight).

Kepler had based his Rules of Planetary Motion on observation and measurement. Newton explained them with his Laws of Motion and his Law of Gravitation. He published Earth’s gravitational attraction to the Moon, which he had calculated in 1666. Newton demolished the idea that heavenly bodies were divine and acted differently than other objects. Principia unified Galileo’s and Huygens’s physical mechanics and the celestial mechanics of Kepler and Copernicus.

Principia also laid out four rules of reasoning:

1. Accept the simplest true explanation of an event (i.e., Occam’s razor). Newton’s 4 Rules 2. As far as possible, assign the same natural causes to the same natural effects i.e., respiration in humans and of animals, stones in England or Iceland. That is, there is order in nature. “Uniformitarianism” Reasoning 3. Qualities of bodies in our experiments are to be considered the universal qualities of all bodies whatsoever. (Example: all matter, even light rays, are affected by gravity, also showing there is order in nature.)

4. Most important rule: Accept phenomena from Induction as accurate (or close to it) not withstanding any contrary hypothesis, until other observed facts make them more accurate or liable to exception. That is, a mere hypothesis, however reasonable sounding, cannot discredit a conclusion based on Induction, which is based on observation and measurement and the regularity of Nature. Newton believed that God created the universe. Newton hated hypotheses, explanations not directly supported by experiments. Principia was the start and became the foundation of physics for 200 years, now known as classical physics, Machina mundi, the machine of the world, the universe is a giant mechanism that operates in orderly and predictable ways. Newtonian physics does not, however, fully explain what keeps the universe running. That is left to the concept of energy.

Aristotle and Descartes had advocated deducing scientific laws from valid universal principles; Francis Bacon had advocated Induction (calculating the probability of a conclusion from the strength of its premises). Newton combined Scientific the two, use Induction to reach general principles and then use Deduction to reach further deductions that would be Method verified by precise measurement and observation.

The Scientific Method has three characteristics. 1. Scientists are objective. 2. Science deals with things, real and measurable, not “feelings,” “is” and “are,” not “should” and “if.” 3. Science advances through repeatable, verifiable experiments to prove/disprove a hypothesis.

The second essential key to success of new discoveries in science were new measuring tools, thermometer (1592), microscope (1595), telescope (1608), barometer (1643), pendulum clock (1657). The telescope released the human imagination as no other implement had ever done.. Modern Man takes order and measurement of the physical world for granted. It was not always so. Men learned to measure, explain, and manipulate natural phenomena in a way we consider scientific. Amid the disputes among Protestant sects, Principia established itself.

The Scientific Method showed the error of some of Aristotle’s most cherished ideas (p. 22), which were based on logic and intuition rather than experiment and measurement. The Scientific Method did not of course spring fully developed in the seventeenth century. It developed slowly from, inter alia, the minds of Thales, Protagoras, Pythagoras, Aristotle, al-Razi, Averroes, Amhad Biruni, al-Haytham, Abelard, Roger Bacon, Albertus Magnus, Grosseteste, Francis

75 Bacon, Mersenne, Theodoric, Galileo, Descartes, Boyle, Hooke, and Newton. Newton wrote to Hooke, “If I have seen farther than you, it is by standing on the shoulders of giants.”

The authority of science is very different from that of the church, It reveals truths, bit by bit, not by proclamation. It prevails solely due to its intrinsic appeal to reason. It advances piecemeal; it does not present a complete system like the body of Christian/Judaic/Muslim dogma. Its pronouncements are tentative, subject to correction. The triumph of science has been due to its practical utility. Scientism is the view that only science can explain phenomena.

A rule of thumb in argument is, “The weaker the case, the longer the brief.” (Theodore Miles) That is why scientists favor accepting the simplest valid explanation of a phenomenon. The more complex an argument, the greater the chance for logical fallacies, rhetorical tricks, and reasonable seeming but unproven or false assumptions. Isaac Newton Newton’s universe was an eminently common-sense place. The purpose of science was to investigate reality and make definitive statements about it. In one sense, science does not explain physical phenomena, it merely describes them. An explanation, i.e., “why,” would give the purpose of a phenomenon. In science, there is no why. Scientific phenomena have no purpose. Scientists don’t ask why, they ask how. Calvinists reviled Newton for being against Scripture.

The Scientific Method does not a priori rule out supernatural causes. Supernatural causes simply do not meet the Scientific Method’s tests of adequate evidence, verifiability, and falsifiability.

Despite Principia, Newton, as a Unitarian (didn’t accept the Trinity), could not become a parson, and thus could not advance at Cambridge, so he left, and became Master of the Mint in London. He spent the rest of his life in politics. A believer, he wrote more on theology and alchemy than he did on physics. Newton wrongly thought the world was created in 3998 BC, Kepler said 3993 BC. Such writings have been rightly forgotten.

The period 1670-1734 was dominated by the ideas of Newton, and to a lesser extent, von Leibniz. (1710). In 1704, Newton published Opticks in English, written mostly in 1675, adding to his fame. He was knighted in 1705. Leibniz, “ Newton robbed the deity of some of his most excellent attributes & sapped the foundation of natural religion.”

The five simple machines, 1. lever, 2. wedge, 3. wheel/axle, 4. pulley, and 5. screw, were ancient, and had been modified, combined into more complicated machines, and improved over the centuries. But then, due to Newton, Descartes, Galileo, and others, men realized how machines did what they did, and began to see ways to make them do it better. Belief in the truths of science is one of the key elements of modern thought. Science became the model for knowledge about humans and society, as well as the basis for knowledge about nature. Newtonian physics was the culminating event of the new science. Theology became a rearguard action against the juggernaut of reason. Newton was attacked by Christians for “dethroning Providence.” He was given a royal funeral in W estminster Abbey.

1687 English Declaration of Indulgence granted full religious freedom to all, legalized not attending Anglican mass.

1688 Nicolas Malebranche, (1638-1715) French priest, re the Problem of Evil, said God could have created a perfect world but didn’t, in order to get the best balance between perfection and the simplicity and generality of its laws.

c1688+ Political Theory: John Locke (1632-1704) and the English “Glorious Revolution” of 1688, founder of philosophical John liberalism as much as of empiricism (observation, experiment), and in theory of knowledge. William of Orange, Dutch, Locke Protestant, and his English wife Mary, were invited to the throne. (Charles 1 had been executed in 1649 by Cromwell and other kings hadn’t worked out.) William took over without a fight, thus “Glorious.” Locke came back to England on the same ship with Mary in 1689 with his two Treatises on Civil Government, in the second of which he discussed three great ideas, property, government, and revolution. Mary, as queen, in 1689 voided the 1687 Declaration of Indulgence. She then signed a weak Bill of Rights.

Property The Treatises were written to justify the English Revolution of 1688. Accepting Hobbes’s 1651 idea of a social contract between a governor and the governed, Locke wrote, “There is a right to property, but only within reason. Government The Duty comes into existence to protect property.” So property is legitimate, so is government. Authority derives solely from the to Revolt consent of the governed. Governors must govern for the good of the people, who then consent to be governed. Locke: In the state of nature all men are free and have equal rights. By his labor, man acquires as his property the products of his labor. The people can and should revolt and change their government when the governor becomes a tyrant. Never before had revolution been based on a general notion of property rights. Thus, deposing kings and revolution was now based on rights to property. Very powerful concepts. Separation of powers prevented tyranny. Profits weren’t taxed, only imports and consumption. Locke venerated property as the product of one’s labor. Locke stressed studying how we know things. He believed that the human mind at birth was a “tabula rasa,” a blank slate, Tabula upon which would be written all Man’s experiences, giving rise to knowledge which is perfected by reflection. Thus our Rasa social environment shapes our beliefs, actions, and knowledge. So, improve the environment, improve the person. Locke took a new interest in applying scientific insights to society. He felt that changes in the environment changed people. So he advocated more wide-spread education. So there was a new confidence in social reform. He was an acquaintance of

76 Newton. Locke saw a great Chain of Being, man at the top, created by God.

Though he did not particularly like democracy, Locke was the theoretical architect of what we call democracy, as he gave us basic liberal ideals, such as that all men have equal natural rights, and specific principles, such as majority rule and checks and balances between different parts of the government, originally Greek and Roman ideas. Locke came to inherit Cromwell’s supporters. Locke was offended by Oxford’s teaching of scholasticism.

Philosophy: Locke was influenced by Descartes. He said both that, “The bare testimony of revelation is the highest certainty.” but also, ”Revelation must be judged by reason.” So reason in the end rules. Of reason, he did not limit it to Aristotle’s syllogisms. Locke, “God [did not leave it] to Aristotle to make [Man] rational.” Reason is in two parts, what we know with certainty, and propositions it is wise to accept in practice, even if they are only probably correct.

1689 Locke was a most eloquent proponent that religious differences had to change. His An Essay Concerning Toleration (1689), the first major presentation of the empirical theory of knowledge. “God is tolerant, you don’t have to kill other faiths.”He said that toleration of other faiths is the only true Christianity. He disputed Luther’s harsh edicts. During the two centuries before his essay on tolerance, it was easy for people of faith to believe (and practice) that their faith required them to torture, to kill, to burn at the stake those who disagreed with them, even over slight differences (as of course their holy scriptures taught), the basis of and practiced in the so-called Wars of Religion.

Locke’s “toleration” was severely limited. He said that atheism and Catholicism should be legislated against as inimical to religion and the state. Said atheists had no reason to act morally. Catholics in England and Ireland had practically no religious, political, or civil rights. Locke said that women and poor people should not be citizens. Locke said that the qualities of objects are primary or secondary. Primary qualities are solidity, extension, figure, mobility, and number-are inescapable from objects, but secondary qualities, such as colors and odors, are in the observer.

1690 His Essay Concerning Human Understanding (1690) dealt with the problem of the origin, extent, and certainty of science. Locke argued against Plato, Descartes, and the scholastics, that there are no innate ideas or principles. In Essay, he said, “Things are good or evil only in relation to pleasure or pain.... Happiness, in its full extent, is the utmost pleasure we are capable of...The necessity of pursuing true happiness [is] the foundation of all liberty.” Also, “No man’s knowledge, here, can go beyond his experience.”

Locke and Newton gave England undisputed intellectual leadership of the world from 1680 to 1720. Principia spread among the educated class swiftly. British universities were teaching it in less than a dozen years. In a century, 18 editions of Principia were needed and 73 books were written about it, in English, French, Latin, German, Portuguese and Italian. But Catholic universities did not teach Newton’s physics for at least a century.

America The America colonies had differing religions. Mass. Puritans were heavily Old Testament, killed alleged witches, bigoted. Each colony supported its brand of Protestantism and all discriminated against the Quakers, who settled in Pennsylvania, which became the most prosperous colony, with Philadelphia as the largest city. In the South, slaves were property. In Virginia, killing non-Christians was legal. Virginia regulated religions so strictly that only Anglicism could qualify. Women had few rights, Blacks none.

1690 Huygens (also 1656) had developed a wave theory of light in 1678, He wrote Treatise on Light in 1678 but it wasn’t published until 1690. And then, as it was opposed to the particle / corpuscular theory of Newton, it was largely discounted. The wave theory explained both reflection and refraction. It was later validated by Einstein.

1693 Thomas Aikenhead, Scot, a student, said Christianity was nonsense. Blasphemy. So, the Anglicans hanged him.

1694 Botany: Rudolph Camerarius, German physicist, in Epistola de Sexu Plantarum, said plants reproduced sexually.

1697 Pierre Bayle (1647-1706) wrote the Historical and Critical Dictionary, the most popular book in the 18th century, to demolish the “vices of religion.” Voltaire called him the “greatest master of the art of reasoning.” (see also 1685)

18thCent. Overview: The Age of Reason, growing out of the Renaissance. The giants of the 17th century had established a climate 1700- of opinion that there was an Order to Nature. The wars of religion had left intellectuals disgusted with religious fanaticism. 1800 18th century men called it the Age of Reason or The Enlightenment. While not always true, it reflected the time’s spirit, when, as Kant said, men left their self-caused puerility and could be moral not because they feared God. It could also be termed an Age of Optimism. There was new confidence in science and reason. Science became the model for knowledge. Almost any 18th century Western thinker was radically critical of traditional Christianity, Catholic or Protestant. 18th century anti-clerical, anti-monarchy, social critics, philosophes such as Diderot, Montesquieu, d’Holbach, Voltaire, Bayle, questioned authority, i.e., Aristotle, the Bible, and favored a purely rational religion, and carried out a moral crusade against intolerance, tyranny, and superstition. They wanted to change the world through science (like Locke). Philosophes believed, foremost in the power of reason & in knowledge, contra the prevailing religious and political dogmas.

77 It was also an age of revolutions. Men of The Enlightenment, sought to extend Scientific Methods and forms of knowledge to social and political life as well as to religion itself. The two approaches to philosophy were empiricism, knowledge comes from experience, and rationalism (knowledge comes from reasoning). Both approaches totally rejected any supernatural causes. Morals and social thought became more and more secular. Science changed the philosophical outlook but not society itself. The spirit of the Enlightenment undermined all bases for a Christian God and scriptural authority. Knowledge became scientific knowledge, not theological. Sciences continued to specialize. Men of the Enlightenment had confidence that they (or their successors) could solve Man’s problems.

Islam, although split into violently antagonistic factions, never experienced a Reformation, a Counter-Reformation, Renaissance, or Enlightenment to rid it of its seventh century mind set, which it still retains, to its intellectual detriment

From 1700 to 1850, Europeans colonized and conquered and exploited the Americas, Africa, Australia, Siberia, India, and the Mid-East. China and Japan felt no need to change their ways and remained isolated, also to their detriment.

Electricity Physics, Electricity 1663-1799: Scientists across Europe and the US, bit by bit, advanced the understanding and taming of electricity. Electric shocks from fish and static electricity, rubbing glass with a cloth, were known in ancient times. Early 1663. Otto von Guericke, German, made a primitive electrostatic generator. (He also invented an air pump.) Advan- 1731. Stephen Gray, British, realized static electricity could be made to flow along a conductor. ces 1745. Petrus/Pieter van Musschenbroek discovered the principle of the Leyden jar. It stored an electric charge. in the 1747. Benjamin Franklin, dangerously, flew a kite in a thunderstorm, identified lightning as electricity, showed that a th 17 & conductor can draw an electric charge from a charged body, so developed the lightning rod, invented the energy th 18 efficient Franklin stove, and published the first map of the Gulf Stream. From 1732-1758, he printed the very popular Centuries Poor Richard’s Almanack, which spread common sense and wisdom, “Early to bed, early to rise...time is money. lost time is never found again...God helps those that help themselves.” 1751 showed difference between positive and negative electricity, showed it can magnetize forces of attraction and repulsion between 2 charged bodies. 1791. Luigi Galvani, Italian, showed electricity transmitted signals to muscles. 1791. Charles de Coulomb, French, showed that an electrical charge is on the surface of a conductor. 1799. Alessandro Volta, made a battery, a stack of silver and zinc discs, separated by brine soaked cardboard. Unlike static electricity, a battery was a steady source of current. Voltage is analogous to fluid pressure in a pipe.

1702 Bishop Bossuet of Meaux, France’s foremost theologian, said heliocentrism was contrary to Scriptures. He was right.

1703 Peter the Great (1672-1725), Czar/Tsar of Russia, began to build St. Petersburg, his grand new capitol of Russia. 200,000 workers died from cold and fever. Peter forcibly modernized Russia. He put the nobles in the barracks or behind Peter government desks, simplified the alphabet, abolished female seclusion at court, introduced the Gregorian calendar, drafted the serfs for the army and arms factories, built and modernized the military, outlawed beards and caftans, introduced the idea Great of science to Russia, where learning had been clerical, built up Russia’s mining industry, killed landlords who concealed mineral resources on their property, built canals to link the Baltic to the Caspian, exported minerals and lumber. The vast majority of Russians, the serfs, and some nobles, remained illiterate. Russia was the last European country to abolish serfdom. He had his eldest son, Alexis, whom he suspected of plotting a coup, murdered.

1705 Astronomy: Halley wrote that the comets seen in 1531 and 1607 were the same comet as 1682's, with a 76 year orbit, that comets have regular orbits, and predicted it would return in 1758. It did. It was then named Halley’s comet.

1709 Chemistry: Abraham Darby, British, (1678 -1717) developed a method of producing cheap iron with a blast furnace and using coke instead of coal (Coke had no impurities to impart to the iron.)

Bernard Mandeville, Society is based on the rich exploiting the poor. Vices promote prosperity more than virtue.

1710 Theology: Baron Gottfried Wilhelm von Leibniz (1646-1716), one of the great seventeenth century continental rationalists. At the same time as Newton, he had also developed calculus. Von Leibniz invented the binary system, von wherein all numbers are written by just 0 and 1. To von Leibniz, they stood for nothingness and God. He also added two Leibniz axioms to Aristotle’s laws of thought (335 BC), the principle of sufficient reason and the identity of indiscernibles.

His 1697 On the Ultimate Origin of the Universe asked for “a full reason why there should be any world rather than none.” In 1714 in The Principles of Nature and Grace, Based on Reason he asked more generally, “Why is there something rather than nothing?” This question assumes that nothing is more logical than something. His answer, a Cosmological Argument for God. Things must have causes. The ultimate cause of the universe must be outside the universe. That is God. Von Leibniz’s Cosmological Argument was founded on the Principle of Sufficient Reason, (Leibniz’s addition to Aristotle’s Basic Laws of Thought. There has to be a sufficient reason for the universe to exist. That’s God. Aristotle, Averroës, al Ghazali, and Aquinas all had similar arguments. (more on Why is there something? on pages 117-118.)

Leibniz had four arguments for the existence of God, 1. ontological, 2. cosmological, 3. the argument from the eternal truths (certain statements are always true, eternal, and can only exist in the mind of God, basically a cosmological

78 argument), and 4. the argument from pre-established harmony. Von Leibniz’s Argument from Pre-established Harmony is akin to the Design Argument. He held that the entire universe was one large system expressing God’s plan. The truths of philosophy and theology cannot contradict each other. God’s foreknowledge of Man’s inclinations did not involve predestination. Only minds exist and everything has a mind. Minds come in degrees, starting with matter (whose minds are simple) and ending with God (whose mind is infinite.) Man is in there somewhere. Ideas rule Man’s mind. The universe is the set of all finite minds that God has created.

In 1710, von Leibniz published Essais de Theodices / Essays on Theodicies (a word he coined), reasons for God’s existence and divinity in light of the Problem of Evil, i.e., how to get around the Problem of Evil. Von Leibniz postulated that God, being all-knowing, all-good, and all-powerful, created the best of all possible worlds. Being God, he had to create the best possible world. Free will is a great good, but God could not grant free will and also decree that there would be no sin. So the best world was one with the most possible good compared to the amount of evil. The truths of philosophy and theology cannot contradict each other. So some error, i.e., evil/suffering, is unavoidable in any creature less perfect than its creator. Moral and physical evil add to the overall perfection of the world and hence are not genuinely evil. All possible worlds contain some evil. Evil improves the good by contrast.

Von Leibniz also created the great analogy of the Cartesian clocks, which postulated that mind and body do not interact, but only seem to, as they are synchronized by God. (Hume answered von Leibniz’s theodicies, see 1751). After von Leibniz said species may not be immutable, Jesuits stopped him from opening an Academy of Science in Vienna.

1713 Philosophy: Bishop George Berkeley, Irish. “The world, as we see it, depends for its existence on being perceived.” “Esse est percepi /To be is to be perceived.” The objective world is all in the mind. He rejected abstract ideas such as “red” or “square.” Samuel Johnson kicked a stone and said, “I refute [Berkeley] thus.” Berkeley became an object of disdain for this proposition and retreated to saying that as God sees everything, everything exists after all.

1714 After disasters in the British fleet, the Board of Longitude offered £20,000 for a method to calculate longitude. (see1761).

1717 Physics: Daniel Gabriel Fahrenheit, Dutch, made an accurate thermometer, using the expansion of mercury.

1725 Francis Hutcheson (!694-1746) Irish, in Inquiry concerning Moral Good and Evil, was first to use the phrase “greatest happiness for the greatest numbers” as the criterion of moral action. Priestley in 1768 and Bentham in 1789 used it.

1726 Ethics: Jonathan Swift (1667-1745), Anglican priest, supporter of Ireland’s struggle for freedom from England, wrote Gulliver’s Travels, wherein he painted men not as rational animals but only as beasts capable of reason. The depth of his Swift pessimism re Man was shown in the satire, A Modest Proposal, which described the atrocious condition of the Irish poor and proposed that they sell their children to their landlords for eating. One benefit, it would reduce the number of Catholics in Ireland. Swift said, “We have just enough religion to make us hate, but not enough to make us love.”

1728 Physics: James Bradley said light travels 301,000 km/sec, almost perfect, and that the earth’s motion distorts starlight.

1733 Philosophy: Alexander Pope (1688-1744), British, a Deist, “Know then thyself, presume not God to scan. The proper study of mankind is Man.” Also, ”A little learning is a dangerous thing. Drink deep, or taste not the Pierian spring.”

1735 Physics: George Hadley, British, suggested that warm air rising over the equator moved to the poles in the upper air before cooling and sinking, identifying a circulation pattern now known as the Hadley cell.

1735 Biology, Botany: Carl von Linne/Carolus Linnaeus (1708-1778), Swede, devised the first logical method of classifying animals and plants, according to how they reproduce; showed they reproduced sexually. So his writings were prohibited in Catholic States. He said the species were fixed at creation, and that there were five races of Man.

1736 Mathematics: Leonhard Euler, Swiss, (1707-1783). One of the most prolific mathematicians; made important discoveries in all fields of mathematics, including solving the formidable 3-body problem - the relative movement of the Earth, Moon, and Sun. He created Differential Calculus practically single-handedly. His Mechanics recast Principia into explicit analysis, bringing to bear the full power of calculus.

1736 Frederick 2 the Great, king of Prussia (1712-1786), “Theologians are all alike, of whatever religion or country they may be; their aim always to wield despotic authority over men’s consciences; they therefore persecute all of us who have the temerity to unveil the truth.” Frederick welcomed Voltaire, philosophes, Muslims, Jews, and Jesuits to Prussia.

1738 Physics: Apollo Murry’s Hydrodynamica, laid the basis for the kinetic theory of gasses. In it, Daniel Bernoulli, Swiss, said that gasses consist of innumerable molecules moving in all directions, bouncing off one another, and their impact on a surface causes the pressure we feel. What we feel as heat is just the kinetic energy of their motion. This was not immediately accepted as conservation of energy had not been established, nor could physicists see how collisions of molecules could be perfectly elastic. Bernoulli also said that as a stream of fluid (gas or liquid) speeds up, its pressure drops. [Air that flows over an airplane wing with a curved upper skin, goes a greater distance, so goes faster, than the air flowing along the straight lower surface, thus creating less pressure above the wing than under, giving the wing lift.]

79 1739 Philosophy, David Hume: (1711-1776) Edinburgh, lawyer, Tory, diplomat, a deist, generally regarded as the most important philosopher to write in the English language, considered himself a skeptic. He took Locke’s empirical David arguments to their logical conclusion (which Locke had not done) and ended by doubting our ability to know anything Hume at all. He deflated metaphysical pretensions, made philosophers very nervous about their assumptions, and made clear that the Age of Reason had arrived at a dead end. His skepticism rested on his rejection of induction.

He said, “The Christian religion not only was at first attended with miracles, but even to this day cannot be believed by any reasonable person without one.” [Miracles are, of course, a prerequisite for Catholic sainthood.] ”W hen I hear a man is religious, I conclude that he is a rascal, although I have known some instances of very good men being religious.” He said that the psychological basis of religion is fear of the unknown. He argued that human instincts and emotions were more important than human reason, that every opinion and value judgment was based not on reason but on passion, a mixture of instincts, feelings, and emotions. ”Reason is, and ought to be, a slave of the passions.” Also, “Knowledge cannot go beyond experience.” Hume’s A Treatise of Human Nature (1739) had said that all our knowledge comes from expressions and ideas. Treatise The impressions are more forceful than the ideas. Thus we cannot have any knowledge of causality. “W hat we call of causality is simply our habit of associating two events because we see them together.” “What we call a mind is nothing Human but a heap or collection of different perceptions, united together by certain relations, and supposed, though falsely, to be endowed with a perfect simplicity and identity.” Treatise criticized the view that causation is an objective productive relation Nature between two things and the Causal Principle, i.e., that every contingent being has a cause of its being, that lies at the heart of the Cosmological Argument. Memory and imagination preserve and arrange our ideas. We have good reason to be skeptical of all conclusions reached by the use of reason. All knowledge resolves itself into probability. Thus, Hume denied inductive inference, for unless the premises are absolute sure things, the conclusion cannot be a sure thing, perhaps close, but not 100%. He wanted 100%. This argument hits at the heart of rationalism. The logical outcome of Hume’s empiricism was that there could not be any scientific knowledge, and this leads to philosophical skepticism. But, science is built on causality and inductive inference and the regularity of nature. It assumes that our knowledge of particular events in the present gives us reliable knowledge about an indefinite number of similar events in the future. (More Hume 1751, 1779)

1740 Mohammad ibn al Wahhab founded Wahhabism, an extreme conservative Sunni sect. Ibn Saud agreed to enforce Wahhabism for his political support, and the Saud family, when it took over Arabia to this day enforces Wahhabism.

c1747- Voltaire, Francios Marie Arouet (1694-1778), historian, philosopher, the supreme debunker of hypocrisy. Deist, had a 1778 Jesuit education, defended victims of religious intolerance. He wrote voluminously. He was imprisoned, exiled, or hounded into seclusion several times during his life for his satire. He corresponded with Frederick the Great, Catherine the Great, King Louis 15, and numerous prominent men. His ideas promoted the French Revolution. His overriding concern was Voltaire freedom of thought. Voltaire spread Locke’s ideas to the philosophes and moderate reformers in France in his Lettres philosophiques (1733). His Lettres Philosophiques sparked the Enlightenment. Voltaire in 1759 wrote Candide largely to ridicule von Leibniz, where the character Dr. Pangloss mouthed foolish Leibniz-like bromides. Candide said, “If this is the best of all possible worlds, what are the others like?” He wrote The Philosophy of History (1766) to ridicule the nonsensical beliefs of religions, from the Chaldeans to Christianity. It added up the number of Jews killed by other Jews or at God’s order in the Old Testament at over 239,000. It rivaled Erasmus’s Praise of Folly. Voltaire, as a deist, was a believer, termed Jesus a “good fellow,” but not divine.

Voltaire wrote: “It is better to risk sparing a guilty person than to condemn an innocent one.” 1747 “All men have equal rights to liberty, to their property, and to the protection of the laws.” 1754 “Nothing can be more contrary to religion and the clergy than reason and common sense.” 1764. “Christians have been the most intolerant of all men.” 1764 “Atheism is the vice of a few intelligent people.” 1748 “Clever tyrants are never punished.” “Doubt is not a pleasant mental state, but certainty is a ridiculous one.” “The best is the enemy of the good.’’ 1764 “Prejudices are what fools use for reason.” “History is no more than the portrayal of crimes and misfortunes.” 1767 “Common sense is not so common.” “It is dangerous to be right in matters on which the established authorities are wrong.” “Every sensible man, every honorable man, must hold the Christian sect in horror.” “A witty saying proves nothing.” “All murderers are punished unless they kill in large numbers and to the sound of trumpets.” “Christianity is the most ridiculous, the most absurd and bloody religion that has ever infected the world.” “Anyone who can make you believe absurdities can make you commit atrocities.” “ He is a hard man who is only just, and a sad one who is only wise.” “Christians have never observed their religion.” “To succeed in the world, it is not enough to be stupid. You must also be well-mannered.” “It is hard to free fools from the chains they revere.” “Man is free at the moment he wishes to be.” “Superstition, born of paganism and adopted by Judaism, invested the Christian Church from earliest times. All the fathers of the Church, without exception, believed in the power of magic. The Church always condemned magic, but she always believed in it: she did not excommunicate sorcerers as madmen who were mistaken, but as men who were really in communication with the Devil.” “Judge a man by his questions rather than by his answers.” “For 1700 years, the Christian sect has done nothing but harm.” 1767

80 “I have never made but one prayer to God, a short one. Make my enemies ridiculous. And he granted it.” 1767. “Liberty of thought is the life of the soul.” And, ”If God did not exist, it would be necessary to invent him.” 1770 All his letters ended with Ecrasassiez l’infame/ Crush the infamous thing (official Christianity).

R. G. Ingersoll: “Voltaire did more for human liberty than any other man who ever lived.” Said Paine: “His forte lay in exposing and ridiculing the superstitions, which priestcraft, united with statecraft, had interwoven with governments.”

1748 Political Theory: Charles-Louis de Secondat, Baron de Montesquieu (1689-1755) mayor of Bordeaux, wrote The Spirit of The Law. It sought to determine the cause of actions in the social world. Geography and climate are important factors. He also argued that laws work best when power to make laws is divided between different parts of government (separation of powers, which Locke had advocated), as in England. This influenced Jefferson. With Locke, he had cleared away many false ideas that had prevented attempts to reconstruct human society.

1749 Geology, Biology, Evolution: Georges LeClerc, Compte de Buffon (1707-1788), French, wrote Historie Naturalle, (put into English in 1781. Volume 1 posed an evolutionary origin for the Earth, a molten ball that cooled, similar to ideas of Kant Buffon and English geologists. Fossils were evidence of animal and extinct species. He said there was a common ancestor for Man, apes, and quadrupeds. Useless organs (the appendix) showed change had taken place. He said the Earth could be 500,000 years old. This was the first Western history of life and the Earth not based on the Bible. The study of geology shattered the Bible’s chronology of the world. Sorbonne Theologians forced him to recant.

c1750 Psychology: The Western concept of romantic love, first sung by troubadours in the twelfth century, became widely accepted by the Western middle classes, but never spread beyond the West. Brahmins, Hindus, Chinese, Malayans, Koreans, Japanese do not even have a name for it. The East does have desire and recipes for physical pleasure, such as the Kama Sutra, and family attachments, but none of the moral anxieties, ideal passions, guilt feelings, nostalgia, and obsessions that fill Western novels, operas, and tragedies. For many, romantic love is real and wonderful, but sometimes it fades. “There is only one happiness in life, to love and be loved.” George Sand 1862.

c1750 Political Theory, The rise of nationalism: Hans Kohn, a contemporary student of nationalism asserts that modern nationalism is not older than the second half of the 18th century. Previous “nations” were but family conquered lands. National- “Nationalism, taking the place of religion, is as diversified in its manifestations and aspirations, in its form and even its ism substance as religion itself...Yet in all its diversities it fulfills one great task - giving meaning to Man’s life and justifying his gives noble and ignoble passions before himself and history, lifting him above the loneliness and futilities of his days, and meaning endowing the order and power of government, without which no society can exist, with the majesty of true authority.” to lives Nationalism shares with religion a hatred of and a great fear of, dissent, and so rulers prosecute dissent fiercely. No emotion unifies a group so readily as hatred for a common enemy. England, Germany, France, Spain, Holland, Italy, Switzerland, the U.S., Austria, Sweden, Denmark, all attained unity by virtue of resistance to alien enemies.

1751 Hume (also 1739) phrased the Epicurian Paradox/Problem of Evil as, “Is God willing to prevent evil but unable to do so? Then he is not omnipotent. Is God able to prevent evil but unwilling to do so? Then he is malevolent...If God is both willing and able to prevent evil, then why is there evil in the world?”

Von Leibniz had proposed a theodicy to avoid the Epicurian Paradox. “Evils we see are really goods to the universe. They are only evil to Man’s narrow human perspective.” There aren’t any real evils, only apparent evils. This is called the Greater Good Defense [Recent examples of this argument: 1. Israel’s chief Sephardic rabbi said the Christmas 2004 tsunami was “an expression of God’s ire with the world.” and 2. In 2003, Oxford professor of theology Richard Swinburne said the Holocaust gave Jews a wonderful opportunity to be courageous and noble]

Hume on Hume answered, “All theodicies have in common that suffering is a necessary precondition or outcome of some greater arguments good.” Saying evil is good is nonsense. This is contrary to human experience. The distinction between good and evil for God depends on the human mind and can’t be altered by some philosophical theory or speculation. If one holds, as a matter of ethics, that there should be no unnecessary suffering, the Problem of Evil refutes traditional theism. [It is, of course, “Man’s narrow human perspective” that judges God to be good in the first place.]

The Free Will Argument to refute the Problem of Evil was advanced by Irenaeus and Leibniz: Evil exists as God gave Man free will, and God will not or does not intervene when Man is cruel. If God intervened, men would not have free will. Free Will makes Man responsible for his actions. The argument supports our judicial ideal of retributive justice. Free Will The Free Will Argument assumes 1. That God made imperfect humans, 2. that free will, in and of itself, is a positive good, Argument of more worth than the evil or suffering the exercise of such free will may cause, and 3. that an omnipotent God was unable to grant Man free will except when he wished to hurt others. These assumptions say that God is not omnipotent.

Hume said the Free Will Argument was limited, illogical, and mis-stated history. It fails as:

1. It applies only to the evil and suffering wilfully inflicted by men against other men, so-called moral evils. But there are other great evils, natural evils such as famine (millions of Irish, Africans), tsunamis, fires, disease, drought (dust bowl), smallpox (1/3 of Mexicans in 1519), floods, earthquakes (200,000 in Haiti), imbecility, blindness, deafness,

81 deformities, hurricanes, tornados, plague (the Black Death), accidents, starvation, autism, insanity, mental illnesses, avalanches, Ebola virus, flu (50M in 1918), etc. etc. that plague mankind. Such evils are all known as “Acts of God.”

Hume 2. In all instances of Man causing evil/suffering to others, there are two free wills involved, the evil-doer and the victim. answer God’s non-intervention means God chooses the free will of the evil doer, a rapist, torturer, or killer, over the free will of to the the victim, not to be raped, tortured, or killed. [God apparently preferred the free will of a few twisted Nazis over the Problem free will of millions of Jews who did not wish to die horrible deaths. Is such non-action by God benevolent?] of Evil (“If you are neutral in situations of injustice, you have chosen the side of the oppressor.” Archbishop Desmond Tutu)

3. It mis-states history. According to the Bible, God does intervene. God delivered manna and loaves and fishes to Jews in the desert, why not to starving people today? He delivered the Jews from Egypt, why not deliver the Jews from Hitler? A loving God would intervene and prevent much suffering done by persons exercising their “free will.”

[Some argue that an omniscient God contradicts free will. If God knows the future, Man cannot change it by exercising his “free will;” thus Man does not have free will. Without volition/choice, morality becomes meaningless.]

Another von Leibniz theodicy: God permitted some evil in the world in order to create a better world. God’s will regarding good in the universe is decretory (positive), but God’s will re evils is merely permissive; and permissive willing of evils is morally OK as long as permitting the evil is a necessary condition for meeting one’s outweighing obligations, namely to create the best world. This is known as the “Holiness Problem” of the Problem of Evil.

Hume’s answer: If the evil in the world is intended by God, he is not good. If it violates his intentions, he is not almighty. If only God can create, he must have created evil. If somebody else (Satan) created evil, how can one know that God and not Satan created the universe?

The Oxford Companion to Philosophy says the Problem of Evil is “the most powerful objection to traditional theism.“ This understates it. There is no rational acceptable Christian answer to the “Problem of Evil.” Christian dogma simply asserts two contradictory beliefs: that there is an all-good/all-powerful God, and that evil exists, a logical impossibility.

Argument Hume did not believe miracles could be justifiably believed in. He said that there has never been a bona-fide verified from miracle. In Essay on Miracles, he answered the Arguments From Miracles / Religious Experience for God, i.e., “I Miracles saw/felt/spoke-to God.” Hume: “Is this evidence of God or merely evidence of someone’s belief?” “No testimony is sufficient to establish a miracle, unless the testimony be of such a kind, that its falsehood would be more miraculous than the fact it endeavors to establish.” As such experience is unique, it is irrefutable, non-falsifiable, and unreliable. Hume: “Pick the less improbable miracle. What is more likely, that God spoke to someone or that the report was mistaken?” [Who is right, Moses, Muhammad, Joseph Smith, Luther, Calvin, a pope, or the lady down the street who has “visions,” all of whom claim that God told him/her certain things, but which contradict each other?] At most, because of the law of contradiction, only one religion could possibly be right. Hume said, “The only way a proposition can be proved by logic and the meaning of words alone is for its negation to be (or lead to) a contradiction.

The tendencies of theism that most concerned Hume were its intolerance and opposition to liberty, its distorted moral standard and its willingness to sanction great crimes in the name of piety and devotion, i.e., doing evil in the name of God. Politically, Hume favored separation of powers (like Locke and Montesquieu), voting (albeit only by persons of property), limiting the power of the clergy, decentralization, annual elections, and unpaid representatives. He preferred a monarchy to a republic for England. Hume, a Tory, said Caucasians were superior to all other races. “I suspect the Negro to be naturally inferior to the whites...There ever was a civilized nation of that complexion, or even any individual eminent either in action or speculation.” Hume: Generally speaking, the errors in religion are dangerous; those in philosophy only ridiculous. Hume on ID 1779

1751- Encyclopedie: Voltaire, Rousseau, Jean Baptiste le Rond d’Alembert, d’Holbach (see 1761 , and Denis Diderot (the 1772 guiding spirit of the French Enlightenment and the editor of the Encyclopedie, a compendium of the new scientific thinking, and the flagship publication of the Enlightenment), were critical of religion and the legitimacy of France’s monarchial despotism. The Encyclopedie was published from 1751 to 1772. It opposed both Church and State, and helped democratize scientific knowledge. Its goal was to transform society. 25,000 sets were sold before 1789, an incredible number. King Louis 15 banned it before the last volumes were finished. So they were printed clandestinely. Like many philosophes, Diderot disdained Jews. Diderot was first a Deist, then an atheist. Said, “Let us strangle the last king with the guts of the last priest.” He also said, “Islam is the enemy of Reason.”

1754 Anglican Bishop Thomas Newton described many Christian practices taken from Paganism, incense, sprinkling holy water, lighting many candles. “Is not the worship of saints and angels the same as the former worship of demons?”

1754 Philosophy: Jean Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778), sparked the Romantic Movement’s reaction to materialistic reason. Go back to nature to cure society’s ills. His Discourse on the Origins of the Inequality of Mankind argued that people had adopted laws and government to preserve their private property (the Social Contract), but that in the process they had become enslaved by government. “To be sane in a world of madmen is itself a kind of madness.”

82 The Social Contract (1762) which glorified the common man, the noble savage, identified a social contract between men and their government, famously began with, “Man is born free, and everywhere he is in chains.” His hero argued for a “natural education” for children; he greatly influenced education. He felt that civilization was a decline from the state of nature. Not reason but feeling was his idol. He wanted people to be free and equal, but in doing so, to surrender their natural liberty to one another, fusing their individual wills into a General Will. (Von Goethe was a representative). Rousseau had a new psychological obsession with the individual which was to flood into art and literature, a sentimental approach to nature and natural beauty, and a new child-centeredness in educational theory.

Rousseau stressed the idea of a link between liberty and equality. “Liberty is obedience to the law which one has laid down for oneself.” Rousseau’s conception of equality suggested that nations are founded on the dignity of the common people rather than on hierarchies. Rousseau’s ideas paved the way for the romanticism of the 19th century. Rousseau, like many men of the Enlightenment (but not Diderot or Voltaire), considered women to be naturally inferior. Bertrand Russell later said that after Hume destroyed empiricism, unreason, i.e., romanticism, grew; that Rousseau was mad but influential, and Hume was sane but had no followers.

c1755 Physics: Joseph Black, Scot, deduced air was made up of different gasses. First to isolate pure CO2 and nitrogen.

1755+ Samuel Johnson (1709-1784) published the Dictionary of the English Language. It standardized English spellings. Some of his ideas, “Curiosity is one of the permanent and certain characteristics of a vigorous mind.” 1751. “It matters not how a man dies, but how he lives.” 1769. “Language is the dress of thought.” “Patriotism is the last refuge of a scoundrel.” 1775. “The road to hell is paved with good intentions.” “How is it we hear the loudest yelps for liberty among the [American slave owners]? And, “I am willing to love all mankind, except an American.” 1778. (said during the American Revolution) “No member of a society has a right to teach any doctrine contrary to what society holds to be true.” “The true measure of a man is how he treats someone who can do him absolutely no good.”

1755 Philosophy: Immanuel Kant (1724-1804), greatest German metaphysician and transcendental philosopher, professor of logic and metaphysics at University of Koenigsberg (Prussia) from 1770. He was the founder of German idealism. Kant Kant credited Hume for “awakening me from my dogmatic slumbers.” He put Germany on the map as an intellectual power. Hobbes, Locke, Hume, and Kant all agreed with Plato’s “All propositions must have a reason.” He defined The Enlightenment as “Man’s leaving his self-caused immaturity.” Its motto, “Use one’s knowledge without the guidance of another.” Extremely influential, Kant combined Leibniz’s rationalism and Hume’s skepticism into his “critical philosophy,” that ideas do not conform to the external world, but rather the world can be known only insofar as it conforms to the mind’s own structure. He felt that morality required a belief in God, freedom and immortality, although these cannot be proved scientifically or metaphysically. He argued that the human mind is the origin of the world as we know it. The mind is not a tabula rasa (Locke), but has an inherent structure through which we filter all experience and which imposes its own order on the world of phenomena.

Kant’s astronomy: In 1755, Kant’s General Natural History and Theory of the Heavens anticipated Laplace’s 1799 nebular hypothesis. Building on an idea from Emanuel Swedenborg, Kant speculated that the galaxy that Earth was in might be a rotating body of a huge number of stars, held together by gravity and that our solar system had evolved from a globular mass of incandescent gas rotating around an axis through its center of mass. As the mass cooled, it contracted and successive rings broke off which in their turn cooled and became planets, while the sun at the core remained. Thus, the outer planets were older than those closer to the sun. Kant sought to describe the phenomena of Nature, both organic and inorganic as a whole of interconnected natural laws. “Two things fill the mind with ever increasing wonder and awe, the starry heavens above and the moral law within me.” The heavens, as described by Newton, were governed by specific laws, while the moral law within was a product of human freedom. Kant sought to find a theory unifying the universe and the working of the mind. Kant speculated that the Earth was millions of years old, a radical idea at the time. (more Kant 1781)

1757 Medicine: James Lind, British Naval surgeon, recommended that sailors get citrus to prevent scurvy, which killed more Scurvy sailors than war did. The Navy considered it for forty years, then gave its sailors citrus. Scurvy disappeared.

1758 Catholics were allowed to read Copernicus’s 1543 Revolutions (but not Galileo’s 1632 Dialogues until 1835).

1758 Claude A. Helvetius (1715-1771), French, a Deist, vehemently anti-clerical, in his De l’Espirit, considered the differences between individuals entirely due to differences in education. He accepted Locke’s tabula rasa idea, Men are born ignorant, not stupid; education makes them stupid. Ethically, a utilitarian; contra Rousseau, he valued knowledge.

1761 Paul-Henri Thiry, Baron d’Holbach (1723-1789), German-French philosophe, all told, contributed c 400 mostly scientific articles to Diderot’s Encyclopedia. He published (anonymously) several atheistic attacks on Christianity as an impediment to the moral advancement of humanity, starting with Christianisme devoile/Christianity Unveiled, in 1761. In 1770, he published his most famous, Le Systeme de la nature/The System of Nature. It denied the existence of a deity and refused to accept all a priori arguments. The universe was nothing but matter in motion bound by inexorable natural laws of cause

83 and effect. Inter alia it said, “Ignorance of natural causes created the gods and priestly impostures made them terrible.” The Catholic Church commissioned a refutation and threatened the king with ending financial support unless he effectively suppressed circulation of the book. The Church’s effort was unsuccessful.

1761 James Otis Jr., Boston lawyer, argued against the “writs of assistance” allowing British troops to enter colonials’s houses at will. Later, arguing against the Stamp act, declared, “Taxation without representation is tyranny.” Also, “God made all men naturally equal...Kings were made for the good of the people, not the people for them...No government has the right to make slaves of its subjects.”

1761 John Harrison, British watchmaker, working 19 years, devised the marine chronometer, simply a very accurate clock that worked on ships. It could determine longitude. Thusly: as the Earth revolves 360 degrees every 24 hours, so it revolves 1 degree of longitude every four minutes. Greenwich/London is zero degrees longitude. Wherever one is in the world, at any latitude, by definition, when the sun is at its highest point above him, it is noon to him. So a sailor with an accurate clock set to Greenwich Mean Time sees what time it is in Greenwich when the sun is at its highest point above him, i.e., his noon. If his noon occurs at 12:04 GMT, he knows that he is 1 degree west of Greenwich, and so on. Captain Cook used one on his 2nd circumnavigation (1772-1775). In 1773, Parliament grudgingly partially paid Harrison. Watchmakers were the ultimate craftsmen of the day. [Latitude was reckoned by Polaris or other stars.]

1762 Catholics in Toulouse tried, tortured, and killed a Protestant for converting Catholics to “heresy.” Voltaire attacked it.

1764 Cesaer Beccaria, in Crimes and Punishments: Punishments ought to deter, not brutalize; against the death penalty.

1765 Politics: Trouble brewing in America. The American colonies differed widely in religion, acceptance of slavery, economic systems, patterns of land ownership, but had in common the threat from the French, from Indians, and mostly the short- sighted trade restrictions of the British. While Holland carried the most trade goods worldwide, all British colonies’s trade with other countries had to be bought or sold through British ports and British agents. British imperial supremacy was based on its sea power. Brits were quartering troops in houses. In 1765, in New York City, the Stamp Act Congress promulgated a Declaration of Rights, protesting the Tyrannical Acts of the British Parliament. Parliament snubbed it.

1766 Chemistry: Henry Cavendish, British, isolated hydrogen, called it flammable air. In 1783, was first to realize that water was not an element when he exploded hydrogen and air with an electric spark and created water. He calculated the weight of Earth from its gravitational effects (off by only 1.3%). He anticipated the law of the conservation of energy.

1768 Political Theory: J. B. Priestley, Unitarian minister, chemist. His Essay on the First Principles of Government used Hutcheson’s 1725 phrase “the greatest happiness for the greatest numbers” as the test for moral action. (also 1775)

1768- Botany: Sir Joseph Banks sailed three years around the Pacific on Captain James Cook’s first circumnavigation and 1771 collected 30K plants, 1,400 not seen before, upping by 25% the number of known plants. Plant and fauna collecting became an international mania in the 18th century. As more and more species were found, Christian theologians Joseph announced that Noah’s ark was really six times larger than previously claimed. With Harrison’s chronometer, Cook Banks charted the transit of Venus in front of the sun (letting astronomers fix the size of the solar system by parallax and Kepler’s 3rd law) and extensively accurately mapped much of the Pacific. Cook was the first to prevent scurvy in his crew. He fed them sauerkraut. Russian traders settled Alaska, enslaved and brutalized the natives.

1771 Catholic universities, including the greatest, Salamanca, still refused to teach Newton’s physical science.

1774- Discontent in America fermented: King George 3 wouldn’t accept colonists as full British citizens. In 1774, Brits stupidly 1775 decided to punish the colonies, closed Boston harbor. So the First Colonial Congress issued a Declaration of Rights. The colonies’s elites, Enlightenment men, knew their rights from Locke. In April 1775, a British army unit marched from Boston to Lexington to arrest John Hancock & Sam Adams for treason. At Lexington, a ragtag militia fired on them, “the shot heard round the world.” They went to Concord and then retreated. The war was on. The 2nd Continental Congress convened in May in Philadelphia with delegates from the 13 colonies and named George Washington commander. Penn. militia privates, who elected their junior officers, petitioned to elect all officers, be allowed to vote, fines for not serving.

1775 Political Theory: Edmund Burke (1729-1797), Irish, eloquent in Parliament, Burke favored the American colonists over King George 3. In this regard, Burke wrote: “It is not what a lawyer tells me I may do, but what humanity, reason, and justice, tell me I ought to do... All government - indeed, every human benefit and enjoyment, every virtue and every prudent act - is founded on compromise and barter...a great empire and little minds go ill together.” 1775 .” (more Burke 1790)

1775 Chemistry: Priestley (see 1768) isolated oxygen, saw how brightly a candle burned; put a mouse in it; saw how well the mouse did. Breathed it himself. He also discovered that green plants breath out oxygen. He discovered a wide range of new gasses, including nitrous oxide, ammonia, nitrogen, carbon monoxide, sulphur dioxide, and oxygen.

1776 Political Theory, American Revolution: Thomas Paine (1737-1809) Brit, in Philadelphia, in January, 1776, wrote Common Sense, anonymously, a pamphlet stirringly advocating a declaration of independence; 600,000 copies sold in a nation of about c2.8 million (maybe most influential pamphlet ever), “O! Ye that love mankind. Ye that dare oppose not only the

84 tyranny but the tyrant, stand forth...We have it in our power to begin the world over again.” Paine proclaimed America’s Thomas mission to be the defense of freedom and democracy by presenting to the world the example of a republic of free men. Paine Montesquieu and Sir William Blackstone, a learned jurist, saw the English “constitution” as a balanced system with the king and Parliament checking each other. Paine saw it as simply a combination of two ancient tyrannies compounded with “new republican materials.” Paine favored a unicameral legislature in each colony and a national unicameral one. He also wrote for women’s rights and against slavery. John Adams favored independence but disliked Paine’s “democratical ideas.” Adams reluctantly called the era “The Age of Paine.” The colonies routed their royal governors.

In July 1776, Thomas Jefferson (1728-1826), after one year at war, wrote the Declaration of Independence, inspired by the Netherlands 1581 Oath of Abjuration from Spain, and by the writings of Paine and Locke (1688), using Locke’s words and the Enlightenment’s concepts of natural rights. Its style was that of a common law pleading. 1. We hold these truths to be self-evident. That all men are created equal; that they are endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable rights, life, liberty and the pursuit of happiness.” (A phrase once used by Locke as key to liberty although Locke was far better known for saying “life, liberty, and property.”) 2. Governments are instituted to secure these rights (Locke: Government’s job is to protect property). 3. A government is legitimate only when it continues to secure these three rights. (Locke). 4. The people have a duty to revolt when government becomes destructive of these ends. Governments [derive] their just powers from the consent of the governed.(Locke)

As King George 3 was the head of the Anglican Church, the Revolution was against both England and Anglicanism. (At the time, England’s Caribbean possessions, because of sugar, were far more important economically to England than the American colonies.) America’s population, of about 2.8 million was almost half that of England. Mexico City was then grander than any American city, with a larger population than any European city except Paris or London.

In a paper, Crisis, that Washington read to his men in Valley Forge, before he “crossed the Delaware,” Paine wrote, “These are the times that try men’s souls. The summer soldier and the sunshine patriot will, in this crisis shrink from the service of their country; but he that stands it now, deserves the love and thanks of Man and W oman. Tyranny, like Hell, is not easily conquered.” Benjamin Franklin in France sought and got French help, including the Marquis de Lafayette.

1776 Society: England pre-1770 was a manufacturing country, but it was cottage based manufacture. The most important mechanical invention of the 18th century was the factory, where Man became a part of a machine. Jews continued to be persecuted everywhere. Christians quoted The Bible in Parliament to defend the slave trade.

Adam Adam Smith, Scot, a Deist, published An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations (It started the Smith science of economics), which described how the division of labor in a factory increased productivity. He proposed laissez faire capitalism, i.e., let entrepreneurs do whatever they wished, and an Invisible Hand would transmit benefits to the whole people. Government should be limited to national defense, police, & public works like roads. Smith was not naive about the hypocrisy of advocates of laissez faire capitalism; said, “People of the same trade seldom meet together, even for merriment and diversion, but the conversation ends in a conspiracy against the public, or in some contrivance to raise prices.” He also said, “Science is the great antidote to the poison of enthusiasm and superstition.” Smith knew the rich; he wrote, “With [most] rich people, the chief enjoyment of riches consists in the parade of riches, which in their eyes is never so complete as when they appear to possess those decisive marks of opulence which nobody can possess but themselves.” A century later, Thorstein Veblen called this trait “conspicuous consumption.”

The Industrial Revolution, centered around Manchester (with the port Liverpool, coal, canals, water mills), caused a big increase in knowledge, and, like the American and 1789 French revolutions, was basically a social revolution. The big increase in production from factories led to a quantum leap in transportation, especially railroads and steamships. Self made practical men from the middle class managed the factories, built the machines, not aristocrats, as Oxford and Cambridge only taught the classical subjects. England, with 2% of the world’s people, produced 20% of the world’s manufactured goods (a nation of shopkeepers), shipped them worldwide. This was the British Empire. East of the Elbe authoritarian governments ruled farming people. West of the Elbe societies were becoming freer and more open. Around the Med, women remained chattel. In the more advanced Northern Europe, women had more rights. In the North, salons, clubs (including the International Association of Freemasons), and coffee houses were intellectual and social centers, all breaking up the ice of tradition and convention. Literacy expanded, mainly in cities.

1779 Botany: Jan Ingenhousz, Dutch, discovered that plants absorb oxygen at night and emit it in the daytime.

1779 Hume on the Design Argument: In Dialogues Concerning Natural Religion, a classic text on theodicies, published at his direction posthumously in 1779, Hume refuted the Teleological / Design Argument (i.e.,The universe and nature is so Hume well ordered it must have been designed by a God), most prominently earlier pronounced by Aquinas (1273) and by von on the Leibniz (1710), Hume advanced several independent arguments against design. Specifically: Design Argument 1. Hume: The Design Argument posits a false dilemma/limited choice, i.e., “Was the world designed or did it happen by

85 False chance?” [Giving only two alternatives is not logical.] The Design Argument says order in the universe can only come from Dilemma someone’s design; but there are many natural causes of order in the universe, i.e., snowflakes or crystal generation. Making human intelligence the model for the cosmic cause is suspicious when there were other possible explanations that equally account for the order in the universe. The order in the universe is simply the manifestation of causality, which is a derivative, a logically corollary of the Law of Identity. One unmentioned alternative is the scientific one; Did the Earth evolve?.] He who frames the question has won the debate. ”You buy the premise; you buy the bit.” Johnny Carson.

Analogies 2. Hume: The Design Argument is based on an incomplete analogy: Because of our experience with objects, we can Mislead recognize human designed objects, i.e., watch on a beach, or comparing scattered rocks to a rock wall. But to conclude ours is a well ordered universe, we would have to know a range of different universes to see if ours is actually that well designed. As we don’t know other universes, the analogy is not valid.

Proves 3. Hume: Even were the Design Argument completely accepted, it does not establish any particular god or even a No competent or moral designer, only that something some time in the past designed the universe. One could easily conclude Dogma that the universe’s configuration was the result of some morally ambiguous, possibly unintelligent agent, or agents, whose methods bears only a remote similarity to human intelligence.

Poor 4. Hume asked how we could be sure that the world was not created by a team, or that this is not one of many attempts Design at creations, or that our world was not a poor attempt “of some infant deity who afterwards abandoned it, ashamed of his lame performance.” Specifically, “If the well functioning nature is evidence for intelligence, benevolence, and power; then disease, pain, parasites, disorder, famine, and natural evil is similarly evidence for stupidity, malice and impotence... If this world is the best the designer can or will do, he must like suffering. Heaven, with the same designer, must be just as bad.” Suffering, starvation, and privation afflict billions to this day. (Darwin also rejected the Design Argument for this reason.) (Aldous Huxley later said, “Maybe this planet is another planet’s Hell.”) This is called the Underachiever Problem of the Design Argument. [Scientists have noted instances where the human body is constructed more inefficiently than even an average competent human engineer would design it.]

Von Leibniz had addressed the Underachiever Problem: “God created the best of all possible worlds... Human happiness is an inadequate measure of goodness in the world. Man is not competent to judge goodness ” (Jesuit scholars argued that God was not obliged to create the best world, just a morally acceptable one. )

5. Hume: To determine if the universe is actually well ordered, we should know what the designer wanted to accomplish. What In order to see if the universe is well ordered for such purpose. But that assumes that the designer exists, the very matter Purpose? the argument is supposed to prove. The Design Argument is thus a circular argument, it assumes the conclusion.

What 6. Hume: If a well ordered world required a designer, then the designer/God’s mind, being well ordered, also required designed a designer, which required a designer etc. etc., ad infinitum. [It’s turtles all the way down.] Such response to the God? Teleological Argument, and to the Cosmological (First Cause) Argument, is known as an infinite regress.

7. Hume: Often, what appears to be purpose, where it looks like an object has a particular feature in order to secure some particular outcome, is better explained by a filtering process: that is, the object wouldn’t be around if it didn’t possess that feature, and the outcome is only interesting to us as a human projection of goals onto nature. This mechanical explanation of teleology anticipated Natural Selection.

8. And, said Hume (and Kant), such reasoning is natural, but it is not scientific. It is not falsifiable, as it generates no new predictions. It merely represents a primitive preference for explaining the unknown in terms of agency rather than in terms of nature. The Design Argument sees the world as a finished design. Evolution sees the world as evolving.

[A win-win situation for believers. A miracle, an event that violates the laws of nature, is proof of God (St. Paul re Jesus). At the same time, the Design Argument says the regularity of the world is proof of God. (Aquinas and others)]

1779 Political Theory: James Madison (1751-1836) sought to resolve the “property or pursuit-of-happiness” dichotomy by Madison simply defining property as all that a man owns and values, i.e., his property, his opinions, his religious beliefs, his security. This concept is radically revolutionary, i.e., the U.S. government must respect the rights of property and the property in rights. It is not possible to go beyond it. (Even the Russian revolution did not protect a man’s property.) Adams Like Locke, John Adams venerated private property, “The moment the idea is admitted into society that property is not as sacred as the laws of God...anarchy and tyranny commence.” (Paine, in Agrarian Justice in 1795 distinguished between property, as the bounty of nature like land, belonging to all, and property created by the fruits of one’s labor.)

1781 With French help, Cornwallis surrendered; Articles of Confederation were ratified. Paris Peace treaty was signed in 1783. George Mason’s Virginia’s Bill of Rights said, “All men are by nature free and equal...governors are servants of the state.”

1781 Epistemology: The two major scientific schools of the day were British empiricism and continental rationalism. Kant wrote Critique of Pure Reason, his most important book and one of most influential books in the history of philosophy, to counter

86 Hume’s assertion that we can’t really know if something is true by observation. As causality can’t be proved in a reliable way: in short, the purely sensory base of knowledge is inadequate. This view led to skepticism. Kant argued that all thinking depends on applying certain fundamental concepts or categories - like unity, substance, quantity, causality which are not arbitrary concepts but basic operations of thought. Add these to the laws of thought.

Immanuel Thus knowledge a priori, i.e., from reason alone, is possible. That is, by virtue of the forms and categories inherent in Kant the mind, like space, time, and causality, Man possesses the presuppositions for coherent and intelligible experience. Ideas/concepts depend on prior more basic concepts, and so on. (See Braden 1964). Knowledge consists in categorizing chaotic perceptions that we experience into a ordered world. Human understanding relies on more than the senses as the mind interprets the world with its own pre-sensory (a priori) structures and categories of thought. True knowledge cannot go beyond experience (empiricism, Hume, Locke). Kant’s motto, “Dare to know.”

Kant reconciled empiricism & rationalism by postulating that in principle scientific knowledge and metaphysical thought were similar, and therefore the justification or explanation of scientific thought and metaphysical thought were the same. That is, what the scientist did in describing nature is similar to what the metaphysician did when he discussed freedom and morality. By thus interpreting the nature of scientific and moral thought, Kant provided a new function and a new life for philosophy. The task for philosophy then became the critical appraisal of the capacities of human reason. He also wrote, “Happiness is not an ideal of reason but of imagination.

In Critique, Kant also gave the most influential refutation of Anselm’s (1076) and Descartes’s Ontological Argument for God. The Ontological Argument, said Kant, had two premises: 1. “God is the most perfect being conceivable,” and 2. “It is more perfect to exist than not to exist,” (Then the conclusion: “Thus God exists.”)

Kant argued that the Ontological Argument uses two distinct realms of thought - that of pure reason - deduction -like mathematics, in which premises dictate conclusions, and that of things, in which we reach conclusions based on experience. Kant said that existence was not a predicate, i.e., premise 2 was false, that, “Existence is not perfection.” Postulating that things exist and therefore existence is an attribute of things is circular reasoning. The Ontological Argument does not prove there is a God. It simply assumes there is a God. That is, “While we may conceive of God as having the property of, for example, being all-powerful, existence is not a property of a thing at all. For example, suppose that one gives a complete description of an object, size, weight, color, chemical composition, etc. To then add that the object exists does not add anything to the object or the concept of the object. To say the object exists does say something about the world, i.e., that the world contains something that matches the concept of the object, but does not say anything about the object itself. With premise 2 gone, the Ontological Argument fails.

Alternatively, simply substitute the word Utopia for God. Thus, 1.”Utopia is the most perfect society conceivable. 2. It is more perfect to exist than not exist. Thus Utopia exists.” This conclusion is clearly false. Only observation can determine that things exist. Kant also argued that the Cosmological Argument repeats the same error. It pastes the tag of “existing” on things, then asserts that the existence of a thing requires the existence of an ultimate being. The inference of a first causer / first mover god in Cosmological Arguments is simply the Ontological Argument, which he had shown was false. Even so, Kant was a believer. After discrediting the Ontological and Cosmological Arguments, Kant posited an Immanuel Argument (for God) from Morality in The Critique of Practical Reason (1788). Arguments from Morality are a family of Kant arguments based on the thesis that because moral norms exist, the most likely source of such norms is God.

Kant said that humans have an innate awareness of moral law in the form of the categorical imperative (i.e., a command applicable at all times and in all situations). His imperative was, “Act only according to that maxim whereby you can at the same time will that it should become universal law.” This was Kant’s central philosophical concept of his moral philosophy. Thus, laws should codify moral duty. [In fact, only the most basic and general moral rules are universal; “Don’t kill innocents, don’t steal,” many are not universal.] Such basic moral rules of conduct would arise in any culture, as they help that culture survive. Moral standards differ from culture to culture. Few today accept the Bible’s command to kill unruly children and adulterers, or to endorse slavery or to consider women as property.

Paradoxically, the existence of evil is the basis for the Argument from Morality while the existence of evil in the Problem of Evil is the basis for establishing that all-good omnipotent omniscient God cannot exist

Kant wrote, “Science is organized knowledge. Wisdom is organized life.” “I had to set limits to knowledge in order to make place for faith.” “Everything in nature acts in conformity with law,” i.e., there is order in nature.” 1785

Political theory: Kant said, “Reason utterly condemns war, which only an international government can prevent. In 1790, Kant wrote Critique of Judgment. It defined the pleasure one gets from art as “disinterested satisfaction.” He saw art as uniting the opposite principles of reason and imagination. The purpose of law is to codify moral values.

1782 William Ogilvie, The Right of Property in Land, Everyone has a right to an equal share in the value of property in land.

1783 Chemistry: Antione Lavoisier (1743-1794) French chemist, In 1778 said air is 2 different gasses. In 1783 said water

87 was not an element but a combination of oxygen and hydrogen and could be decomposed and recombined. In 1789 wrote Elementary Treatise on Chemistry; defined a chemical as the last point an analysis can reach and formulated the law of conservation of mass. He made the first good list of elements, 33 of them (some incorrect). Some like gold and copper were already known as they existed in their natural state. Said a rusting body gains weight; as iron adds oxygen to become iron oxide. His family company collected taxes; so he was guillotined during the French Revolution.

1783 Brothers Jacques and Joseph Montgolfier flew a hot air balloon 6 miles over Paris. Ben Franklin witnessed it.

1785 William Hershel, Brit., posited that our solar system was part of a larger system of at least several millions of stars. In 1781, he had discovered Uranus.

1787 Jacques Charles added the temperature variable to the pressure, volume, temperature ratios for a gas. Namely, at fixed pressure, the volume of a given mass of gas goes up or down by the same factor as the temperature measured from absolute zero, the Kelvin scale, goes up or down. Boyle’s Law, see1666, Charles’s Law, and Gay-Lussac’s Law (see 1802) all describe the PVT relationship of a gas; P=V/T or V=PT or T=V/P.

1787 Astronomy: John Michell (1724-1793), English geologist, postulated the existence of a body so massive that not even Black light could escape its gravitational pull, i.e., a black hole. In 1796, French mathematician/astronomer, de Laplace (1799) Hole described this idea in the first two editions of his book Exposition du Systeme du Monde. Later editions unfortunately deleted it. The idea was not widely accepted, as common knowledge then said light had no mass, and thus could not be influenced by gravity. (Einstein in 1905 agreed that light was affected by gravity.)

1787 Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart’s (1756-1791) Don Giovanni/Don Juan was a savage attack on religious intolerance. It was also the tragedy of a man whose only religion was knowledge. Don Giovanni was a new kind of tragedy. Giovanni respects Wolfgang no virtues, laughs at society. The women he seduced want freedom and a new adventure as much as he does. After Mozart seducing numerous women, the father of his latest mistress challenged him to a duel. Giovanni easily killed him, but the man’s ghost comes to dinner. Giovanni says he has nothing to repent. In a crescendo, the fires of Hell consume him. At 25, Mozart had written hundred of works. He left his patron, the archbishop of Salzburg, and, without a patron, died in poverty ten years later.

1787 Political Theory: To establish a strong central government, the U.S. Constitution was proposed and adopted in 1789, but without a Bill of Rights. It prohibited nobility, but did not outlaw slavery and did not give women the vote. Slavery, sanctioned in the Bible, was justified as being in slaves’s best interests, as it was in a slave owner’s best interest to treat his slaves well, an odious argument. Slaves were counted as 3/5 of a person. This reduced the number of representatives in Congress from slave holding states. Slavery was legal in most of the 13 states in 1789 but outlawed in the Northern states by 1804. Alexander Hamilton had wanted a monarchy; said, “Our real disease - which is democracy.”

1789 Madison, a Deist, proposed the Bill of Rights, based on ideas of the Enlightenment and George Mason’s Virginia Declaration of Rights. When soon adopted, the Bill of Rights mandated that the state tolerate and stay out of religion. This James provision was meant to reduce the influence of the official religions then imposed by states. Eleven of the first 13 states Madison had a religious test to hold public office, nine had official churches, supported financially by the state. America was the first government to explicitly exclude religion as one of its basic principles. But women generally could not vote, inherit, sue, sit on juries, make a will, hold public office, keep her children in event of a divorce, keep her wages, or own property.

The colonies were mostly Protestant, of different sects. But the major founding fathers of America were wealthy and learned men of The Enlightenment, thus anti-clerical, many of them Deists (1624), thus not Christians. For example, Madison wrote, “During almost 15 centuries has the legal establishment of Christianity been on trial, what has been its fruits? More or less, in all places, pride and indolence in the clergy, ignorance & servility in the laity: in both superstition, bigotry, and persecution. Religious bondage shackles and debilitates the mind and unfits it for every noble enterprise.”

Similarly, Jefferson wrote, “Question with boldness even the existence of God; because if there be one, he must more Thomas Jefferson approve of the homage of reason than that of blindfolded fear.” 1787. “Religions are all alike, founded upon fables and mythologies.” In 1800, he wrote, “I have sworn upon the altar of God, eternal hostility against every form of tyranny over the mind of Man.“ This appears in the Jefferson Memorial in Washington DC, and has been considered as a repudiation of all organized religions. Also, “I do not find in orthodox Christianity one redeeming feature.” ...“The Christian God is a being of terrific character - cruel, vindictive, capricious, and unjust.” Regarding the power of businesses, he wrote, “I hope we shall crush in its birth the aristocracy of our moneyed corporations which dare already to challenge our government.” and, The government is the strongest of which every man feels himself a part. Franklin Washing- Ben Franklin: “I have found Christian dogma unintelligible. Early in life, I absented myself from Christian assemblies.” ton George Washington, a deist, made many references to God in his writings, but none of them biblical, i.e., Christian. He John spoke of the “grand architect.” He signed the Treaty of Tripoli, which stated, “The government of the United States is not Adams in any sense founded on the Christian religion.” It was ratified in 1797 under the President John Adams.

88 John Adams wrote, “The divinity of Jesus is a convenient cover for absurdity.” And, “This would be the best of all possible words, if there were no religion in it.” Deists were distrusted by adherents of America’s various religions.

1789 Political Theory: Jeremy Bentham (1748-1832), British jurist and philosopher, wrote Introduction to the Principles of Morals and Legislation expounding his basic ethical doctrine that men are obligated to do that which will produce the Jeremy greatest good for the most people, known as utilitarianism. This concept was taken from Hume’s A Treatise of Human Bentham Nature (1739-40) and J.B. Priestley’s Essay on the First Principles of Government (1768), and originally from Francis Hutcheson’s 1725 phrase. For Bentham, pain and pleasure were the only intrinsic values in the world. Intentions are good or bad only insofar as they lead to pleasure or pain. To Bentham, social problems could be solved scientifically. His question was, “How good is the law? How can it be improved? This theory led to proposals for reforming laws, improving schools, changing the prison system, etc.

1789 Political Theory, the French Revolution, Maximillian Francois Marie Isidore de Robespierre: From 1650-1789, France had held the concept that one person must rule. It was the wealthiest country and an absolute monarchy. The “people” were a motley horde. The justification of monarchy was based on the “Great Chain of Being” (from Plato) i.e., from the lowest in society up through nobility, to king and God. However, some Frenchmen had read Locke, Bentham, Rousseau, and Jefferson, and had seen the United States kick out the British and prohibit nobility and a state religion. The American and French revolutions were the first to be expressed in secular, not religious, terms,

French Jacobins/Robespierre promulgated a “Declaration of Rights of Man” (1789) whose preamble resembled the U.S. Declaration of Independence (Jefferson was a U.S. diplomat in France at the time) but went further than the American one. This Declaration said that the source of all sovereignty lies essentially in the nation. This was dangerous as it permitted a tyrant to claim he was acting for the state. Robespierre did just that. He decreed death to “enemies of the revolution.” The French Revolution was the turning point in European history, destroying the old order, immensely more important in changing intellectual history than the American Revolution. Libertie, Fraternitie, and Egualitie was its motto. Some who revolted were returned soldiers who under Lafayette had helped America gain its independence. A mob stormed the Bastille on July 14, 1789, freeing a handful of prisoners. In the first years of the revolution, to 1792, the revolution abolished special privileges and promoted freedom of speech, the press, religion, and trade.

1790 Political Theory: Burke (1775) wrote Reflections on the Revolution in France, the founding text of modern conservatism. W rote, the French “are not fit for liberty, and must have a strong hand like that of their former masters to coerce them.” Edmund He said the revolutionaries had “pulled down...their monarchy, church, nobility, law, revenue, army, navy, commerce, arts, Burke manufactures.” The door was opened to an “irrational, unprincipled...confiscating, plundering, ferocious, bloody and tyrannical democracy.” Said, all useful and legitimate innovations must result from the slow growth of the collective mind in accordance with tradition. Reflections argued against natural rights, said all rights come from the history of the society. “Government is a contrivance of human wisdom to provide for human wants... Men have a right that these wants should be provided for by this wisdom.” Also, “What is liberty without wisdom, and without virtue?” He condemned the Enlightenment. He wrote, “Religion is the basis of civil society,” but also, “Superstition is the religion of feeble minds.”

He was the authentic “Conservative.” His writings became the classic conservative critique of attempts to reform society on the basis of abstract theories. Such classic conservatism is a philosophy of governing, be cautious, respect tradition. Burke agreed with the English Revolution of 1688 as it was a protection of the national traditions of Protestantism. The prevailing British political system whose “traditions” Burke wanted to respect was the monarch/ aristocratic/class system, He opposed poor people voting. Burke warned England not to imitate France, lest confiscation and plunder of property result and atheism replace religion. He termed the revolution a threat to Europe and all mankind. Paine replied in The Rights of Man (1791) that Burke pitied the plumage but forgot the dead bird.

1793 Louis 16 was beheaded. The Jacobins in 1793-94 during the “Reign of Terror” guillotined an estimated 20,000-40,000, mainly noblemen and clergy and then even Robespierre, (far different from the American Revolution.). They even briefly imprisoned Thomas Paine, then living in France and a member of the National Convention of 1792, for speaking against the execution of Louis 16. Robespierre’s execution ended the revolution’s most radical phase. The French revolution was led by a mob, not by elites (as America’s was). It put Europe in turmoil for 25 years. The Revolution was the end of the Enlightenment. (Napoleon restored order and a monarchy in 1799.)

Mary Wollstonecraft, British, in Vindication of the Rights of Women: The Enlightenment’s chauvinism is hypocritical. Of Burke, she wrote, ‘I smother the contempt I feel rising for your rhetorical flourishes and infantile sensibilities.”

1793 Political Theory: William Godwin, Brit., “Government can have no more than two legitimate purposes - the suppression of injustices against individuals within the community, and the common defense against external invasion.”

1793 Paine published The Age of Reason, a scathing attack on Christianity: “All national institutions of churches, whether Jewish, Christian, or Turkish, appear to me no other than human inventions, set to terrify and enslave mankind, and monopolize power and profit.” ”Whenever we read the obscene stories, the voluptuous debaucheries, the cruel and

89 tortuous executions, the unreasoned vindictiveness with which more than half of the Bible is filled, it would be more consistent that we call it the work of a demon than the word of God.” “The world is my country, all mankind are my Thomas brethren, and to do good is my religion.” Age of Reason, part 2, 1795, ridiculed absurdities in the Bible, became the Paine most popular deist book ever written, introduced deism to the masses, gave deism an agressive, anti-Christian tone. And, “From whence then could arise the solitary and strange deceit that the Almighty, who had millions of worlds Problem equally dependent on His protection, should quit the care of all the rest and come to die in our world, because, they of the say, one man and one woman ate an apple?” This is known as the Small God Problem, i.e., a God of one small Small planet and not of the universe. Age of Reason made Paine a pariah to devout Christians everywhere. God Regarding science, Paine wrote, “It is a fraud of the Christian system to call the sciences human invention; it is only the application of them that is human. Every science has for its basis a system of principles as fixed and unalterable as those by which the universe is governed. Man cannot make principles; he can only discover them.”

1794 Biology: Erasmus Darwin, grandfather of Charles Darwin, in Zoonomia, speculated all warm blooded animals came from one species, and that species passed along to their offspring traits acquired during their lifetime (see Lamarck 1809)

1795 Politics: The French revolution failed. Nobles throughout Europe resisted it. Napoleon Bonaparte, Corsican, (1769-1821) took over the army in 1795, led a coup d’etat in 1799, ruled as First Consul, then emperor in 1804, and thought himself the nation (like Louis 14, “L’état? C’est moi”). He became a more absolute monarch than any others before. Napoleon disdained women. “Public education is not suitable for them; as they are never called upon to act in public..Marriage is all they look to.” The Code Napoleon, his proudest work, made a women her husband’s property.

1795 Geology: James Hutton (1726-1795), Edinburgh, friend of Hume, Joseph Black, and Adam Smith, published an important scholarly but unreadable A Theory of the Earth with Proofs and Illustrations. He created the science of geology. He was the first to realize that the Earth was many millions of years old. He said clamshell fossils were found on mountaintops as mountains were formed by the heat from a hot core of the Earth pushing land up. Mountains eroded, left sediments. Re the age of the Earth, said, “We find no vestige of a beginning, no prospect of an end.” After Hutton died, John Playfair, a friend and mathematician, in 1802, published an easy-to-read version of his book.

1796 Geology, Biology: Baron Georges Cuvier, French, 1st paleontologist, suggested in Note on the Species of Living and Fossil Elephants, that from time to time, global catastrophes wiped out groups of animals, contrary to the notion of the great chain of being where everything was carefully ordered and planned for all time, as the Bible and Plato taught.

1796 Dr. Edward Jenner injected pus from a cowpox sore into a boy. Six weeks later, he injected the boy with smallpox. The boy stayed healthy. Thus, a mild version of a moderately bad disease immunized against the severe disease. Turkish peasants had been “inoculating” their children with smallpox pus for centuries. Cowpox was virtually risk free.

1798 Politics, Economics: Thomas Malthus (1766-1834), Anglican priest, published, anonymously On the Principle of Malthus Population. “Population naturally increases more than farming yields increase so there is a continuing struggle for food, so preventative checks on procreation are necessary.” There will always be poor people.

1798- Inspired by the Americans and the French, The Irish, kept in grinding brutal poverty by the British, and with no political 1799 rights, revolted, but were crushed. France helped the rebels, to no avail.

1799 The Rosetta Stone, with the same text carved in Egyptian Hieroglyphics, Egyptian Demotic, and classical Greek, was found by French troops. It had been carved c198 BC. Scholars could then read numerous previously unreadable texts.

1799 Astronomy: Pierre Simon, Marquis de Laplace (1749-1827), French astronomer and mathematician, in his Mecanique celeste, showed mathematically that the solar system was stable and did not need a divine hand to keep the planets in The God their orbits. Napoleon asked him why his explanation had not mentioned God. De Laplace answered, “Je n’avais pas Hypothesis besion de cette hypothese-la. Sire, I have no need of that hypothesis.” When a colleague of Napoleon’s, Joseph-Louis, Compte de Lagrange, also a mathematician and astronomer, said to de Laplace that the God hypothesis explained de many things, de Laplace replied that “The God hypothesis explains everything, but does not permit to predict anything.” Laplace Laplace thus defined science as a predicting tool. De Laplace also did pioneering work on the system of probability.

In 1812, de Laplace said, “We may regard the present state of the universe as the effect of the past and the cause of its future. An intellect which at a certain moment would know all forces that set nature in motion and all positions of all items of which nature is composed. If this intellect were also vast enough to submit these data to analysis, it would embrace in a single formula the movements of the greatest bodies of the universe and those of the tiniest atom; for such an intellect nothing would be uncertain and the future just like the past would be present before its eyes.” (Buckminster Fuller in 1960 proposed a similar economic/trade model of the world to predict world trade.)

Pre-1800 Overview: There had been empires larger than America, but never one so united, despite the dispute re slavery. Before c1800, land was the source of most wealth. (There were very few bankers and merchants). Those who owned land were wealthy. Those who did not were poor. Over 90 percent of humans did not live in cities and were peasants/slaves/ serfs/peons/untouchables/natives/low caste, mostly illiterate. Money was irrelevant to them. They worked from dawn til

90 dusk, every day, from childhood until death, with lives as Hobbes said, “nasty, poore, brutish, and short.” This was Leibniz’s “best of all possible worlds.” In England, one needed the permission of the Justice of the Peace, normally the squire, to move from the town. Peasants could not own guns. The JP could (and of course often did) send one to a penal colony for trivial offenses. The deer parks were closed to peasants. The average life span in Europe was c37.

Science: In broad terms, in the 17th century, science was rational, deducing events; in the 18th, it was empirical, describing the pictures that arose in experience; in the 19th, it became experimental, manipulating biological events.

19th Overview. By 1800, the world was connected. The century of colonialism was devoted to economic facts. New Century technologies, especially electricity, did for experience what printing had done for knowledge. Railroads transformed economies and created untold wealth for their owners and those who owned nearby land. Before railroads, all land travel was at walking speed. George Washington could travel no faster than Aristotle. Power was a new idea in science. Steam powered ships transformed water traffic. The merchant class (bourgeoisie) expanded, sea trade, steam power, employment for millions, manufacturing, mass produced furniture, cheap cast iron stoves, telegraph, oil, electricity, popular literature, missionaries, money, the science of economics, the concurrent settlement eastward into Siberia and westward to California. Of these phenomena, the most important was money. Politically, the 19th century was a reaction to the French Revolution. Conservatives said that the revolution was destroying the grandeur of Europe, said violence was intrinsic to revolutions. In the 19th century, Europe’s population more than doubled, going from 20% of the world’s population to 25%, even while millions more Europeans emigrated to the Americas, principally to the U.S.

The early 19th century was a period in which modern historical consciousness became a central component of intellectual life, as science had become a key element in the late 17th century. During the 19th century, believers argued that magic, witchcraft, i.e., so-called obvious religious frauds, preceded monotheism, but modern religion (i.e., without witchcraft, etc.) manifested itself only in the higher stages of human mental development. Nonetheless, the advance of knowledge was diminishing the authority of organized religion. Various countries began to ban slavery. Prussia abolished serfdom in 1807. England banned slavery in 1808, India (under British control) in 1843, French colonies in 1838, the U.S. only after the Civil War.

Colonialism: The major European powers colonized the world to establish and control world markets. By 1850, the factories of the industrial revolution needed markets for their manufactured goods. England and France took most of Africa; England took the Mid-East and India. Spain had S. America, except for Brazil which Portugal took. Bishop Desmond Tutu said, “When the missionaries came to Africa, they had the bibles and we had the land. They said, Let us pray. We did and when we opened our eyes, we had the bibles and they had the land.” (From a Bantu saying)

England exported people, manufactured goods, capital; imported raw materials. The overall costs of Britain’s empire (colonial bureaucracy, Army, Navy, infrastructure, etc.) exceeded its benefits to the nation, but the class that ran the government, the mercantile class, prospered greatly. As Adam Smith put it, ”To found a great empire...is...a project altogether unfit for a nation of shopkeepers; but extremely fit for a nation whose government is influenced by shopkeepers.” Most 19th century British scientists did not come from classically narrow-oriented Oxford and Cambridge.

1800- Electricity timeline during the 19th century. (See 1700 for earlier timeline of developments in electricity.) 1899 1800. William Nicholson and Anthony Carlisle discovered electrolysis by passing a voltaic through water, decomposing water into its components, hydrogen and oxygen. 1802. Gian Romagnosi saw a voltaic pile move a magnetic needle. So saw electricity and magnetism were related. 1805. Luigi Brugnatelli, Italian chemist, invented electroplating. 1808. Humphry Davy, British chemist, discovered that an electric current applied to chemicals could produce new chemicals. He isolated potassium, sodium, magnesium, calcium, strontium, aluminum, and six more elements. 1820. Hans Christian Oersted, Danish, saw an electric current made a magnetic field around a conductor, thus Major electromagnetism. The discovery that there was a connection between magnetism and electricity was one of Electricity Advances the most important discoveries regarding electricity. Electricity and magnetism are simply aspects of one in the 19th fundamental force, the electromagnetic force (see Maxwell 1867). Century c1824. Dominique Arago, French, discovered that an iron bar was magnetized when put inside a coil of a current carrying coil, but he did not see the increased strength of the resulting field. He also developed the principle of magnetism by rotation. (As minister of war and marine, he also abolished slavery in French colonies in 1838). c1825. Andre Ampere, French, formulated Ampere’s Law that was the basis of study of electrodynamics. The magnetic field in space around an electric current is proportional to the electric current that serves as its source, just as the electric field in space is proportional to the charge that serves as its source. Electrical current is now measured in amperes, amps. 1825. William Sturgeon, British, saw that leaving iron inside a helical coil of wire connected to a battery greatly increased the magnetic field, thus made the first electromagnet. He bent the iron core into a U bringing the poles closer, concentrating the magnetic field lines. He also made the first practical English electrical motor. 1826. Georg Ohm, Electric current = voltage divided by resistance. Resistance of a element is now tallied in ohms. 1829. Francesco Zantedeschi, Italian, wrote that a magnet nearing or leaving a closed circuit caused a current. 1831. Michael Farady, British, studied the magnetic field around a DC electric current conductor, thus established

91 the basis for the magnetic field concept. He discovered electromagnetic induction and electrolysis; established that magnetism could affect light. He pushed and pulled a magnet through a coil inducing an electric current in the coil, the foundation of electric motor technology. All generation of electricity is based on this principle. He largely enabled electricity for use in technology. He proved that vibrations of metal could be converted into electrical impulses, crucial for the telephone. 1832. Baron Pavel Schilling made the first electromagnetic telegraph, using a binary system of signal transmission. 1832. Hippolyte Pixii, French, made the first practical electric generator. (He died at 27) 1833. Heinrich Lenz stated Lenz’s law. If an increasing (or decreasing) magnetic flux induces an electromotive force, the resulting current will oppose a further increase (or decrease) in magnetic flux, i.e., that an induced current in a closed conducting loop will appear in such a direction that it opposes the charge that produced it. 1835. Joseph Henry, British, developed an improved electromagnet. With Faraday, he saw how to make an induced current. He also invented the electromagnetic motor. He discovered the principle underlying electromagnetic telegraph. He invented low and high resistance galvanometers. He discovered the oscillatory nature of electric discharge and was the first Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution.1827-1850. 1837. William Cooke and Charles Wheatstone, Brits, patented and demonstrated a telegraph. 1837. Samuel Morse, American, patented a telegraph, used Morse code. Sent first telegram in January 1838. c1839. Rudolph Kohlrausch, German, showed an electrolyte has a specific, constant amount of electrical resistance. 1840. James Joule, British, said that the amount of heat produced in a circuit is proportional to the time duration times resistance and the square of the current passing through it. c1850. Armand-Hippolyte-Louis Fizeau, French, discovered Doppler type effect for electromagnetic waves. c1860. Johann Geissler, German, showed gas in a tube glows from an electric current. 1866. Siemens GmbH built the first practical dynamo. 1879 first electric railway. 1881 first electric tram system. James 1867. James Clerk Maxwell, Scot (1831-1879), merged magnetism with electricity; posited that electricity, light, and Clerk magnetism, were all electromagnetic waves of different wavelengths traveling at the same incredibly fast Maxwell speed, Maxwell measured microwaves, then smaller infrared waves, then visible light, then ultraviolet, then X- rays, then the shortest, gamma rays. Maxwell predicted that there should be waves of longer wavelengths also going at the speed of light. (Hertz confirmed this 20 years later, radio waves). Visible light constitutes a tiny part of the electromagnetic spectrum, and acts as a wave (Huygens’s 1678 idea). Changes in a magnetic field creates an electric force and, conversely, changes in an electrical field creates a magnetic force (3 & 4 below). Maxwell summarized all we know about electricity & magnetism and their connection in 4 Maxwell’s Equations. (discovered by others, Maxwell realized that they were the heart of the theory of electricity and magnetism.) 1. Unlike charges attract each other. (Coulomb’s law) 2. There are no isolated magnetic poles. (If there’s a positive pole, there’s a negative pole.) 3. An electrical current gives rise to magnetic fields. 4. Changing magnetic fields can give rise to an electric current. (converse of 3) He also made the first color photos. Einstein said he was the most profound and fruitful physicist since Newton. Thomas 1877+. Thomas Alva Edison (1847-1931) invented the phonograph, the incandescent light, printing telegraph, Edison mimeograph, kinetoscope, alkaline battery, and held c1,300 other patented electrical inventions. In 1882, he turned on an 110 volt direct current electric power distribution system with 59 customers in lower Manhattan. 1879. Siemens GmbH demonstrated the first electric railway and in 1881 the first electric tram system. 1883. Nikola Tesla, Serbian-American, invented the induction motor with no electrical connections to the part that rotates, making it more reliable. Such motors now power most of the world’s electrically driven machinery. His alternating current transmitted better than Edison’s direct current, thus became the standard, but only after bitter, expensive, protracted lawsuits from Edison. c1887. Heinrich Hertz, German, measured the length and velocity of the Maxwell’s electromagnetic waves and showed that they could be reflected, refracted, and polarized like light. Hertz proved Maxwell’s theory re longer waves. Such waves were radio waves, Hertzian waves, and like all electromagnetic waves, travel through space and metal at the speed of light. His discoveries led to the wireless telegraph. The frequency of electromagnetic waves is how many wave crests pass a point each second. Einstein accepted that all electromagnetic waves travel at the speed of light in 1905. 1890. AEG GmbH developed the alternating-current motor (Tesla) and the generator, so power plants could be built. 1891. Sebastian Ferranti, British, designed and built the first power generating station and distribution system. 1895. Wilhelm Roentgen, German, made and detected X-rays, the birth of nuclear physics and the nuclear age. 1895. Guiglielmo Marconi, Italian, wireless transmission of radio waves, sent a message across the Atlantic in1901. c1899. Henryk Lorentz, contributed to the electromagnetic theory of light and to the electron theory of matter.

1802 Physics, Gasses: Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac’s law. The pressure of a fixed mass of gas at fixed volume is directly pro- portional to its temperature from absolute zero; i.e., minus 273.16 Celsius. Thus, at fixed volume, a gas’s pressure increases 1/273 each Celsius degree increase. Corollary to Boyle’s (1662) and Charles’s (1787) laws of gasses.

1802 1802 Teleology: Archdeacon William Paley’s Natural Theology posed the watch found on a beach analogy, the heart of Paley the Design Argument. His 1785 Principles of Moral and Political Philosophy was required reading at Cambridge.

92 1802 Biology: Gottfried Treviranus, German biologist, said simple forms of life had gradually developed into more complex forms; living creatures can be modified by external influences; that species develop into other species.

1803 Thomas Young, British, discovered interference of light, thus provided the first convincing proof of Huygens’s 1690 Wave Theory of light. He was also the first to measure and describe astigmatism, and to explain that color sensation is due to structures in retina corresponding to red, green, and violet. He also assisted in translating the Rosetta stone.

Physics: Benjamin Thompson, American, later became the German Count von Rumford, elucidated the principles of convection of fluids and the circulation of ocean currents, the main agent of heat transfer on earth.

1807 The Geological Society of London was formed. Robert Fulton’s Cleremont is first practical and economical steamboat.

1808 Physics, Atomic Theory: John Dalton (1766-1844), proposed that at the root of all matter are tiny particles he called atoms (from Leucippus and Democritus), which could neither be divided or destroyed. He said that all atoms of any one John element are identical and differ from other elements’s atoms in size and weight. The idea of atoms was not new but Dalton Dalton studied their size and how they fit together. He showed that Atomic Theory could explain the law of definite proportions (i.e., In compounds, the elements combine in a “firm union” in proportion with each other, by mass.). The idea of atoms was the most powerful idea in modern science, but not fully accepted for about a century.

1808 Philosophy: Johann Wolfgang von Goethe (1749-1832), the master spirit of the German people, leading figure of his age after Napoleon. Scientist, novelist, philosopher, critic, poet. The legend of Faust (making a pact with the Devil) is as old as the legend of Don Juan. Marlowe in 1592 wrote of it. Von Goethe wrote it over 60 years, completing the first part Johann in 1808 and the second in 1832, a few months before his death. Faust, seeking knowledge, power, pleasure, and wealth, von made his pact with the Devil. Part One deals with the destruction of the Medieval world and its replacement by modern Goethe society, i.e., Faust falls in love with Gretchen and takes her out of a Medieval town but abandons her. The story demands we recognize a new world is being born. For 2,000 years, Christians had known/believed that true freedom came from God. It hadn’t worked, why not deal with the Devil?

Von Goethe also said, “A useless life is an early death...Nothing is more terrible than to see ignorance in action.” “This occupation with immortality is for people of rank, and especially for ladies who have nothing to do.” “To rule is easy, to govern difficult.” “Mysteries are not necessarily miracles.” “Doubt grows with knowledge.”

1809 Biology: Jean-Baptiste Pierre Antoine de Monet, Chevalier/Knight de Lamarck (1744-1829), French naturalist, like Erasmus Darwin, was an early proponent of evolution. In Philosophie Zoologique 1809, he correctly said that organs Lamarck develop through use and wither through disuse. But, more importantly, incorrectly said offspring inherit traits acquired during an organism’s lifetime. One’s genes are set at conception. [De Vries’s 1901 discovery that cellular mutations caused changes in organisms showed Lamarckism wrong.] He said that each species had an inescapable drive toward perfection of its species; also wrong. Lamarck did improve on Linneas’s system of classifying animals.

1811 Poet Shelley was kicked out of Oxford for his atheism. In 1816, he lost custody of his children for the same reason.

1815 Geology: Tambora, a volcano on Sumbawa, an island east of Java in Indonesia, erupted, spewing 82 times more ash than Mt. St. Helens in 1980, six times more than Krakatoa in 1885, and 150 times as powerful as Hiroshima. The worldwide ash blocked sunlight and caused temperatures to fall 1.5 degrees.1816 became “the year without a summer.” Failed crops caused the worst famine of the nineteenth century.

Geology: William Smith, British, canal construction supervisor, deduced that one could determine the relative, but not William absolute, age of rocks, by studying which fossils appeared at which levels of sedimentary rocks. He showed that species Smith had been wiped out repeatedly. This contradicted the Bible. He also noted that fossils in the upper (more recent) layers were more complex than those in lower/older layers. Published the first geological map of all England in 1815. After debtors prison, he was called the Father of English Geology by the new Geological Society .

1815 Political Theory: After numerous successful military campaigns throughout Europe, Napoleon was defeated, exiled to Elba (in the Mediterranean near Italy). He escaped, returned to France, raised an army, but was defeated at Waterloo in 1815 (his 100 days) and exiled to St. Helena (remote S. Atlantic), where he lost the will to live and died at 52 in 1821. Napoleon there said, “Muhammadanism is less ridiculous than Christianity....and, Women are nothing but machines for producing children.” With Napoleon defeated, Count von Metternich, at the Council of Vienna, with England, Russia, Prussia and his Austria, recreated the old political order in Europe. It lasted until 1914. In France, the anti-religious fervor of the Revolution was followed by a wave of religious conservatism. In Italy, religious freedom was not won until 1945.

1817 Economics: David Ricardo (1772-1823), British banker, On the Principles of Political Economy and Taxation. “The natural price of labor is that price necessary to enable the laborers just able to subsist and perpetuate their race, without increase David or diminution.” “There is no way of keeping profits up, but by keeping wages down.” If workers were paid more than a Ricardo subsistence wage, they would have more children and there would not be enough food for everyone. Malthus’s iron law of population and Ricardo’s iron law of wages justified not giving the poor higher wages.

93 1819 Philosophy: Arthur Schopenhauer argued that Man is both a knower and a willer. As knowers, Man has a view from without (the cognitive view) and as free-willing beings, Man has a view from within (the conative view). He first advanced four rules of thought: 1. Everything that exists, is. 2. Nothing can be and not be at the same time. 3. Everything either is or is not. 4. Of every thing that is, it can be found out why it is. Later, in 1844, he said the laws of thought could be reduced to two; the law of the excluded middle and the law of sufficient reason or ground.

1820s Political Theory, socialism: In response to the excesses of capitalism, certain groups began to question the sanctity of private property in favor of state ownership, giving rise to the Socialist movement, often utopian in concept. Social reform ideas grew. In the U.S., persons without property allowed to vote, the so-called Jacksonian Revolution in the 1820s and 1830s. Brit Factories Act of 1819 banned children under 9 from working; children 9-16 can’t work over 12 hours per day.

Bolivar Simon Bolivar, (1783-1830) Liberator of S. America, abolished inquisitions, became an atheist, so excommunicated.

Philosophy: Georg Wilhelm Hegel (1770-1831) German philosopher, gave German idealism a comprehensive system of thought. He took Kant’s mind-ordered world from the human level to the cosmic one, creating an awesome system into Georg which all past, present, and future experience and thought fit together rationally in an encompassing dialectic that is Hegel constantly evolving) toward supreme self-consciousness, or Absolute Spirit. Thesis begets antithesis which conflict is resolved by a synthesis, that becomes a thesis and so on. The Absolute spirit is behind all developments in the world. Then we’ll know everything and see God. Soon, most academic philosophers embraced, theoretically, the idea of change, accepted strife as essential to progress, saw things as parts of a whole, and themselves as characters in the unfolding of history. “What experience and history teach us is this - that people and governments never learned anything from history, or acted on principles deduced from it.” Said if Adam/Eve had obeyed God, they would stayed as children.

Hegel’s method was to metaphysicize everything, i.e., discern in concrete reality the working of some idea or Universal Mind. All change results from a conflict of great forces. He saw history unfolding as a thesis, then the a reaction, antithesis, then the combination, synthesis, which becomes the new thesis. A philosophy of the absolute, it was the leading system of metaphysics during the second quarter of the 19th century. Hegel had great influence on Karl Marx (see 1848). He glorified the state and felt that the end justified the means.

1823 Pope Leo 12 banned vaccination for Catholics as against God’s will; required all residents of Rome to listen to catchecism, forbad Jews from owning property, revived Medieval laws requiring Jews to wear distinctive dress.

1824 Physics: Sadi Carnot (1796-1832) French, worked out a preliminary science of heat, thermodynamics. He realized that Sadi it’s not possible to continually convert energy from one form to another and back again as some energy is lost each time. Carnot This lost energy is called entropy. Heat flows only from hot to cold. (2nd Law of thermodynamics, see 1848+)

1826 Math: Nikolai Lobichevsky (1792-1856) showed for the first time that there was another kind of geometry other than Euclidian, a fundamental discovery that only 90 years later was recognized in Einstein’s Theory of Relativity.

Robert Physics: Robert Brown (1773-1858), Scot, botanist, noticed that tiny grains of pollen suspended in water continued to Brown move no matter how long the water stood. (The motion of tiny particles in water had first been noted by Lucretius in 60 BC.) This became known as Brownian motion. Brownian motion is thus perpetual motion. In 1831 he saw the control point of a cell, called it the nucleus, and identified that structure as being the common element of all plant cells - a find as important as the later discovery of the atomic nucleus. Nuclei were soon discovered in animal cells.

1826 Political Theory: Benjamin Disraeli (1804-1881), Earl of Beaconsfield, later Prime Minister (1868-70,74-80), “All power is a trust...We are accountable for its exercise...From the people, and for the people, all springs, and all must exist.” [Lincoln copied this phrase in the Gettysburg Address] “Property has its duties as well as its rights.” 1845.

1827 Theology: Joseph Smith (1805-1844), a convicted con man, in Western New York State, said that a prophet Mormon wrote a book on gold plates, which he gave to his son Moroni, an angel. Moroni then gave to Smith the plates and two The magic stones to translate the plates. From behind a curtain, Smith, who could read but not write, dictated the Book of Book of Mormon from the plates. He allowed no one to see the plates. He claimed that he was returning to the original teachings Mormon of Jesus. Polygamy was a central feature of his religion.

The Book of Mormon, published in 1830, is largely copied from the Bible. Most phrases in the Book come directly from the New and Old Testaments. The phrase “and it came to pass” appears over 2,000 times, said that Jews were wicked. What It asserted that the Jewish lost tribe of Israel came to America c 600 BC and became American Indians; that God is Mormons married to his goddess wife, that God sent fiery flying serpents to bite people, that God will force people to eat their own Know flesh, that God was once a man on another planet, that Indians had dark skin because they turned away from God, that polygamy was OK, that God will kill whom you ask him to, and curses one who marries an Indian, that there is no salvation outside Mormonism, and that Jesus is both the Son of God and the Father. Numerous passages describe Indians as filthy and loathsome. There are numerous more assertions in the Book inconsistent with scientific knowledge and beyond rational belief. While it purports to have been originally written several centuries before Christ, Jesus is mentioned often.

94 Smith “excommunicated” most of his original followers and was shot in Illinois. Four of Smith’s 35 wives were 14 to 16 years old. Christians persecuted the Mormons so Smith’s followers under Brigham Young settled in Utah. Mormonism is a restorationist (all men will eventually be restored to a state of happiness) Christian sect. Blacks were not permitted to enter the priesthood. Major Christian sects consider it heretical.

1828 Biology: Frederich Woehler, German, accidentally synthesized urea, an organic substance, from inorganic materials, proving that an organic substance did not need a “vital force” present in plants and animals to be formed. He was one of first to isolate aluminum, beryllium. Organic chemistry is essentially the chemistry of carbon.

1830 Geology: Charles Lyell (1797-1875), British, wrote Principles of Geology, a history of geology and a description of the Geology inorganic physical processes at work in the world, such as volcanoes, erosion, earthquakes. It built on Playfair’s simplification of Howell’s 1795 work. Everything that happened in the past could be explained by events still going on, uniformitarianism. Darwin read Volume 1 of Principles before his departure on the Beagle in 1831.(see 1939 Darwin)

Charles Volume 2 of Principles (1832) dealt with processes like climatic change which might cause species to appear or disappear. Lyell Volume 3 (1833) wrote that the Earth must be millions of years old to create the present world. The Anglican Church strongly opposed Lyell’s theory of the extreme age of the Earth and he was socially ostracized.

Biology, Botany: Lyell theorized that changes in flora and fauna might be explained by their isolation in separate and different ecological circumstances, and, re fossils, he wrote, “In the universal struggle for existence, the right of the strongest eventually prevails.” (In 1859, Darwin praised Principles of Geology in his The Origin of Species.)

1830 Daniel Webster, in the Senate, said, “The people’s government [is] made for the people, made by the people, and Webster answerable to the people.”

1830 Philosophy: Auguste Compte (1798-1857) a founder of sociology and positivism (recognizes only positive facts and Compte observable phenomena without inquiry into ultimate origins). He said all branches of knowledge go through 3 stages, theological/fictitious, metaphysical/abstract, and scientific/positive. He said, use quantitative data to make decisions.

1832 Part Two of Goethe’s Faust depicted the world to come. Progress, ruthlessness, the old destroyed. Goethe died.

1833 German historian Leopold von Ranke: God said every state has a special moral character; one should strive to fulfill the idea of that state; ie, Germans, reject the French revolution. Every age is unique, should be judged in its own context.

1834 Spanish Inquisition ended, but an auto-da-fe, public sentencing and burning of heretics, occurred in Mexico in 1850.

1835 Political Theory: Alexis de Tocqueville (1805-1859), French nobleman, traveled around America and wrote Democracy in America, about the growing U.S., saw clearly that progress toward equality was irresistible. Though a nobleman, he saw that the privileges of nobility had to end. “I know of no country where the love of money has taken stronger hold on the affections of men and where a profounder contempt is expressed for the theory of the permanent equality of property. . . America is a land of wonders, in which everything is in constant motion, and every change seems an improvement.” [Cotton was 59% of US exports. Major source of US wealth. It allowed US to pay its debts.]. R W Emerson’s Nature popularized transcendentalism, an ideal spiritual state transcending the physical and empirical.

1839 Botany, Biology: Matthias Schleiden (1804-1881) and Theodor Schwann (1810-1882) German biologists. In 1837, Schleiden had noted that plants were composed of cells. Schwann noted similar structures in animals. They then wrote that all vegetable and animal matter was cellular; all cells have a membrane, nucleus, and cell body and are the elementary particles of all plants and animals, the basic principles of cell theory. This was accepted only in 1860 when Louis Pasteur showed that life comes from preexisting cells. Cell theory is the basis of biology.

1839 Theology: Catholic Church dropped its claim that the Earth is the center of the universe, 300 years after Copernicus.

Physics: Christian Doppler, Austrian, discovered that an approaching sound source bunches up the sound waves it emits, thus has a higher pitch than the sound from a stationary or departing sound source, where the sound waves are Doppler spaced further apart. This is the Doppler Effect. A similar effect works also with the electromagnetic waves of light which ninety years later enabled Hubble and other astronomers to calculate how fast stars are receding from us (or approaching). Sound waves are not electromagnetic waves. Sound thru air goes 767MPH, through water 4.3 times faster; through steel 17 times faster. The word scientist was first used in 1840, replacing natural philosopher.

Biology: Charles Darwin (1809-1882), then a firm believer, with a divinity degree from Cambridge, spent 1831-1836 on the British surveying ship, the Beagle, sailing the S. Atlantic and the S. Pacific, then west around S. Africa back to England, Darwin collecting specimens and taking notes.(He spent 3+ years on land, 18 months at sea.) Before and while at sea, Darwin on the read Volume 1 of Lyell’s Geology, including its speculations on how changes in flora and fauna may be due to their Beagle isolation and whether species die and others take their place. (Darwin read Volume 2 in 1834 in Montevideo.) The specimens and notes he shipped home during his journey made him a well regarded naturalist.

95 On his return, he became the Secretary to the Geological Society and a member of the Royal Society and other scientific societies. He read widely preparing his notes for publication. In 1838, Darwin read Malthus’s Essay on Population Darwin (“Population has the constant tendency to increase beyond the means of subsidence,” thus always a struggle/competition back in for food). Malthus’s insight was the key to the riddle. From it, Darwin developed the theory of Natural Selection, that in England the struggle for food, some species die and others come into existence, and, within a species, the most fit to survive, survive. Realizing the revolutionary and heretical nature of his theory, he planned to publish it only after he died. In 1839, Darwin published Journal and Remarks on the geology, botany, and zoology he saw on his trips. He continued to publish scholarly articles on geology, biology, and botany. (more Darwin 1859)

1840 Henri Hess, Russian, said that the amount of heat developed or absorbed in a chemical reaction was always fixed, inferring the laws of thermodynamics (see 1850) also applied to chemical reactions, the science of thermochemistry.

1840 Thomas Carlyle, Rector, U. of Edinburgh, termed the Koran, “wearisome confused jumble, crude...stupidity.”

1842 G J Holyoake, British social reformer, jailed for 6 months for saying he didn’t believe there was such a thing as God.

1844 Baha’u’llah, Persian, founded the monotheistic Baha’i faith, emphasizing the spiritual unity of all mankind. Its three core principles, the unity of God, the unity of religion, and the unity of mankind. Baha’i also teaches gender equality, elimination Baha’i of all forms of prejudice, world peace, harmony of religion and science, independent non-theological investigation of truth, compulsory education, universal auxiliary language, obedience to government, end extremes of wealth and poverty. Adherents consider other religions as manifestations of God who brought teachings suitable for their time, but Baha’u’llah fulfills the end-time prophesies of earlier scriptures. The purpose of life is spiritual growth through an organic process that continues after death. Baha’i says God is too great for humans to fully comprehend.

1844 Biology: Scot Robert Chambers published anonymously Vestiges of Creation, Man evolved from lesser creatures following God given laws, theistic evolution. It tied together several current theories. It was very popular.

c1846- Physics: William Thomson, (1824-1907, made Lord Kelvin in 1892), entered U. of Glascow at ten, studied in Paris, 1907 London, graduated from Cambridge, made professor of natural philosophy (science) at Glascow at 22, taught there 53 years, wrote 661 papers, many on pure and applied math, suggested the method that led to refrigeration. In 1848, he Lord proposed that there was an absolute cold temperature, at about -273 Celsius/Centigrade, so devised the temperature Kelvin scale beginning at absolute zero, now known as the Kelvin scale. He invented a depth sounder, plus did pioneering theoretical work in electromagnetism, thermodynamics, and the wave theory of light. He established today’s standards of electrical measurement. He revolutionized the mariner’s compass and was the foremost theoretician of underwater telegraphy. He invented boosting devices that allowed telegrams to be sent across oceans. He went on the Great Eastern, the largest by far ship in the world, in 1866 as it laid an Atlantic cable. (France was joined to England by cable in 1851.) W rongly, he calculated the Earth’s age at under 100 million years, finally deciding on 24 million. (See second law of thermodynamics at 1850.) He was buried next to Newton

1846 Philosophy: Soren Kierkegaard (1813-1855) Dane. Father of existentialism. Science and philosophy are vain and pointless. Only individuals matter; existence is individual in character. As death is imminent, every choice has infinite worth, and every moment is a unique occasion for decisive action; each individual achieves his being through decisions. What really matters is the pathos of existing. Said that there were three groups of men, aesthetes, who want entertainment, ethical men, who live for the sake of duty, and religious men, who live to obey God.

1848 Political Theory: Revolutions: Germany was the world leader in industrial might and was becoming the most powerful nation in Europe, overtaking Britain as the leading military power. Italy and Germany were divided into numerous states. (Germany united into one country in 1871 under Count Otto von Bismark to fight France.) Women’s rights movement in the US kick-started at Convention on Women’s Rights at Seneca Falls, NY.

Karl Political Theory: Cities, without the rural influence of the squire or pastor, with crowded filthy living conditions, became Marx centers of dissent and revolution. Unsuccessful socialist revolutions of Italy, Germany, Austria, and France in 1848 prompted Karl Marx’s (1818-1883) Communist Manifesto (1848), denigrating Utopians. “A specter is haunting Europe - the specter of communism.” Trade unionism had sought to work within capitalism. Marx wanted to replace capitalism.

Marx understood history, thus he could predict the character of the world to come, if not the run of communism. He was influenced by the social ideas from the French Revolution, the economic ideas of the industrial revolution in England, and the philosophical ideas coming out of Germany. He said the bourgeoisie in 100 years had created more colossal productive power than all previous generations together. He focused on the process the bourgeoisie had invented, i.e. the money process, new ideas supplanting older ones constantly, not the achievements (factories, bridges, railroads). That is, the bourgeoisie had started a permanent revolution. This needed men and women who liked change. Economic relationships were the basic forces in history.

Marx said that the state is the ideologically legitimized power of the ruling classes over the working classes; its disappearance under genuine egalitarian and advanced productive and social conditions is thus necessary by definition.

96 Denigrating democracy, he said, “The oppressed are allowed once every few years to decide which particular representatives of the oppressing class are to represent and depress them.” 1848

Marx accepted Hegel’s notion of great forces, but claimed to start with concrete material reality, and saw the great forces as a struggle of the lower classes against the ruling classes, which would end with the triumph of the working class. “The proletarians have nothing to lose in this revolution but their chains. They have a world to win. Workers of the world, unite.” He saw how the ruling class exploited and controlled the lower classes and called on workers to throw off their chains. In tribute, today, all serious history is economic history. Marx also denigrated religion, “Religious suffering is...the expression of real suffering and a protest against real suffering. It is the opium of the people.”

Antonio Rosmini, priest, Prime Minister of the Papal states, wrote The Five Wounds of the Church, remoteness of the clergy from the people, uneducated priests, disunity and acrimony among bishops, Church enslavement to wealth, dependence of lay appointments by the state. It was immediately put on the Index, and Rosmini was forced to retire.

19th Numerous thinkers criticized the bourgeois, narrow-minded, hypocritical mentality of 19th century society: century Charles Baudelaire (1821-1867) “To be a great man and a saint for oneself; that is the one important thing.” social Anatole France (1844-1924) “The law, in its majestic equality, forbids the rich and poor alike from sleeping under critics bridges, to beg in the streets, and to steal bread.” Charles Dickens (1812-1870) Dombey and Son. A wealthy financier, has a sickly son who asks what good is money. The father patronizes the boy, “Money can do anything.” But in the end, money cannot save the boy nor the financier. Only a neglected daughter survives, whom he now sees is worth everything.(1848) Herman Melville (1819-1891) Moby Dick ”Better sleep with a drunken cannibal than a sober Christian.” (1851) Gustave Flaubert (1821-80) Madame Bovary, adulterous wife tries to escape the banalities of provincial life. (1856) Honore de Balzac (1799-1850) The secret of a great unexplained success is a crime that has never been found out. Victor Hugo (1802-1885) Les Miserables was powerful in describing social injustices. (1862) George Eliot (pen name of Mary Anne Evans) Middlemarch, fiction, explored great themes, class, political reform, education, status of women, nature of marriage, idealism, religion. Known as first fully adult work of fiction. (1874) Rudyard Kipling (1865-1936) The Ladies, “For the Colonel’s lady and Judy O’Grady are sisters under their skins.” (1895). He also wrote of the different mentality outside the West, “And the end of the fight is a tombstone white, with the name of the late deceased, And the epitaph drear: A fool lies here, who tried to hustle the East.” (1892) Oscar Wilde (1854-1900) Irish, “A cynic knows the price of everything and the value of nothing..Only a very shallow person does not judge by appearances..Patriotism is the virtue of the vicious...Science is the record of dead religions” Emile Zola (1840-1902), “J’accuse” exposed French anti-Semitism in the case of Captain Alfred Dreyfus. (1898) Ambrose Bierce (1842-1914) Devil’s Dictionary. “A Christian: one who believes that the New Testament is a divinely inspired book admirably suited to the spiritual needs of his neighbor.” “Impiety: not worshiping my God.” (1899) Anon., from Social and Industrial History of England, “The law locks up both man and woman, who steals the goose from off the common. But lets the greater felon loose, who steals the common from the goose.” (1901) Thomas Hardy (1840-1928) “A local cult called Christianity.” (1904) These social critics all saw what Marx saw, a new moral and intellectual world where the old evaporated in the face of the new. (See also Nietzsche at 1883)

c1848+ Physics, Thermodynamics: that branch of physics pioneered by Carnot (1824) dealing with the transformation of heat into Heat work and other forms of energy. A body does not contain heat, only thermal energy. Heat is energy transferred from one body to another due to a difference in temperature. Heat transfers by conduction, convection, or radiation. Specific heat is the amount of energy that is transferred to or from one unit of mass (mole) of a substance to change the its temperature one degree. Joule in1843 had said X amount of work makes X amount of heat. The amount of energy transferred is now measured in joules, British Thermal Units (BTUs), or calories. (1000 calories = 4,186.8 joules = 3.9683 BTUs.) The rate of transfer is measured in watts. A hot body contains much thermal energy, a cold body less. Thermo- dynamics First Law of Thermodynamics, 1847, suggested first by Hermann von Helmholz in 1847, and developed by James Joule and Rudolf Clausius, is the principle of conservation of energy for thermodynamic systems. In a closed system, or the universe, energy is indestructible and constant, it cannot be created or destroyed. It may, however, change its form, i.e., electricity to heat to light, etc. Work and heat are both ways to transfer energy from one place to another.

Second Law: 1850, Clausius said, “No engine can convert energy into mechanical work with 100% efficiency.” Any transformation of energy loses some energy, dissipated in heat, light, friction, etc. It is called entropy, and it cannot be recovered. Heat energy flows from hot to cold. One of the most important single laws in science. Some energy is available, some is not. In the universe, stars are burning up/fusing, entropy is always increasing, heat is draining into a sort of lake of equality in which it is no longer accessible. Newton’s physics was built on an equal sign. This law was the first physical law that was an inequality. (Wm. Thomson/Kelvin had posited the concept of absolute zero in 1848.)

Third Law 1906, Walther Hermann Nernst. “As a system approaches absolute zero temperature, all processes cease and the entropy of the system approaches a minimum value.” One can’t get to absolute zero. (Planck later in 1913 stated,

97 “The entropy of each pure element or substance in perfect crystalline form is zero at absolute zero.”) These laws are known as, “You can’t win; you can’t break even; and you can’t get out of the game.” In 1852, Joule and Thomson/Kelvin showed that an expanding gas consumed energy, and its temperature would drop, the basic principle of refrigeration.

1851 The Canton of Basel prohibited Jews from engaging in any trade, outlawed citizens from associating with Jews.

1852 Physics: Henri Giffard, piloted a cigar shaped hydrogen balloon for 20 miles over Paris with a 3 HP steam engine.

1853 Sir George Cayley, founder of aerodynamics, built a glider with lift and stabilizer controls, first manned glider flight.

1854 Dr. John Snow deduced that cholera was spread by contaminated water. One well caused all the cholera in London. He disabled the pump at the well. Cholera declined immediately Theodore Parker, at the Anti-Slavery Society, Boston, said, “Government over all, by all, and for the sake of all.”

1855 Evolution Alfred Russel Wallace, an acquaintance of Darwin’s, published an article in the Annals and Magazine of Alfred Natural History that speculated that new species were evolved from preexisting ones, (Wallace had also read Malthus.) Russel It was very similar to Darwin’s then unpublished theory, which Darwin termed Natural Selection. To avoid his insights Wallace being upstaged, Darwin’s close friends, scientists Thomas Huxley, Charles Lyell, and Joseph Hooker advised Darwin to publish his theory. So he resumed preparing his book on Natural Selection.

1856 Neanderthals, an extinct Hominid species, (with a larger brain than Homo sapiens) were found in the Neander valley in Germany. This showed that Man was subject to the same evolutionary changes as other organisms. Pasteur applied gentle, not boiling, heat to wine, to kill bacteria, prevented it from souring; later did the same for milk.

1857 The US Supreme Court said descendants of slaves were not citizens; they were property. “The right of property in a slave is distinctly and expressly confirmed in the Constitution.” Chief Justice Roger B Taney, Dred Scott decision.

1859 Robert Bunsen and Gustav Kirchoff said every element absorbs and emits a distinct set of wavelengths of light.

1859 Political Theory: John Stuart Mill (1806-1873), British, intensely home-schooled (fluent in Latin at 3, Greek at 8), a devotee of utilitarianism at 15. Godson of Jeremy Bentham: (“The moral rightness of an act is determined solely by its consequences.”) Mill wrote On Liberty in 1859, “The sole end for which mankind are warranted, individually or collectively, John in interfering with the liberty of action of anyone is self protection...Whatever crushes individuality is despotism, by Stuart whatever name it may be called.” “Prohibit nothing on the grounds that it harms a voluntary participant.” “Liberty consists Mill of doing what one desires... An individual’s liberty can rightfully be constrained only in order to prevent his doing harm to others. “Pleasure and freedom from pain are the only things desirable as ends.” He also said, “Conservatives are not necessarily stupid, but most stupid people are conservatives.”

Mill, in Utilitarianism, 1863, argued that cultural, intellectual, and spiritual pleasures are of greater value than mere physical pleasure, because they would be valued more highly by competent judges than physical pleasure. The ethics of utilitarianism influenced a large number of public men and helped shape important reform legislation in the 19th century in England. Mill explained that the logical process of Induction worked well due to the uniformity of nature.

Mill argued for individual rights and for tolerance of unpopular ideas and persons. Influenced by his bright wife, he favored women’s rights, wrote On the Subjection of Women, 1869. “The influence of priests over women is attacked by Protestant and Liberal writers less for being bad in itself than because it is a rival authority to the husband. And raises up a revolt against his infallibility.” (more Mill 1874)

1859 Physics: Italian Romano Amadeo Avogadro’s law: The theory that all gas molecules are the same size finally was All gas accepted by scientists due to the efforts of Stanislao Cannizzaro. Avogadro had in 1811 proposed to modify the Greek molecules Atomic Theory. He said 1. the ultimate particles of some gases were not atoms but molecules (combinations of atoms, are the like H20 or CO2), and 2. all molecules of every gas, even with vastly differing atomic weights, at the same temperature same and pressure, are the same size. A radon gas molecule with 86 protons and 136 neutrons occupies the same amount of size space as a hydrogen molecule with just one proton and 1 electron. This is why hydrogen and helium balloons work. [1cc of any gas, at 0 Celsius and at atmospheric pressure, contains 2.68986 X 1019 molecules.].

1859 Biology, Evolution: In 1858, Wallace sent Darwin a more complete discussion of his theory (He was also influenced by Malthus, even used the phrase, the best fittest survive, n.b. Spencer 1862) asking that it be given to Lyell. So Lyell had Wallace’s paper and a paper by Darwin on Natural Selection (written for the occasion) both read to the Linnean Society. Evolution Explained There was no reaction, so Darwin completed his book and in 1859, published the detailed 400 page The Origin of Species Natural by Means of Natural Selection, or The Preservation of Favoured Races in the Struggle for Life. Its main idea, “All species Selection evolved from earlier species through natural selection,” i.e., changes in individual species arise randomly, those changes that enable its organism best to survive, survive and reproduce, passing along that change, and those random changes that hurt an organism’s chances simply die out. Darwin credited Lyell and Malthus in Origin.

98

Thus there is thus no “purpose” to changes in organisms; organisms with accidental random beneficial changes survive and reproduce; organisms with accidental random non-beneficial ones often die out before reproducing even once. Darwin didn’t know mechanically what caused the changes. This was the chief weakness in the theory. (The cause, random genetic mutations, was not known until 1900.) Origin was very detailed and comprehensive. Darwin even explained how complex organs of seeming irreducible complexity, such as the eye, evolved from less complex organs. Previous ideas of The idea of species evolving was not new at the time. The Enlightenment was based on the idea of Man changing and evolution improving. Chambers’s Vestiges (1844) had postulated the evolution of all species but according to divine laws. Several earlier men had advanced the concept of evolution, Anaximander, Lucretius, al Jahiz, de Buffon, Lamarck, Cuvier, Laplace, Treviranus, Chambers, and Darwin’s grandfather, Erasmus Darwin. But Darwin amassed a huge amount of evidence for Natural Selection. Natural Selection was a natural process, not divinely directed.

The theory of natural selection was the single most important scientific event of the 19th century. It showed that natural causes and not a supernatural being created complex organisms and new species. Hegel had put evolution into philosophy. Marx had put it into politics. But Darwin explained how it worked for plants and animals, i.e., Natural Selection in the context of Malthus’s world of a struggle for food. Darwin at first accepted Lamarck’s 1809 seemingly reasonable but incorrect theory that parents pass on characteristics they acquired during their lifetime.

Origin did not mention humans. The common Western “knowledge” at the time held that all races of men were separate species, the result of different acts of divine creation, and of course, that the White race was superior to the others, polygenism. Polygenists falsely believed that mixed race children would be sterile. Evolution by Natural Selection destroyed the Design Argument by showing that organisms that are exquisitely constructed come about through natural processes, without a designer (akin to Hume’s argument.).

Christian Theology: The Origin of Species came “into the theological world like a plough into an ant-hill. Everywhere those thus reaction rudely awakened from their old comfort and repose swarmed forth angry and confused,” wrote Andrew White in 1896. to Bishop Samuel Wilberforce of Oxford wrote that Natural Selection was “absolutely incompatible with the word of God,” Darwin that the fall of Adam explained strange species. English Catholic Cardinal Manning declared his abhorrence of Darwin’s was theory. With Vatican approval, he set up the Academia, to fight Darwinism that “threatens even the fragmentary remains fierce of Christian belief in England.” French Monseigneur Segur said, “Darwin’s ideas come from Hell.”

German Dr. Schund said, “If Darwin be right, then the Bible teaching in regard to Man is utterly annihilated.” Another theological authority said, “If the Darwinian theory is true, Genesis is a lie, the whole framework of the book of life falls to pieces, and the revelation of God to Man, as we Christians know it, is a delusion and a snare.” A publication of the Episcopal Church in America said, “If this hypothesis be true, then the Bible is an unbearable fiction;...then have Christians for nearly 2,000 years been duped by a monstrous lie.”

Dr. Perry, Lord Bishop of Melbourne, said that Chambers, Huxley, and Darwin’s object was “to produce...a disbelief in the Bible.” The Catholic World said that Darwin is the “chief mouthpiece of that infidel clique whose well-known object is to do away with all idea of a God.” Anglican Rev. Walter Mitchell, VP of the Victoria Institute, “Darwinism endeavors to dethrone God.” French Abbe Fabre d’Envieu said that any doctrine other than that of the fixity and persistence of species was absolutely contrary to Scripture. (He was right.) Swiss theologian Rougemont called for a “crusade against the obnoxious doctrine.” German theology professor Christoph Luthardt said, “The idea of creation belongs to religion and not to natural science; the whole superstructure of personal religion is built on the doctrine of creation.” Benjamin Disraeli (a teenage convert to Anglicanism), soon to be prime minister, said, “Is Man an ape or an angel? I am on the side of the angels. I repudiate with indignation and abhorrence those newfangled theories.”

1860 Biology: Thomas Huxley (1825-1895), British, biologist, forceful advocate of Darwinism. Wrote Man’s Place in Nature, said, “Extinguished theologians lie about the cradle of every science as the strangled snakes beside that of Hercules.” Thomas ...Scientific investigation is nothing but the expression of the necessary mode of working of the human mind...Science is Huxley simply common sense at its best; that is, rigidly accurate in observation and merciless to fallacy in logic.. Irrationally-held truths may be more harmful than reasoned errors.” i.e., as errors can be corrected by better reason.

At a public meeting of the British Association for the Advancement of Science at Oxford in 1860, Anglican Bishop Samuel Wilberforce asked Huxley, “I beg to know, was it through your grandfather or your grandmother that you claim to have descended from a monkey?” Huxley answered, “I assert that a man has no reason to be ashamed of having an ape for his grandfather. If there were an ancestor whom I should feel shame in recalling, it would rather be a man, a man of restless and versatile intellect who, not content with success in his own sphere of activity, plunged into scientific questions with which he has no real acquaintance, only to obscure them by an aimless rhetoric, and distract the attention of his hearers, from the real point at issue by eloquent digressions and skilled appeals to religious prejudice.” The press interpreted this as, “I’d rather have an ape for a grandfather than a bishop.” (more Thomas Huxley 1869)

1860 Not all Anglicans were as obtuse as Wilberforce. Seven prominent Anglican scholars/clerics wrote Essays and

99 Reviews discussing various statements in the Bible that science had shown false. Bishop Wilberforce declared the book “tended “toward infidelity, if not to atheism”...the writers “guilty of criminal levity... wanton...false... atheistic. “ Many Anglican clergy asked the bishops to “save Christianity” by punishing the authors. Similarly, Journalist William Burr published anonymously Self-Contradictions in the Bible, describing 143 statements in the Bible about doctrines or historical facts that were flatly contradicted by one or more other statements in the Bible.

1862 Lord John Acton, (1834-1902) Catholic, so couldn’t attend Cambridge or Oxford, friend of P.M. Gladstone, in his Catholic Lord journal, The Home and Foreign Review, described Italian adventurer Pier Farnese as Pope Paul 3's son. The custom Acton had been to refer to popes’s sons as nephews. Vatican hostility killed the Review. (More Acton 1870, 1874, 1887)

c1862 Herbert Spencer (1820-1903), British, biologist, philosopher, developed an all-embracing conception of evolution as the progressive development of the physical world, biological organisms, the human mind, and human cultures and societies. Herbert First to use the phrase “survival of the fittest” to describe Darwin’s Natural Selection. He contrasted creationism and Spencer evolution, arguing strongly for evolution. With Darwin, science embraced the centrality of change.

In Education, 1861 Spencer said, “Science is organized knowledge.” (repeating Kant) “Science concerns itself with the coexistence and sequences among phenomena; groups these at first into generalizations of a simple or low order, and rising gradually to higher and higher and more extended generalizations. First Principles 1862 said, Religion has been compelled by science to give up one after another of its dogmas, of those assumed cognitions of the world which it could not substantiate...Science thus trespassed on the province of religion, since it classed among the things which it comprehended certain forms of the incomprehensible.” His Data of Ethics, 1879, said, “Scientific truths of whatever order, are reached by eliminating perturbing or conflicting factors, and recognizing only fundamental factors.”

1863 Sir Charles Lyell, England’s foremost geologist, who had opposed Lamarck’s theory, published Geological Evidences of the Antiquity of Man, wherein he changed his position and endorsed the fundamental ideas of Darwin.

1863 Abraham Lincoln’s Emancipation Proclamation freed slaves in the Confederate states, in revolt. “As I would not be a slave, so I would not be a master. This expresses my idea of democracy.” Also in 1863, Gettysburg Address. In 1865, Lincoln Congress freed all slaves with the 13th Amendment. (England had ended the slave trade in 1808 and legal slavery in the th on Carribean in 1833. France in 1838.) The legal abolition of slavery was the 19 century’s greatest achievement. But slavery segregation (often government enforced) and discrimination continued. (Saudi Arabia outlawed slavery in 1962.)

At the dedication of the military cemetery in Gettysburg, Lincoln used the phrase, “”that government of the people, by the people, for the people, shall not perish from the Earth.” The phrase had been used previously by Senator Daniel Webster, and a similar to phrases of Disraeli and Massachusetts minister Theodore Parker (see 1826).

1864 Ecclesiastic charges were brought against 2 of the 7 authors of Essays and Reviews. Archdeacon Denison insisted on severe punishments “for the sake of the young...thrust almost to Hell by the action of this book.” The eminent Rev Dr. Philip Pusey entreated the Bishop of London, a judge in the trial, of the evil consequences of an acquittal. The panel of bishops acquitted the 2 accused authors on relatively narrow technical grounds. A firestorm of protest arose.

1864 11,000 Anglican clergymen signed the Oxford Declaration, “If any part of the Bible was seen to be in error then the whole Anglican of it could be called into doubt.” They were right. The Bible does have questionable assertions, i.e., the Earth was created Clerics in six days. It was created in an instant. Woman was made from Adam’s rib. Some men lived hundreds of years. God Defend drowned all humans except Noah’s family, and all except two of each land animal. The Red Sea parted. The Sun stood the Bible still. 5 fish fed 5,000 people. Women must obey their husbands. Homosexuals should be killed. God created all species separately. Jesus walked on water. Believers receive what they pray for. W ith faith, one can move mountains. Mary was a virgin when Jesus was born. If one has faith, one won’t get sick. Jesus, Moses, Elijah, Tabitha, and Lazarus all died What and came back to life. Devils crawl out of people saying Jesus is the son of God. Devils cause epilepsy. Prayer heals. Christians Mutes are possessed by devils. Jesus turned water into wine. Sick were healed by touching Peter’s shadow or Paul’s Know handkerchief. Faith felled Jericho’s walls. Jesus has eyes of fire, feet of brass, and a sword sticking out of his mouth. 144,000 celibate Jews will go to Heaven; all others to Hell. Believers in Jesus aren’t affected by poison. An angel locked up Satan for 1000 years. John saw a monster with seven heads and ten horns. Jesus killed a herd of pigs by sending devils to them. Slaves shouldn’t want freedom. Man was doomed to eternal torture as a talking snake talked to Eve and Eve then tempted Adam; 4,000 years later men got a chance at heaven if they believed what the Bible said. The furor died down and the authors continued their distinguished careers.

1864 Pope Pius 9 declared war the modern world. He issued the Syllabus of Errors, it condemned democracy and “the insane opinion that liberty of conscience and worship is the right of every man.” The “errors” Pius 9 cited were simply 80 ideas favoring reason and freedom of speech and thought. The Syllabus embarrassed most educated Catholics. Even a Spanish journal regretted “the obstinacy and blindness of the [pope] in...condemning modern civilization.” In 1866, Pius 9, who had put Rome’s Jews in a ghetto, said, “Slavery...is not at all contrary to Divine law.” He had read St. Paul

1865 Anglican Bishop Colenso said Moses’s Pentateuch, the first 5 books of the Bible, was self-contradictory, had imposs-

100 ibilities. Moses’s authorship and the contradictions had been doubted for centuries. Anglicans excommunicated him.

1869 Chemistry: Dmitri Mendeleev, Russian (1834-1907) compiled the Periodic Table of Elements, showing families of elements, combined organizing elements by atomic weight and characteristics. The vertical columns contain elements with similar characteristics. The horizontal rows list elements by atomic number, i.e., the number of protons. (Atomic weight is protons plus neutrons+-.) The periodic table gave order to the elements. Mendeleev did not accept the concept of the electron. John Newlands c1860 and Alexander Beguyer de Chancourtois had first developed the concept of repeated patterns of elements by atomic weight. Modern tables are arranged by atomic number. The railroad across America (largest industrial project ever) and the Suez Canal were completed.(1866 Atlantic cable)

1869 Thomas Huxley (also 1855 and 1860) coined the term “agnostic” to describe himself. Said, “It is wrong for a man to say that he is certain of the objective truth of any proposition unless he can produce evidence which logically justifies that certainty...It is all that is essential to agnosticism.” Agnosticism is not an alternative to atheism and theism as it is not concerned with beliefs, but the possibility of beliefs. Atheistic Agnostics say that the existence of a god(s) is unknowable. Theistic Agnostics simply say that God exists but the nature of God is unknowable (Occam, Aquinas).

Huxley also said, "It is not who is right, but what is right, that is of importance." Thomas “Make up your mind to act decidedly and take the consequences. No good is ever done in this world by hesitation." Huxley "There is no greater mistake than the hasty conclusion that opinions are worthless because they are badly argued." "The great end of life is not knowledge but action." "Only a scientific people can survive in a scientific future." "Every great advance in natural knowledge has involved the absolute rejection of authority." "Only one absolute certainty is possible to man, namely that at any given moment the feeling which he has exists." "Science ... warns me to be careful how I adopt a view which jumps with my preconceptions, and to require stronger evidence for such belief than for one to which I was previously hostile. My business is to teach my aspirations to conform themselves to fact, not to try and make facts harmonize with my aspirations." "Sit down before fact as a little child, be prepared to give up every preconceived notion... or you shall learn nothing." "It is an error to imagine that evolution signifies a constant tendency to increased perfection. That process undoubtedly involves a constant remodeling of the organism in adaptation to new conditions; but it depends on the nature of those conditions whether the directions of the modifications effected shall be upward or downward." "Science commits suicide when it adopts a creed." Like other liberal minds of his time, Huxley considered Blacks an inferior race.

c1870 Philosophy: Mark Twain/Samuel Clemens (1835-1910) author, prospector, reporter, printer, lecturer, river pilot. “Faith Mark is believing what you know ain’t so...The Bible is a mass of fables and traditions, mere mythology...Man is a marvelous Twain curiosity...he thinks he is the Creator’s pet...he even believes the Creator loves him.”.

1870 Pope Pius 9 called and packed the 1st Vatican Council with Italian and Spanish bishops. Specifically, 700,000 Catholics in Roman states had 62 bishops/votes. 1,700,000 Poles from more liberal Breslau had 1 bishop/vote, a 150 to 1 disparity. What Pius 9 caused the council to decree that the pope is infallible in matters of faith and morals. Pius 9 hated democracy, Catholics loved monarchies, denounced freedom of conscience. (See 1864 Syllabus of Errors). Lord Acton led the opposition to Know the decree. The decree was widely disdained. Victor Emmanuel conquered the Papal States, freed Rome’s Jews from Pius 9's ghetto, unified Italy, but allowed Pius 9 the use of, but not sovereignty over, Vatican City.

1871 Biology: Darwin published The Descent of Man to make explicit that Man’s ancestors were ape-like creatures. The Dublin U. magazine said Darwin was seeking “to displace God by the unerring action of vagary.” French Constantin James said Christian it was a work “so fantastic and so burlesque” and was a huge joke, like Erasmus’s Praise of Folly.” Pope Pius 9 profusely Attacks thanked James, gave him the apostolic blessing and made him an officer of the Papal Order of St. Sylvester, and said, on “Darwinism is repugnant to history, to exact science, to observed facts, and even to reason itself.” Darwin again Darwin came to prefer Spencer’s phrase, survival of the fittest, to his own phrase Natural Selection. Darwin said, “Freedom of thought is best promoted by the gradual illumination of men’s minds which follows from the advancement of science.” And, “The mystery of the beginnings of all things is insoluble by us; and I for one must be content to remain an agnostic.” When Darwin died in 1882, he was buried next to Newton in W estminster Abbey; Lyell was nearby. The inference from Darwinism that individuals are not born all equal contradicted the liberalism of his time. Without Darwin’s blessing, what was called Social Darwinism came to justify the inequalities in society.

1871 Tennessee Supreme Court: “Non-believers can’t be heard or believed in a court in a country designated as Christian.”

1871 Frederich Engels, co-author of the Communist Manifesto, “The state is no more than a machine for the oppression of one class by another; this is true of a democracy as well as a monarchy.”

1872 Theology: John Henry Newman, Episcopalian, then Catholic, theologian, “I have been unable to see the logical force of the [Design] Argument. I believe in design because I believe in God; not in a God because I see a design.”

1872 W W Reade, Scot, philosopher, “Christianity is not in accordance with the cultivated mind; it can only be accepted by

101 suppressing doubts, and by denouncing inquiry as sinful. It is therefore a superstition and ought to be destroyed.”

1874 In Theism, John Stuart Mill (see also 1859) argued that the Design Argument was evidence against an omnipotent God. “What is meant by design? Contrivance, the adaption of means to an end. But the necessity for contrivance - the need of employing means - is a consequence of the limitation of power. Who would have recourse to means if to attain his ends John his mere word was sufficient? ... Wisdom and contrivance are shown in overcoming difficulties, and there is no room for Stuart them in a being for whom no difficulties exist.” Mill And, “The time appears to me to have come when it is the duty of all to make their dissent from religion known.”

1875 Physics: J. Williard Gibbs, professor at Yale, wrote a series of papers, On the Equilibrium of Heterogeneous Substances, now called the Principia of thermodynamics. He showed that thermodynamics didn’t apply only to heat and energy on a large scale, but was also present and influential at the atomic level of chemical reactions (as Henri Hess in 1840 had suggested.) As Gibbs was a shy person, his findings did not become well known for decades.

1876 Telephone timeline: 1861 Philip Reis, German, developed a crude “telephon” capable of changing musical sounds (but not voices) to electricity and back again. 1871 Antonio Meucci, Italian, got a preliminary US patent for an electric telephone, teletrofono. Telephone 1876 Alexander Graham Bell patented an “improvement on telephony” crediting Reis’s and Meucci’s prior work. 1877 Emile Berliner made an iron diaphragm transmitter and added an induction coil to the loose-contact transmitter, making a transformer that amplified electronic waves and prevented transmissions from fading. This enabled Bell’s telephone to work. 1878 Bell bought Berliner’s device for $50,000 (a fortune at the time) and made him chief engineer of the Bell Telephone Co., which then sold telephones as the Bell-Berliner telephone.

1876 James Cardinal Gibbons, Archbishop Baltimore, “The Church is not susceptible of being reformed in her doctrines. The Church is the work of an incarnate God. Like all God’s works, it is perfect. It is, therefore, incapable of reform.”

1878 John W Draper (1811-1882) professor at NYU, first president of the Amer. Chemical Society, in The History of the John W Conflict Between Religion and Science: “The history of science...is a narrative of the conflict of 2 contending powers, the Draper expansive force of the human intellect...and the compression arising from traditional faith...[Science] presents herself unstained by cruelties. She has never attempted to throw odium or inflict social ruin on any human being. She has never subjected anyone to mental torment, physical torture, least of all death, [to] uphold or promote her ideas.”

Why torture for God? “It was just because many of the Church leaders probably doubted secretly of the entire soundness of their vast and elaborate doctrinal fabric that they would brook no discussion of it. They were intolerant of questions or dissent, not because they were sure of their faith, but because they were not,” wrote H G Wells in 1902.

1877 Physics: Clausius’s 2nd law of thermodynamics said energy is lost into a pool of equality in converting heat to work, entropy (see 1848+). Ludwig Boltzmann (1844-1906) Austrian, established the relationship between entropy and his statistical analysis of molecular motion. He devised a formula to measure such entropy. Like Gibbs (1875), he connected the properties and behavior of atoms and molecules with the large scale properties and behavior of the substances of which they were a part. Boltzmann was important in getting atoms and molecules accepted as real.

1879 Political Theory: Henry George (1839-1897) Progress and Poverty, “So long as all the increased wealth which modern progress brings goes but to build up great fortunes, to increase luxury and make sharper the contrast between the House of Haves and the House of W ant (ref. Quixote), progress is not real and cannot be permanent.”

1881 August Bebel, in the Reichstag, “Christianity is the enemy of liberty and of civilization. It has kept mankind in chains.”

1882 Biology: Walter Flemming wrote that animal cells divide in stages, named it mitosis. Every cell is a chemical factory that processes its own nutrients, generates energy from those nutrients, communicates with neighboring cells, and can divide Cells into two identical cells. The cell’s ability to replicate itself is the key to all life and growth. Divide What the atom is to physics, the cell is to biology. Atoms are the building blocks of all matter. Cells are the building blocks of all life. Cells are made up of millions of atoms. Atomic theory was not yet accepted by most physicists.

1883 Friedrich Nietzsche (1844-1900), in Thus Spake Zarathrustra, wrote, “God (i.e., supernatural explanations of the world) is dead.” (Max Stirner had said it in1845) ...Christian civilization is decadent, a slave mentality, herd morality. All human life is basically motivated by the will to power (over one’s own unruly passions), the desire for a richer and stronger life....The Christian resolution to make the world ugly and bad has made the world ugly and bad.” Nihilism, championed by Nietzsche, rejected claims to knowledge and truth, and explored the meaning of an existence without knowable truth. Morals are valueless and only hold a place in society as false ideals. Nietzsche said, “Everything in [the Bible] is cowardice and self-deception.” Christianity is “the one immortal blemish Nietzsche of mankind.” Life is the will to power, and he who would truly live must overcome the beliefs and conventions of common on men; he must become a superman, ein Ubermensch. True virtue should remain with the aristocratic minority. It is Women necessary for higher men to make war on the masses. Compassion was a weakness to be fought

102 He held women in contempt. In Thus Spake Zarathrustra, he said that women were not capable of friendship, they were still cats, or birds, or at best cows. “Man shall be trained for war and woman for the recreation of the warrior. All else is folly...Thou goest to woman? Do not forget thy whip...We should think of women as property, as Orientals do... Woman was God’s second mistake.” In 1889, What is it; is Man only a blunder of God, or is God a blunder of Man?

Beyond In Beyond Good and Evil, Nietzsche argued that ideas that preserve life and add to a man’s power are more important Good than ideas sanctioned by logicians and seekers after the absolute. And, men must turn conventional values upside down and Evil in order to live creatively. He said that the established values of society were invented by the weak to enable them to triumph over the strong. (In contrast, Machiavelli said that the rules of society were to enable the strong to keep the weak in submission.) Also, “Reason is only a tool.” “Anti-Semitism is the final consequence of Judaism.” Nietzsche, brilliant, a professor for just ten years, sickly, retired due to ill health, became insane at 44, died at 56.

1885 Pope Leo 13: (In 1879, Pope Leo 13 had said, “God is not only true, but Truth.”) In 1885, he said, “Equal toleration of all religions...is the same thing as atheism...It is quite unlawful to defend, or grant unconditional freedom of thought, or speech, or worship, as if these were so many rights given by nature to Man.” (more Leo 13, 1893)

1886 America welcomed immigrants, “Give me your tired, your poor, your huddled masses yearning to breath free... Send these, the tempest tossed to me.” Part of Emma Lazarus’s poem on the Statue of Liberty. (Unveiled 1886)

1887 Physics, Newtonian physics limited: Physicist Albert Michelson (1852-1931) and chemist E. W. Morley said light went 186,320 m/sec (.000215 high), said that the absolute motion of the Earth through space is not measurable. They showed the speed of light [and thus all electromagnetic waves] was the same in all directions however measured,(as Maxwell had said in 1867. This showed that Newton’s laws might not apply all the time everywhere. This also refuted the universally held belief (including held by Descartes and Newton) in ether/aether, a substance thought to exist in space which conducted light. They proved that ether did not exist. Michelson won the Physics Nobel prize 1907.

1887 Lord Acton said of the pope’s 1870 claim of infallibility, “Power tends to corrupt, and absolute power corrupts absolutely.” Power “To break with the Church because the Papacy had shown itself wicked in 1870 was ridiculous. The Papacy had been Corrupts wicked for centuries...It had “contrived murder and massacred on the largest and also on the most cruel and inhuman scale..What was the [infallibility] decree compared to the inquisition and the St. Bartholomew day massacre?” Also said, “Great men are almost always bad men.” In 1881, he’d said, “There is no error so monstrous that it fails to find defenders among the ablest men...Liberty is not a means to a higher end. It is itself the highest end.”

c1890 Philosophy: William James (1842-1910), American philosopher, felt that the truth of a statement lay in its practical consequences, pragmatism, America’s first indigenous school of thought. “W e say Newton’s law of gravity is true because William it has proven useful in predicting the behavior of objects. All our scientific and philosophic ideals are altars to unknown James gods...An act has no ethical quality whatever unless it be chosen out of several all equally possible...Be not afraid of life. Believe that life is worth living, and your belief will help create that fact...It is wrong always, everywhere, to believe anything upon insufficient evidence...The deepest principle in human nature is the craving to be appreciated

1890 A divine revelation told the Mormon president polygamy was not OK, so he ditched it. Utah could become a state.

1891 J. Welton described the Laws of Thought of Aristotle, Schopenhauer, and Leibniz as, “The laws of thought are those fundamental, necessary, formal, and a priori laws which all valid thought must agree with. They are a priori, that is, they Basic result directly from the processes of reason exercised on the facts of the real world. They are formal; for as necessary Laws of laws of all thinking, they cannot, at the same time, ascertain the definite properties of any particular class of things, for it Thought is optional whether we think of that class of things or not. They are necessary, for no one ever does, or can, conceive of them reversed, or violate them, because no one ever accepts a contradiction which presents itself to his mind as such.

1892 Thomas Huxley (1860, 1869) disdained Protestants, “From Wycliffe to [other Protestant reformers], I fail to find a trace of any desire to set reason free. The most [I see] is a proposal to change masters from the papacy to the Bible.”

1893 Theology: Pope Leo 13's (also 1885) encyclical on the Bible: “It is absolutely wrong and forbidden to...admit that the sacred writer erred.. “all the books that the Church receives as sacred and canonical (including the Old and New God Testaments), “are written wholly and entirely, with all their parts, at the dictation of the Holy Ghost ... they have God for wrote their author,” and were thus incapable of error. More recently, similarly, the Southern Baptist Convention declared that the the Bible “has God as its author, salvation for its end, and truth, without any mixture of error, for its matter” so that Bible therefore “all Scripture is totally true and trustworthy.” This unwisely takes away any argument that the errors in the Bible could be blamed on imperfect human scribes.

1896 Andrew Dickson White, president of Cornell, a Christian, ambassador to Germany and Russia, president of the Am. History Assn, in The Warfare of Science With Theology in Christendom, described innumerable instances where Christian Christian clergy, using, inter alia, torture and murder, tried to impede, stifle, and discredit all scientific knowledge inconsistent with Dogma Christian scriptures, which much scientific knowledge surely was. He distinguished between religion, which he defined against as “recognizing a higher power in the universe, not ourselves, which makes for righteousness,” which he favored, and Science Christian dogma, the particular beliefs of Christian churches, which opposed science.

103

White termed the Christian holy scriptures “true,” not for their factual accuracy but because their mortal authors strove for higher moral beliefs and aspirations. Said, “The list of those who the Christian churches have denounced as “infidel How the and “atheist” includes almost all the great men of science..., inventors, and philanthropists; persons of noble Christian Bible is character like Newton, Pascal, Locke, Milton, and Descartes.” H L Mencken highly praised Warfare. As Darwinism true became widely accepted, some Christian theologians began to say Natural Selection actually supported the Bible. By 1896, most universities in the US and Europe were run by laymen, not clergy, which White favored.

Physics: Antoine Becquerel, Pierre Curie, and Marie Curie observed a fourth kind of force, the weak force, beta decay, radioactivity. (The three then known forces were gravity, electromagnetism, and the nuclear, or “strong” force).They isolated radium and polonium. Curie: “Nothing in life is to be feared. It is only to be understood.”

1897 Physics: Sir Joseph John Thomson (1856-1940), physicist, discovered the atom was not indivisible. He discovered electrons, and proposed a model for the structure of the atom, i.e., a nucleus of protons randomly surrounded by electrons, which were about 2,000 times smaller than protons. He also studied the conduction of electricity thru gasses. That was the intellectual breakthrough with which modern physics begins. (1906 Physics Nobel prize)

1897 Lord Kelvin/William Thomson, the most eminent scientist, finally decided the Earth was 20-40 million years old.

1899 Economics, Sociology: Thorstein Veblen (1857-1929), American economist, wrote The Theory of the Leisure Class, a scathing indictment of the shallowness of the wealthy, discrediting any veneration they had previously enjoyed. He coined Thorstein the phrase Conspicuous Consumption, to describe the ostentatious spending of money merely to show others that the Veblen spenders have wealth. Such spenders are insecure. “This conservatism of the wealthy class is so obvious a feature that it has even come to be recognized as a mark of respectability...Conservatism, being an upper class characteristic, is decorous; and conversely, innovation, being a lower-class phenomenon, is vulgar.” This concept was previously described by Adam Smith in Wealth of Nations in1776. Conspicuous Consumption continued undeterred among the rich.

1899 Physics: Ernest Rutherford (1871-1937) saw 2 kinds of radiation coming from thorium and uranium. He had said that radioactivity was the spontaneous disintegration of atoms. In 1903, he saw a more powerful radiation from radium.

1899- Colonialism: British, under Lord Horatio Kitchener, brutally subdued Dutch (Boer) settlers in South Africa. The U.S. fought 1902 Spain and took the Philippines and Puerto Rico. By 1900, Europeans (or their descendants) ran the world.

1900 Physics: Classical (Newtonian) mechanics was found not to describe sub-molecular phenomena. For example, the repartition of energy in the molecules of a gas and the energy distribution of radiation emitted by hot bodies. To answer Newton this, Max Planck, German physicist, formulated a revolutionary new quantum theory, that all energy, including light, Physics consists of whole units (packets) of energy (quanta). An object can have one quantum or a million, but not 1.5 quanta, limited i.e., energy moves not in waves but in packets. The energy quantum of light is called a photon.

It was published in the German journal of physics, Annalen der Physik. This was a return to Newton’s particle theory of light. People took notice of Plank’s quanta only when Einstein, in 1905, introduced the photon and used the idea to explain the photoelectric effect (light shining on metal knocks electrons out of the metal), to reconcile theory and experiment for heat, and to account for the propagation of light without relying on an “ether.” Planck was an editor of Annalen der Physik. Quantum physics is the study of the behavior of matter at the molecular, atomic, nuclear, and even smaller microscopic levels. In the sub-atomic world, the only way, so far, to observe a particle, is to bounce another particle off of it, so necessarily disturbing the measured particle. Thus, for such sub-atomic particles, to measure is to disturb, giving rise to Heisenberg’s Uncertainty Principle in 1927. Newton’s laws continued to govern macroscopic objects.

(Huygens in 1690 had said that light traveled as a wave (as did Thomas Young and Maxwell in 1867). Diffraction and interference were explained only if light traveled as a wave.). Planck: Light travels both as wave and as particles.

c1900 Botany: Luther Burbank (1849-1926), pioneered plant breeding; created numerous productive varieties of fruits and vegetables, wrote, “The Bible is an incomplete history and the folklore of an ancient race, but no more.”

Psychiatry: Sigmund Freud (1856 -1939), Vienna, discovered the unconscious; he invented psychoanalysis to sort out c1900- the unconscious mind. He was more controversial than Darwin. He said that sexual desires and fears underlay everyone’s c1939 minds, “Anatomy is destiny.” i.e., women’s bodies set their role in society. Freud felt that men unconsciously craved war, to kill, cruelly and brutally. Freud divided the self into three coexisting parts. The ego perceives, learns, and acts Sigmund consciously. The super-ego is the largely unconscious moral conscience created during childhood. The id is the repository Freud of unconscious; it desires pleasure without limit and without regard for reality, like the Greek eros He wrote, “A personal god was nothing more than an exalted father figure: desire for such deity springs from infantile yearnings for a powerful, protective father, for justice, for life to go on forever.” Also, “It would be nice if there were a God who created the world and was a benevolent providence...[but] in the long run, nothing can withstand reason and experience.” “When a man is freed of religion, he has a better chance to live a normal and wholesome life.”

104 1899 Evolution. Gregor Johann Mendel (1822-1884) Moravian monk, at an abbey in Brno, discovered c1865, after eight years of patient experimentation, that certain traits in plants were controlled by one of a pair of entities (that in 1913 came to be called genes), from one or the other parent,. His eight years of experiments with 30,000 pea plants disproved the then Gregor universal assumption of blended inheritance. He cross-pollinated tall and short plants and got all tall plants, no short or Mendel medium size. Then, he pollinated the new tall hybrids with themselves and got 3/4 tall plants.

Genetics Thus certain traits like tallness are controlled by discrete factors from one parent rather than being a blend of both parents. One in four plants would have purebred recessive alleles (shortness), creating a short plant, two were hybrids (creating tall plants), and one would be purebred dominant.(tallness). (i.e., 3/4 will be tall). He established five principles of heredity that apply to all living things and are still valid.

1. Each physical characteristic of a living organism is the product of a specific hereditary factor, now called a gene. Genes come in 2. These “genes” exist in living things in pairs. The mother’s pair may have a gene for green eyes and a gene for hazel pairs eyes, and the father’s pair, a gene for green and a gene for blue.

3. For each characteristic (z.b., eye color), only one of the mother’s (green or hazel) and one of the father’s (green or blue) will be passed to the child. So there are four possible combinations. G/G, G/B. H/G, H/B.

4. It’s 50-50 which of the two genes regulating a specific characteristic of each parent gets passed down. The child’s eyes are never a mixture of genes.

5. Some characteristics are dominant; some are recessive. So if the green gene were dominant over the blue or hazel gene, and if the blue gene were dominant over the hazel gene, then 3/4 of the offspring would have green eyes and 1/4 would have blue eyes. This three to one ratio is a fundamental law of heredity.

Mendel had published his findings in 1866 in the obscure Czech Journal of the Brno Natural History Society. Church authorities criticized it as Darwinian. Though his work received favorable notice in the Encyclopedia Britannica, it was totally ignored by scientists in general. Mendel turned to other studies. His work only became widely known after 1900. (The reason it appears here in this chron.) This founded the science of genetics. The Church disfavored his scholarship, and on his death, the monks in his monastery burned all his papers.

1899 Biology: mechanism of evolution explained. Hugo de Vries (1848-1935), Dutch, wrote Intracellular Pangenesis that caused Mendel’s earlier work establishing the laws of heredity to become widely known. De Vries suggested the concept Hugo of genes and citing Mendel, developed a mutation theory of evolution. He posited that different characteristics have de Vries different hereditary carriers and such carriers of specific traits are units he called pangenes (shortened twenty years later to genes). Thus Mendel was confirmed and became the father of heredity.

Random De Vries proposed that random genetic mutational changes suddenly appearing, caused well defined, inheritable genetic variations (confirming Mendel’s work), (as opposed to the slight, cumulative changes stressed by Darwin), and were the mutations forces in the origin and evolution of species. Mutations that change organisms in and of themselves are random and have prompt no purpose. Those mutations that help the organism survive (or at least don’t hurt), reproduce, those that don’t help, don’t evolution survive. This did in Lamarck. (Lamarckism is different from the science of genetics / eugenics wherein selective breeding, often using artificial insemination, is taught at many universities under the name, Animal Husbandry, which can create new sub-species of animals. For example, all dogs, big and little are one species.)

As Natural Selection is first random, it is sloppy and wasteful, creating millions of species or sub-species that died out or did not even reproduce once as they were not fit to survive. Thus the evolution of organisms happens first by chance, random gene mutations, and then survives or dies out by Natural Selection. c99% of all species that ever lived are extinct. z.b., 16 contemporaneous species of horses lived in North America between 15M and 8M years ago and died out. Giraffes didn’t develop long necks/long legs to eat high leaves. A long neck was a random genetic accident occurring on one shorter necked creature which then survived in part as it could eat high leaves and which then reproduced long necked offspring.

1901 Chemistry: Karl Landsteiner (1868-1943), Austrian pathologist, discovered blood was in different groups, and blood from one group killed red cells of another group.

1902 H.G. Wells, a progressive for his time, in his utopian New Republic, said all races but Caucasians “will have to go.”

1903 Physics: After years of study and experimentation, Orville Wright piloted a motorized glider at Kitty Hawk, N.C. for 12 seconds and 120 feet (half the length of a 747) He and his brother, Wilbur, bicycle makers, built it. Their crucial insight, they perfected the guidance and control systems, ailerons and rudder, which other experimenters had ignored.

1903 Hirobumi Ito, Japanese: ”I regard religion as quite unnecessary for a nation’s life; science is far above superstition; and what is religion, Buddhism or Christianity, but superstition, and therefore a source of weakness to a nation.”

105 Max Weber, a founder of sociology, said that Protestantism’s connection of piety and work furthered capitalism. He named 3 kinds of authority, charismatic (family and religions), traditional (kings, feudalism), and legal (the modern state). 1904 Philosophy is useful as only it can validate the concepts, such as the person, through which we understand and act.

1905 Physics: Albert Einstein (1879-1955), born in Ulm, published four extraordinary papers in the Annalen der Physik, while working as a patent examiner in Berne/Bern, going further to solving the riddle of the world than anyone else.

Paper 1. He explained that Brownian Motion (the motion of tiny particles suspended in liquid) was evidence of molecular action, which supported Dalton’s atomic theory.) [Brownian motion is perpetual motion.] Albert Einstein Paper 2. The photoelectric effect of light (i.e., light shining on metal knocks electrons out of the metal) could be understood as light interacts with matter in discrete “packets” (quanta) of energy (the idea advanced by Planck in 1900. This seemed to contradict the contemporary wave theory of light.). This helped create the system of quantum mechanics/physics. Such packets/quanta of light are now called photons.

Paper 3. On the Electrodynamics of Moving Bodies, proposed the radical Special Theory of Relativity, which showed that the independence of an observer’s state of motion on the observed speed of light required fundamental changes to the notion of simultaneity. The consequences of this include the time space frame of a moving body slowing down and contracting (in the direction of motion) relative to the frame of the observer. All electromagnetic waves, including light, go the same speed, under all conditions and for all observers. Assuming this, and that the laws of nature are constant, then time and motion are relative to the observer. It was called special as it dealt only with things moving in an essentially unimpeded state, i.e., no gravity, thus moving at a constant velocity. Nothing can go faster than electromagnetic waves. This theory added space-time as the 4th dimension of the universe.

E=mc² Paper 4. (A few months later) an extension of Paper 3: The inertia of a body depends on its energy content (and not on its mass alone, as Newton had said). Thus scientists had to accept the equivalence of mass and energy. E=mc² (E=energy, m=mass, c=speed of light) Energy is liberated matter; matter is energy waiting to happen. The energy of a photon is proportional to the frequency of the radiation. As c is such a huge number, there’s a huge amount of energy bound up in every bit of matter. Even the uranium bomb, the most energetic thing yet produced, as far as we know, releases less than 1% of the energy it could release if we really knew how. So stars/suns can burn for billions of years (as ours has) without burning up all their fuel/matter. (Electromagnetic waves/light travel 186,282.3959 miles/sec)

According to the formula E=mc², one gram of mass = c900 billion billion ergs of energy. No experiment has verified this. Einstein said, “Measured against reality, science is primitive and childish, yet the most precious thing we have.”

Einstein’s ideas at first attracted little attention. He was rejected for jobs as a university lecturer and as a high school teacher so he continued as a patent examiner. But his ideas slowly gained him attention and respect. He became a professor only in 1909. (See also General Theory of Relativity, at 1915.) Max Planck (1900) was an editor at Annalen.

1906 Physics: Richard Oldham determined that earthquake waves travel through the middle of the Earth slower than through the mantle. Thus the core of the Earth is liquid.

1907 Physics: Bertram Boltwood discovered how to determine the age of a rock by measuring its radioactive decay.

1907 Theology: Pope Pius 10's syllabus, Lamentabile, listed 65 heretical beliefs, basically all those that asserted that humans influenced the Church’s dogma. He thus repudiated Andrew White’s 1896 attempt to validate the Bible as the striving of mortal men to reach for higher moral values. All priests were required to take an oath against modernism and those studying secularism or modernism had to stop. Pius 10 declared modernism itself a heresy. He prohibited seminarians from reading any newspapers whatsoever.

Catholic Over the centuries, Catholics were forbidden to print, own, or read, inter alia, Abelard, Acton, Joseph Addison, Index d’Alembert, Francis Bacon, Balzac, Bruno, Bentham, Berkeley, Calvin, de Beauvoir, Copernicus, Descartes, Croce, Dante, Defoe, de Stael, Diderot, Dumas pere et fils, Erasmus, Flaubert, France, Frederick 2 of Prussia, Galileo, von Gesner, Gibbon, Gide, Goldsmith, Graham Greene, Heinrich Heine, Helvetius, Hobbes, Hugo, Hume, Kant, Mary Kowalska (later a saint), Kepler, Larousse (Dictionary), D H Lawrence, Locke, Luther, Machiavelli, Marx, Maimonides, Malebranche, Montaigne, Montesquieu, Mill, Milton, Paine, Pascal, Rabelais, Rousseau, Sand, Sartre, Spinoza, Stendhal, Sterne, Swedenborg, Swift, Maria Valtorta, Voltaire, Zola, Zwingli, and “all books which affirm the motion of the Earth.” The Index retarded scholarship and the advance of knowledge immeasurably.

1908 Geology: Plate Tectonics: Benjamin Franklin had said that the crust of the Earth could be like a shell, disturbable by interior forces. Frank Bursley Taylor, American geologist, in 1908 proposed that the continents once slid around and that Plate the crunching of such continental plates pushed up mountain ranges. He was ignored. Tectonics Alfred Wegener, of the University of Marburg, further developed the idea in 1912, naming the original mother continent Pangaea. Geologists for years ridiculed the idea saying there was no force strong enough to do it.

106 In the 1940s, Arthur Holmes, British, further developed the concept. Very slowly, it has now been universally accepted. There are 8-12 big plates and 20 or so smaller ones, ranging in thickness from a few miles to 60 miles.

1911 Physics: Rutherford (1899) formulated the Rutherford model of an atom, a nucleus of neutrons and positively charged protons orbited by negatively charged electrons (like a planetary system), and that the nucleus is only one billionth of one millionth of the full volume of an atom but contains 99.95% of an atom’s mass, like a BB in the SuperDome.

1912 The galaxy Andromeda, 2.5M light years away, in the constellation Andromeda, with a trillion stars, was seen to approach our Milky Way galaxy at 186 mi/sec, one of the few galaxies that does. Clusters of galaxies move apart. Within a cluster, where gravity can have an effect, galaxies can move toward one another. Andromeda is in the same cluster as our sun. Our Sun is c27,000 light years from the center of the Milky Way. One light year is nine trillion Km.

Gustav Hertz, German, studied effects of impact of electrons on atoms, which agreed with modern atomic theory.

1912+ Philosophy: Bertrand Russell (1872-1970), British lord, philosopher, agnostic, mathematician. Russell took Einstein literally and adopted the view that there is no substance: everything in the universe is made of space-time events, and Bertrand events are neither physical nor mental. Mind and matter are different ways of organizing space time. “The word “cause” Russell is so inextricably bound up with misleading associations as to make its complete exclusion from the philosophical vocabulary desirable.”

All Said, ”Christians hold that their faith does good, but other faiths do harm...What I wish to maintain is that all faiths do harm. faiths We may define faith as a firm belief in something for which there is no evidence. When there is evidence, no one speaks do harm of faith. We do not speak of faith that two and two are four, or that the Earth is round. We only speak of faith when we wish to substitute emotion for evidence.“

His The Problems of Philosophy, 1912, said, “Philosophy is to be studied not for the sake of any definite answers to its questions, since no definite answers can, as a rule, be known to be true, but rather for the sake of the questions themselves. The goal of such study was to become a free intellect, an intellect that will see as God might see, without a here and now, without hopes and fears, without customary beliefs and prejudices. Stupid are sure; “The fundamental cause of the trouble is that in the modern world the stupid are cocksure while the intelligent are full of smart doubt...“The finding of arguments for a conclusion given in advance (such as all arguments by believers purporting to persons prove God exists) is not philosophy, but special pleading.” “To conquer fear is the beginning of wisdom.” “There is not have one word in the Gospels in praise of intelligence.” “Religion is based...mainly on fear...fear of the mysterious, fear of doubts defeat, fear of death. Fear is the parent of cruelty...it is no wonder if cruelty and religion have gone hand in hand.” “It is undesirable to believe a proposition when there is no ground whatsoever for believing it to be true.” (1928) ref Huxley, 1869) “Fear is the main source of superstition, and one of the main sources of cruelty.” (1950)

(“I don’t know why it is that religions never ascribe common sense to God.” Somerset Maugham)

First Russell answered the Cosmological/First Cause Argument: "If everything must have a cause, then God must have a Cause cause. If there can be anything without a cause, it may just as well be the world as God, so that there cannot be any Argument validity in that argument. It is exactly of the same nature as the Hindu’s view that the world rested upon an elephant and the elephant rested upon a tortoise; and when they said, "What does the tortoise stand on?" The Indian said, "Suppose we change the subject.” Russell also disputed the Cosmological Argument that the universe was contingent, simply because objects within that universe are contingent, which they certainly are. This is the fallacy of composition which states that as parts have a certain property, the whole likewise has that property.

Design Russell similarly argued, re the Design Argument, “If one contends that a divine mind needs no designer, one could just Argument as logically say a well-ordered natural world needs no designer.” Also, “Why did God, if an immortal, create mortal humans; why not create immortal humans?” [and why not put them in heaven, not on an imperfect Earth?] Russell said that von Leibniz’s claim that there was no real evil in the world contradicted Christian dogma. And, “It is the preoccupation with possession, more than anything else, that prevents men from living freely and nobly.“ Also, “All the conditions of happiness are realized in the life of the man of science.”

To refute the assertion that skeptics had the burden of proof to disprove false claims of religions, Russell coined the Orbiting concept of an orbiting teapot. “If one person were to assert a teapot orbited the Earth, and assert that as it could not be teapot proven not to exist, that therefore it did exist, he would be laughed at. But, if 2,000 years ago, such a belief had been written in theological texts, and taught to children as sacred truth every Sunday, not believing in the orbiting teapot would be considered mad.” Simply believing in an orbiting teapot (or a god) does not prove one exists.

Language Ludwig Wittgenstein, “godfather of ordinary language philosophy,” said most philosophical problems are non-issues is the due to linguistic misunderstandings. “The limits of my language are the limits of my world.” So he and Russell turned the key

107 study of philosophy into the study of logic and language, analytic philosophy. For Wittgenstein and logical positivists, things in a person’s life can have meaning, but a meaning of life itself, apart from those things, can’t be discerned. He said, “What can be said at all can be said clearly; and about that of which one cannot talk, one must be silent.” He said there was a fundamental unity to the world, mind and matter were different aspects of one reality.

Russell, Alfred North Whitehead, and Guiseppe Peano extended algebra from symbols for numbers to symbols for concepts, creating symbolic logic. Russell, “Science is what you know; philosophy is what you don’t know.”

Whitehead: ”I consider the Christian theology to be one of the great disasters of the human race...It would be impossible to imagine anything more un-Christian than theology. Christ probably couldn’t have understood it.”

Due to the disconnect between statements about the world in the Bible and what Man had learned about the world, a new religious philosophy, Process Theology, developed out of Whitehead’s ideas. Its major concepts are that the Bible was a fallible history book. Jesus was not divine. God is not omnipotent in the sense of being coercive. He/it has the power of persuasion, not coercion. Reality is not material substances but is serially related events, which are experimental in Process nature. These events have both a physical and mental nature. All experience is important and contributes to the ongoing Theology and interrelated process of reality. God is incarnate in everyone’s life when one acts in a godlike manner. Process Theology is an attempt to retain a concept of a God in light of the overwhelming evidence of the power of science and reason. As it denies the Bible’s divinity, it is not accepted by Judeo-Christian religions.

1913 Physics: Niels Bohr (1885-1962), Dane, wrote On the Constitutions of Atoms and Molecules. Said electrons are set only in fixed concentric orbits with different energy levels outside the nucleus of an atom with the number of protons (in the Niels nucleus) determining the atomic number of the atom and the outermost orbit of electrons determining its chemical Bohr behavior. He explained how electrons could keep from falling into the nucleus by suggesting that they occupy only certain well defined orbits. An electron moving from one orbit to another would disappear from one orbit and reappear in another orbit without visiting the space in-between, the famous quantum leap. An atom’s structure was now as mathematical as Newton’s universe, but it contained also the principle of the quantum. (see 1919, 1927)

1914- World War 1: By 1914, most people in the developed countries lived in a money economy. Panama Canal opened. In 1918 1914, a Serbian nationalist killed the heir to the Austro-Hungarian throne. Anger, alliances, miscues, and the world was WW 1 at war. 21 million killed. In 1918, Britain, US and France defeated Germany. Germany seethed. Most American military dead were from the flu. In 1918-1919, “Spanish” and “Swine” flu killed 40-50 million people worldwide, perhaps more.

1915 Physics: Einstein expanded on his Special Theory of Relativity with Cosmological Considerations on the General Theory of Relativity. Gravity is a distortion of the structure of time space, a curved field in a space-time continuum that is created Einstein by the presence of matter, affecting the inertial motion of other matter. Gravity is a property of space (not a force between bodies as Newton had said). His General Theory is a set of10 equations from which the degree of curvature of space-time can be predicted based on the amount and distribution of mass present.

General Relativity means space and time are not absolute but relative to the observer and the thing observed. Time is variable and Theory ever changing. It even has a shape. It is interconnected with the three spacial dimensions. To prove it, he predicted that of starlight passing close to the sun would deflect twice as much as Newton’s laws would predict. [i.e., light is affected by Relativity gravity]. He was proven right during an eclipse in 1919. News of the proof of his prediction added to his fame. This won him the Nobel prize in Physics in 1921.

The General Theory of Relativity solved problems with gravity that were not explained by the Special Theory. His equations described either a contracting or an expanding universe, but Einstein, like everyone else, thought the universe was static. So he simply added a fudge factor, a cosmological constant, to his calculations to make his calculations consistent with a static universe and attempted to understand and quantify this constant. Other scientists did likewise. Einstein also said, The whole of science is nothing more than a refinement of everyday thinking.”

1916 Astronomy: Karl Schwarzschild, German, resurrected John Michell’s 1787 idea that when a really massive star has collapsed to a single point, its gravity is so strong (even though gravity is by far the weakest of the forces) that within a Black certain distance, even light cannot escape its gravitational pull. Now known as Black Holes, they cannot be seen as they Holes emit no light, but can be detected by their gravitational effect on nearby stars.

1917 Astronomy, Red Shift: Light from a source going away from a viewer is redder than light at a constant distance, like, but Vesto not the same as, the Doppler effect. Astronomers had seen this red shift in stars’s spectrographs, deducing they were Slipher receding from Earth. Vesto Slipher saw this red shift from spiral nebulae much redder than from stars, indicating much greater speed, even 2 million miles /hour. As he did not know how far away the spirals were, he could not conclude that the universe itself was expanding. Then current thinking assumed a stable universe. (See 1923)

1919 Physics: Rutherford (see 1899, 1911) was the first to transmute one element into another, nitrogen into oxygen. In 1921, he theorized about the existence of neutrons that created a nuclear force that kept nuclei from breaking apart.

108 1920 Philosophy: Benedetto Croce (1869-1952), Italian philosopher and Minister of Education, “Philosophy removes from religion all reason for existing...as the science of the spirit, [philosophy] looks upon religion as a phenomenon, a trans- itory historical fact, a psychic condition that can be surpassed.” (Philosophy is committed to at least one all important Croce claim: that there is a real distinction between the true and the false.” Roger Scruton)

Karl Physics: Physicists in the 1920s learned that one can’t know accurately and completely how the world inside atoms Popper worked. Karl Popper (1902-1994) Viennese, postulated that the test of a theory’s adherence to the Scientific Method was its falsifiability .i.e, can an experiment disprove it? This is universally accepted now. (see 1936 A J Ayer).

Popper also said that no other thought has been so powerful in the moral development of Man than separating the individual from the crowd. After vigorous efforts by suffragettes, in 1920, American women won the right to vote.

1920 Sinclair Lewis’s Main Street, a brutal (but honest) portrayal of small-minded drab ignorant dull unimaginative smug complacent small towns. In 1922, his Babbitt skewered American businessmen who worship themselves and money.

1923 Astronomy: Edwin Hubble, an astronomer at the Mt. Wilson observatory, in Cepheids in Spiral Nebulae (galaxies) Edwin deduced that light from some stars was too far away to be from the Milky way, thus there were other galaxies, many Hubble bigger than ours. He and Milton Humason found 46 galaxies and measured their red shift. They concluded that such stars were going away from us which helped Lemaitre in1927 establish that the universe was expanding.

Physics: Louis DeBroglie argued that matter can be viewed both as particles and as waves, dual aspects of the same reality. This also explained the energy-frequency equivalence discovered by Einstein in 1905. The energy of a photon is proportional to the frequency of the radiation.

1925 Philosophy: H.L.Mencken (1880-1956) Baltimore editor and critic: “Religion is fundamentally opposed to everything I hold H. L in veneration -courage, clear thinking, honesty, fairness, and above all, the love of truth. The most common of all follies Mencken is to believe passionately in the most palpably not true. It is the chief occupation of mankind.” “Christian theology is not only opposed to the scientific spirit; it is opposed to every other form of rational inquiry.”

1925 Biology teacher John Scopes was convicted of teaching Darwinism contrary to a Tennessee law. [Such laws have since John been found unconstitutional.] Clarence Darrow, lawyer for Scopes said, “I...consider it a compliment to be called an Scopes agnostic. I do not pretend to know where many ignorant men are sure - that is all that agnosticism means.”

1926 Physics: Max Born realized that the wave corresponding to a particle was a wave of probabilities; it was a repre- sentation of the state of the particle. Unlike a pointless particle, a wave can be in several places at the same time.

1927 Physics: Werner Heisenberg and Erwin Schroedinger invented mathematical procedures that accurately replicated many of the observed properties of atoms, thus giving birth to quantum mechanics, a synthesis of Schroedinger’s wave mechanics (1926) and Heisenberg’s matrix mechanics. Schroedinger: As species evolve and organisms grow, life creates order from disorder, seemingly contra the 2nd law of thermodynamics. How? Life is not a closed system.

At the heart of it was Heisenberg’s Uncertainty Principle (1927) that says one can’t measure both the momentum Quantum Mechanics (essentiality velocity) and position of a sub-atomic particle (such as an electron) at the same time, as momentum comes from a spread out wave, while position comes from a concentrated wave, and one can’t have both at once. An electron’s speed and its position fit together in such a way as they are confined by the tolerance of the quantum. This is one of the most fundamental principles of quantum mechanics and one of the great ideas in the history of science. What makes the principle profound is that Heisenberg specified the tolerance that can be reached, i.e., Planck’s quantum. An atom is in perpetual motion; its electrons never stop moving.

Paul Dirac, British, proved that the particle approach of Heisenberg and the wave approach of Schroedinger were Paul mathematically equivalent to one another. The quantum world is particle and wave at the same time. Dirac Dirac also developed the theory of the spinning electron. In 1928, Dirac realized that the equations of Quantum Mechanics allowed for “anti-matter” to exist next to the usual matter, for example a positively charged electron exists that looks just like the electron but has the opposite charge.

Physics: Niels Bohr (also 1913), incorporated the Uncertainty Principle (which applies only to sub-atomic particles) into his concept of Complementarity: If one observes a sub-atomic system, one interacts with it, as the only way to see it with Niels current technology is to bombard it with another particle and see what happens. Bohr elevated Complementarity to a Bohr fundamental principle of the natural sciences; it includes the Complementarity between the wave and the particle theory of light. Light can be viewed as a wave, for example, when it is diffracted passing through a narrow slit, or as a particle, when ejecting electrons from a metal surface in the photoelectric effect.

By the end of the 1920s, the idea of light having characteristics of both a wave and as particles had become, due to Bohr, the foundation of a complete theory of the subatomic and atomic world, quantum physics.

109 Thus, one needed three sets of laws to explain the behavior of the universe, quantum theory for the world of the sub- atomic, relativity for the very larger universe beyond, and Newtonian physics for all else. Newton’s gravity well explained why planets orbited suns or why galaxies tended to cluster but had no effect at the sub-atomic level. To explain what kept atoms together, in the 30s, two forces were discovered, the strong nuclear force and the weak nuclear force. The strong nuclear force keeps atoms together and the weak nuclear force controls certain kinds of radioactivity. The weak nuclear force is still 10BBB times stronger than gravity. The strong nuclear force is vastly more powerful, but reaches out only 1/100,000 the diameter of the atom. So the nucleus of an atom is dense. The nucleus of a hydrogen atom, one proton, is proportionality like a grain of sand in the Superbowl.

1927 Astronomy: Belgian priest George Lemaitre (1894-1966) opined that the universe was expanding as it started at a Big geometric point, a singularity, and at one time exploded. In the 1940s, this was derisively named the Big Bang theory. Bang Einstein first said Lemaitre’s math was abominable, but later termed his theory the most beautiful and satisfactory.

1929 Astronomy: Hubble (also 1923) and Humason formulated Hubble’s Law: The red shift in light coming from distant galaxies was proportional to their distance from Earth. They found that the further away the galaxy from ours, the faster Edwin it was receding from ours, i.e., the redder the shift. Twice as far away, receding twice as fast, and so on. In retrospect, Hubble they realized that a static universe would collapse in itself due to gravity. This phenomenon is the strongest evidence for the Big Bang theory (not universally accepted until the 50s) and gave clues as to when the Big Bang bung. Einstein then stopped his work on his fudge factor/cosmological constant, which he termed his greatest blunder, accepted the expanding universe theory, and, while vacationing in California in 1931, went to Mt. Wilson to thank Hubble.

Distances between galaxies are so great as to minimize any gravitational influence between them. Systems that are gravitationally bound together, such as galaxies or solar systems, like ours, are not appreciably subject to Hubble’s Law and do not expand, as there is equilibrium between expansion and gravity. Hubble classified galaxies in the still-used Hubble Sequence. There are now 3 bases for accepting the Big Bang. 1. Hubble’s law. 2. Cosmic background radiation from the BB, and, 3. Calculating galaxies’s speed backward = the age of the oldest stars, c12-16billionyears.

1929 Economics: The central banks of the four superpowers, US, England, Germany, and France, who printed their nation’s currencies, were privately owned and not regulated. They sought to restore the gold standard, abandoned during the First World War. Stock speculators pushed up stock prices to absurd levels. The bubble burst and the market crashed; the Great Depression began, spread worldwide. The U.S. recovered after massive government spending on public works and WW2 spending.

Jean Epistemology: Jean Piaget (1906-1980), Swiss, pioneer of the constructiveness theory of knowing, children develop how Piaget to learn in different ways at different stages of development and learn moral development in stages..

Darwinism didn’t gain widespread acceptance until the 1930s when his ideas were combined with Mendel’s and others in the Grand Synthesis. Basically Mendel explained where Darwin’s variations came from. Evolution by Natural Selection is simple and profound and is now universally accepted by scientists, but not by the masses.

1932 Physics: James Chadwick proved Rutherford’s theory of neutrons (no electrical charge so they aren’t repelled by protons), weighing the same as protons, which, with protons and electrons (and tinier bits), comprise atoms. And that some atoms of an element have a different number of neutrons, isotopes. (Nobel prize in physics 1935)

1933 Fascism, pact with pope: In Mein Kampf / My Struggle (1925), Adolph Hitler had said he was “acting in accordance with the will of the Almighty Creator” in his actions against Jews. Hitler energized the volk with resentment against the victors and appeals to racism, patriotism, and anti-Semitism. In 1933, he made a pact with Pope Pius 11 that required German Catholic bishops and clergy to honor his government, clergy couldn’t be active in political parties. He allied government with corporations, suppressed labor unions. He denigrated democracy as inefficient, blamed the Jews for Germany’s ills. Germany, a literate, educated country accepted Hitler’s madness. He gave them a scapegoat and hope.

1933 Physics: Einstein, like other scientists, continued to try to develop a Unified Field Theory, to unite gravity and electromagnetism, the two then-known fundamental forces. He did not succeed. In 1933, he fled Hitler for the U.S.

Astronomy: Arthur Eddington said that the Sun was millions of degrees, also confirmed that the galaxies were flying apart. Bell Labs discovered that radio waves were coming not just from the Sun, but from stars all over the universe. This was the birth of radio astronomy which can detect stars beyond the vision of telescopes.

1934 Leo Szilard, Hungarian, realized that if one hit an atom with a neutron, and it broke up and released two, one would have a chain reaction. He also described Information Theory, the relation between knowledge, nature, and Man.

1935 Ecology: Arthur George Tansley coined the term ecosystem; it united biology, physics, chemistry, and other scientific fields to describe the environment. An ecosystem functions as an ecological unit.

110 1936 Philosophy: Alfred-Jules Ayer, in Language, Truth and Logic, articulated logical positivism, developed by a group of Viennese and German mathematician/philosophers influenced by Wittgenstein, skeptical of theology and philosophy. An idea is cognitively meaningful only if there is a way to prove it. Scientists can speak meaningfully as there is a common A J Ayer understanding of the words they use and their assertions can be proven or disproved by experiment and observation, and measurement. Philosophers/theologians cannot as the words they use have different meanings to different people, “To say that ‘God exists’ is to make a metaphysical utterance which cannot be either true of false. And no sentence which purports to describe the nature of a transcendent god can possess any literal significance. The Encyclopedia of Philosophy says, “No problems of knowledge are less settled than those of definition.”

1936 John Maynard Keynes (1883-1946) thought the gold standard “a barbarous relic.” His General Theory of Employment, Interest and Money asserted that the financial markets needed government intervention and regulation, including printing John money for public works to fight unemployment during slumps. The market is not “efficient,” as short term speculation Maynard dominates it. “When the capital development of a country becomes a by-product of the activities of a casino (Wall Street), Keynes the job is likely to be ill-done.” He also said, “The engine which drives enterprise is not thrift, but profit.” “I do not know what makes a man more conservative-to know nothing but the present, or nothing but the past.”

1937 Pope Pius 11's encyclical: The Jewish people crucified Jesus (not just the elders) [In 2011, Benedict 16 retracted this].

1938 Stuart Chase’s Tyranny of Words said there was little agreement on the meaning of most philosophical concepts. Edward Sapir and Benjamin Whorf showed that one’s language determines how one thinks.

1938 Franklin Roosevelt, “Democracy alone, of all forms of government, enlists the full force of men’s enlightened will... It is FDR the most humane, the most advanced and in the end, the most unconquerable of all forms of human society.”

1939 World War 2: In 1937, Japan massacred 200-400K at Nanking. Europe’s beacon of commerce, finance, knowledge, and culture generally shone around the world. In 1939, Hitler invaded Poland. War again, 1941. Japan attacked the US. WW 2 Germans killed c6M Jews. (Jews believe that their God would never desert them.) Europe was flattened. The USSR lost 20M. Industrialized might and a fission atomic bomb (US) on Japan won. Never before in history was there such a total victory. It resulted in the lightning spread of universal suffrage and the idea of democracy (even if in name only to the USSR.) No German, not even Hitler, was ever excommunicated for his crimes against Jews.

Fusion Physics: Hans Bethe said in the Sun 2 hydrogen (1 proton) atoms fuse (fusion) to become helium (2 protons), and lose a little mass. That lost mass is sunlight/energy. (So the Sun burns for billions of years without burning up entirely.)

Willard Willard Libby, University of Chicago, developed radioactive carbon dating (Nobel prize 1960) enabling one to determine Libby when carbon based substances existed. (An isotope of carbon, Carbon 14, decays into Carbon 12 one half each 5,600 years. So determining how much Carbon 14 is left in a piece of carbon determines when the organism died. The method is only accurate up to c40,000 years.

1943 Philosophy: Jean Paul Sartre (1905-1980), in Being and Nothingness, articulated existentialism, an atheistic attitude rather than a philosophy, that Man is alone, there is no blueprint of what a man should be, no ultimate significance to the Jean universe. “Man is condemned to be free.” Sartre argued that even if God existed, it would be necessary to reject him, as Paul the idea of God negates our freedom. “Traditional religion tells us we must conform to God’s idea of humanity to become Sartre fully human. Instead we must see human beings as liberty incarnate.”

Joseph Campbell: (The Power of Myth) Life is without meaning. You bring meaning to it. Being alive is the meaning.

1947 Indian Independence: Jawaharlal Nehru, (1889-1964). Indian statesman, with Mohandas/Mahatma Gandhi (1869- 1948), led India to independence. Nehru said of India, "No country or people who are slaves to dogma and dogmatic mentality can progress." Re Hinduism, “I want nothing to do with any religion concerned with keeping the masses satisfied India to live in hunger, filth, and ignorance.” Gandhi: “I like your Christ. I do not like your Christians. Your Christians are so Nehru unlike your Christ.” and “God has no religion.” The truth is just the truth. As some Muslims lived in Hindu territory, and Gandhi vice-versa, they fought, 1M died, 15M were displaced, due only to their religious differences. India was split into mostly Muslim Pakistan and mostly Hindu India. Muslim Kashmir went to India as its ruler was Hindu. In India, despite official government opposition, the Hindu rigid class differentiation (caste system) continues.

1947-56 Dead Sea Scrolls found; showed Zoroastrianism (Satan v.God, judgment day, expect a Messiah) influence on Jews.

1949 George Orwell’s 1984 was a bleak picture of a totalitarian future. It coined doublethink, Big Brother, thought crime.

1950 Physics: Many scientists, including Einstein continued to work on a Unified Field Theory to reconcile the four then-known forces: 1. Strong Nuclear force (holds quarks, neutrons and protons together in an atom). 2. Electro-magnetic force (magnetism). 3. Weak nuclear force (radioactivity), and 4.Gravity, the weakest force by far .

Theology: Pope Pius 12, in his Humani Generis encyclical, permitted Catholics to discuss evolution so long as the

111 process of ensouling humans (putting a soul in man) was left to God, “but [evolution] should not be accepted as valid without more evidence.” Pius 12 said the Big Bang was the Biblical time of “Let there be light.” and proof that God existed.

1952 Stanley Miller, U. of Chicago, reconstructed the atmosphere of Earth at 4B BC. Several amino acids appeared.

1953 Political theory: The USSR made a hydrogen bomb. The doctrine of Mutual Assured Destruction ensured that neither USA or USSR would use it. The doctrine assumes the possessors of nuclear weapons act rationally.

DNA Physics/Chemistry: DNA: Rosalind Franklin, Maurice Wilkins, James Watson (PhD at 22), and Francis Crick, found that every cell in an individual living thing contains a DNA molecule for that individual, shaped like a double helix (2 spiral strings), each of which strings contains all the genes for that individual, the total genetic pattern for that individual. When a cell divides, one helix/string goes to each new cell, which then creates an identical helix, and so on, so each new cell has all the genes of the prior cell. Their discovery was confirmed only in the 1980s.

The structure of a DNA molecule can be seen with an electron microscope, and portions of the strings determining hair color, etc, can be identified, cut out, modified, and re-inserted in the molecule. [Half of the 35,000 genes coded by the DNA in the human genome are expressed in the brain. There are about 100B neurons in the brain. Each neuron connects with about 10,000 other neurons.] There are at least 20 different kinds of subatomic particles, below.

1964 Protons were found to be made up of hadrons which were made up of different kinds of quarks. [c500B protons can fit in the dot of an I and a proton weighs c1840 times more than an electron, and ten million times more than an even smaller particle, a neutrino. (In the1960s, Utah and New Mexico were the last states to permit Indians to vote.)

Braden Nathaniel Braden: All knowledge and all concepts have a hierarchal structure, based on more basic concepts, ultimately on one’s sensory perceptions. Only when one knows something is certain can one determine what is not certain, and only logic can separate the two. (recall Kant, 1781) If one uses a concept, one must be aware of and must not deny or contradict the more basic concepts it is based on. Thus rises the Fallacy of the Stolen Concept.

1966 The last Catholic Index was published. 4,000 books were in it. Hitler’s Mein Kampf/My Struggle had been examined but not put on the Index. The Index was quietly abandoned in 1978, but Cardinal Ratzinger, now Pope Benedict 16, said in 1885 that it still retained moral value “for the more unprepared faithful.” It had retarded scholarship for Catholics.

1968 Physics: Steven Weinberg, MIT, theorized that the weak interaction/weak nuclear force and the electromagnetic force Steven were essentially identical, and that the apparent differences between them were due more to the low temperature of the Weinberg universe than to anything fundamental to their nature. Weinberg, Sheldon Glashow, and Abdus Salam shared the 1979 Nobel Prize for Physics for the set of equations establishing this idea. This reduced the four fundamental forces to 3. Predictions made on the basis of his theory proved accurate, and it is now generally accepted. Building on this has developed several theories seeking to unify the now three fundamental forces.

The Big [The Big Bang is now thought to be c13.6-15.6 billion years ago. To scale, if our sun were one yard across, the Earth would Bang be the size of a pea and Pluto would be a 1.5 miles away, 50 times smaller than a BB pellet.] The closest star to our star/Sun, Alpha Centari, is 26 trillion miles away, 4.5 light years, in our Milky Way galaxy. Carl Sagan has estimated that the universe has at least 100,000,000,000,000,000,000,000 stars. Our Milky Way galaxy contains 200-400 billion stars and there are perhaps 100 to 500 billion other galaxies, many larger than ours. Estimates vary widely. Light we see from the Andromeda Galaxy, the closest galaxy to ours (with around an estimated trillion stars) left Andromeda c2.5 million years ago. One galaxy, the Abell 2029 Galaxy is 60 times the size of the Milky Way, with c100 trillion stars. The star Antares itself has a diameter of 363 million miles, twice the size of the Earth’s orbit around the Sun.

1968 National Catholic Almanac said God is “almighty, eternal, holy, immortal, immense, immutable, incomprehensible, ineffable, infinite, invisible, just, loving, present, patient, merciful, most high, most wise, omnipotent, omniscient, omnipresent, perfect, provident, supreme, true.” These attributes are inconsistent with “incomprehensible.”

1969 A meteorite over 4.5 billion years old found in Australia contained 74 different amino acids, eight of which are involved in making Earthly proteins. Americans walked on the Moon.

1973 Edward Tryon: The universe may be a random quantum fluctuation in a vacuum, so could have started from nothing.

1974 The Anthropic Argument from Improbability, or Argument from Fine Tuning, a new variant of the Design Argument for God, developed in light of increased knowledge of the complexity of 1. the universe (the planetary level of the argument), Anthropic and 2. molecular activity (the molecular level). This argument says that all the universal constants and seemingly Argument incredible coincidences permitting conditions for life to be on Earth were so unlikely that only a divine power could have caused all such improbable circumstances and constants and He did so in order to produce Man (hence “anthropic.”). The

Universe Specifically, Brandon Carter defined the two forms of the Anthropic Principle, a “weak” one (WAP) that dealt with our was planet, and a more controversial “strong” form (SAP) dealing with the fundamental constants of physics. made

112 for Man Planetary Level: Life on Earth exists as it has 1. the proper diameter, 2. a molten magnetic core (to repel deadly cosmic radiation, 3. chemical elements in the correct proportions 4. a moon the correct size to prevent Earth from wobbling like a dying top, 5. a star/sun of the proper size, 6. the certain age of the universe that permits and has liquid water [Our kind of life needs liquid water.] , 7. an orbit that is that certain specific distance away from the Sun in what can be called a Goldilocks Zone (as in, not too hot, not too cold, but just right. Mars is too cold, Venus too hot.) Earth’s orbit is in a Goldilocks Zone and is so close to circular it doesn’t stray beyond the Goldilocks Zone. All these seven conditions are in their own Goldilocks zones. So far, so good.

Molecular level: There are six fundamental constants of physics that have to be just so. Such as 1. the magnitude of the strong nuclear force (the force that binds the components of an atomic nucleus), and 2. the gravitational attraction between protons in stars. If such attraction were not many orders of magnitude weaker than their electrical repulsion, stars would have collapsed long before the nuclear process could build up the chemical periodic table from the original hydrogen and deuterium. Similarly, were the carbon “resonance” 4% lower, carbon wouldn’t form in first place, The other ‘constants’ are roughly of the same order of importance/coincidence/rarity. These are laws of nature. And, if such fine tuned constants enabling life were slightly different, life as we know it (carbon-based life) would not be possible. In other words, each of such constants is within a Goldilocks Zone outside of which life as we know it is not possible. Plus, there is an extremely delicate balance regarding the amount of CO2 in the atmosphere. The argument concludes that all this looks like the universe was designed just for us. These are called anthropic coincidences, although human life is just as improbable as any other life. Some new studies indicate that the constants don’t have to be quite so finely tuned, but for purposes of argument we can accept the fine tuning thesis. . Oxford zoologist Mark Ridley suggested that the origin of the eucaryotic cell, (our kind of cell, with a nucleus and other Mark complicated features such as mitochondria) was an even more momentous and statistically improbable step than the origin of life. Ridley The Anthropic Argument, is a deist argument (God set the constants, the laws of nature, gravity, strong force, etc,) then left the universe alone), It thus inconsistent with any miracles as miracles require divine intervention.

Nine Contra Arguments: 1. Illogical: The Argument essentially says that c15 B years ago, a God created the universe [so immense that our most powerful telescopes can’t see more than a tiny fraction of it], with hundreds of billions of galaxies, one medium size galaxy of which, our Milky W ay, holds our Sun, one of hundreds of billions of stars in the Milky W ay, which itself formed billions of years after the Big Bang, God then formed Earth, smaller than a dot in our minor solar system, which formed c4.6 B years ago, and then billions of years later produced a one celled organism, that for 3 B years was the only life on Earth, which, a billion years later, produced Man-like creatures, who for millions of years lived, as Hobbes said, with “no arts, no letters, no society; and which is worst of all, in continual fear and danger of violent death, and the life of Man, solitary, poore, nasty, brutish and short,” in fear, disease, privation, and ignorance, who evolved into Homo sapiens. That’s a long cruel way for an omnipotent God to go just to produce Man. Would an omnipotent, loving God have done it this way? Recall J S Mill said, If God is omnipotent, he/she/it could have done all this in an instant.

2. Unproven assumption: The Anthropic Argument also assumes that carbon-based life is the only possible form of life, an unproven assumption. Bacteria live two miles undersea living off the radioactive decay of nearby rocks. Bacteria live in 12,000 year old ice in Greenland and miles below Antarctica. Creatures live seven miles down in the ocean, 17K pounds pressure. In 1974, plant and animal life was found deep in the Atlantic far below where the sun penetrates existing on bacteria fueled by hydrogen sulfide from water mixed with molten basalt from the Earth’s core.

3. This argument is a God by Default or God by Inference argument like the classic Design Argument, i.e., W e can’t conceive that such complex things could have come about by chance, so we infer that there must have been a supernatural “designer.” It thus has all the infirmities of the traditional Design Argument, i.e., who designed God, who designed him, ad infinitum, false dilemma, chance or god (no alternatives allowed), sloppy world indicates incompetent designer, possible multiple designers, incomplete analogy, doesn’t infer anything about the designer’s purpose or value system, if any, not falsifiable, illogical, as a God could have created our world in an instant, etc.

4. Some critics have simply said that the SAP (the fundamental physical constants) and WAP (Earth’s place in the cosmos) are simply ways of saying, “If things were different, things would be different.”

5. The SAP is not testable or falsifiable, and thus not a scientific statement.

6. Natural Selection says that life adapts to physics, and not physics adapts to life. as the Anthropic Argument says.

7. Philosophers John Earman and Ernan McMullin conclude that the WAP is a tautology which does not allow one to explain or predict anything that we did not already know, and that the SAP is simply gratuitous speculation.

8. God is more improbable: As the constants make life improbable (which they certainly do), then the god solution to such set of circumstances is more improbable, as the god who did the designing would have to be far more complex than the things he was designing, i.e., far more improbable. Plus, that any one of the current popular gods, Catholic, Lutheran, Baptist, Jewish, Muslim, Pentecostal, and so on, is the one true God, would be yet even more improbable.

113 Richard 9. A natural explanation is improbable but possible: All scientists agree that the chance of life appearing by natural causes Dawkins spontaneously anywhere in the universe is extremely small. Atheist Richard Dawkins answered both the planetary and molecular aspects. First, on the planetary level, he distinguished between the origin of life and the evolution and development of species once life has occurred. These are two completely different phenomena. Random gene mutations and Natural Selection explain the development / evolution of species once life exists. So, at the planetary level, the Anthropic Argument applies only to the origin of life, abiogenesis, i.e., the production of living matter from non-living matter.

Dawkins’s argument is a statistical probability argument. Namely: life only has to originate once by natural means, somewhere, to prove its validity. What are the chances? Most planets are not in a Goldilocks Zone. However, there are 100 to 500 billion galaxies, each of which may have between 200 to 400 B stars/suns (as our Milky Way galaxy does.)

Carl If Sagan’s estimate of c100,000,000,000,000,000,000,000 stars/suns is even remotely accurate, then factor in the odds Sagan of any such sun having a planet in the Goldilocks Zone and the odds of a eucaryotic cell evolving, and if the chances of life occurring spontaneously somewhere on such planet are a billion to one against, then the chances are that life will occur on somewhere around 100,000,000,000,000 solar systems. Thus the odds are that somewhere, here, for example, life will occur spontaneously. Any such odds are rank speculation, of course, but the starting number of stars and planets is so incredibly immense that using virtually any odds still favors life originating somewhere.

[As the Constitution forbids public schools from promoting religion, creationists now promote the Design Argument without saying the designer is God. Schools may teach creationism. They just may not teach it as science.] Dawkins considered the Anthropic Argument an alternative to the Design Argument. God of Einstein: “The doctrine of a personal God intervening in natural events could never be refuted...for this doctrine the gaps can always take refuge in those domains in which scientific knowledge has not yet been able to set foot,” i.e., the “God of the gaps” argument. However, even some theists feel it is a tactical mistake to base belief in a god on gaps in scientific knowledge, as such argument weakens and fails as science fills the gaps.

1975 Paul Feyerabend, in Against Method and Science in a Free Society, said that as there are no methodological rules always used by scientists, limiting activities of scientists to any single prescriptive method would restrict scientific progress. To insist that a new theory be consistent with an older theory gave an unwarranted advantage to the old theory. Said the Church in 1632 was more faithful to reason than Galileo. Then Cardinal Ratzinger in 1990 quoted this approvingly.

1978 A divine revelation told the Mormon president it was now OK for Blacks to become full members of the Church.

1980s In the 1980s, Stephen Hawking and other physicists theorized that there is a law of nature called the Wave Function of Hawking the Universe that implied that there is a 95% chance that our universe came into existence without a cause.

c1995+ Astronomy: With better telescopes, astronomers found planets around stars. However, the age of the universe is not certain, nor are the distances to the stars, nor is their makeup, nor are the properties of the physical laws all are acting in conformance with. As physicists and astronomers learn more daily, the far reaches of the universe and the workings in atoms becomes far more complicated and uncertain and unknown than Newton or Bohr ever dreamed.

1996 Theology: Pope John Paul 2 announced Roman Catholicism’s most recent position re evolution. (He had acquitted Galileo in 1992). John Paul 2 said that evolution was “an effectively proven fact,” but there came a time in the evolution of Hominids/humans, and humans alone, which science could not identify, which was solely within the “magesterium of religion” when God intervened and ensouled (put a soul in) a previously animal lineage. John Paul 2 said that Catholics could not accept any theory of evolution which denied the possibility that Man “was created in the image and likeness of God.” Genesis 1-27. It’s a major step for Catholics but not Darwinism.

Paleontologist Stephen Jay Gould has argued strongly that evolution is not linear toward more complex and more intelligent organisms, like man, but simply random. Thus, humans are humans due to random genetic mutations. We were Gould not predestined to be as we are. Though Man has progressed culturally, physical evolution does not imply physical progress.) Natural Selection only deals with adaption to changing local conditions. Contra; some current believers today accept evolution but contend that God is guiding it, guided evolution.

1998 Pope John Paul 2 issued Fides et Ratio. Both faith and reason are needed, as per Augustine. Faith without reason “runs the risk of withering into myth or superstition.” Reason without faith can’t reach the ultimate truths of existence. In 2000, his Dominus Jesus, John Paul said that Roman Catholicism is the one, true Church of Jesus Christ... the one path to salvation.” Then Cardinal Ratzinger said it was a necessary response to the theology of religious pluralism. i.e., accepting that other religions’s truths are valid, or the view that one’s religion is not the exclusive source of truth. (“There is no need for temples; no need for complicated philosophy...The philosophy is kindness.” Dalai Lama

Political Theory: The Triumph of Democracy. As democracy is the only form of government that permits persons to chose their governors and respects individuals, it is the only just form of government. Democracy is such a powerful idea that all governments including dictatorships now claim that they are acting in the will of the people.

The Progress of Democracy: Summary

114 600-300 BC Greece: Solon established democratic institutions. The polis: for free, city-born, males, no women or slaves. Socrates: The art of government is directed to the interests of those to be affected, the people. Aristotle: Polities which lean toward democracy possess the greatest political stability. Pericles oration. 100 BC Roman Republic. Citizenship was limited to free male landowners – The Roman Senate was an aristocracy. The Roman Twelve Tables had a Bill of Rights for its citizens. 11th-12th cent. Italian Communes, Milan, Pisa– oligarchies with touches of democracy. 1215 Magna Carta - Absolute monarchy limited. King forced to cede some power to barons and earls. 1324 Marsiglio of Padua proposed democracy for civil as well as Church governance. 1649 The king executed, England’s Parliament became the ruler, i.e., a representative government of laws. 1688 Locke built on Hobbes’s social contract. Authority derives solely from the consent of the governed. 1776–1789 U.S. Declaration of Independence, “All men are created equal and are endowed by their Creator with certain inalienable rights.” US Constitution, “We the people do ordain and establish this Constitution.” (Three branches of government; checks and balances. Free male white landowners could vote.) 1789 French Revolution, Declaration of Rights of Man. The US and French revolutions made democracy the most powerful concept in any discussion of political theory. 1800s Slavery legally abolished in most countries. But segregation and racial discrimination continued. 1863 Gettysburg Address: “Government by, of, and for the people.” Most famous phrase in American history. 1900 Most people did not understand what democracy was, and thus did not desire it. 1900s Women allowed to vote in most countries; not Muslim countries where women have virtually no rights. 1945+ WW2 spread the idea of universal suffrage and democracy. Blacks & Amer. Indians fight for their rights. 1990-+ Soviet Union collapsed. The newly independent constituent states opted for democracy.

20th In the 20th century, communism became a dictatorship of the proletariat. Communism succeeded for a time, as it was century primarily about justice. It failed as it did not produce the promised economic benefits. The concept of democracy triumphed over communism, totalitarianism, and theocracy. In the 20th century, along with the rise and philosophical Overview triumph of democracy, came Jefferson’s / Marx’s notion of equality of opportunity and equality under the law. Democracy . comes closer toward providing individual fulfillment than any other form of government and is thus the logical form of government for those who believe in reason and human dignity. Totalitarianism is interested only in power and a spurious sense of national honor. While democracy provides Man the best opportunity for an equal voice and equal opportunity in society; inequities continue.

As noted, the two principal means of social control are religion and government. What influences how governments act, i.e., ideology, corporations, the wealthy, is of course a separate question. All the largest religions tolerate and thus perpetuate the inequalities in most societies. Many countries, even in mostly secular Europe, subsidize religions to varying degrees, paying clergy, no taxes, etc. The churches in turn, preach obedience to the state as God’s will.

Theocracy, the rule of God, was the rule in the Dark and Middle Ages in the Christian West. The advantage of religion as Theocracy a means of social control is that it proclaims its authority from a supernatural being/force, all-knowing and all-powerful. That’s a tough act to buck. The Achilles heel of religion as a means of social control is that an all-knowing entity/God loses credibility if its message is shown wrong. Such is an admission of not being all-knowing. Theocracy in the Middle Ages failed, as science showed much of the Bible’s factual statements about the world false. Theocracy also lost credibility due to the corruption and incompetence of the clergy. (Ref: Erasmus, Wycliffe, Hus)

Theocracy today. Most Islamic countries are theocracies. (e.g., Islamic Republics of Iran and Pakistan, Hashemite What Kingdom of Jordan, etc.) Theocracies consider most social change heretical, and thus cripple themselves. Democracy, can rule of the people, accepts continual change, and thus contradicts theocracy. They are incompatible. Theocracy, be it Man Judeo-Christian or Muslim, is also incompatible with reason and scientific advancement. Believing Roman Catholics and know Muslims are in constant terror of unbearable pain in Hell for eternity, a powerful form of mind control.

of God? What can Man know of the supernatural? Over history, thousands of gods and hundreds of supernatural belief systems have come and gone from human belief; Osiris, Zeus, Isis, the hippo god, Ra, the monkey god, Thor, Aton, Mathra, Poseidon, Sol Invictus. Science daily shrinks the realm of the unknown (the home of the supernatural).

Problem What can Man know of the Christian God? The Epicurian Paradox/Problem of Evil established that such a god cannot of Evil exist. If a Christian God does exist, there should be no separation of church and state, as, by definition, such God’s will, power, and intellect could not be defied in any realm. If the Christian God does exist, it is easy to posit innumerable worthy things he could do for Man but has not yet done. If any religion or cult’s god exists, the same should be true.

Lesser The Problem of Evil also invalidates lesser gods who have limited supernatural powers: Zeus, god of weather, law, gods order; Poseidon, god of the sea, floods, droughts; Coeus, god of the intellect; Apollo, god of healing; Lenantos, god of the hunter’s skill; Sophia, Gnostic goddess of wisdom; all could do immeasurable good, but do not. Augustine and Aquinas said one cannot know what God is but rather what he is not. The Book of Job, Anselm, John What Duns Scotus, Pseudo-Dionysus, Nicolas of Kues, and Occam said Man cannot know anything about God. can Man The National Catholic Almanac (1968) says God is, inter alia, incomprehensible. i.e., He cannot be comprehended. If so,

115 know of it is therefore logically impossible to make any authoritative statement, good or bad, about God. Scriptures The Problem of Incorrect Statements. The Bible & Koran were written by men at a time when basic factual knowledge of the world was miserably primitive and ignorant of most of what we know today. They contain myths and beliefs and taboos from cultures long before there were civilizations or even writings. Despite the numerous demonstrably false statements about the physical world in such scriptures, all religions insist that their scriptures are thoroughly truthful because they are divinely inspired. This insistence unwisely takes away the excuse that the human scribes simply made mistakes

Billions of Jews, Christians, Mormons, and Muslims today believe that their holy scriptures, filled with myths of pre- historic man, are accurate, and all others false. Despite millennia of teaching that the Bible and/or Koran is the literal truth, like Augustine, most theologians today interpret away the injustices and false statements in them. Hell, the place Christians are saved from, is virtually ignored in modern theology. Augustine explained the inaccuracies, said that the Bible was accommodated to primitive peoples’s understandings and thus required careful interpretation.

The Law Overriding all discussions of religions is The Problem of Contradictory Beliefs, the law of contradiction, i.e., Two of contradictory statements can not both be true, a basic law of thought. The holy scriptures of all religions, sects, cults, and Contra- covens make different and contradictory statements not just about values or proper behavior but about the physical world diction and physical phenomena. And adherents of every religion “know” that their belief system is true and that all differing belief systems are false. (Cicero’s reason for doubting them all). Believers are all atheistic about all gods but their own.

If there is in fact a supernatural being, a “God,” and if his message can be ascertained, then Man would know that his is the one true religion, and thus by definition, all religions with contradictory beliefs are simply and clearly wrong, untrue, false. Abraham Lincoln, “In great contests each party claims to act in accordance with the will of God. Both may be, and one must be, wrong.” God cannot be for and against the same thing. This is a fundamental axiom of thought.

Many modern theologians preach tolerance for other religions, even though intolerance is basic to most (not all) religions’s holy scriptures that demand belief in their god, on penalty of eternal torture. (Bible: “Believe in Jesus or you will go to Hell,” John 12:48, and 15:6, Matt. 13, 40-42. 2 Thessalonians 1, 7-10 and other passages. Koran: “Unbelievers [non-Muslims] will be burned with fire” 2:39, 90; 2:114, and over 200 similar passages. Book of Mormon: “Unbelievers will go to Hell.” Mosiah 26:27, and other passages). Such tolerance assumes that all religions are equally worthy, that contradictions don’t matter, and that all religions have equivalent moral standards, i.e., pacifist Jainism is equal to angry militant Islam.

The spirit of Jesus inspires many men. But a significant problem with differing belief systems is that they justify men murdering each other. Recall Pascal, “Men never do evil so completely and cheerfully as when they do it from religious conviction.” And Voltaire, “Anyone who can make you believe nonsense can make you commit atrocities.” And Reinhold Niebuhr, “The tendency to claim God as an ally for our partisan values is...the source of all religious fanaticism.”

Apart from the bloody wars between religions (Northern Ireland, Palestine, Lebanon, Rwanda, Balkans, Kashmir, Sudan, Nigeria, Ethiopia, Eritrea, Sri Lanka, Albania, Pakistan, Indonesia, Chechnia, Azerbaijan) are wars within religions. In Islam, Sunni and Shiite sects kill each other. Hinduism, Buddhism, and the two largest Catholic churches, Eastern Orthodox and Roman (recall the Inquisition), have deeply different voices. Within Protestantism, there are thousands of identifiable sects with often contradictory dogmas. Many do not identify with any larger group. Amerindians, Anabaptists, alleged witches, atheists, Aztecs, Baha’is, Cathars, Catholics, Hindus, Zoroastrians, Incas, Huguenots, Jews, Jehovah’s Witnesses, Lutherans, Mormons, Muslims, Nicene Christians, Palestinians, Protestants, Rastafarians, Puritans, Quakers, all have killed and/or have been killed due to their belief (or disbelief) in somebody’s god. In 2005, George W Bush told Palestinian ministers that God told him to invade Iraq. Differing religions is of course not the only cause/excuse for war. Nationalism and desire for land/natural resources are also culprits.

Current In 1994, in Bihar, N. India, a lower caste girl eloped with an Untouchable boy. In accordance with Hinduism, the village Evil council had him killed by smashing his head with a stone; she was branded and whipped repeatedly. in the In 2001, a 13 yr old Nigerian girl became pregnant after her father pimped her; an Islamic court gave her 180 lashes. Name In 2002, in Mecca, Saudi religious police, the Commission for the Promotion of Virtue & Prevention of Vice, enforcing of Wahhabi rules, beat school girls trying to escape a fire as the girls were not wearing head scarves. 15 girls died. their In 2002, Nigeria, Muslim rioters protesting the Miss World pageant killed 200 just because of women in bathing suits God In 2006, in post-Taliban Afghanistan, following the Koran and Afghanistan’s new constitution, a Muslim man was sentenced to death for becoming a Christian. Islamic law also mandates stoning to death adulterers & homosexuals. Mormon fundamentalists use the terrifying threat of going to Hell to coerce young girls into submitting to sex.. In 2007, in Karoda, India, 2 persons in the same clan (a common ancestor ages ago) married. Per Hindu law, both killed. In 2008, in Somalia, a 13 year old girl was raped by three men. An Islamic court convicted her of adultery. 50 men stoned her to death in a stadium. In Israel, Orthodox Jewish “modesty police” terrorize young women who talk to men, force women to sit in the back of busses, invade their houses, stone “immodest” women; in one instance sprayed acid in the face of a 14 year old girl. Saudi Muslim women need their male guardian’s OK to travel, see a doctor, open a bank account, go to school, or work. In 2009, the Brazilian Catholic Church excommunicated the mother who authorized an abortion of a 9 year old rape

116 victim and the doctor who preformed it. The Vatican approved. The operation was necessary to save the victim’s life. In 2010, a Pakistani Christian woman was sentenced to death for blasphemy, i.e., asking what Muhammed had done for man. In 2011, a Muslim killed the Punjab governor who tried to reform the blasphemy law. In 2011, Bangladesh Muslim clerics ordered a 14 yr old rape victim accused of adultery flogged. She died after 80 lashes.

If Man knows nothing else, he could well believe/know that the Sun travels in a chariot from one side of the world to the other every day, and that the person telling him that has some power he does not have and thus must be obeyed. Modern believers scoff at the Egyptian notion that a pig ate the moon periodically yet accept statements about the physical world in the Bible and the Koran with no more rational basis than the pig eats the moon story. There is nothing qualitatively different between the scientifically false beliefs of ancient Egyptians and scientifically false statements in the Bible or Koran. Even though unconstitutional, laws of six U.S. states say non-believers can’t hold public office.

Apart from its Judeo/Christian/Islamic meaning, one can define God so as to make his/its existence a tautology. The word “God” then becomes redundant, superfluous. Examples: “God is everywhere, God is ultimate reality, or God is Nature,” Humpty Dumpty: “When I use a word, it means just what I choose it to mean, no more and no less.” Lewis Carroll

The The Problem of the Silent God. If there is a God, he could easily provide simple clear convincing evidence he exists (such Silent as a bonafide miracle) and stop all the evil and suffering due to differing religions? Does he care? If not, is he worthy of God worship? If he has a message, which all religions claim their god has, would he want people to know it? If not, is he worthy of worship? If he once did provide evidence that he exists, why are there so many religions?

What While “miracles” are a prerequisite for sainthood for Roman Catholics, the usual “miracle” now common in the can Man canonization process is that someone somewhere, often a nun, was cured of some malady after touching or praying-over know of something associated with the saint-candidate or praying to the saint-candidate. While such “miracles” may suffice for Miracles canonization, their scientific validity is problematic. Hume said, “Pick the less improbable miracle. What is more likely, that a miracle occurred, or that the report miraculously somehow was mistaken?”

As noted herein, factual errors pervade most holy scriptures. Clerics have a history of inhumane acts. Innumerable Spiritual injustices and evils pervade the planet; there is no unrefuted rational argument for an omnipotent omniscient benevolent God. As a result, many persons simply say they are “spiritual” and/or believe that there is something holy beyond their “Faith” understanding, that some God looks after them, or simply say that they have faith that there is a God of some sort. validates Faith, being non-rational, cannot be proven or refuted rationally, i.e., by reason. Particular statements about the real all world in various “holy scriptures” can, of course, be scientifically examined and shown to be false. beliefs Faith, in and of itself, gives equal validity to any god or demon, from the monkey god to Aton to Jesus to Allah to Zeus, as well as to Russell’s orbiting tea pot. As de Laplace (1799) said, “The God hypothesis proves everything.”

What drives/inspires Man? It is a cultural universal that Man seeks a meaning to his life. Philosophers, scientists have Meaning sought meaning, security, dignity, comfort, freedom, and/or self expression, in seeking to understand the order in the to life natural world. From the deep recesses of human existence, Man has struggled to make sense of his existence. Like Newton, all great thinkers have stood on the shoulders of prior intellectual giants.

As noted, both religion and nationalism give meaning to men’s lives. Men have also found meanings for their lives in allegiance to their family, their tribe, an ideology, their job, a cause, in their saving lies, and even to sports teams. Clever men, claiming knowledge of a god, have always used others’s ignorance or gullibility to rule over them. The priests’s playbook has been: create a need or fear, then offer a solution, i.e., to avoid being eaten by a croc/lion/ hippo or Hell, or reincarnation as a worm, you must act/sacrifice/tithe as I instruct. (This strategy is not limited to religions.)

Why What can Man know of the origin of the universe? As noted, Von Leibniz in 1710 asked, “Why is there something rather does than nothing?” Asking “why” is not a scientific question as it presupposes a purpose of a physical phenomenon, i.e., the Matter existence of matter. But physical phenomena have no purpose. Thus, as posed, it precludes a rational answer, and then Exist? the only possible answer is a non-rational answer, that a supernatural being, a god, did it. But that doesn’t work as it simply puts the question one step back, “Why is there such a god rather than nothing? Eminent philosopher Adolf Grünbaum termed it the Primordial Existential Question and said it is an ill-conceived non-starter which poses a pseudo issue, and “the philosophical enterprise need not be burdened at all by [the query] because it is just a will-o’-the-wisp.” Why not? The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (and Grünbaum) doubt the premise of the question, i.e., the presumption that, a priori, “nothing” is more logical than “something” and should be the default position regarding matter. The SEP answers the question with, “Why not? Why expect nothing rather than something? No experiment could support such a hypothesis.” As for a scientist, as there is no purpose to nature, a scientist would ask, “How is there something rather than nothing?” To many philosophers, the question is still unanswerable, as it imposes an impossible explanatory demand; it asks one to deduce the existence of something without using any existential premises.

Einstein One scientific hypothesis: Before 1900, many believed that simply as matter existed, that was evidence of God. In 1905, How Einstein showed that matter and energy were two aspects of the same thing. In the early 21st century, it was found that

117 does in the universe, an exact balance exists between the positive energy of matter and the negative energy of gravity, so no matter energy was required to produce the universe. The universe could have come from nothing. Hawking and others in the exist? 1980s said that the Wave Function implied that there was a 95% chance that the universe is/was uncaused. Hawking’s Grand Design (2010) ends with, “Spontaneous creation is the reason there is something rather than nothing, why the Hawking universe exists, why we exist. It is not necessary to invoke God to...set the universe going.”

Whether a supernatural being/god created/caused the universe is not yet answered. Science is searching for the answer. Believers believe/know that they know the answer. Hume would say, “What is most likely?”

In Judeo-Christian dogma, the very first sin, “Original Sin,” the act that got Adam and Eve expelled from Paradise and every human from then on irrespective of his virtues, damned for eternity, was nothing more or less than Adam’s desire for knowledge. The inquisitions tortured and murdered thousands for improper thinking. Catholics & Anglicans have prohibited owning or reading unapproved editions of the Bible. Catholics put thousands of books on the Index, making it a sin to read their ideas. Plus, as noted herein, Christian churches have punished in various ways thinkers like Albertus Magnus, Roger Bacon, Bruno, Vanini, Galileo, Abelard, Darwin, Pico della Mirandola, Charron, Boyle, John the Leitmotiv Scot, Occam, Hus, Hypatia, Voltaire, and others. in Islam The Koran stifles science and philosophical thinking . of the History The leitmotiv of the history of knowledge has been the slow, uneven triumph of reason over unending efforts of theists, mainly Catholic, to oppose, denigrate, and stifle, often by torture or murder, all advances in knowledge inconsistent with of such theist’s particular scriptures. Jefferson, “Priests dread the advance of science as witches do the approach of Know- daylight.” H G Wells, “There was a great struggle to establish [science] against the prejudices of those to whom the Bible ledge was the literal truth.” But myth & superstition re everything from the cosmos to disease have fallen to the power of reason.

The subjugation of women, enshrined in the Bible and the Koran, has also greatly stunted the advance of knowledge. Most cultures, even most philosophers, have considered women subservient to and the property of men. Women have been denigrated and shut out of most scholarly endeavors, to society’s detriment. Similarly, discrimination based on race or ethnicity such as anti-Semitism or even ideology has also had an unknown retarding effect on the advance of knowledge. Only an infinitesimal number of persons have contributed great insights that have advanced human knowledge. Emerson said “Beware when the great God lets loose a thinker on this planet.” G B Shaw, “Beware of false knowledge; it is more dangerous than ignorance.” Cesare Lombroso, “A single great genius is more than equivalent to...100 mediocrities,” God of Today, believers in the supernatural say that current gaps in the evolutionary fossil record or incomplete explanations for the gaps various phenomena are evidence of a divine creator, usually their god. However, no natural event has ever been shown to have a supernatural cause based on objective material evidence. But, reason has by no means supplanted superstition/faith/myth. Only 40% of Americans believe in evolution, the lowest of all industrialized nations. In Turkey, What do the most Western Muslim country, it’s 16%. Roman Catholic acceptance of evolution is conditional on accepting the we ensouling concept. Islam simply denies evolution. Recall Voltaire, “It is hard to free fools from chains they revere.” know? A 2010 Pew poll said 45% of Catholics don’t know what transubstantiation is; 55% of Protestants don’t know Martin Luther started the Reformation; 43% of Jews don’t recognize Maimonides. “Nothing is so firmly believed as what is least known,” said Montaigne. “We are at the very beginning of time for the human race.” Richard Feynman. #

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118 The advance of knowledge depends on clear thinking and clear reasoning. Copy and paste laetusinpraesens.org/links/webcrit.php Arguments consist of premises and a conclusion. Logical fallacies are errors in argument/reasoning. Poorly argued opinions, perhaps containing logical fallacies, probably are, but are not necessarily, wrong. Some common logical fallacies are:

Name of Fallacy Description and/or Example of Fallacy. Ad Hominem/Poisoning the Well: Attack the speaker or his sources, not his idea. He’s a Commie, reads Karl Marx, so he’s wrong Ad Hominem Tu Quoque: You did it too, so it’s OK. Guilt by association: All his friends are Commies / fags, etc., so he’s a Commie / fag, etc. (Akin to Ad hominem Appeal to faith: It’s in the Bible/Koran/Book of Mormon/Vedas/Analects, so it’s true. (Appeal to Divine Authority) Appeal to common belief: a/k/a Truth by Majority Opinion, a/k/a Band Wagon. Everybody does it, so what’s the problem? Appeal to tradition: It’s always been done this way. So this is the right way to do it. (Appeal to Authority) Appeal to popularity: You’ll be popular if you use Dial. (Appeal to Improper Authority, Non sequitur) Appeal to emotion: See all the handsome happy people drinking Bud Light (Bud watered down). (Akin to Bandwagon) Appeal to patriotism: Be a real American. Support our Troops, so vote for X. Appeal to pride: Think how proud you’d be if your son were a Marine. Appeal to fear: You’ll burn in Hell if you don’t: 1. Believe-in-God. 2. do-such-and-such. 3 Go to church. Appeal to flattery: You are such an astute investor I know you’ll see the value in Schlock Inc. securities. Appeal to motive: You’re just saying that because you love/hate me, or... Because you’re a Democrat/Republican. Appeal to novelty: It’s new, so it’s good. That’s an old argument, it’s outdated. So, forget it. (Non sequitur) Appeal to probability: Soccer fans are thugs. So if we have a soccer team here, thugs will ruin the town. Appeal to pity: If you don’t buy this X, I’ll lose my job. Appeal to prejudice: Only fags wear garters. Appeal to ridicule: Hey, Macaca, Welcome to America. Appeal to vanity/macho: Buy this suit, makes you look thinner. Real men chew tobacco. This ’Vette hits 60 in 5 seconds. Reductum ad Hitlerum: That’s what Hitler/Stalin/bin Laden would say. (Relate statement to a Repugnant authority) Genetic fallacy: My folks hated turnips so I hate turnips. (Appeal to Improper Authority) False analogy: Flying a plane is like riding a bike. Fallacy of composition: Something true of a part is true of the whole. Don’t confuse with Induction, a valid technique. Transferred expertise: Expert in one field considered expert in another field. (Non sequitur) Racial/sexism fallacy: It’s a woman/guy/black/gay thing; you wouldn’t understand. (Non sequitur) Dueness fallacy: Red hit 6 times; so black is due. Converse: Hot streak fallacy. Red hit 6 times. I’m sticking with a winner False/faulty premise: One premise is wrong, so conclusion wrong. (Rarely the premise is wrong but the conclusion still OK) Hasty generalization: His hands are sweaty, don’t trust him. (Non sequitur) Circular reasoning: God exists as the Bible says so. The Bible is right as God inspired it. Biased sample: Quoting a resident of an old folks home as an expert on Social Security. Naturalist fallacy: It’s natural, therefore it’s healthy/good. (Non-sequitur) Red herring: Introducing/Asserting an irrelevant fact to change the subject. Special pleading: I donated $1 million to this college. So, admit my son. Setting up a straw man: Claiming someone said something foolish that he didn’t actually say, to easily refute it. Half truth: Statement meant to convince that omits necessary facts. Yiddish proverb: A half truth is a whole lie. The Stolen concept: “All property is theft” The concept theft assumes while it denies the validity of the concept property. Confirmation bias: Cherry-picking favorable evidence and ignoring adverse evidence. (akin to half truth). Anthrop o m o r p h i s m : Attributing human characteristics or motives to something impersonal or irrational or an animal. Middle ground: Joe says dogs cause warts. Bob says no. So maybe some dogs cause warts. He said, she said: Reporting opposite statements without a factual analysis of which statement was accurate. Quoting out of context: Movie reviewer, ”Not one of his best films.” Ad in paper, “One of his best films.” Misleading vividness: The plane crash yesterday killed 250 people. So, I’ll drive. Argument from inference: No one knows what caused X; so it must have been done by Zeus/Osiris/God/Aton/ the Devil. Fallacy of the consequent: Women are inferior as they let men control them. Slaves deserve slavery as they don’t revolt. Fallacy of wishful thinking: X is true because I really wish it were true. Two wrongs make a right: He took my pen, so I’ll take his car. Argument from ignorance: You can’t prove UFOs / God / X doesn’t exist. So they / He / it must exist. (Non sequitur) Statistics of small numbers: My folks smoked and lived to 95. Sample not big enough for valid generalization Confusing cause and effect: X and Y happened at the same time, so Y caused X. (Possibly of course, but not necessarily) Post hoc ergo propter hoc: X happened before Y, so X caused Y. Correlation is not causation. (Maybe, but not for sure) Argument from omniscience: Everyone knows that Fords are better than Chevvies. (Appeal to Improper Authority) False dilemma/limited choice: You’re with me or for terrorism. Either ID formed the world, or it came about by chance. Non-sequitur/ It does not follow: She’s blond, so she’s dumb. (Many logical fallacies are non sequiturs) Begging the question/loaded question: a/k/a False unspoken premise: When are you going to stand up for America? Appeal to improper authority/celebrity: Tom Cruise says gun control is un-American. (This is also appeal to patriotism) Argument from averse consequences: Find him guilty or others will do the same crime. Fallacy of accident/ignoring the exception: Cutting people with a knife is illegal. Surgeons do this. So surgeons are criminals Equivocation/using two meanings of a word: Feathers are light. What’s light isn’t dark. So feathers aren’t dark. Slippery slope/camel’s nose under the tent: You let one of those people in the neighborhood, They’ll take over.

119 INDEX Arguments for the existence of God Aesthetic/Argument from Beauty, 48 Abelard, Peter, Sic et Non, 40, 41, 43, 51, 76,107 Anthropic/ Fine Tuning, 112 Abraham, 7, 8, 35, Argument from Eternal Truths/ Pre-Established Harmony, 78 Achilles, Illiad, fought King Agamemnon, 9 Argument from Miracles, 27, 83 Acton, John Edward, Lord, Power corrupts,100-101, Argument from Morality, 87 103,106 Argument from Religious Experience, 8, 70, 82 Adams, John, American revolutionary, 68, 85-86, 89 Christological, 27 Adams, Samuel, American revolutionary, 84 Cosmological, 21, 42-43, 47-48, 78, 80, 86-87, 107-108, 110 Addison, Joseph, essayist, poet, 107 Ontological, 41, 47, 70, 74, 78, 87 Adelard of Bath, scholar in Toledo, 41 Pantheistic, 73 Adonis, Syrian resurrected god, 6 Teleological / Design, 16, 48, 62, 74,79, 85-86, 92, 99, 101,107, Aeneas, hero of Virgil’s Aeneid, 26, 52 112-114,118, Aeschylus, Greek, invented drama, 15 Aristarchus, heliocentrism, 24, 57 Agamemnon, King, The Illiad, 9, 15 Aristedes, Saint, Problem of Evil, 8 Agnostic, 101, 107, 109 Aristotle /Aristotelean, 1, 8, 14, 16, 18-26, 28, 32-34, 38-48, 50, Ahab, Israelite king 9 54, 56-58, 62-65, 67, 69-73, 77-78, 91, 105, 115 Ahura-Mazda, Zoroastrian god, 10 Arius / Arians, Christian sect, 30 Aikenhead, Thomas, heretic, 77 Arjuna, Hindu prince, 17 Aisha, Muhammed’s last wife, 34, 35 Arnaud, Cisterian abbot, slaughtered Cathars, 44 al Karaouine University, Fez, 39 Artemis, Greek goddess of the hunt, 9 Alaric, Visigoth chief, 31 Ashurbanipal, King of Nineveh, 9, 12 Alberti, Leon, perspective in art, 53 Asoka, great Emperor of India, 22 Albertus Magnus, humanist, taught Aquinas, 44-46, 50, 75, Astrolabe, latitude, 37-39, 41, 43, 52-53 118 Astrolabe, son of Abelard and Heloise, 40 Alchemy, 71, 72, 76 Astronomy, 1, 32, 38-40, 45, 50, 53-54, 57, 61-63, 66, 71, 73-74, Alcmaeon, Pythagorean, pathologist,13 78, 83, 88, 90, 108-110, 114 d’Alembert, Jean Baptiste le Rond, 82, 106 Atahuallpa, Emperor of the Incas, 59 Alexander 3, Pope, 43 Aten, first declared monotheistic god, 8 Alexander 6, Pope/Rodrigo Borgia, 55 Atheism / atheist, 6, 14, 26, 47, 58, 64, 67, 72, 73, 77, 80, 82, 84, Alexander the Great, 5, 19, 20, 22 89, 93-94, 99,101, 103, 111, 113-114, 116 Alexis, son of Peter the Great, 78 Athena, Greek goddess of wisdom, 9 Algebra, 37, 42, 44, 52, 69, 72, 74,108 Atomic Theory, 16, 17, 22, 93, 94, 100-102, 106, 107 Allegory of the cave, Plato, 19 Attila the Hun, 33 Alphabet, 5, 9, 10, 16, 78 Attis, resurrection cult god, 6 Althusius, Johannes, 64, 66 Augustine, St./Augustinian, City of God,19, 23, 31-34, 37, 40, 48, Ambrose, Bishop of Milan, 30, 31 51, 57, 63, 67-69, 114-116 Amenhotep / Akh-en-Aton, Pharaoh, 8 Augustus, Roman emperor, 26, 29 American Revolution, 88 Averroës, ibn Rushd, commented on Aristotle, 1, 40, 43, 45, 47- Amon Re, principal Egyptian god, 8 49, 75, 78 Ampere, Andre, electromagnetics, 91 Avicenna / abu Alf ibn Si’na, physician, mathematician, Anabaptists, 58, 116 philosopher, 39-40, 42-43, 59, 64, 75 An/Anu, Sumerian god of the sky, 4 Avogadro, Romano Amadeo, All gas molecules same size, 98 Anacletus 2, Pope, 42 Ayer, Alfred-Jules, linguist, 69, 109, 111 Anastasius 3, Pope, 38 Aztecs, Mexico, 1, 3, 7, 29, 33, 56, 59, 116 Anatomy, 21, 55, 62, 105 Anaxagoras, Teleological Argument, 15, 16, 48, 69 Anaximander, 10, 11, 14, 99 Bacon, Francis, Lord Chancellor, 60, 63, Novum Organum, 65, Anaximenes, Rainbows are natural, 10, 11 67, 69,75,76,106 Aeneas/Aeneid, 26 Bacon, Roger, Opus Majus, 1, 44-46, 56, 118 Angkor Wat, largest temple, 38 Baha’i, faith / Baha’u’llah, 8, 96, 116 Anselm, Saint, Ontological Argument, 41, 47, 70, 74, 87, abu Bakr/Bekr, first caliph/ successor and last father-in-law of 115 Muhammad, 35 Antiochus 4, ruler of Syria 25 Balance of power, 71 Antony, Mark, Roman senator, 26 de Balboa, Vasco Nunez, saw Pacific, 57 Aphrodite, Greek goddess of love, 9, Ball, John, English peasants revolt, 51 Apollo, Greek god of healing, 9,23,115 de Balzac, Honore, author, 97, 106 Apollonius, mathematician, 23 Banks, Joseph, increased known species of plants, botanist, 84 Aquinas, see Thomas Aquinas Baudelaire, Charles, 97 Aquitaine, Count of, 38 Bayle, Pierre, philosophe, 74, 77 Arabic numerals, 44 de Beauvoir, Simone, existentialist, 107 Arago, Dominique, electromagnetics, 91 Bebel, August, religious philosopher,102 Arbues, Pedro, Spanish inquisitor, 55 Beccaria, Cesaer, criminologist, 84 Archimedes, hydrologist, 23, 24,39, 54, 67 Becquerel, Antoine, radiation, 104 Bede, The Venerable, English monk, 36

120 Behaim, Martin, first terrestrial globe, 55 Burton, Robert, 60 Bell, Alexander Graham, 102 Bush, George, W, President, 116 Bellarmino, Roberto Cardinal, 65, 67,68 Byzantium, see Constantinople Belon, Pierre, saw similarities in all vertebrates, 63 Benedict, St, / Benedictines, 34, 38, 46 Benedict 8, Pope, 38 Cabot/Caboto, John and son Sebastian, 55 Benedict 9, Pope, 38 Caccini, Tommaso, Dominican friar, 67 Benedict 14, Pope, 55 Callicles, philosopher, 19 Benedict 16, Pope/Cardinal Ratzinger,111-112, 114, 115 Calixtus 3, Pope, 55 Bentham, Jeremy, utilitarianism, 79, 89, 98, 106 Calvin, John / Calvinism, 59, 61-62, 82- 83, 107 Berkeley, George, Esse est percepti, 69, 79, 106 Camerarius, Rudolph, physicist, 77 Berliner, Emile, telephone, 102 Campbell, Joseph, The Power of Myth, 111 Bernard, Abbott of Clairvaux, 40, 42 Cannizzaro, Stanislao, gasses, 98 Bernoulli, Daniel, pressure of a fluid, 79 Capella, Martianus, 32, 37 Bethe, Hans, physicist, hydrogen in Sun makes helium, Carlisle, Anthony, electrolysis, 91 111 Carlyle, Thomas, U. of Edinburgh, 96 Bible, 10, 12,-,13, 22, 24, 29, 31-32, 36-37, 43, 45, 51-53, Carneades, skeptic, 23, 25 55, 57-59, 61, 67- 68, 70, 77, 81-82, 85, 87-91, 93-94, Carnot, Sadi, thermodynamics, 94, 97, 99-104, 106, 108, 115-118 Carroll, Lewis, 117 Bierce, Ambrose, Devil’s Dictionary, 97 Carter, Brandon, anthropic argument, 112 Big Bang, 2, 110, 112, 113 Carson, Johnny, 86 Biology, 2, 5, 63, 71, 73, 79, 81, 90, 92- 93, 95-96, 98-102, Cassini, Giovanni, astronomer, 66, 73 105, 109-110,112 Cassius, Roman senator, 26 al Biruni, Muhammad ibn Ahmad, 39, 66, 75 Castelli, Beneditti, student of Galileo, 67 von Bismark, Otto Eduard, Baron, 96 Cathars, Christian sect, 39, 42, 44,116 Black Death, 50, 102, 108 Catherine, first wife of Henry 8, 61 Black holes, 88, 108 Cato the Censor, Roman, 24 Blacks/Negroes, 55-56, 71, 94, 101, 114-115 Cavendish, Henry, hydrogen, 84 Black, Joseph, isolated CO2, 83, 90 Cayley, George, aerodynamics, 98 Blackstone, William, Brit, jurist, 85 Cell Theory, life is based on cells, 95 Boccaccio, Giovanni, Decameron, 50, 3, 57 de Cervantes, Miguel Saavedra, Don Quixote, 66 Bodin, Jean, state sovereignty, 64, 66 Chadwick, James, neutrons, 110 Boethius, “Join faith to reason.” 39 Chambers, Robert, evolutionist, 96, 99 Bohr, Niels Henrik, structure of the atom 1, 108-109, 114 de Champeaux, William, 40 Boleyn, Anne, 2nd wife of Henry 8, 61 de Chancourtois, Alexander Beguyer, first to see patterns in Bolivar, Simon, liberator S. America, abolished inquisitions, elements, 101 94 Charlemagne, Emperor of HRE, 36, 37 Boltzmann, Ludwig, entropy, 102 Charles, Jacques, gasses, 88, 92 Boltwood, Bertram, concept of radioactive decay,106 Charles 1, English king, beheaded, 70, 76 Boniface 8, Pope, 48, 49 Charles 5, Holy Roman Emperor, 58 Bonaparte, Napoleon, 60, 89, 90, 93 Charles 9, French king, at 12, ordered Huguenots massacred, 63 Borelli, Giovanni, astronomer, 65, 74 Charron, Pierre, priest, skeptic, 6, 118 Borgia, Cesare, 55 Chase, Stuart, Tyranny of Words, 111 Borgia, Rodrigo/Alexander 6, Pope, 55 Chemistry,1, 36, 49-50, 71-72, 78, 84,88, 95-96,100,105,110,112 Born, Max, physicist, 109 Cheops, Egyptian pharaoh, 6 Bossuet, Bishop of Meaux, 78 Ch’in dynasty, 24 Botany, 5, 28, 38, 41, 54, 77, 79, 84-85, 95-96, 104 Chou Dynasty, 8, 13 Boyle, Robert, Irish, chemist, 65, 71-72, 76, 88, 92, 118 Christ / Jesus, 6, 14-15, 17, 23, 25-34, 36, 41-43, 53-54, 57-59, Braden, Nathaniel, objectivist, 112 61, 63, 80, 86, 89, 94, 100, 108, 111,114 Bradley, James, speed of light, 79 Chrysostom, John, Patriarch in Constantinople, 30, 31 Brahe, Tycho, astronomer, 28, 63, 66 Cicero, Marcus Tillius, Roman, lawyer, philosopher, 18, 25, 26, Brahma, Hindu creator, 7 51, 116 Bronze Age, 5, 8 City of God, Augustine, 31-33, 39, 48, 68 Brown, Robert, botanist, Brownian motion, 94, 106 Clarke, Arthur C., anthropologist, 2 Brugnatelli, Luigi, electroplating, 91 Clausius, Rudolph, 2nd law of thermodynamics, 97, 102 Bruno, Giordano, 65, 69, 70,107,118 Clavius, Christopher, astronomer, 66 Brutus, Roman senator, 26 Cleisthenes, Athenian, democracy, 14 Buddha/ Buddhism/ Buddhist,7-9,13-15,19, 22, 25,27- Clement 2, Pope, 41 29, 34, 36, 46,105-06 Clement 4, Pope/Cardinal de Foulques, 46, 47 de Buffon, George Le Clerc, Compte, evolutionist, 81, 99 Clement 5, Pope, 49 al Bukhari, Muhammed Sahih, compiler of Hadith, 37 Clement 7, Pope, 51, 61 Bunsen, Robert, physicist, 98 Clement 8, Pope, burned Bruno, 65 Burbank, Luther, botanist, 104 Cleopatra, (consort of Julius Caesar/Antony), 26 Burke, Edmond, conservative, 84, 89 Cleopatra 7, early Ptolemy queen, 22 Burr, William, Bible contradictions, 99 Clovis, Frankish king, Christian, 33

121 Colenso, John, Anglican bishop, 100 Donation of Constantine, 36, 37, proved a fake, 36 Coleridge, Samuel Taylor, 1 Doppler, Christian, 92, 95, 108 Columbian Exchange, 59 Draco, Greek law giver, harsh, 9, 11 Columbus, Christopher/Cristobal, 52, 55, 59, 63 Drake, Francis, English pirate, 63 Colombo, Matteo, blood circulation, 63 Draper, John William, Conflict between Science and Compte, Auguste, positivism, 95 Religion, 102 Confucius/Confucianism, 8, 9,13, 24-25, 28, Dred Scott decision, US Supreme Court, Slaves are property, 98 Constantine, Roman Emperor, promoted Christianity, 29, Dreyfus, Alfred, Captain, 97 30, 36, 37 Drummond, William, philosopher, 68 Constantinople, 9, 24, 30-34, 36-37, 41, 43, 48, 52-53 Cook, James, Captain, 84 Cooke, William, developed telegraph, 92 Eannes, Dom Gil, Portuguese, sailed past Cape Bojadour, 52 Copernicus, Nicolaus, astronomer, priest, revived Earman, John, WAP is a tautology, 113 heliocentrism, 24, 57, 61-63, 67-68, 74, 78, 83, 95,106 Economics, 85, 90, 91, 93, 104,110 Cortez/Cortes, Hernan, conquered Mexico, 59 Eddington, Arthur, astronomer, 110 de Coulomb, Charles, physicist, 78 Edison, Thomas, Alva, prolific inventor, 92 Cranmer, Thomas, (Henry 8), 61 Einstein, Albert,1, 62, 63, 77, 88, 92, 94, 104, 106-111, 114,117 Crick, Francis, DNA, 112 Elci, Monsignor, anti-Galileo, 67 Croce, Benedetto, educator, 106, 109 Electromagnetism, 91, 96, 104, 110 Cromwell, Oliver, Prime, Minister, 70, 76, 77 Elias, Dominican monk, Abbott, 45 Cro-Magnon Man, (Homo sapiens), 2 Elijah, reportedly resurrected, 100 Curie, Marie and Pierre, physicists, radioactivity, 104 Eliot, George, writer, 97 Cuvier, Georges, evolutionist, 90, 99 Elizabeth 1, Queen, 65 Cyrus, Persian, Zoroastrian, 12, 13 Emmanuel, Victor, unifier of Italy, 101 Emerson, Ralph Waldo, 95 Empedocles, Air is a mixture, 16 Dalai Lama, 114 Empiricism, 16, 19, 20, 45, 65, 68, 69, 76, 78, 80, 83, 87 Dalton, John, atomic theory, 93, 106 Engels, Frederich, communism, 101 Damian, Peter Cardinal, 41 Enki, Sumer god of creative forces, 4 Dante, Aligheri, Inferno, 45, 46, 49, 51-52, 57-58, 106 d’Envieu, Fabre, anti-Darwin, 99 Darby, Abraham, British chemist, 78 Epictetus, Roman, Conform nature to reason, 8, 28 Darius, Persian, attacked Greece, lost,15 Epicurean Paradox, see Problem of Evil Dark Ages, 8, 9, 32-34,36,38, 48, 49, 56 Epicurus, philosopher, 22, 23, 26, 32 Darrow, Clarence, lawyer, agnostic,109 Erasmus, Desiderus, philosopher, In Praise of Folly, 56-59, 63, Darwin, Charles/Darwinism, Origin of Species, Descent of 65, 101,106,115 Man,1, 86, 90, 95-96, 98-101,104-105,109-110, 114, Eratosthenes, director of Library at Alexandria, 23, 24 118 Euclid, Elements of Geometry, 23, 24, 36, 41, 56, 94 Darwin, Erasmus, evolutionist, 90, 93, 99 Eugene 4, Pope, 42, 52, 55 Davy, Humphrey, chemist, 91 Euler, Leonhard, mathematician, 79 Dawkins, Richard, philosopher, atheist, 114, 118 Euripides, 3rd great tragedian,15 Dead Sea Scrolls, 111 Euthyphro dilemma, Why is an act moral?, 18, 48 DeBroglie, Louis, Matter acts as waves & as particles, 109 Deduction, in argument, 20, 22, 24, 42, 56, 65, 75, 85 Defoe, Daniel, writer, 106 Fabricus, Hieronymus, veins, 65 Democracy/democratic, 1, 9, 11, 14-19, 21, 38, 50, 71, 74, Fahrenheit, Daniel, thermometer, 79 77, 83, 85, 88-89, 95, 96, 100-101, 110-111, 114-115 al Farabi, abu Nasr, Persian, second in knowledge to Aristotle, 38 Democritus, atomic theory, 14,16,18, 21, 22, 23, 66, 70, 93 Farady, Michael, magnetic field, 91 Demosthenes, Greek statesman, 57 Farnese, Pier, son of Pius 3, 100 Denison, Archdeacon, anti-Darwin, 100 Farrar, F. W. (Re Augustine), 32 Descartes, Rene, 19, 41, 46-47, 63, 65, 69-77, 87, Fatima, daughter of Muhammed, 34, 35 103-104, 106 Ferdinand, king of Spain, with Queen Isabella financed Desiderus, Bishop of Vienne, 34 Columbus, 54, 55 Diagoras, Athenian Sophist, 16 de Fermat, Pierre, 39, 71 Dickens, Charles, author, 97 Ferranti, Sebastian, engineer, 92 Diderot, Denis, editor of Encyclopedie, philosophe, 73, 77, Feyerabend, Paul, 114 82-84, 106 Feynman, Richard, nuclear physicist,118 al-Dinawari, Book of Plants, 38 Fibonacci, Leonardo/Leonardo of Pisa, 44 Diodorus Siculus, historian, 60 Finici, Marcilio, translated Plato. 53 Diogenes, skeptic, 19, 22 Flemming, Walter, cells divide and replicate, 102 Dionysus, resurrected god, 15, 23, 39 Fizeau, Armand Hippolyte-Louis, 92 Dirac, Paul, physicist, 109 Flaubert, Gustave, 97, 106 Dioscorides, botanist, 28 de Fontenelle, Bernard, romanticist, 74 Disraeli, Benjamin, Prime Minister, 94, 99, 100 Foscarini, Paolo, monk, 67 Dominic, Saint / Dominicans, 43-46, 49, 54-55, 57, 59, 62, de Foulques, Charles/Clement 4, Pope, 46 65, 67-68 France, Anatole, writer, 97

122 Francis of Assisi, Saint / Franciscans, 43, 44-46, 48, 50 Halley, Edmund, astronomer/Halley’s Comet, 24, 43, 65, 74, Franklin, Benjamin, 68, 78, 85,88-89,106 75, 78 Franklin, Rosalind, DNA, 112 Hamilton, Alexander, 88 Frederick 2, king of Denmark, 63 Hamilton, Edith, The Greek Way, 23 Frederick 2, the Great, Prussia, 79, 106 Hammurabi, law giver, 7, 8, 12, 32 Freud, Sigmund, psycharitist, 104 Hamount, Matthew, denied Jesus’s divinity, so burnt at the Fuller, Buckminster, inventor, 90 stake, 63 Fulton, Robert, steamboat, 93 Han Dynasty, 25, 28 Hancock, John, revolutionary, 84 Hardy, Thomas, 97 Gabriel, Archangel, 34, 35, Harrison, John, clockmaker, longitude, 84 Gaeseric, Vandal, sacked Rome, 33 Harvey, William, physician, 65, 68, 72 Galen, physician, 28 Hawking, Stephen, astrophysicist, spontaneous creation,114, 118 Galileo, Galilei, mathematician, astronomer, physicist, 10, ibn Hayyan, Jabir, father of chemistry, 36 16, 21, 46, 62-72, 75-76, 83, 106, 114, 118 al Hazen/al Haytham, optics, 22, 23, 39, 40, 42, 45-46, 49, 52, Galvani, Luigi, physicist, 78 64, 70, 75 da Gama, Vasco, sailed to India, 55 Hegel, Georg Wilhelm, 94, 96, 99 Gandhi, Mahatma, gained independence for India, 111 Heine, Heinrich, German poet, 106 Gay-Lussac, Joseph Louis, gasses, 72, 88, 92 Heisenberg, Werner, uncertainty principle, 1, 104, 109 Geert de Groote, Brethren of the Common Life, 51 Heloise, student/wife of, Abelard, 40 Geissler, Johann, neon lighting, 92 Heliocentrism, 24, 57, 61-63, 67-68, 74, 78 Genghis Khan, Mongol conqueror, 38, 44, 46 von Helmholz, Herman, thermodynamics, 97 George 3, English king, 84, 85 Helmont, Jan, Air not the only gas, 68 George, Henry, economist 102 Helvetius, Claude Adrien, 83, 106 von Gesner, Konrad, paleontologist, bibliographer, 62, 106 Henry the Navigator, Prince, 52, 53, 55 al Ghazali, influential Muslim cleric, philosopher, 21, 22, Henry 3, Emperor, HRE, French, 41 42, 43, 47, 78 Henry 4, Emperor, HRE, French, 41, 65 Gibbon, Edward, Decline and Fall of Roman Empire, 1, 27, Henry 7, King of England, 55 31, 106, 118 Henry 8, King of England, 56-57, 61, 62 Gibbons, James, Cardinal, of Baltimore,102 Henry, Joseph, electricity, 92 Gibbs, J. Willard, thermodynamics,102 Hera, Greek goddess of women, 9 Gide, Andre, writer, 106 Heraclides, Earth rotates. Venus and Mercury circle the Sun, 19 Giffard, Henry, powered balloon, 98 Heraclitus, philosopher, 14, 17 Gilbert, William, Earth is a magnet, 65 Herbert, Edward, deism, 65, 68 Gilgamesh, Sumer king, first epic, 7 Hermeticism, 15th century cult, 53 Gladstone, William, British P.M., 100 Hero, physicist, primitive steam engine, 23, 27 Glashow, Sheldon, physicist, 112 Herodotus, Greek, historian,12,15, 57 Godfrey, Thomas, developed octant, 43 Herophilus, Greek, first anatomist, 23 Godwin, William, political theorist, 89 Hershel, William, Sun is in a galaxy of millions of suns/stars, 88 von Goethe, Johann, 64, 83, 93, 95 Hertz, Gustav, physicist, electrons,107 Gould, Stephen Jay, paleontologist,114 Hertz, Henrich, electricity, 92 Gratian, Bolognese jurist, 42 Hess, Henri, thermochemistry, 96, 102 Gray, Stephen, physicist, 78 Hilary, Bishop of Poitiers, 30 Greene, Graham, writer, 106 Hillel al Babli, Problem of Evil, 8 Gregorian calendar, 63, 78 Hindu/Hinduism, 6-8,10,13,17, 22, 28, 32, 44, 56, 63, 69, 81, 107, Gregory the Great, St., Bishop of Rome, 34, 35 111,116 Gregory, James, invented the reflecting telescope, 72 Hipparchus, astronomer, 23, 25, 28 Gregory 6, Pope/John Gratian, bought papacy, 38 Hippocrates, Father of Medicine,17 Gregory 7, Pope, 41 Hitler, Adolph, Mein Kampf, 62, 82, 110, 111,112 Gregory 9, Pope, 45, 46 Hobbes, Thomas, materialism, monarchist, Life is nasty, brutal, Gregory 10, Pope, 46 and short, 8, 60, 64-66, 68-71, 74, 76, 83, 90, 106, 113,115 Gregory 11, Pope, 51 d’Holbach, Paul Henri Thiry, Baron, Encyclopedie, philosophe, Gregory 12, Pope, 52, 63 atheist, 77, 82, 83 Grosseteste, Robert, Bishop, 44-46, 75 Holmes, Arthur, plate tectonics, 107 Grotius, Hugo, international law, 65, 68 Holyoake, G. J., social reformer, doubted God, jailed, 96 Grünbaum, Adolf, philosopher,117 Homer, Greek poet, blind, 9,10, 21, 27 Guanilo, monk, refuted Anselm, 41, 47 Homo sapiens/thinking man, 2, 4, 98, 113 von Guericke, Otto, generator, 78 Honorius 2, Pope, 42 Gutenberg, Gustavus Adolphus, printing press system,1, Honorius 3, Pope, 37, 45 53 Hooke, Robert, astronomer, architect, physicist, 43, 65, 71-72, 75, 76 Hooker, Joseph, 98 Hadley, George, climatologist, 79 Hsiung-nu/Huns, Mongols, 28 Hadley, John, developed octant, 44 Hubble, Edwin, 1, 95, 109, 110 Hugo, Victor, Les Miserables, 40, 68, 97, 106

123 Hui-neng, Buddhist teacher, 36 John 12, Pope, 38 Hulagu Khan, burned Bagdad, 46 John 19, Pope, 38 Humanism, 45, 49, 50-51, 57-59, 63, 69 John 22, Pope, authorized torture, 49, 50 Humason, Milton, Hubble’s law, 109 John 23, Pope, 52 Hume, David, philosopher, 20, 23, 28, 64, 69, 71, 79-83, John Duns Scotus, 48, 115 85-87, 89-90, 99, 106, 117-118 John Paul 2, Pope, 114, 115 Huns, 25, 28, 31, 33, 44 John the Baptist, 26 Hus/Huss, John, Christian reformer, burnt, 51, 52, 57, 58 John the Scot/Johannes Erigena, 37,118 Hutcheson, Francis, political theorist, Greatest good for Johnson, Samuel, dictionary, 79, 83 greatest number, 79, 84, 89 Joshua, 62 Hutton, James, geologist, 90 Joule, James, thermodynamics, 92, 97 Huxley, Aldous, Brave New World, 18, 86 Judaism, see Jews Huxley, Thomas, agnostic, “ape or bishop” 98-99, 101, Julius 2, Pope, 57 103, 107 Julius, Gaius, Caesar, 25, 26 Huygens, Christiaan, wave theory of light, 65, 68, 71-72, ibn Junus, Egyptian astronomer, 38 75, 77,92-93, 104 Jupiter, planet, 28, 66, 72-74 Hypatia, teacher, martyred for being a pagan, 32, 118 Jupiter, Roman god, 16 Justinian, Roman emperor, 33, 41

Ignatius of Loyola, St./Jesuits, 61, 64, 66, 68-69, 79, 80, 86 Incas, 1, 7, 27, 56, 59, 116 Kant, Immanuel, philosopher, continental rationalism, 8, 19, 21, Index of Prohibited Works, 49, 60, 62-63, 66-68, 72, 97, 41, 47, 77, 81, 83, 86-87, 94, 100, 106, 112 106, 112, 118 Kelvin, Lord/William Thomson, physicist, 96-98, 104 Induction, in reasoning, 1, 20, 29, 46, 56, 65, 75, 80, 98 Kepler, Johannes, astronomer, 62, 63, 65-66, 68, 71, 74-75, 85, Induction, in electricity, 91, 92, 102 106 Ingenhousz, Jan, Oxygen in plants, 85 Keynes, John Maynard, economist,111 Ingersoll, R. G., writer, agnostic, 81 Khadija, Muhammed’s first wife, 34 Innocent 2, Pope, 42 al Khwarizmi, Mohammed ibn Musa, algebra, 37, 42 Innocent 3, Pope, crusades, 44, 45 Kierkegaard, father of existentialism, 96 Innocent 4, Pope, authorized torture, 46 al Kindi, chemist, 39 Innocent 8, Pope, inquisition, 54, 55 Kipling, Rudyard, East is East...The Ladies...Gungda Din, 97 Innocent 10, Pope, 70 Kirchoff, Gustav, elements emit specific wavelengths of light, 98 Inquisitions, 44-46, 50, 54-55, 59, 61-63, 65, 67-68, 94-95, Kitchener, Horatio, Lord, defeated Boers, 104 103, 116,118 Kohlrausch, Rudolph, electrolytic conductivity, 92 Irenaeus, Bishop, 28, 81 Kohn, Hans, nationalism, 81 Isaac, son of Abraham, 7 Koran/Qur’an, 8, 22, 29, 34-36, 38, 40, 42, 43, 53, 58, 68, 96, Isabella, Queen of Spain, 54, 55, 116-118 Isidore, Archbishop of Seville, 37, Kowalska, Mary, Saint, 106 Isis, Egyptian goddess, 23, 27,115 Kramer, Henrich, Dominican, Anti-W itchcraft, 54 Islam/Muslim, 1, 7, 8,18, 23-24, 28,35-39, 41-43, 45, 46, Krishna, Lord, Hindu, 17, 23 48-49, 52, 53-56, 63, 65, 69, 71, 76, 78, 80,111, 113-118 Kublai Khan, 44, 46, 49 Ito, Hirobumi, philosopher, 105

de Lafayette, Marie-Joseph Paul Yves Roch Gilbert du Motier, James, Constantin, Dr., anti-Darwin,101 Marquis, 85, 89 James, William, philosopher, 103 de Lagrange, Joseph-Louis, Compte, astronomer, 91 Jansen, Sacharias and Zacharias, microscope, 65 de Lamarck, Jean Baptiste Pierre-Antoine de Monet, Chevalier, al Jayyani, spherical trigonometry, 38 90, 93, 99, 100, 105 Jefferson, Thomas, 68, 81, 85, 88-89,115, 118 Landsteiner, Karl, blood groups, 105 Jenner, Edward, Dr. inoculation, 90 Lao-tzu, The Way, 19 Jerome, Vulgate Bible, 31 de Laplace, Pierre Simon, Marquis, astronomer, showed planets Jesus, see Christ orbit mathematically, 75, 84, 88, 90, 99, 117 Jews/Judaism, as a people, 4, 7, 8-9, 11-12, 14, 23-24, Larousse (Dictionary), 106 26-29, 38-39, 41, 43- 45, 48, 52, 61, 69, 71, 73, 79, Lavoisier, Antione Laurent, Elementary Treatise on Chemistry, 82, 89, 100-101, 111, 113, 116, 118 deduced water was H2O, 88 Jews, actions against, 24, 26, 29-30, 32-36, 42, 44-45, 48, Lawrence, D H, writer, 106 50-52, 54-55, 61-63, 70, 80-82, 94, 98, 100, 110- Laws of thought, 19, 78, 87, 94, 103, 116 111,116 Lazarus, reputedly returned from dead, 101 Jezebel, Phoenician wife of Ahab, 9 Lazarus, Emma, Give me your poor, your meek, 103 Joan of Arc/Jean d’Arc, martyred, 52 van Leeuwenhoek, Antoni, Dutch, microscope, microbiology, 73 Job, 23, 67, 115 von Leibniz, Gottfried Wilhelm, Baron, theodocies, calculus, 21, John, King, Magna Carta, 45 23, 32, 37, 41, 47, 65, 69, 72, 76, 79-83, 85-86, 90,103,107,117 John, Saint, 23, 26-29, 30, 100, 116 Lemaitre, George, Big Bang, 109, 110 John 10, Pope, 38 Lenz, Heinrich, electric theory, 92 John 11, Pope, 38 Leo 3, Pope, 37

124 Leo 8, Pope, 60 Marx, Karl, 60, 94, 96-97, 99, 106, 115, Leo 9, Pope, 41 Mary, St., mother of Jesus, 28, 36, 57, 101 Leo 10, Pope 57, 67 Mary, Bloody, Queen, daughter of Henry 8, 61 Leo 12, Pope, 94 Mary, Queen, wife of W illiam of Orange, 76, Leo 13, Pope, 103 Mason, George, revolutionary, Virginia Rights of Man, 88 de Leon, Ponce, found Florida, 57 al Masudi, astronomer, geographer, 38 Leonardo da Vinci, Mona Lisa, Last Supper, 54 Matthew, Saint, Gospel, 8, 26-29, 58 Leucippus, Atomic theory, 16, 17, 22, 93 Maugham, Somerset, 107 Lewis, Sinclair, social critic, 109 Mauryan Dynasty, 23 Libby, Willard, Carbon dating, 111 Maxwell, James Clerk, electromagnetism, 4 Equations, 91-92, Lichtenberg, G. C., Man thought up heaven, 6 103-104 Lilburne, John, democrat, 70 Mayan Civilization, 3, 9, 29, 33, 36, 59 Lincoln, Abraham, 94, 100, 116 McMullin, Ernan, anthropic WAP is a tautology, 113 Lind, James, British Naval surgeon, cured scurvy, 83 Medici family, Florence, bankers, 51 Linnaeus, Carlous / Carl von Linne, classified plants and de Medici, Catherine, mother of French Henry 4, 63 animals, 79 de Medici, Cosimo, ruler of Florence, 53, Lippershey, Hans, telescope, 65, 66 de Medici, Giovanni, Cardinal (at 13) 54 Lippmann, Walter, political writer, 18 de Medici, Leopold, Cardinal, 72 Lobichevsky, Nickolai, non-Euclidian geometry, 94 Medicine, 1, 2, 5, 17, 24, 28, 34, 36-37, 45, 54, 57, 59, 65, 83 Locke, John, British political theorist, tabula rasa; life, Melanchthon, Philipp, anti-Copernicus, 62 liberty, and property, 64. 65, 68, 69, 74. 76, 77, 80- Melville, Herman, Moby Dick, 97 87, 89, 93, 104, 106, 115 Mencken, H. L. author, critic,104,109,118 Logical fallacies, 118 Mendel, Gregor, genetics, 104, 105, 110 Logical positivism, 108, 111 Mendeleev, Dimitri, periodic table, 100 Lombroso, Cesare, Menes, king, unified Egypt, 5 Lorentz, Henryk, physicist, 92 Meng-tzu / Menicus, Confucian, 25 Lorini, Friar Niccolo, 67 Mercator, Gerardus, geographer, 62 Louis 14, French king, L’etat? C’est moi, 65, 72, 74, 90 Mersenne, Marin, friar, spread scientific knowledge, 65, 69, 76 Louis 15, French king, 80, 82 Mesopotamia, 3, 4, 6, 7,11, 12,13, 15 Louis 16, French king, beheaded, 89 Metaphysics / metaphysical, 14, 17-18, 20-21, 23, 38, 47, 50, 68, Lucius 3, Pope, inquisitions, 44 71, 73, 80, 83, 87, 94, 95, 111 Lucretius, Titus Carus, philosopher, atheist, 26, 94, 99 Metaphysics, by Aristotle, 14, 19-21, 40 Luke, Saint, New Testament, gospel, 8, 26, 28, 29 von Metternich, Count, Austrian, Council of Vienna, 93 Luthardt, Christoph, Ernst, 99 Meucci, Antonio, Italian, telephone, 102 Luther, Martin 57-62, 77, 83,106, 113, 118 Michelangelo, Buonarriti, Sistine Chapel, 57 Lyell, Charles, geologist, 95, 100, 101 Michel 1, Patriarch in Constantinople, 41 Michell, John, physicist, astronomer, black hole, 88, 108 Michelson, Albert, physicist, 103 Machiavelli, Nicolas, The Prince, realpolitik, 60,70, 103,106 Microscope, 23, 39, 46, 65, 71, 73, 75, 112 MacKay, Charles, Extraordinary Popular Delusions and Middle Ages, 22, 37-40, 42, 44-45, 47, 49-50, 69, 115 Madness of Crowds, 44 Miles, Theodore, 76 Madison, James, Bill of Rights, 68, 86, 88 Mill, John Stuart, 23, 98,101,106,113 Magdalenian man, 2 Miller, Stanley, physicist, 112 Magellan, Fernando, 58 Milton, John, poet, 70, 104, 106 Mahavira, founder of Jainism, 14 Ming Dynasty, 52, 56 Maimonides, Rabbi, 44, 45, 47, 106, 118 Minoan civilization, Crete, 5, 7, 8, 14 Malebranche, Nicolas, French priest, 76, 106 Miracles, 27, 31, 41-42, 80, 82, 93, 113, 117 Malpighi, Marcello, capillaries, 71 Mirandola, Giovani Pico della, 54, 118 Malthus, Thomas, Rev., Population outstrips food supply, Mitchell, Walter, Rev., anti-Darwin, 99 90, 93, 95-96, 98-99 Mithra/Mithraism, Persian god, 6, 10, 27, 29 Mandeville, Bernard, 78 Moliere, Jean Baptiste Polequin, satirist, 65, 72 Mani, founded Manichaeism, 10, 29-31, 39 Monarchomach, state sovereignty limited by God’s laws, 64, 66 Manning, English Cardinal, anti-Darwin, 99 de Montaigne, Miguel Eyguem, essayist, 63-64, 73, 106, 118 Manutius, Aldus, Venice, printer, 57 de Montesquieu, Baron,77, 81, 82, 85,106 Marcion, Christian Jew, Roman, 28-30 Montezuma, Aztec king, 59 Marconi, Guigliermo, wireless radio, 92 Montgolfier, Joseph and Jacques, hot air balloon, 88 Marduk, Babylonian god, 7 More, Thomas, Sir, Catholic, Lord Chancellor, Utopia, 56, 57, 61, Mark, Saint, gospel, 26. 28, 29 Morley, E W, physicist, 103 Marlowe, Christopher, Doctor Faustus, 64, 93 Mormon / Moroni, 68-69, 94, 103, 114-116 Marozia, Roman courtesan, 38 Morse, Samuel F B, telegraph 1844, 92 Mars, Roman god of war, 9 Moses, 8, 11, 29-, 34, 44, 73, 82, 100, 101 Mars, planet, 28, 66, 71, 73, 113 Mozart, Wolfgang Amadeus, 88 Marsiglio of Padua, democracy, 50,115 Mo-tzu, Chinese philosopher,15, 64,75 Martel, Charles, king of the Franks, 36 Mueller, Johann, astronomer, 54 Martin 5, Pope, 52 Muhammad / Ubu’l Kassim, 29, 34-35, 38, 57, 82,

125 Muslim, see Islam Pasteur, Louis, cell theory, 95, 98 van Musschenbroek, Pieter, Leyden Jar, 78 Paul, Saint / Saul, 19, 27, 29-32, 38, 86, 101 Paul 3, Pope, 55, 61-62, 100 Paul 4, Pope, 63 an-Nafis, Ibn, described heart, 46 Peano, Guiseppi, symbolic logic, 108 Nanak Dev, guru, founded Sikhism, 55 Pelagius, Welsh cleric, 32 Napoleon, see Bonaparte Pepin the Short, gave Papal States to pope, 36 Naturalism, 34, 73 Pericles, Roman, senator, 15-16, 115 Neanderthal Man, 2, 27, 98 Perry, Lord Bishop, anti-Darwinism, 99 Nebuchadnezzar, King of Babylon, 11 Persia / Persian, 6, 10-13, 15-16, 22, 24-25, 27-29, 31, 34- Nefertiti, wife of Amonhotep, 8 40, 46, 49, 52, 96 Nehru, Jawaharlal, 60, 111 Peter, Saint, 13, 27, 29, 30, 57, 64, 67 Nemesis, Greek god, 9 Peter the Great, modernized Russia, 78 Neoplatonism, 29, 37, 53 Petrarch, Humanist, 50-52, 54, 57, 58 Nernst, Walter, thermodynamics, 97 Petronius, Fear gave rise to gods, 4 New Testament, 9, 23, 27, 29, 61, 97, 103 von Peuerbach, Georg, mathematician, 54 Newlands, John, physicist, 101 Philip 2, French king, 44 Newman, John Henry, Anglican, Catholic, 101 Philip 4, French king, 49 Newton, Anglican Bishop, 82 Phillip of Macedon, 19 Newton, Isaac, 1, 21, 37, 39-40, 64, 66-67, 70, 72, 74-78, Philoponus, John, philosopher, 21, 34, 64, 75 83-84, 92, 96-97, 101, 103-104, 106, 108, 110, 114,117 Philosophes, French intellectuals, 68, 73, 77,79, 80, 82, 83 Nicaea, Council of, 325 AD, 30 Phoenicians, seafarers, alphabet, 5, 9,12 Nicene Creed, basic Christian beliefs, 30 Physics, 20, 22, 39-40, 44, 46, 64, 67, 70, 72-73, 76-80, 83, 91, Nicholas, 5, Pope, 53 94, 96-99, 102, 114 Nicholson, William, electrolysis, 91 Piaget, Jean, educator, 110 Nicolas of Kues, Cardinal, 53, 115 Pierre de Castelnau, 44 Nicomachean Ethics, Aristotle, 20, 22 Pindar, Greek lyric poet, 57 Niebuhr, Reinhold, theologian, 116 Pius 2, Pope / Aeneas Silvius, 52 Nietzsche, Frederich, 60, 102, 103 Pius 4, Pope, 63 Nintu, Sumer Earth goddess, 4 Pius 9, Pope, 55, 100, 101, Noah, ark, 11, 84, 100 Pius 10, Pope, 106 Pius 11, Pope, 110, 111 Pius 12, Pope, 111, 112 Occam/Ockham, William of / Occam’s Razor, skeptic, 50, Pixii, Hippolyte, physicist, 92 58, 64, 68, 75,101, 115, 118 de Pizan, Christine, feminist, writer, 52 Octavian, Roman, defeated Antony, 26 Pizarro, Francisco, defeated Incas, 59 Oersted, Hans Christian, electricity and magnetism are Planck, Max, 1, 97, 104, 106, 109 both aspects of electromagnetism, 91 Plato, pupil and biographer of Socrates, 1, 9, 15-23, 25, 29, 31, Ogilvie, William, Scot, philosopher, land reform, 88 37-38, 43-44, 47-48, 53, 56-57, 67, 77, 83, 89, 90 Ohm, George, electric resistance, 91 Playfair, John, geologist, 90, 95 Old Testament/ Hebrew Bible, 7-9, 11, 27-30, 32, 42, 77, Plotinus, Neoplatonism, 29 80, 94 Plow,1, 3-6, 8, 24-25, 33, 37-38, 58 Oldham, Richard, earthquake waves,106 Plutarch, Greek philosopher, 23 Omar Khayyam, cubic equations, 41 Polo, Marco, described the Far East, 48-49, 52 Omar/Umar, second caliph, 35 Polyphemus, son of Poseidon, 56 Optics, 1, 36, 39, 41, 44-46, 52, 64, 72 Pompey, Leading Roman senator, 26 Opus Majus, Roger Bacon, 46 Pontius Pilate, Roman governor of Judea, 26-27 Origin of Species, 95, 98, 99 Pope, Alexander, poet, 79 Orwell, George, 1984, Animal Farm, 111 Popper, Karl, physicist, falsifiability concept, 71, 109 Osiander, Andreas, (Copernicus), 62 Poseidon, Greek god of the seas, 9, 115 Osiris, Egyptian god, 6, 26, 115, Power, Henry, physicist, gasses, 72 Ostrogoths, 33 Pragmatism, Do whatever works, 103 Otis, James Jr., Boston lawyer, God made all men Priestley, J B, political theorist, chemist, 79, 84, 89 naturally equal, Taxation without representation, 84 Process Theology, no belief in a divine God, 108 Problem of Evil / Epicurian Paradox, 10, 23, 25, 28-29, 31, 32, 34, 48, 76, 79, 81, 82, 87, 115 Paine, Thomas, Common Sense, Age of Reason, Rights Protagoras, Man is the measure of all things, 16, 17, 75 of Man, Agragrian Justice, Crisis papers, pamphleteer Pseudo-Dionysus, God cannot be comprehended, 37, 39, 115 for American independence, 68, 81, 85, 89-90, 106 Ptah, Egyptian god, created the world, 5 Paley, William, Rev, watch on beach analogy for Design Ptolemy 12, Macedonian Greek general, ruled Egypt, 22 Argument, 9 Ptolemy 13, brother of, husband of, Cleopatra 7, ruled Egypt, 22 Parcelus, Dr. caused new medicine, 59 Ptolemy, astronomer/ Ptolemaic geocentric theory, 22, 23, 29, Parker, Theodore, govt over all, by all, for all, 98, 100 38, 39, 52, 53, 55, 62, 69 Parmenides, Greek philosopher, 14 Ptolemy Soter/Savior, founded museum in Alexandria, 23 Pascal, Blaise, Wager God exists, 65, 71-73, 104,106, 116 Ptolemy family, ruled Egypt, 22, 24, 26

126 Pusey, Phillip, Dr. anti-Darwin, 100 Segur, Monsiegneur, anti-Darwin, 99 Pyrrho, philosophical skeptic, 22 Seleucus, heliocentrism, 57 Pythagoras, 1, 10, 12, 13, 39, 46, 68, 76 Seneca, Roman, Comets follow, natural laws, 27, 62 Pythagorean Theorem, 7, 10, 12, 23 Serapis, Greek god of the temple in Alexandria, 23, 27 Sergius 3, Pope, patron of Marozia, 38 Servetus, Michael, theologian, doctor, circulation of blood, 62 Ra, Egyptian sun god, creator of universe, 6 Sextus Empicurus, skeptic, 29 Rabelais, Francois, monk, writer, 106 Shakespeare, William, dramatist, 64-65 Rationalism, 34, 56, 69, 78, 80, 83, 87 Shang Dynasty, mysticism, 8, 9 Ratzinger, see Benedict 16, Pope Shang Ti, Chinese philosopher, 23 Raymond 6, Count, Cathars, 44 Shaw, George Bernard, author, 8, 118 al Razi, Mohammed ibn, Zakariya, physician, 38, 75 Shelley, Percy Bysshe, poet, 93 Reade, W W, Scot, philosopher, 101 Shih Huang-ti, Emperor, reformist, 24 Reincarnation, 14, 27, 117 Shinto, Religion, Japan, 15, 34 Reis, Philip, telephone, 102 Shiva, Hindu god, the Destroyer, 7 Reis, Piri, Ottoman cartographer, 57 Siemens GmbH, electric company, 92 Remus, in myth, killed by brother Romulus, 9 Sixtus 4, Pope, authorized Spanish Inquisition, 54 Renaissance, very roughly 13th through 17th century Skeptics / skepticism, 6, 15, 19, 22-23, 25, 29, 50, 65,73, 80, 83, Rhea, goddess, mother of Osiris, 6 87, 107, 111 Richard, king of England, hanged John Ball, 51 Slaves / Slavery, 4, 7, 8, 11, 14-16, 21, 22-25, 29, 31-33, 35-36, Ricardo, David, apologist for subsistence wages, 93 41-42, 44, 52-53, 55-56, 59-60, 63, 65-66, 68, 71, 77, 80, Richer, Jean, astronomer, 73 83-85, 87-88, 90, 97-98, 100, 102,111, 115 Ridley, Mark, zoologist, 113 Slipher, Vesto, red shift of spiral nebulae, 108 Rig-Veda, Hindu sacred text, 7 Smith, Adam, Wealth of Nations, 68, 85,90-91, 95, 104 Roberts, John, historian, 1, 118 Smith, Joseph, Mormon, 82, 94, 95 de Robespierre, Maximillian Francois, French Smith, William, geologist, 93 revolutionary, 68, 89 Snow, John, doctor, cholera, 98 Roemer, Ole, speed of light is finite, 66, 73 Socrates, 1, 8, 13,15-20, 22, 26, 48,115 Roentgen, Wilhelm, X-rays, 92 Sol Invictus / Unconquered Sun, Roman Pagan god, 30, 115 Romagnosi, Gian, deduced electricity and magnetism Solon, Roman law giver, 11, 30, 115 were related, 91 Sophism, relativistic, 15-16 Roman Empire,1, 23-26, 29-30, 33-37, 71 Sophocles, 2nd great tragedian,15, 57 Romulus , in myth, founded Rome, 9 Sosigenes, astronomer, Alexandria, 26 Roosevelt, Franklin, Democrat, 111 de Soto, Hernando, explorer, 61 Rosmini, Antonio, critic of clergy, 97 Spartacus, Roman slave revolt, 25 Rougemont, Swiss theologian, 99 Spee, Frederick, Jesuit, 68 Rousseau, Jean, 64, 68, 82-83, 89, 106 Spencer, Herbert, evolutionist, survival of fittest, 98, 100-101 Rumford, Count / Benjamin Thompson, 93 de Spinoza, Baruch, philosopher, pantheist, 8, 19, 47, 60, 65, 69, Russell, Bertrand,1, 48, 83,107-108,117 73-74, 106, Rusticello, biographer of Marco Polo, 49 Sprenger, Jacob, theological justification for inquisitions, 54 Rutherford, Baron Ernest, 104, 107,108, 110 de Stael, Anne Louise Germaine,106 Stendhal / Marie-Henri Beyle, writer, realist, 106 Steno, Nicolas, geologist, 65, 73 Sagan, Carl, astronomer, 112, 114 Stephen 3, Pope, 36 Salam, Abdus, physicist, 112 Sterne, Laurence, Anglican clergyman, Irish novelist, 106 Sand, George, writer, 81, 106 Stevinus, Simon, physicist, 64 Sapir, Edward, language & thought, 111 Stirner, Max, “God is dead,” 102 Sartre, Jean Paul, existentialism, atheist, Man is Sturgeon, William, electric motor, 91 condemned to be free,106,111 al Sufi abd al Rahman, astronomer, 38 Saul, see Paul, Saint Sumer, first Western civilization, 3-7, 9, 48, 59 Savonarola, Girolamo, Florence, purist, 55 Summa Theologica, defense of Christianity by Aquinas, 47, 48 Scaruffi, Piero, historian, 49, 118 Sung Dynasty, 39 Schilling, Pavel, Baron, telegraph, 92 Swedenborg, Emanuel, astronomer, 83, 106 ash-Shirazi, Quth, astronomer, 49 Swift, Jonathan, satirist, 79, 106 Schleiden, Matthias, cell theory, 95 Swinburne, Richard, Anglican, 81 Schopenhauer, Arthur philosopher, 19, 93, 103 Sylvester, Pope, 36 Schroedinger, Erwin, physicist, 109 Sylvester, St, Order of, 101 Schund, Dr. German, anti-Darwin, 99 Sylvius, Aeneas / Pope Pius 2, 52 Schwann, Theodor, cell theory, 95 Szilard, Leo, atomic bomb, 110 Schwarzschild, Karl, black hole, 108 Scientific Method, 1, 17, 36, 39, 40, 42, 45, 65, 67, 69, 75-77, 109 Tabitha, reputed died, resurrected,100 Scott, Sir Walter, ancestors of nobles, 34 Tambora, volcano, 93 Scopes, John, teacher, evolution, 109 Tamerlane/Timur u-lang, Mongol, 44 Scruton, Roger, philosopher, 109 Taney, Roger, Dred Scott decision, 98

127 Tansley, Arthur George, 100 Venus of Laussel, cave carving, possible goddess, 2 Tao/ the Way, Lao-Tsu, 19 Vesalius, Andreas, anatomist, 62 Taylor, Frank Bursley, plate tectonics, 106 Vespucci, Amerigo, 56 Telephone timeline, 102 Virgil, Roman poet, 26, 29, 50 Telescope, 10, 23, 38-39, 46, 62, 66, 71-72, 75, 110, 113- Virgil the Geometer, Bishop of Salzburg, 36 114 Vishnu the Preserver, Hindu, 7 Tempier, Bishop of Paris, Condemnation of 1277, 48 Volta, Allesandro, battery, 78 Tesla, Nikolas, electric motor, alternating current, 92 Voltaire / Francis Marie Arouet, 1, 37, 68, 77-84,106, 116, 118 Tetzel, Johann, sold indulgences, 57 de Vries, Hugo, genetic mutations create new species, 93, 105 Thales of Miletus, Does anything not change? 1,10,11-12 14,16, 18,76 Theodora, Roman courtesan, 38 ibn Wahhab, Muhammad, Sunni, 80, 116 Theodore of Gaza, put Aristotle’s Botany into Latin, 54 Wallace, Alfred Russel, evolution,98 Theodoric of Freiburg, rainbows, 49, 76, Wallis, John, physicist, 72 Theodoric, Ostrogoth, 33 Washington, George, 68, 84, 89, 91 Theodosius, H R Emperor, made Christianity Roman state Watson, James, DNA, 112 religion, 30 Weber, Max, sociologist, economist,106 Theophylact, Roman Count, corrupt, 38 Webster, Daniel, Senator, 95, 100 Thermodynamics, 94, 96-97, 102, 109 Wegener, Alfred, advanced the theory of plate tectonics, 107 Thomas Aquinas, Summa Theologica, 19, 21, 23, 31, 32, Weinberg, Steven, physicist, 112 40-41, 43-44, 50-51, 53, 60, 68, 78, 85-86, 101, 115 Wells, H G, historian,1,31,44, 102,105,118 Thomas a Kempis, Imitation of Christ, 54 Welton, J, laws of thought, 103 Thomas a Modena, first spectacles, 51 Weyer, Johann, anti-witch hunts, 63 Thompson, Benjamin / Count Rumford, ocean current Wheatstone, Charles, telegraph, 92 circulation, 93 Whistler, James Abbott, artist, 74 Thomson, William, Lord Kelvin, physicist, 96-98, 104 White, Andrew Dickson, Science v. Theology, 99, 104,106 Thomson, Joseph John, physicist, 104 Whitehead, Alfred North, 19, 108 Thought, basic laws of, 19, 78, 87, 94, 103, 116 Whorf, Benjamin, semanticist, 111 Thrasymacus, power rules, 16 Wilberforce, Samuel, Bishop, anti- Darwin, 99, 100 Tiberius, Emperor, retired to Capri, 26 Wilde, Oscar Fingal O’Flahertie Wills, writer, wit, 97 de Tocqueville, Alexis, Democracy in America, 95 Wilkins, Maurice, DNA, 112 Tokogawa Shogunate, 70 William of Normandy, conquered England at Hastings, 41 Tolsani, Giovanni, 62 William of Orange, King of England, 76 Tolstoy, Leo, Patriotism is slavery, 60 Wittgenstein, Ludwig, philosopher, 108, 111 de Torquemada, Tomas, Cardinal, Spanish Inquisitor Woehler, Frederich, urea, 95 General, 54,55 Wollstonecraft, Mary, feminist, 89, Toscanelli, Paolo, map maker, 55 Wren, Christopher, astronomer, 65, 74 Towneley, Richard, physicist, gasses, 72 Wright, Orville & Wilbur, airplane, 105-106 Trajan, Roman Emperor, 28 Wu-ti, Han Emperor, Confucianist, 25 Treviranus, Gottfried, evolutionist, 93, 99 Wycliffe, John, Christian reformer, 8, 51-52, 58, 67, 103, 115 Trigonometry, 6, 12, 38, 44, 52, 54 Tryon, Edward P., 112 Tu Wei-Ming, Confucian scholar, 13 Xenophanes, geologist, posited a great god over others,12, 40, Tutu, Archbishop Desmond, 82, 91 57 Twain, Mark/Samuel Clemens, 68,101 Tyndale, William, English Bible, 57, 61, 67 Young, Brigham, Mormon, 95 Young, Thomas, physicist, wave theory of light, 93, 104 Urban 2, Pope, first crusade, 42 Urban 6, Pope, 51 Urban 8, Pope, (Galileo) 55, 67, 68 Zachary, Pope, 36 Ussher, James, Bishop, God created world in 4004 BC, 70 Zantedeschi, Francesco, electric current, 92 Uthman, third Caliph, hadiths, 35, 38 Zeno the Stoic, 22, 23 Utilitarianism, 89, 98 Zeus, principal Greek god, 9, 16, 17, 23, 115, 117 Zheng He (phonetic), Chinese general, admiral, 52 Zisudra, Sumer king, built ark, survived flood, 7 Valla, Lorenzo, debunked Donation of Constantine, 36 Zola, Emile, “J’accuse!,” 97, 106 Valtorta, Maria, writer, 106 Zoroaster, founder of Zoroastrianism, 9, 10, 25, 29 Vandals, 28, 31-33 Zoser/Djoser, Egyptian pharaoh, 5 Vanini, Licilio, priest, wrote Dialogues Concerning Nature, Zwingli, Ulrich, Swiss, Protestant reformer, 59, 106 # so Inquisition strangled, cut out his tongue, burnt him, 68, 69 Vasa, Gustav, Swedish King, 59, 61 Veblen, Thorstein, coined Leisure Class, Conspicuous Consumption, 85, 104

128