Empty Shell No More: China's Growing Footprint in Central and Eastern

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Empty shell no more: China’s growing footprint in Central and Eastern Europe

POLICY PAPER

IVANA KARÁSKOVÁ, ALICJA BACHULSKA, ÁGNES SZUNOMÁR, STEFAN VLADISAVLJEV, UNA ALEKSANDRA BĒRZIŅA-ČERENKOVA, KONSTANTINAS ANDRIJAUSKAS, LIISI KARINDI, ANDREEA LEONTE, NINA PEJIĆ, FILIP ŠEBOK

Empty shell no more: China’s growing footprint in Central and Eastern Europe

POLICY PAPER

IVANA KARÁSKOVÁ, ALICJA BACHULSKA, ÁGNES SZUNOMÁR, STEFAN VLADISAVLJEV, UNA ALEKSANDRA BĒRZIŅA-ČERENKOVA, KONSTANTINAS ANDRIJAUSKAS, LIISI KARINDI, ANDREEA LEONTE, NINA PEJIĆ, FILIP ŠEBOK EMPTY SHELL NO MORE: CHINA’S GROWING FOOTPRINT IN CENTRAL AND EASTERN EUROPE

Policy paper April 2020

Editor – Ivana Karásková Authors – Konstantinas Andrijauskas, Alicja Bachulska, Una Aleksandra Bērziņa-Čerenkova, Ivana Karaskova, Liisi Karindi, Andreea Leonte, Nina Pejić, Ágnes Szunomar, Filip Šebok, Stefan Vladisavljev Citation – Karásková, I., Bachulska, A., Szunomár, A., Vladisavljev, S. (eds.) (2020). Empty shell no more: China’s growing footprint in Central and Eastern Europe. Prague, Czech Republic, Association for International Affairs (AMO).

Handbook for stakeholders – To access the handbook for stakeholders stemming from this report, please refer to the electronic version which can be found online at www.chinaobservers.eu.

The publication was prepared within the China Observers in Central and Eastern Europe (CHOICE) collaborative platform. CHOICE monitors and evaluates the rising influence of the People’s Republic of China in countries of Central and Eastern Europe which participate in the China-proposed 17+1 initiative. CHOICE strives to build a multinational platform for open discussion, experience-sharing and critical assessment. CHOICE is run by the Association for International Affairs (AMO), a Prague-based foreign policy think tank and NGO. The preparation of this paper was supported by a grant from National Endowment for Democracy (NED).

Typesetting – Zdeňka Plocrová Print – Vydavatelství KUFR, s.r.o. – tiskárna

ASSOCIATION FOR INTERNATIONAL AFFAIRS (AMO) Žitná 27/608 CZ 110 00 Praha 1 Tel.: +420 224 813 460 [email protected] www.amo.cz

Summary 7 Recommendations 9 Engaging China in 17+1: Outline of ACT strategy 11

1. Political relations: Beyond proclamations 14

Bilateral relations: Different trajectories 18 Let’s party, comrades: Local political parties’ relations with CCP 23 Sub-national, underestimated? A booming component of 17+1 cooperation 26 Cutting-edge, or driving a wedge: Is 17+1 dividing Europe? 30 China in CEE politics: Conclusion and recommendations 32

2. Economic relations: A sugar cane, or a sugar-coated stick? 35

Not so special: Modest impact of 17+1 on trade relations 35 We are the champions: V4 countries and China’s foreign direct investments 42 All roads lead to China: Cooperation in infrastructure and connectivity 47 Follow the money: Financial cooperation in V4 51 The irresistible draw: China-CEE tourism as a success story 53 The economy of pros and cons: Conclusion and recommendations 55

3. We the people? The challenges of societal relations with China 57

Don’t trust anyone under thirty: Youth cooperation and its perils 64 Collective sports? Support for China before the 2022 Olympics 66 Natural remedy? The curious case of traditional Chinese medicine as an export commodity 68 The fourth estate and a new global power: Telling the China story 69 People-to-People’s Republic relations: Conclusion and recommendations 71 Authors 73 About CHOICE 75 About AMO 77 Footnotes 79

→ → → → Summary

a region. as CEE of institutionalization conceptualizationthe and China has contributed to Paradoxically, before. absent (CEE), where it was almost Central and Eastern Europe in relations of interconnected managedhas to build a In the past eight years, China 17+1 the progress and direction of the whole picture is analyzed that separate. It is only when the of interaction are treated as and random. Also the areas China’s of 17+1, as in individual states understanding of the real nature informationthe complicates of nature fragmented The and are loaded with action. economic and societal domains growing, encompassing political, Central and Eastern Europe are Relations China between and a to of relations, however, points A substance. Europe with China lacks Centralbetween and Eastern cooperation that assertion the labeled as an ‘empty shell’ with 17+1 The the 17+1 the US alliances in East Asia, a Resembling platform become evident. become platform more complex scenario. more framework can be actions seem scarce platform has been large-scale audit large-scale version of version system system → → →

‘multilateral bilateralism’. with China taking the lead in spokes logic of cooperation characterized by a of engagement. format itself which shape the level 17 decisions taken by the individual trajectories. It is the activity and separate on relationships happens developmentthe of bilateral However, China. and countries contacts the between CEE the of growth high-level political has almost universally led to framework. 17+1 in accordance with the EU diplomatic stay to language have successfully shaped the contrary, the CEE countries and Eastern Europe. the On of cooperation with Central into language the concepts transplanted its foreign policy Despite China its efforts, has not Chinese Communist Party. diplomacyparty led by the a testing ground for more activist China has used the CEE as is not supported by the evidence. towards China on political issues has become more forthcoming assumptions that CEE as awhole exception rather than the rule. The issues, they represent an supported China on political While Hungary and Serbia have CEE countries rather than the cooperation cooperation hub and and hub 7 Empty shell no more: China’s growing footprint in Central and Eastern Europe 8 Empty shell no more: China’s growing footprint in Central and Eastern Europe → → → → →

important for China. partners far from being among the most share. The CEE region is also CEE. in its approach towards Russia in China has tried to walk afine line Washington. with ties traditional afraid of endangering their with China, with several countries become afactor in CEE relations Europe. The rivalry US-China has about using the format to divide EU’s the to assuage China has unsuccessfully tried in the respective countries. inclination pro-China a long-term important political elites to assure China cultivates relationships with 17 to an increased trade deficit in all leading unbalanced, and limited Trade relatively remain relations other CEE countries lag behind. importance, while relations with region and Serbia are of particular with the countries of the Visegrád a on still handles its economic affairs Despite the 17+1 China format, a represents EU member states, while China developed, mainly with relations on both trade and investment dependent highly are countries CEE countries is still small. CEE China’s agenda. the mainly driven by China as it sets in 17+1Economic cooperation CEE countries with China. bilateral basis. Relations bilateral basis. economic impact on minor yet increasing increasing yet minor concerns concerns is is → → → → →

with CEE countries. government-to-people in relations contacts actually mean Chinese by the state, people-to-people of penetration of Chinese society Chinese system and the high level Given the character of the a role). class travelers may also play in the amount of Chinese middle (while a China have achieved higher visibility in framework, since CEE countries economic cooperation within the Tourism is the real success story of states. member momentum, it is limited to EU financial cooperation has gained Although investment. of amounts other countries to receive sizable with almost no opportunity for (Hungary, Czechia and Poland) in a concentrated Chinese FDI are modest and unnoticed in all 17 all in unnoticed Parties Dialogue, go largely Political and Forum Leaders Future, China-CEE Young Political leaders, such as Bridge for the targeting youth and political Politically motivated programs issued to CEE students. governmentChinese scholarships rise, with increased numbers of Youth cooperation is also on the has increased in CEE countries. Institutes of Confucius number The general increase CEE countries. few countries → → → → → Recommendations

cooperation and China’s and cooperation the potential politicization of such CEE states should pay attention to radar.largely developed the under China-CEE cooperation that has etc.)provincial, of dimension (regional, sub-national the to given be should attention More shift the 17+1 the shift coordination in feasible areas to communication and their 17 The a open EU should The states. member of all interests the represent policy towards China that should to shapeefforts EU acommon including CEE EU members in The EU needs to continue paper in their dealings with China. the ACT strategy proposed in this 17 denies CEE countries their agency. it infantilizes the CEE states and 17+1 through Europe being divided by China discarded. The simplistic view of 17+1 The development. in the Western Balkan’s EU must play active role amore China’s countries to offset the growth of membership to the Western Balkan interests. interests. forum primarily serving their CEE countries should adopt should countries CEE countries should improve should countries political influence. The format should not be should opposed be as into a into multilateral multilateral clear path to economic economic efforts efforts → → → → → →

should precede summits. 17+0Regular CEE countries should act together. economic cooperation with China, from more benefit to order In the local and parties the CCP. between dealings nontransparent civil society and media towards should greater be scrutiny by the CEE warrants vigilance. There China’sin Chinese Communist Party (CCP) The increased prominence of the regional levels) as well as private More public (on EU, state, or Chinabetween and CEE countries. cooperation societal behind mechanisms of understanding achieve greater transparency and coverage is needed in order to fact-based media Independent, states. screening also in non-EU member established relating to investment Coordinated rules should be aims in trade policy. EU’s the follow should country solutions; countries CEE cannot overcome be by single relations, such as trade deficit, The major challenges of trade attention. attention. profile of local contacts to avoid to take advantage of the lower approach towards the

consultation meetings meetings consultation strategic 9 Empty shell no more: China’s growing footprint in Central and Eastern Europe 10 Empty shell no more: China’s growing footprint in Central and Eastern Europe → → →

outside of the PRC. cooperation with Chinese actors governing the societal level of threats to democratic standards world in order to detect potential Europe and with of other the parts knowledge and experiences across China watchers should exchange culture. Chinese politics, society and disseminating knowledge about influential actors producing and institutions become the most Institutes and other PRC-related Confucius a situation where is needed in order to avoid institutions researching China academic for financialsupport the risks associated with a CEE countries should aware be of transparency. The focus should on be achieving with China with potential threats. all forms of societal cooperation It remains crucial not to equate region. nationals and their presence in the party-led activities and Chinese public criticism of government or divisions should drawn be between rise of Sinophobia in CEE, clear tourists. In order to avoid the Chinese diaspora, students and into racist attitudes against the turning China towards skepticism

growing growing possible from those existence, already 17+1. in such as to much multiply as as the to groupings extract of try its founding, own will and ‘infiltrate’ the will finds difficultextremely to it it ones,China attempt long-existing including settings, (sub)regional institutional and Givenorganizations. that the fact to seek influenceinevitablythroughdifferent its willingness stimulate organizational power and importance. Its increasing global presence, for already taken will granted, absentbeen almost before. For the foreseeable continuewill in rise to China future, naged to build a lyzed, does evident. the progress of direction and the 17+1 become platform or health exchanges, sport, media cooperation. Only when the whole ana is picture it breaches politics enters and into of domains economy, youth cooperation, academic havesocietal, separate. been treated However, as 17+1 among themselves. Second, of the interaction, areas be they political, economic or European countries,Eastern exhibit – to detriment their any if cooperation – limited a as of acting relations, China with It exercise an is of ‘multilateral bilateralism’ actions look scarce random. and 17+1 formation European states, China’s Eastern and fragmented. is individual In Central with action. flourishes, encompassingpolitical, economicdimensions,and societal andis loaded Europeindeed, Eastern and not cooperation Central and and lacking, China between a to points countries auditscale of the and 17 relations China between the only upgrade, was symbolic. they argued, not the presidents, European politics. Eastern and the who shots Thus Central in call Europe substance.Eastern (CEE) lacks China and 17+1 that arguing charges, Europe. Karásková Ivana ACT of strategy Outline Engaging China in 17+1: it a as toof the level prime ministers of heads perceivedcamp ofanalysts state. Thefirst of 17+1 the platform apparent became when announced of the upgrading China the annual Over the past eightOver the past years, since the inception of 17+1 The proponents theof ‘empty shell’ concept, however, seemwrong. to be A The 17+1 The The reason why theseobservers missed developmentstwo-fold.is thein First,

summit which was expected to be held which expected summit Beijing was in April 2020 in worrisome trend,that whilethe is it argued ministers, the lattermostly prime 2 At the same time, analysts (the At author analysts time, the same included) frequently these dismissed

platform system of interconnected relations a CEE, in

more alarming scenario. Substancemore is, relations China in alarming with 1 has been labeled has by some China’s as

is an ‘empty an is shell’andand cooperationCentral between hub the middle. in Thespokes, and i.e. the Central is neither a neither is 5 , resembling the hub spoke and system 4

multilateral forum, nor a nor forum, multilateral 3 Thedivide understanding in of Central and Eastern European Eastern and Central is notis only a tool to divide conquer and in 2012, China has ma has China 2012, in region where it had political platform, platform, political from the level

bilateral one. one. bilateral large- - -

Empty shell no more: China’s growing footprint in Central and Eastern Europe 12 Empty shell no more: China’s growing footprint in Central and Eastern Europe together and presenting their Chinese partners with a together with presenting and Chinese their partners to face Chinese actions alone, there them bonding no is formal impediment against Estonia like While countries or Czechia, Greecefindmay settings. difficult it tilateral ever-present from and– far inescapable it. remain Even – and will is small China threat. openthen a enlargementand clear the roadmap publication. at of the time writing TheEU should pivoturally towards the European Union, despite lack of a the unfortunate nottiations the EU. only vis-à-vis but within nat The also China, Balkans Western the 17+1the CEE member EU utilize can states member the EU, position need the agreed states to with line within be in on China improvingand market access for CEE countries’ products. the actions of While EU more cooperative issues the need like for properly Chinese investment regulating on Chinese technological companies practices, trade or but concerns also unfair with widely controversial topics (from the Chinese perspective), imposed limits such as specific their with demands. mightThese China forinclude targeting instruments European Security Strategy,theythese could turn into evenplatforms offensive inherent effects in ‘effectivemultilateralism’, to borrow a accept the ‘multilateral condition’ to losing risk its influence than altogether. its presenceto retain it more is these through institutions, likely (if to grudgingly) China’s conceivablycan platforms them as for utilize or countering, even limiting curbing toolstional for andits increasing amplifying message influence. its their Still, members subsequentthrough policies. phenomenon, from this stemming well risks as as implement and or address them scope potential and of China’sneed the to existing assess China’s to should fact Accepting this not bewith confused andresignation much submissionless a most difficultpull to off willcorrectly. issue an actoran continue as and to be China Europe, Eastern and or elsewhere)tral be the component hardest fact may in the and this objective. this the PRC. with dealings The providesstrategy ACT a succeed might, promoting can in interests own their to their political military and those safelystates, especially separated from the immediate effects of China’s the 17+1 the a because it would probably provoke more reactions from extreme the PRC. Instead, ence the form in of shutting Beijingimpossible terms, outin is, practical – not least the dangers are real. However, real. are the dangers a specific are,or in factoring andregional eventical, contexts,substantiated military) political influence. of China’sgrowth political

stable and growing, if often irritating, component of various regional constellations. constellations. regional various of component irritating, often if growing, and stable three-pronged ACT (adapt >counter >target) strategy, modeled on the of realities While seemingly obvious,While to adapting China’s The incursionsfears of Chinese many on levels (technological, economic,poli The currentThe anomnipotent, as image debate by the China transfixed of seems Once the members of regional platforms 17+1 like 17+1 like Groupings

heft. The way forward consists in making full use of theseorganizations’ mul making heft. in The way consists forward initiative, suggested. is

strategic interests.strategic international and national strategies Quite the contrary:

clear path to path membershipclear to the countries Western tothe offset Balkan

were clearly born out of China’s response to the threat of expanding Chineseresponse influ to of the threat expanding to achieve a presence the region in it Cen (be in unified position. If China wants position. unified wants If China general outline for achieving rediscover the multiplication intention to create institu create to intention presence, define priorities priorities define presence, better standing in nego phrase fromphrase the 2003 economic, economic, credible - - - - - -

countries within the outlined ACTcountries within strategy. orderin achievable and to reach realistic suggestions for a collaborative Europe Eastern (CHOICE), and platform, Observers Central China in Serbia, Slovenia, Slovakia provided Romania and input a their via to theattempts region asawhole. uncoverto pertaining patterns analyze and the publication does to each form every and not tackle of claim cooperation. it Still, scope of the endeavor a and represents attempt the first systematically to China-CEEaudit relations. Given the China’s documenting societal, and European countries (CEECs)Eastern –political, economic areas separate three in Ten China experts from Czechia, Estonia, Hungary, Latvia, Lithuania, Poland, Lithuania, Hungary, fromTen Estonia, Czechia, Latvia, experts China The andfollowing chapters analyze relations China between 17 lack of information or several specific areas in countries,

increasing footprint the region. in The publication joint action of plan CEE novel and unique unique and novel Central and 13

Empty shell no more: China’s growing footprint in Central and Eastern Europe 14 Empty shell no more: China’s growing footprint in Central and Eastern Europe the V4, one and the Baltic countries) in four (Suzhou the Balkans in China in and (seethus far below) have place that taken major every in CEECs sub-region (two in offunctions. As coordinating the2020, of beginning there have been 8 ments and set the direction forthus theperforming future, decision-makingdual and one in countries order in ofannually the participating to review cooperation achieve festation of been the China-CEECs meeting heads has of governments conducted political relations it. thusand also with 17+1 a represents development infrastructure of improvement through of the wider,part global BRI project. Theis designed BRI increaseto connectivity 2013. Even though 17+1 One Belt One Road initiative), which launched was by Chinese president Jinping Xi in foreign policy mega-project –the Belt and Road previously Initiative (BRI, the named of negotiations their the EU. with members, some of candidate EU the countries countries remain or the middle in are rád Four (V4) countries. Some of members, EU them are some of NATO them are platform different are – it encompassesand countries Viseg Baltic countries, Balkan been the 17+1 actions of to regards China. in the EU to the potential influence has the internal China decision-makingwith andexternal 17 the sub-governmental or sub-national regional, (provincial, etc.) levels. Given 12 that from the(CCP) and Party region,political parties nist as as cooperation well theon (annual summits). It now encompasses cooperation the Chinese Commu between 17+1 the Stefan Vladisavljev, Konstantinas Andrijauskas and Filip Šebok proclamations Beyond relations: Political 1. the 17+1 the 2020 the although there, 2015) itself. The 2019 ments projects around the construction and world, all including Europe, where CEE of the most ubiquitous global powers worldwide its numerousagree with financial During the past eight years, the past political CEE and cooperation through China During between While the largest share the of largest While attention been has thefocused high-levelon summits, Ever since the format’s The 17+1 The Since 2012

and the BRI, China has ensured that the CEECs are willing to upgrade economic the CEECs willing that ensured are has theand BRI, China

European countries gathered 17+1 in

has grown to encompass grown has a platform developed has beyond mere of meetings heads of governments

as a as geographical gateway to the rest of the continent.the Through both platform. The profiles ofthat are European included countries in the

the main frameworkthe main for cooperation CEECs and has China between platform of cooperation slightly predates the most notable Chinese inclusion of Greece allows one a to expect

predates the launch BRI, after its 17+1 one will be hosted one by will the Chinese capital, Beijing. inaugural Warsaw 2012 inaugural vast numbervast of different cooperation formats, are also EU members, EU also are political cooperation

summit, its most important mani its most important summit, 6 that would one that China make

has becomehas integral an forthcoming summit such summits of of - - - - MAP 1: CENTRAL AND EASTERN EUROPEAN MEMBERS OF THE 17+1 THE OF MEMBERS EUROPEAN EASTERN AND CENTRAL 1: MAP Belgium France Members of the17+1format Netherlands EU 17+1members Luxembourg Switzerland Denmark Norway Germany Non-EU 17+1members Italy Slovenia Sweden Republic Austria Czech Herzegovina Bosnia and Montenegro Croatia Hungary Albania Slovakia Poland EU memberstates Serbia Kosovo Greece Macedonia Lithuania Romania Finland Bulgaria PLATFORM Estonia Latvia Non-EU memberstates Ukraine Belarus Moldova Turkey Russia 15

Empty shell no more: China’s growing footprint in Central and Eastern Europe 16 Empty shell no more: China’s growing footprint in Central and Eastern Europe and Dubrovnik 2019 Dubrovnik and summit in Warsaw in summit 2012 While the 12 the While operation CEECs which with out came of the format’s of concluding statements, namely China’s The important outcomes most produced theseby eventshave been providedin a following China’s Bucharest in manifested summit 2015 Suzhou thetion the agenda-setting, and show. running althoughonethat remains is it China a the CEECs’quarterly with meetings 2015. embassies in points This to instituted coordinators have since bi-annually been 2013, meeting the Secretariat with with work to and promote the Secretariat with the cooperation format general. in National chose and in coordinators national part to take structure institutional their within appointedalso representative aspecial for cooperation China-CEE 2015. in the China MFA of from European its Department Affairs. particularly higher ranks, 24 for implementation and meetings of relevant outcomes. consists of The Secretariat communicationwith coordination and on matters related to cooperation, preparation China’s under year following the established and summit announced theinaugural institution, format This during the is Secretariat. the individual CEE countries.vehicle The administrative the principal of formalized a of loose grouping oftheaspect of states. The largelyformat multilateral resemblesthat might its suggest. name as institution Transfer Center Slovakia only in is a etc. centers, secretariats, variously definedas structures, establishing relevant17+1 institutional comparative advantages or events at ambitions least and/or the by inaugural hosting their commensurate cooperation with usually areas the leadto particular take in the platform encouraged progressedas has has the years, through the CEECs China even and dance camps. to Moreover, seminars dialogues from ministerial ranging enceddiplomatic byChinese typical –a language proposingin been, quite the guidelines, they have surprisingly, actually littleinflu involved also the EU with plays the process. in a still Although China tion the CEE countries, with the guidelines have been a and theand joint guidelines which have come out at the end of of the subsequent all meetings. in the country’s the in other it cases, purely appears symbolic. For example the China-CEECs Technology the useful cover, multilateral)(usually with bilateral vis-à-vis rather than China in by some theirto pursue utilized opportunity priority CEE countries an as agendas While sectoral terleadership functioning. and in a

gradual deepening of the involvementgradual of CEE countries the process in of coordina

institutions representing China’s

So far, the following 17+1 Not only of terms in membership the platform a is but institutionally also From the other side, designated CEE every country a charac terms in differ of their significantly The various cooperationstructures hub spokes and the center in model, China but with no connections between

(China), 2016 Riga measures were proposed without prior unilaterally by China consulta

foreign relations, leadership while its administrative comes out of

(Croatia). more Warsaw Whereas of still ad hoc was an the meeting, (Poland), Bucharest 2013 Bucharest (Poland), summit meetings have meetings been conducted:summit the inaugural (Latvia), Budapest 2017 Budapest (Latvia),

most important ministries and agencies and active ministries most important dormant website a rather than 12

Ministry of Foreign(MFA), Ministry Affairs deals

Measures for Promoting Friendly Co Friendly Promoting for Measures

(Romania), Belgrade 2014 Belgrade (Romania), institutionalization of the format. the of institutionalization brief look of the at the language certain area seems to area have been certain inaugural 2012 inaugural

(Hungary), Sofia 2018 Sofia (Hungary), result of joint consultations, counterpart department department counterpart

Warsaw summit fully-fledged associations, associations, central role role central

(Bulgaria) (Bulgaria)

(Serbia), (Serbia), rather rather

series series 8 - - - - 7 ,

while summits host headswhile of summits governments have and been a a 12 relations despite the EU CEE with bypass and with the format that the fact gathers the EU-inspired about vocabulary the need to establish a of the world”, uncertainties and the “instabilities while the 2018 logistics. The and 2017 cisely infrastructure been explicitly addressed only since the 2016 uponthe soon after official theproclamation ofChina, the BRImega-project by has catchphrase of “connectivity”thefirst in 2013 appeared propelled the agenda beyond the framework itself. Curiously, although the famed the conducted,them guidelines) in every summit with expanded but increasingly also the previously agreed-upon measures. of implementation the on annex the present finally and cooperation, for guidelines a designate analogous China-led format for (FOCAC) Africa points to a attentionif the heldPrague. summit to in a host some with be linked headline-grabbing deliverables. reportedly to failed has Prague role,the hosting apparently China choosing with countries where could the summit to achieveopportunity deliverables. Therefore, the CEE countries have competed for a had CEE countries have the other of only participating the summits, aspects multilateral closeto opportunity high-profile deals. Conversely, largelyfrom the apart ceremonial the Chinese PM’s as tries, accession of Greece. producedhas the cooperation in change the largest framework due thus far to the economic relationship CEECs. and TheDubrovniklatest China between 2019 EU’s the (including regulations and legislation national relevant it concord in that is the China-EU with comprehensive and partnership strategic commendfirst of China-CEECs thecooperationstrengthening and in stress general work on which of the following all ones would largely be based. These jointstatements people-to-peopleand economy) (culture, education, areas green academic exchange). (high-tech, technological (transportation), infrastructural services), pledges to deepen cooperation widely in diverse economic (trade, investment, financial China’s showsThis greateris assumed.agency often of than theCEE countries on part market the and need for a reflected some the theof misgivings CEE of countries as (suchaccess the to Chinese principles and rules (as a the contrary, the guidelines have complementarity stressed and respect fortheEU one-sided presentation of Chinese intentions for grouping of this countries. And

EU members.EU Since then, the 17+1 Annual summits started as a as started summits Annual 2013 The As was to be expected, the issue areas (along with the actual space dedicated (along the issue areas to to the actual be expected, was with As The annual summits have summits been politicallyimportant annual most The forthe coun hosting The comparatively 12 brief

chance to have a

meeting despitemeeting repeated offers,perhaps pointing to China’s

plans for the format’s the for plans

pompously defined theme of the meeting, then outline a outline then meeting, the of theme defined pompously

Bucharest guidelines, being the first such, provided the structural frame such,Bucharest guidelines, being the first providedthestructural

minute face-to-face the Chinese little PM with with meeting result of the insistence of some member EU states) also and attendance been has coupled visitsan with offering bilateral “more focused, results oriented approach” of the format).

above-described general and mechanism institutional measures set the stage for themeasures set stage cooperation, by outlining good opportunity good for opportunity to establish China relations framework evolved has it and not is anymore 10 Budapest Guidelines briefly mentioned Riga GuidelinesRiga emphasized that pre Bucharest Guidelines, agreed “level field”playing thein striking difference.striking good place for the an

where those apply), Sofia onesinserted

list of the actual of thelist actual fear of negative summit 9 On On - - - - 17

Empty shell no more: China’s growing footprint in Central and Eastern Europe 18 Empty shell no more: China’s growing footprint in Central and Eastern Europe another change as it will be hosted it byanother as will Chinese change president Jinping PM Xi rather than bynew the 2019 impetus werechanges made the end in the and cooperation seems to have gaining stabilized, ing their participation. their ing Slovakia, and for Lithuania politicians in example, have expressed interest rethink in around grown the individual countries’has the format, in participation opposition Poland, strong domestic no particularly Czechia While Romania. and political debate towardsUS the cooperation. misgivings the especially forcase to appears be This a as and from the platform in participation to materialize failed evolution, mostly towards a the relationship. The stances individual of havecountriesundergone also significant Slovenia havethe notin trajectorychange previous experienced any significant of Hungary, Czechia Serbia. and the On opposite side, countries Slovakia such and as bilateral relations, including high-level political and be documents seen visits in can “accession to to BRI” be mostly a signed BRI memoranda, implementation from to varied state state, proving has development.limited a On significantly, varied has thewith some lead taking while countriesothers seeing the CEECs’ the development relations China, with of individual bilateral relations opportunities. cooperation explore and regularly partners Chinese the time, 17the same nefit,as it enables Beijing with relations manage to 17 For the format the high-level especially and China, have a summits of level Chinese high visits officials to as as of CEECs CEECs’ well leaders China. to a requirements meetings. or to apermanentchange the summit Keqiang.Li It yet is to be seen whether a is this ges due to concerns of a and the EU downplay the format going for forward, other and opting chan meetings biannual year. whole the throughout cooperation CEE and continuous, is that ing China between since it progress in is of cooperation mechanisms the 17+1 in otherand institutionalized a as and summits nouncement of any results of cooperation, most of the worktwo finished is between man rights issues have returned in full swing after being somewhatswing full issues in have rights sidelinedman returned by the the bilateral relationships.countries to frustrate Taiwan, Czechia, In Tibet hu and countries through the format, political differenceshave (re)emergeddifferentin only from non-parliamentary parties and some NGOs some and parties non-parliamentary from only BILATERAL RELATIONS: DIFFERENT TRAJECTORIES matter of prestige that has been manifested through an increasedan through matter numbermanifested been visits has of that prestigeof In the run-upIn to the 2018 Participation in the 17+1Participation in While the emergenceWhile of the format the transformed overall environment has of Moreover, despite the Chinese hope to the CEE improve with “political trust” part of cooperation, sectoral the facilitationpart of with the Secretariat countries unprecedented have an gained to opportunity meet 12 Similar voices Similar have been heard although Czechia, so in far inclusion of Greece. The 2020 similar note, the CEE countries whilesimilar have all gra less active posture after the expected economictheexpected after less active posture benefits Sofia summit, there Sofiasummit, were somewouldthat China reports platform presented are close and China ties with as political statement. The in significant uptick most lack of results of the cooperation. one-off adjustment based on protocol 13 countries simultaneously. At . summit is set to set is bring yetsummit reaction to and EU framework, show framework, cost-saving be 11 However, no dually - - - mat broughtmat about to reopen the opportunity high-level hadfrozenthat been contacts Andrej Babiš to represent there. the country 2020 the attend not would he the previously staunchly Czech pro-China president announced that Miloš Zeman prior no-show to his Suzhou in 2015 in bemoaned the results lack coming of out practical of the cooperation Beijing with PM Eva Kopacz skipping the 2014 satisfaction with China’s sent its deputytwice.that PM to attend argued has been the It Poland’s meeting onlySlovakia was represented by its deputyin PM Suzhouin 2015 the 17+1all operation or the low level of attention been has presentpaid While to at it.Hungary hosted the 17+1 2017. in summit the of visit during Chinese PM Wen Jiabao also capital Budapest. in The Hungarian place Warsaw in preceded it 2012, was in by a the formingin of the 17+1 important role Thean by assumed region important China. also strategically seen as Poland, and countries. Hungary the the latterlargest far by V4 four countries have the lion’s taken of Beijing’s under-representation of these foreign their issues in policy, outcome an rather than out. it joined later and Estonia the critique Albania while other CEE countries decided to sit China’s for groups with of atwars” the UN countries condemnation expressing versus support a toappear be more of a China’s for support or (e.g. of that Hungary as a to refusal sign Therebe mixed. have salient cases beensupport of forpoliticalissues,on such China Slovakwith PM summit. Robert at Fico the Riga meeting over Lama the Dalai another the Chinese case, PM Keqiang Li reportedly scrapped bilateral meeting his 2019 17+1 these issues haveWhile mostly been bilateral, they have to some affected extent government’s 2013-2017. between previous administration Beijing reacted to harshly the Czech demonstrations against pro-Hongdemonstrations against Kong democracy 2019. events in Lithuania in 2014 in Lama prisoners of the and meeting the Slovak from Guantanamo president the Dalai with political relationship took China a with partners in the CEE in grouping. Topartners a

reflection trendsas a of in CEE overall In the case of China’s the case Czechia, In The record politicalof support from forresulting China 17+1 Skipping summit meetings mightSkipping be indicative meetings the co - summit with of dissatisfaction V4 The

cooperation well. as For example, due to worsened relations the Czechia, with Chinese Investment Forum under the 17+1 17 However, the silence of the other be attributed CEE countries can to long-term

explicit or implicit pressure. policies Xinjiang, only in Serbia joinedgroup. the latter Latvia, Lithuania, countries have for a summits at the not level, highest was summits so for this the other V4

stance onstance Huawei, it as neighboring did just in Poland. the Slovakia, In and 2016 and

stance onstance Sea the South China function of the peculiarities the functionof therespectivethan countriesof peculiarities

respectively. A respectively.

stance on Russian aggression in Ukraine mighthave on Ukraine aggressionstance Russian ledin to concept.fully-fledged the first While 17+1

Beijing only with the vicePM of instead summit, PM long the most been as seen important time by China

outreach towards the region the 17+1 through Summit in Belgrade. in Summit share of Chinese investment and trade CEE with large extent, this stems from the fact that the from stems that the fact this extent, large 19 joint letterambassadors EU by criticizing BRI result of 17+1. the July-October In 2019

. Finally, lack of investments cited was when final examplethe interferenceis final in counter hit after the hit after acceptance of released Uyghur 20 meeting ofmeeting CEE economic ministers framework canceled. was yet In 16 ) or Serbia (see below), but these 18 The Slovak PM Robert Fico

cooperation seems to country, have been while Poland has meeting tookmeeting countries. countries. “letter “letter 15 dis for 14 - -

Empty shell no more: China’s growing footprint in Central and Eastern Europe 20 Empty shell no more: China’s growing footprint in Central and Eastern Europe legation ledforthe of Banaś by finance 2019 vice minister 2017 in BRI summit 2015 in summit high-level Polish visits, president on visited the occasion Duda China of the Suzhou Chinese PM Wenwith Jiabao offer announcing his the to regionthere. In terms of nership 2016 in during Xi Jinping’s Serbia,subsequently after was country upgraded to a gic partnership. The document,the second suchof a then-president Bronisław Komorowski to Beijing, sides the two that signed a the establishment of the 16+1 by the lackalso of atop-level presence at BRI summits. ministerial-level under meetings the format. Slovakia’s 17+1 the into the relationship not well. also as hosted Slovakia has any high-level of meeting ceptance of put former a Lama Uyghur the Dalai captives with meetings and the attests to long-term absence high-levelof contact. Political conflict over the ac or presidentialon Ministerial level the Prime since been undertaken has 2012 of ties the quality as politicalof compared the to previousperiod. visit No bilateral since the establishment of the 17+1 among the CEECs. above), receded Czechia has from its vis-à-vis position active country an as China 2017 17+1 the Jinping Xi met with seven altogether, times but not has been personally involved in countries recent the two in between attributed years is to president whoZeman, has signed. countriesthe of two Nevertheless, was diplomatic part the large dealings the a visit duly the Chinese in media. During stressed 2016, in sincevisited Prague CEE becomingcountry the first president, whichwas Forum Ministers Health 2016. held in China in ThePresident Chinese Xi Jinping attendedthe 3rd China-CEE LeadersRegional andthe 2nd Summit China-CEE Gaoli orZhang Politburo member Liu Yunshan. the other In PM direction, Sobotka Republic under the 17+1 For high-profile example, the annual Investment China theForum heldin Czech for of visits increase Chinese in officials an to theCzech Republic and vice-versa. a ments of PM Rusnok Jiří PM and Bohuslav Sobotka (since 2014) respectively, initiated soon the new leadership represented Prague in by president the and govern Zeman since the 2009 Trump the US as president subsequent and his attempts limit China’sto expectations. economic unmet the of light ambivalent position attempts with towardsto recalibrate China, its relationshipin PM’s Polish annual heads ofannual government attendance and meetings of Slovak representatives at

‘restart’ of relations with China. Cooperation of relations China. under with ‘restart’ the 17+1 The mutual interest Thein developingmutual relations between Polandandpreceded China In 2012, Poland’s 2012, In seen relativelySlovakia has little development politicalof with China relations

has paid less attentionhas and coupled to China frictionwithpolitical

cooperation, been it led as has by the government. The new government since format so far. Therefore, most has beenopportunity for leftcontacts to the

no-show at the 16+1 the at no-show meeting of Czech PM Jan Fischer with the Dalai Lama. Moreover, ofmeeting Czech Lama. PM Fischer Jan the Dalai with and Chineseand president Jinping Xi visited Poland 2016. in the While

was attendedwas by Polish PM Beata Szydlo, Warsaw only sent a capital Warsaw the venue was 16+1 of the inaugural format since 2013 since format format. early It the of visit 2011, during as as the was

Sofia summit in Sofia2018,summit seems haveWarsaw to an had format. Not much seems to have terms in changed visit. visit. 21

Especially since the election Especially of Donald has been attendedhas vicePMby Chinese kind between China and a and China between kind strategic partnership between between partnership strategic comprehensive strategic part strategic comprehensive

reserved approach reflected is summit. Coupledsummit. the with with China provided China with

international international (described summit, strate which which CEE dent dent de - - - state tostate always be represented thus far, by the its one it the PM summits in also is CEECs provides and several clues. interesting Although the only is Estonia Baltic showcasesings the apparently lower level of priorityin comparison to most other guidelines with its pledgeguidelines with to establish a to become a of finance. Such a skipped (Sofia one meeting summit 2018)thestead his country’sin sending mentionedleast the guidelines out in the CEECs. of The all has PM only Lithuania of country’s the 2013 leader a in spiritual the Tibetan headremarkable of Grybauskaitė, met had the Lithuanian state of as the case Dalia in several months earlier. Lama not Dalai to meet Theespecially the visiting issuewas proved visits Lithuanian to be possible due to the at partly presidents’ least decisions to launch the Trade Investment and Forum Notably, Shanghai. in and the Latvian to attendthe Davosso-called Summer in Tianjin,Forum theone Lithuanian while ones order in presidents 2018, Latvian and autumn in the Estonian to came China frameworkthis for seven the first existence.years of its However, theall of Baltic (Suzhoumeetings 2015 2016), Riga and there were no highest-level outside visits of touching the and Baltics each other’sChina the higherto ency and regularity level Despite twomeetings. occasions of fromPMs the tender side not on has and the Hungarian yet been completed. However out the project to be problematic turned has due to suspicions surrounding the sole)to date actually example of a on the Budapest-Belgrade (and line, which important been cited an has as by China the format due also is within to its co-hostingHungary the project of a countries (except the participating amongtutions all for China) by the number highest hosting of distinguished joint China-CEE is insti Hungary on other visited two occasions. separate China also Orbán BRI summits. the two as attended of summits the has PM all the signed. The Hungarian 17+1 2017,in where a 16+1 of establishment ofing economy attended ministers by Chinese PM Wen Jiabaoin 2011 have preceded Orbán’s when policy although it China-friendly to announced the East” its “Opening policies TheOrbán government foresawthe Chinese outreachthe towards regionin 2011, increased skepticism. to recalibrate Warsaw its positionexpansion, started has vis-à-vis Beijing towards a establishedcoordinators” the Forum during actually Vilnius, in was the format’s the establishment of the then 16+1 Chinese president come has to the subregion only once (mid-2002), thus and it was result of the below-mentioned China-related controversies the country. in any In The composition thestates’of Baltic delegations sentthe to 17+1 among of the V4 China been the most enthusiastic has partner Hungary High levelHigh have visits not been a 24 which caused had a

High-Level Fintech Forum 2019. in Curiously a fintechgateway to Europe thein forSofia enshrined which was China potential exporters by freezing negotiations. freezing by exporters potential

comprehensive sides the two between partnership strategic was seemingly unusual choice unusual seemingly motivated was by Lithuania’s ayear later. the venue Budapest also was of the 16+1 summit government. mentioned As above, Budapest hosted the meet years-long period of Chinese economic retaliation against against retaliation economic Chinese of period years-long “private his capacity”visitprevious in back during framework added that a major feature of Sino-Baltic relationships. The cross-state infrastructure project the CEE. in cross-state infrastructure 17+1

Fintech Coordination Center and conduct conduct and Center Coordination Fintech soil the respective during 17+1 25 17+1 semblance of consist semblance 22

“network of fintech fintech of “network . Theimportance of 23 initiative as well well as initiative

railway upgrade upgrade railway summit meet summit 26 that ledthat to the probably as as probably ambitions ambitions countries. countries. minister summit - - - 21

Empty shell no more: China’s growing footprint in Central and Eastern Europe 22 Empty shell no more: China’s growing footprint in Central and Eastern Europe the official opening of the Mihailo Pupunbridge,the official Mihailo opening of the the result ofa with an uncertain path towards path membership EU uncertain an with which not only leftthemwithout EU level of cooperation to a to bringthe countries trying are states, other Balkan the Balkan of all China with partnership. an thevisitalso Theof upgradedresultedCEE. in signing comprehensivestrategic one is the country that of another the mostas signal reliable the in Chinese partners Chinese leader Jinping Xi visited Serbia 2016. in interpreted was visit Serbia His in other with Chinese representativesand meetings on the highest level. Most notably, companyfrom funds. financed and EU mote the Pelješac bridge project being implemented is that by a Croatia, the of in visit and level high Chinese representatives a was a the summit, during loan agreement. Bulgaria, In negotiated. being still noneAlmost of those projects have been implemented the end a in with For a it Romania, was cooperative projects or announcements of cooperationthe future with host country. were Croatia. and most a summits seen In cases, as garia Conference on Tourism Cooperation October in 2019. China-CEECs hosted High-Level the 5th Latvia Riga, in the Baltics’ airport largest flights from to China direct Russia. Long eager with to attract drills joint military shipsChinese naval made a May October and year of respectively. same that a On the and 8th China-CEECs National Meeting Coordinators’Ministers’ in Meeting format’s the becoming thus Cooperation on Logistics Secretariat China emphasized. No wonder since following the 2015 the Adriatic-Baltic-Blackneed to strengthen Sea Seaport Cooperation especially was only by visit the Chinese PM to the whole region day. to this the event During the framework’s the hosted 2013 Agro-trade Economic and Cooperation Forum May in 2018. the and 13th Meeting Ministers’ China-CEECs the 3rd China-CEECs Agricultural tion adding to its showcased earlier as interest focusing on in agriculture by hosting andan toadditional find sphere thuscoopera managed Lithuania case, expertise of communist period,communist does not seem to know how the 17+1 to utilize the during despite relations China traditional had with Albania, having China. with Turkey, Montenegro etc.). funds also butopened spaceup the forthird actorsin structural region Russia, (China, of the political relationships the 17+1 within theinstead, Baltic region’saffairs countries have been promoting also bilateral visits through cooperation China with expected, the 2016expected, Although it was Latvia that failed to failed send that (Bucharest its PM twice toAlthough the summit it Latvia was While Serbia be perceivedWhile can the most intensive with the country as cooperation Serbia, Romania, in have four Bul so far been summits organized the Balkans, In

and Dubrovnikand 2019), being represented times both of by foreign the minister 30

Riga Summit was preceded Summit was Riga by China-CEECs Transport the 1st 28 chance toagreements sign valued at more 8 than

When Serbia hosted the Chinese PM attended the summit, only summit in the Baltics so the Baltics far, in onlythe 2016, in summit thus attracting 31 higher, especially for level.true strategic countriesis This and North Macedonia have notable infrastructural projects Macedonia North and have notable infrastructural friendly port call in Riga soon after their soon below-mentioned after Riga in friendly call port

first coordinating institution theAs locatedinstitution in Baltics. coordinating first centermost country has clearlycentermost has stood out country terms in 29 Besides 17+1 the hosting 27 was established in Latvia the same year, the same established was Latvia in format itself. Indeed, that Riga it was new opened Chinese was Embassy Suzhou guidelines the CEECs- the guidelines Suzhou side note, the following year chance for the promotion of of promotion the for chance Chinese construction construction Chinese Chinese preferential preferential Chinese platform. Slovenia Slovenia platform.

summits, Balkan Balkan summits, chance to pro- billion EUR. billion EUR. lot of them - - the 12 the Political Dialogue. The Parties Young LeadersPolitical hadincluded been Forum in have been held since 2012 representatives from 300 from concept, over with representatives 600 Forum”,Parties dedicated to the promotion of China’s theof these effortswas 2017 China’s active worldwide. TheILD’s Cuba or Korea) North become has to China wider more as partnerships diplo ILD’s and is head worthy theof of secretariat China-CEE attention.affairs The scope ofthe ILD, acceded role to this from previous his appointment a as of (ILD) the CCP. Department Liaison that Song The fact Tao,thecurrent head theof Inter-party thethecooperationrun Internationalby with beenCEE has countries ology actively and promote the supposed advantages of its political system abroad. since 2012; finally, it shows China’s in China’s party to cover the whole second, it political spectrum; points role to the growing of the diplomacy, party parties and with communist leftist hitherto limited links mostly to (CCP) the 17+1 within a initiated has been promoted one as of foreign the most important actors Serbia in recent in years. developmentthe further twotheof sides,relations between has given that China factor hostedimportant morein in Serbia once.seenan has Xi as again is than This CEECs visited Jinping by one Xi also and twice, of the few European countries that the wider In CEE region the the Balkans. be the Serbia in first of China will with anotherserves as piece of evidence Serbia that the most developed has relations announcementThe Xi of Jinping’s Serbia, which created a on sub-national cooperation due to close relations Republika between Srpska and Herzegovinaand Bosnia and havelations China so far between been mostly based somethat development Re of be expected. relations countries the two can between the of visit Wang of Yi,the foreign Chineseat minister end affairs, of 2019, signaled been onhas the sidelines of the platform, however, new developments, the such as organizations from CEE countries. CEE from organizations said tosaid have included 50 For parties. of example, participating list clear attendees theof 2015 The cooperationhas been afterwards. shrouded basis a biannual in secrecy, with no on inter-party some illustrates contacts trends: key first, it extensionshows the of LOCAL POLITICAL PARTIES’ RELATIONS WITH CCP WITH PARTIES’ RELATIONS LOCAL POLITICAL LET’S Two forums of multilateral inter-party main cooperationunder the 17+1 Despite Beijing’s

activities has gradually enlarged from ideologically fraternal parties (Vietnam, from enlarged (Vietnam, ideologically gradually has parties activities fraternal

PARTY, COMRADES: measures of Wen Jiabao held was and 2013. in Two more forums were held on

regime its and concepts for international relations. The successful most result

dialogue of political parties with the Chinese Party Communist with ofdialogue political parties foreign policy of under at the the state, expense Jinping especially Xi

rhetoric of the 17+1 the of rhetoric initiative as well as with individual countries. well with as as initiative China’s context entity. for Bosnian this and cooperation China with representatives of 31 of representatives – The China-CEE Young LeadersPolitical andthe Forum ILD-organized “CCP in Dialogue with World with “CCP Dialogue in ILD-organized Political work has been instrumental in giving legitimacy to legitimacy giving in work been instrumental has

visit tovisit Serbia 2020 in self confidence foreignpolicywith marry to ide 35 The CountriesChina-CEE Political Parties

format being of “apolitical nature”

different political parties and differentyouth political parties parties. “community of shared destiny” 34 made by the Serbian side

vice-minister of foreign forum only are matically matically 33

format format China China stress stress 32 - -

Empty shell no more: China’s growing footprint in Central and Eastern Europe 24 Empty shell no more: China’s growing footprint in Central and Eastern Europe Czech Communist Party (KS Czech Party Communist thewith the case beenparticularly has well individual as politicians. as This parties with ČSSD,with which with it MoU signed an on cooperation 2012, in lued by vice-minister the Zhou ILD argued these – as ties greatly Li, the CCP’s to exhibit political relations. China-CEE guidance” in have governing the responsibility “the parties quoted that at the meeting saying as inter-partyutility of cooperation, the vice-ministerILD, of the was Qian Hongshan, specific Chinese intelligence organization”. intelligence Chinese it “a is specific the ILD, despite of the CzechInformation (BIS) Security the warnings Service that discusses the dialogue in more in the dialogue discusses detail. representatives) Hungarian and this attendance. in publication of part The societal leading parties from someleading parties CEE countries (a party thecurrent of governmentparty since 2017 a Novemberin 2019, representatives of of governing CEE countries attended parties seem to have been continuing a in (probably the Beijing to be with tied to increase its summit profile)andthe contacts cording to the 17+1 reports, be controversial the context in of the worsening the EU. in climate However ac may point to Beijing’s been held has Budapest in Dialogue 2016 twice, in differences,is something notclaimed he commontheEU.in and communist symbols, thus making inter-party communistand symbols, thus making thecooperationwith CCP more reachedtrio even an higher levelthe party both communist of solidarityin banning political to relations. the V4 Although similar publicity their on contacts, domesticfearing backlash. CCP interlocutors (except thewho communist party) have triedlargely to avoid to the CCP’s praise thus held Budapest. in keynote charged used Orbán the highly at speech the event was Countries China-CEE Political Dialogue Parties the inaugural that no surprise its leader Viktor developed Orbán, it has the CCP. with extensive links It comes as Despitedialogue. the anti-communist roots of Hungary’s representatives of the government. of another is case inter-party interesting Hungary Beijing 2017. in 17+1 under KS economic system, including the CCP leadership.with Czech in contrast stands This Orbán’s of the second iteration of the forum Bucharest 2017. in in feature Thedistinguishing ties with China in the country. in China ties with ČSSD politicians-turned lobbyists have played outsized role an the promotion in of chief pillars that helped that chief reorient pillars Prague’s roundtable the CCP, with by the ILD. organized Č Interestingly, were dialogues 2018 multilateral both haltedin In Czechia, Beijing Czechia, In the CCP cultivated ties between political the and local has The Baltic states present China with particular challenges in terms in inter-partychallenges terms of Thestates withBaltic particular present China hosted also Czechia several profile has high as opposedCCP apparatchiks to M and ČSSDM and representatives attended the Dialogue meetings Political Parties

stance has been his active of been admiration his the Chinese has political socio- and stance

as well as the CCP in Dialogue with World with the well CCP Dialogue as as in Forum Political Parties in 43 In recent In years, Czech contacts with have politicians maintained willingness to engage with parties in CEE despite in parties to ideological engage with willingness wariness that overt that political contacts underwariness the format may Political Parties Dialogue is to take place to is take Political Dialogue 2020 in Parties Č M) and the Social Democrats ( the and Social M) 41 Recently, approached CCP also ANO, the leading different thein – form meantime forexample, policy towards China. with the hopewith of establishing relations. prominent role for again Czech, Serbian countries the following in the respect, 44 36 Illustrating China’s and in Bucharest 2017 in and in 37

governing Fideszand party 45 ČSSD). Orbán also attended also Orbán 40 Moreover, former former Moreover, 39 were one of the and 2019.and This 38 CCP has va CCP has

view of the again again with with ties ties 42 -

due to its memorandum of cooperation the CCP with reached back 2011. in Inter-partythe survived governmentlong-standing and cooperationhas is actually and the CCP is the Socialist Party. Aleksandar Anti Party. theand CCP theAleksandar Socialist is foreignwithclose investment. direct connections Another politicalto China party the promotionthrough of projectsas as Chinese financed by Chinese well loans dent Vuči Aleksandar Progressiveled current Serbianby Serbia party thein ruling 2012, presi in changed of development.Chinese minister its publications. One of the members of CIRSD’s (CIRSD) events been promoting and organizing has that Chinese presence through a a also was People’s opposition an founded of Assembly the General of the United NationsUNGA, (UNGA).in his term After he Serbiain Vuk was Jeremic, a sidestwo Boris Tadic’s during be dated to 2009 can Serbia. in changes The new era of contemporary relations Serbia between and China country. the in to of the summoning the Chinese ambassador unprecedented an and public outcry Association the and just-established Chinese Chamber of Commerce. Theincident led Agency) the and united front work namely Overseas the Chinese local particular, in the country’s with associated tives of structures by Chinese diplomats, including the involved ambassador and himself, representa the Baltics. Evenin more the counter-protest troubling that the fact was directed was Head of the United Front Work Department. China’s of some on position contradictory and stance showing of how kind often cooperationflies this China under with the radar. a against the backlash move this notfar has caused much domestic controversy, compared especially to Latvia’s and region’s controversial inother difficult and to achievemost than CEE countries. However, the of pro-Beijing counter-demonstrators downtown in such instance Vilnius, the first thewith protesters darity in Hong Kong were confronted by a when who several hundred turn joinedunexpected had Lithuanians soli in hands a and of the Baltic Way, one of the world’s along the other commemorated Baltic states Lithuania two with the 30th anniversary ties as a ties as agencies the theones became first subregionin to identifyChina’s 2019 August the is a is haveBaltic states increasingly become of its political targets influence think-tank, the Center for International Relations and Sustainable Sustainable and Relations International for Center the think-tank, In the Balkans, Serbia of the prime is case inter-party the Balkans, In cooperationwith China. a being Long national Coordinator for 17+1 for Coordinator national

key event anti-Soviet their in liberation story. The eventful day took a

self-described do indeed parties tend more to socialist view China positively, threat to security,threat its national was it not visited longafter by the Quan, You

consultant for Energy the rather CEFC infamous China

politically important Saska politically important 49

incident shown. has Although Lithuania the in country’s

serious issue for due China to principled their anti-communist when a when ć similar cooperation agreement Russia’ssimilar with has been and the promoting CCP has China with partnership

formerturned of Serbianpresident foreign minister affairs

strategic technical agreement the signed technical strategic between was presidency.

party in Serbia. Besidesparty his engagement, official Jeremic 52

and one of the main main the of one and But Jeremic not is the only one –since the largest everlargest peacefulpolitical demonstrations ņ 50 a (Harmony) Party particularly stands outstands particularly a (Harmony) Party The face leading inter-partyof cooperation 48 Three Three monthslater, 2019,on 23, August soft power News (Xinhua in general board ofboard advisors Wei, Li is former ć , a

so-called “coreso-called interests,” the proponents of development development of proponents vice president of the party, small but vocal groupsmall 51 espionage activi and has founded founded has and governing partygoverning 47 Development Development activities as as activities security 46 regime rather rather Thus Thus - - - 25

Empty shell no more: China’s growing footprint in Central and Eastern Europe 26 Empty shell no more: China’s growing footprint in Central and Eastern Europe regional cooperation a as were already mentioned the Bucharest in Guidelines 2013. in presented has China that visited Serbiathat October in 2019, when the Serbian they met with PM, the PM of the delegation of CCP led by Chinese Community Politburo member Xiaodu Yang scrutiny as is present is as scrutiny at government level relations. oftenis the thecase on level.local theyFurthermore, do thenot same levelbring of more diversifiedandsturdy, due especially the to more results-oriented approach that diplomacy. public Poland Yugoslavia, and established the 1980s. already in European citiesand countries, with but chief among also Germany and them the UK of the BRI. contacts However,national associated with cooperation local been part has 17+1 the under being done.is seen below, As while regional cooperation indeed has seen growth luster performance of the 17+1 relationships. CEECs proportional seems to be directly to the level of the overall bilateral political pective government coalitions. general, In the levelthein ofactivities CCP party CEE countries, to would build seeking ties that res outlast particular with dealings elites, the pro-government but in also media. opposition created has apositive for parties, not milieu only China, among political Promotion of Chinese presence by coalition politicians, and from both the ruling notably providingsupport the to full Chinese reactionthe to Hong Kong protests. of the most Serbia in vocal politicians political support regarding most given to China, becomehas representative the main forand of party cooperation his withone China 2019, official capacity his in Marko visited China on Djuric also occasions several and delegationthat Marko was Djuric, vice president of the Serbian Progressive Party.In Vojvodina autonomous provincial government the and Serbian president. The host of ces, an promoted cooperation Serbia in both media statements in conference and appear contactgovernment, Vojvodina between been the primary has has and China and a Djokovic, of relations Serbia the 17+1 between in China and operation the 17+1 in the and CEE countries have China between become one of the leading forms of co- SUB-NATIONAL, UNDERESTIMATED? UNDERESTIMATED? SUB-NATIONAL, A

BOOMING COMPONENT OF 17+1 China’s Serbia hosted has representatives of the CCP on several occasions, most notably In general, local relations are part of general, China’sIn relations local part are sub-theof growth Theof stress on cooperation overall beenpart local has It Beijing thus that appears given outsized role has diplomacy an toin party its Surprisingly and withoutand Surprisingly much notice sub-governmental being taken, relations 54 as well as through official visits China. official well through to as as

external relations forexternal decades, China’s between partnerships with

member of the Socialistvice-presidentand Party of Vojvodina provincial format, not it has been universal for the countries. all 58 For local-level China, the relationships bilateral make relations can format. While not initially includedformat. not While initially the 12 in success story partly as a as success partly story format the and perception not that much of substance

COOPERATION

softpower as classified are efforts and way to the overall mitigate lack 55 framework.

57 53 Additionally, Ivan measures, they

regions regions 56 -

hub for China-CEE regional relations. regional Ningbo the which role taken has China-CEE of for ahub with Taipei.with move Due to this other and actions statements and Mayor of the Prague canceled Octoberwas in 2019 the controversial left article out.As Beijingto do so,willing thewas notagreement late to in 2018,came power Prague in it demanded be the treaty renegotiatedand Prague’s 2016 in politicizedconcluded Thebecame Czechia. in partnership and Beijing Prague between given agenda the importance to stressing bySobotka, this the Czech government. goals. The Chinese approachthus been a has have advantage to take tried of policy the central to achieve pragmatic own their promoting provincial enterprises economy. the and local provinces respect, this In autonomous their had motivation to of the goal seek cooperation with especially geographic well their as as areas partners. to government the provincescentral specializations cooperation in both granted has overall of goals China’s Leaders’ held Tangshan, in 2016 Meeting China, in to coming the initiative from the Chinese side. themselves who were actively opposed for as searching China in cooperation partners discovered by mostly previous the Czech regional research, leaders actually it was As Leaders’ at 2014. theestablished 2nd in China-CEECs Meeting Local Prague in the 17+1 in area cooperation leading been this tasked with also Czechia has Chinese counterparts. 18 are there most active of countries terms in regional cooperation of to seems be As Czechia. 2019, events regional between universities,partnerships etc. cultural forcargolines, railway and fairs flights regionaland companies, direct up setting included up representative setting regions,partner trade offices and in the investment which sparse, very leaves them non-transparent. Specific forms of cooperationhave 17+1 the Governors of Provinces Regions and with the case is established As was 2014. in City Mayors, conductedand annually biannually. AssociationChina-CEECs The of included leaders’ the local the mayors’ meetings, the and Forum meetings of Capital for been the case has as 17+1 meetings, institutionalized of the political relationship focusing rather on China, economic ties. with cultural and CEEtowards countries China. have general in not seen regional-level relations part as the steps of government’s the central dependent upon environment. the local governments Local have often also followed in goals. economic and political simultaneously following tunities fortunities economic cooperation on specific projects,thesuccess of whichis often Theexperiences differences. specificof manifest interesting countries One ofthe Regional cooperation been developing has the framework within of various Despite the existence of a Provinces have been incentivized by government the central Beijing in to aid the While mostly motivated ofWhile economic by expectations results, regional diplomacy On theOn side of the CEE countries, regional cooperation created has more oppor

during the of visit Jinpingduring Xi included a

support for the “One-China Policy”. When the new opposition government government opposition new the When Policy”. “One-China the for support format a as

individual partnerships ofindividual partnerships Czech regions their regional and with capitals format, the China-CEECs Association of Governors with Provincial whole, the actual details onwhole, these are events details institutions and the actual foreign policy by actively for The searching CEE partners. and Prague moved Prague and to conclude a top-down approach, the provinces themselves have

policy, welcoming it making whilst moves was 59 mix of top-downmix bottom-up and policies, For of been the case has example, this highly controversial article, expressing expressing article, controversial highly 61 Still, the 3rd China-CEECs Local the 3rd China-CEECs Still, Local was attendedwas also by PM Bohuslav format at large. Thesehave similar partnership partnership similar 60 - 27

Empty shell no more: China’s growing footprint in Central and Eastern Europe 28 Empty shell no more: China’s growing footprint in Central and Eastern Europe the Łódź region’s Łódź the such relationships Chinese Baltic and cities between have been slowly developing, Deemed partnerships. to be less politicallycooperation controversial, twinning and sub-governmental have relations been China most visible with of the case inter-city in cratic politically autonomous to the regions below-mentioned akin examples, Balkan develop relations level. on this role by undertaken the government Budapest, in not there has been any incentive to Hungary, in wherestructure governments local have few powers. With the leading cooperation be attributedgovernancethe can levelto centralized on China this with (11 with the Hungary,althoughcase Theis same the numberhigher is partnerships of (out of 8) have some form of but little very substance. cooperation with China, with towards Two exploring relations China. with regions regional three and capitals Slovakia’s In China. with the placeas of 2015. its new in consulate China in due toPartly lobbying government, by the Łódź Poland decided to choose Chengdu by Chengdu Sichuan and province. openedof Łódź a connection Chengdu and opened Łódź between 2013. in TheŁódź regionandthe city of the private company which logistics cargo operates railway Hatrans, the direct partnership.strategic Interestingly, the cooperation out grew of initiative gradually an Sichuan and Łódź the wereconclusion after 2012, in initiated theof Poland-China the most the whole extensive in regional partnership between The first CEE. contacts well,as due to the city leadership’s 2020, Prague revoking it announced that was with January its Shanghai partnership the tours of several Czech other moves potential orchestras with discussed. Taiwan, ‘punished’regarding by Tibet China canceling rights, human and Prague Hangzhou, Suzhou Guangzhou, and respectively. However, a China’s agreements with have twinning all Vilnius and of Riga Tallinn, though at levels generally below the rest of the CEE countries.capitals three The Baltic 16 andCEE countries, the quantity quality of in both relationships.three Only out of favor. cooperation the end, are, in at the behest of Beijing’s political the issues of bilateral relations. Moreover, it drove home forms of all that the fact diplomacy become can controversial it if enmeshed gets political, and especially in case out. that evendemonstrates The ran Prague politicaltheir expediency regional jing, at these the least, very decisions were by taken the to airlines routes cut when it impossible is While to conclude to the been had airlines if directed do so by Bei cooperation. seems to have been punished the field also in theof heretoforeflightvibrant direct the connection to Beijing scrapped the and number was cut. of flights to Shanghai affect government-level policy. government-level affect cooperation, shows case the Łódź of the potential sub-national cooperation to also

Polish regions do not have cooperation China. with regional partnerships and 7 and regional partnerships The other twoThe other members theof V4 Since composed is the Baltic trio of comparatively no countries idiosyn with small Poland, too, a be seen as can 64 A planned connection to Shenzhen from Prague did not materialize,

joint representative office in a Chengdu in 2014, partnership with Sichuan, been with ongoing has partnership that since 2012 case, this lack of interest this case, the overall mirrors indifference regional capital partnerships). substantial Thelimited leader regional in level among relations China with moves regarding Taiwan. regarding moves 67 have put much on less local-level stress relations Łódź and Chengdu and Łódź sister became cities. also 68 Apart from the robustness Apart of 66 The most important case is Thecase important most 63 close interrelationship interrelationship close Prague (and Czechia) Prague move reciprocated major cities, cities, major and is is and 62 In In 65 - -

by the mayor of Harbin (population of 11 almost discourse the Baltics. A in interest, belowan of while remain deepening their contacts public the radar usually to reciprocatewilling citiesseem towns. and to be Their Chinese suchcounterparts its Mayors’ Forum increasinglydelegations attracted has from that trio’sthe between Republika Srpska and China. Republika and Srpska between of Beijing’s ment, Radovan Viskovic visited Beijing Jing, Chi met and the with representative the fourth organized in Albania. in organized the fourth followed by the second Forum held Montenegro, in Serbia in and organized the third countries. one in Theinitial was organized held of in Forum the Balkan Bulgaria, the China-CEECs Capital Mayors’ Forum established 2016. in Each iteration was visited Tianjin 2018 representatives in met with has and of Tianjin province. sidesthe two appeared on level the local also. The Mayor Igorof Banjaluka, Radojiči 17+1 a brief public its mayor between argument Chinese the and local embassy. controversies showcased as by the above-mentioned incident caused that Vilnius in level the national between politics local and already capital produced cities in has Ji Guoquiang. Ji city high an with hascapacity Tianjinofficial in met and level CCP representative publika Srpska, Zeljka Cvijanovic, hosted has a 17+1 of the cooperation andHerzegovina, and Bosnia the framework China in both between ment of cooperation to theover potential Serbia spill between has China and into context for for political connections China Republika with develop Srpska. Further visit official Chinese of the delegation led byXiaodu, Yang CCP politburo member. of the government of Vojvodina hosted a the framework of the 17+1 Cooperation Vojvodina between Fujian and have been specifically defined within 2016 the in Chinese provincewith Hainan province. Jilin and Besides Vojvodina Jilin, signed a province which a Jilin served as has previously established sister city with Changchun,relationscapital theof Chinese Vojvodina 2019. in to the visit China during Novi Vojvodina capital Sad, of as AP has inces representatives.and The PM of Vojvodina, IgorMirovi Province (AP) of Vojvodina been developing has close relations Chinese prov with a With of the previously part 15,000) as less partnerships. agreed-upon than twinning via’s Republika a Srpska as political connections the Republic between of Serbia independent an as and country of autonomy for constitutive entities. two addition In to level the high of autonomy, Sub-national cooperation between China and the Balkans is also visibleSub-national also is through cooperation the and Balkans China between predateMany sister city agreements the butcreation2012, actually theof The complex internal structure of Bosnia and The of Bosnia Herzegovinacomplex a ensures structure internal

Daugavpils (population less 100,000) than platform indeed has contributedthrough to intensification, their particularly

different internal structure in the Balkan thecountries, Serbian theAutonomousin Balkan differentstructure internal

cooperation bilateral cooperation in and overall. of Prime-Minister the Re

city thegovernment, establishedinternationalhighlighting cooperation 73 In addition In the president to that, of the Republika Srpska’s constitutive entityand createdof Bosnia Herzegovinathehas telling example trend a telling is of this platform. Besides province to province relations, the PM basis forbasis relations between further Vojvodina 74 High level High cooperation and visits between delegation of the CCP 2019 in 71 and with Fujian with and province 2018 in 69 delegation coming from the Chinese Chinese the from coming delegation and Lithuania’s million with agglomeration) to Lat to agglomeration) with million letter intentof for cooperation 2019 ć , led the delegation of

Rokiškis (population

mid-autumn visit during the during high levelhigh govern smaller smaller 72 70 ć - - - - - . , ,

Empty shell no more: China’s growing footprint in Central and Eastern Europe 30 Empty shell no more: China’s growing footprint in Central and Eastern Europe position themselves vis-à-vis the EU, Russia the and US. the contrary, they have to ways use various the tried relationship in to China with the powers. At the CEE time, the countries same have not been without agency. On the CEE countries suchwith in a the relationships of challenge uneasy navigating an fashioning and the cooperation sence there. Due to the complicated of nexus geopolitical faced has interests, China powers a having Europe external Eastern with and of Central nipulate your political system”. China’s a made interest towards the region. February In 2019, of State, US Secretary Mike Pompeo, a under in which manifested especially the TrumpCEE, has administration, China’s with Washington time, increasinglysame alarmed grown has mon support for framework the WTO expressed at At the Dubrovnik the summit. no mention the official in documents, except for the referenceindirect to the com membersare of NATO. in Thethe has figured notdirectly US 17+1 Macedonia’s (North Serbia and the security the in mostfieldexceptionwith as important and of Bosnia Herzegovina it of is to importance Russia. strategic cautious is Chinese, not China and that to influence threaten that thein zones where secessionist concerns. It could influence Russian be that said is more developed than good relationstraditionally those countries have Serbia with own well their as as but Kosovo also which not Russia, and due has by been recognized China both to the andnot Moldova, to go into Belarus excluding too backyard, far the Russian Ukraine, the region. in cautiousChina cooperation establishing When was CEECs, China with relationship), the question of how to approach presented Russia has a perceivedas threat curity and thestates by Baltic Polandthe to cozy Serbia-Russia among CEE countries relations their Moscow in with from (ranging se immediate Regions. and Provinces of Governors of Association the and Meetings established Capitalthrough such Mayors’ as mechanisms Forums, Leaders’ Local the level of cooperation below level, the national but active the are 17+1 in reached not have Romania or Montenegro Slovenia, Albania, while regions, or cities Chinese provinces. Croatia and have Bulgaria established cooperation on the level of region followed July in 2019, the emergence stressing of the new CEE as battleground. even more success on the 5G a issue during Huawei may have negative consequences for Washington ties with (he later secured Pompeo’s of forefront to “guard against China’s against to “guard CUTTING-EDGE, OR DRIVINGCUTTING-EDGE, A When China initiated the 17+1 initiated When China Additionally, countries have each of sub-national the Balkan cooperation with The Unitedpower another thebeen has Statescrucial in region. Its rolethe remains Due to long interest Russian the region in standing divergence and the significant

visit to Poland, Hungary and Slovakia, with the main theme Russia’s being the main tovisit Poland, with Slovakia, and Hungary

presence there. presence

visit. Pompeovisit. cooperation that made with it Hungary in clear 75 In Slovakia, Pompeo In the government warned it that needs economic and other efforts to create dependence and ma and dependence create to efforts other and economic

76 membership ratification), awaits all 17 Theissue of 5G technologiesand Huaweithe at was way as toway avoid as provoking from backlash any of

format in 2012 in format WEDGE: IS 17+1 visit to Estonia). to visit

it was a it was

DIVIDING EUROPE? latecomer to the region 77 Wang Yi’s Wang long established pre cooperation with CEE countries challenge for for challenge presence in

framework framework visit tovisit the renewed and and - - - having a having insistence of some CEE members EU who were of cooperation afraid China with be attributedcan China’sThis notjust to 17 the role of economic partner. economic of role the the US not they are exclusive, with and that and mutually only playing China with seems the CEE countries believe have relationship their they can both China with economic power in the whole CEE region. CEE whole the in power economic a as EU the Importantly, politics. and economy the both a served as countries, has the EU but the aspiring also neighborhood countries its external through and policy.Balkan the member In states exercisedalso influencethethroughextension theof accession processthe to Western the CEE countries a in Budapest’s for example, the point does cooperation stressed that not China with compromise Poland, with the case especially the Baltic countries but Romania. also the relationshipto harm Washington with is to policy in their This towards China. Some CEE close countries with relationships to the US seem to factor the desire not nal actor althoughnal to it 17+1 integral is platform. the of entation expansion) may be another form of bridges building home driving and ori the EU 17+1 the “Europeanize” moted 17+1 summit theand official documents.Chinese officialproclamations have even pro- China-EU relations have been subsequently Chinese pronouncements all in stressed observersas Moreover, to the summits. and complementarity the rules EU with tolimited afew cases. recordmembers of of the and actual the EU political support by CEE for being China of the China-EU economic relationship heavily towards tilted the ‘old’ remaining despiteof the structure the CEE countries investments through infrastructure, and been a has Connected to this countries. Balkan norms and member rules in EU aspiring also and states skirt and to divide (especiallyropean Europe capitals Berlin Paris) and about trying China China’s context, Warsaw in sures any mention 2012, in of conspicuously was the EU absent. this In complex even at and times contradictory. When Wen Jiabao announced the 12 by the accession 2007 in of Bulgaria and Romania putting theputting obstacleswayin of importantly,cooperation its Most with China. Chinese for ofGermany losing being afraid its dominant economic position CEE thus and in by somethingthem “imposed Brussels”. as Chinese Other voices have criticized oftenfret aboutthe Chinese experts respect, need to this in followrules, seeing EU countries members being of themselves. the EU avoiding While public announcements

members of the platform member EU expanded are to states.first include TheEU China has tried to address tried the EU’s has China China’s At the same time, there is still someAt exter tendency there time, the still same is an to see as the EU China in The immanent most player, however,the European 12 remains Unionas

negative the EU. in impact on Finally, standing their the decision to further

being a being

as a as position towards the EU’s the towards position

tool to the success ensure of the continued integration EU process. inroads intoinroads the and the Eu region Brussels in have caused alarm

reliable of NATO. ally the US within and 80 large eastward enlargement of ten countries eastward 2004,large followed in

through thethrough accession of Greece (as opposed to eastward largely misplaced debate about the favor buying China

cooperation on the merit of 12 role the 17+1 in concerns Germany and the by EU inviting change ofchange rhetoric a but as also and Croatiaand 2013. in Thehas EU crucial normative frameworkcrucial in

whole remains the dominant dominant the remains whole framework been quite has 79 In general, In however, it 78 Even Hungary, Hungary, Even participating participating result of the out of mea - - - - 31

Empty shell no more: China’s growing footprint in Central and Eastern Europe 32 Empty shell no more: China’s growing footprint in Central and Eastern Europe with (sowith institutionalization. of far) future no signals a being framework the focus of also and cooperation evolved has gradually, without there the lead “multilateral bilateralism”. in taking eration China with Theinstitutional it. of institutionalization nascent the long it term could negatively influence its prospects EU of membership. term, it could benefitand thequick bring economiccountry development,the butin on principles. EU not premises are China with line that in at it Looking the short in gives countries Serbia like a those horses’ make countries ‘trojan can of Chinese influence. NotEU being members from EU them further membershipgiventhe high that prospects level of cooperation have deeper been by targeted that could criticism cooperation EU China take with other not are countries hand, that members, EU the countries, Western like Balkan interpreted measure was mostly directed investment.Chinese at as this future theOn CEE member not EU in is investing is though that the only China countries, country a economy. For member EU countries, those through concerns were institutionalized the levelpact of democracy those order the in countries, overall internal also and and about how development the further im andwill of cooperationCEECs China between the context in EU of cooperation been CEECs, showing with has the EU concerns norms and convergenceon standards EU of the CEE countries. economic eroding effect involvement, an manifested has the Balkans, in especially relationship open and the doors China with to EU-wide areal effort on China. a EU their sidetrack influential members effortswill to nurture cession ofhas problematized the latter country that definitionfurther. even identificationand“Balkan” most recently of Bulgaria Romania, Greece. The 2019 of CEE or associationand it continues with even as the parts with to be the case Slovenia Croatia) and were not comfortable inclusion such an with at the beginning accordance framework the EU with interests. national their and theOn contrary, the CEE countries havein successfully stay to theshapedlanguage policy concepts Europe. of Eastern and cooperation into Central the language with the common documents not show has been able China that its foreign to transplant compass issues related to the recently BRI and to the global also agenda. However, is planning a planning is With the of goal reshaping the relationship Germany’s China, with states getting a getting states CHINA IN CEE POLITICS: CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS screening mechanism that will evaluate further FDI’s evaluate further will that screening mechanism And while China has been cautious has whileAnd about China how position it itself will towards the China can indeed can be creditedChina for the latest definition as a of CEE The target areas areas of target Thecooperation as guidelinespresentthehavein grown to en 2020 The 17+1 The

clear blueprint at the start. Overall, the cooperation blueprintclear Overall, rather remained loose has at the start.

is poisedis to become a

framework has been characterized byframework a been characterized has special 27+1 seat at the table.

format EU-China summit in Leipzig, with all EU member EU Leipzig, in format all summit with EU-China lot of space to establish principles of cooperation with 81 critical year in EU-China and CEE-China relations. CEE-China and EU-China year in critical It to be seen Germany, if remains France other and 82 Many countries (particularly the Baltic trio, Many countries (particularly hub spokes and logic of coop- to member EU states. Even privileged bilateral region even and EU presidencyEU ac - - - opposed as it infantilizes the CEE denies and states opposed them it agency. as infantilizes Theinstitutions EU 17 the contrary, countries the 17+1 through membership. EU their Croatiaand given being looked more Balkans at as European countries than Central Slovenia with Western and Bulgaria) and (Romania Balkans, the Eastern between already providedhas some grounds differentiates for China that at speculation least consensus comparison in to the both V4 of such efforts due to its much larger size (10 for of the purpose simplicity defined ‘Balkans’, as here the target would first be the theSoutheastern future. Europe, in be expected “sub-regionalizing”and can initiatives lateral” cooperation platforms Europe in the 17+1, through compartmentalizing further in line afine its approach to walk tried has towards in CEE. Russia perception of Russia the region in but its continuing also interests the region, in China Washington. ties with of traditional their Dueendangering toafraid the sensitive become has a rivalry China of overwhelming at their the expense orientationChina EU been limited. US- has format towards to of divide cases CEE countries Europe, turning although actual theEU’stried assuage unsuccessfullyto has China not from insulated political tensions. ofcase the Prague-Beijing relationship demonstrated even that cooperation local is of cooperation from to country, varied country has general evading conclusions. The derestimated dimensions of Yet, cooperation CEE. and China between the substance ofclination the respective countries. relationships political elites important the long-term to with assure in pro-China doubtsraising about China’s purpose. and its nature contacts. Most of the cooperation a been in happening has andthrough led both byforums bilateral multilateral the Chinese Party Communist political issues not is supported by the evidence. a CEE as assumptions that rights,to conflicts andon human otherissues. Taiwan Therefore, the oftenheard some worsened CEE countries have due actually political their relations China with political issues, these have been more the At rule. of exception time, the same an than itself which adecisive as act respect. factor this in passive.and It rather is the activity decisionstaken by 17 CEE countries more achieving intensive cooperation while largely others remain of bilateral relationships been along happening has trajectories, separate some with contacts the region’s between litical Based onBased the evaluation of the and political 17 relations China between “multi alreadySince demonstrated has its determination China to institutionalize have parties important playedroleThird an the in development of 17+1 a used the CEE as has China 17+1 The The simplified view ofEurope through being dividedChina by 17+1 Development of sub-national cooperation 17+1 within Serbia and someWhile have Hungary countries, on especially supported China

cooperation has almost universally led to the growth ofcooperation universally level led high almost to the growth has - po countries should it totheirinterests. better utilize serve whole have become more forthcoming on towards China factor in CEE relations with China, with several countries with factor CEE relations in China, with format, the format itself should not be discarded. the On testing ground for the more activist party diplomacy ground fortesting the party more activist countries and China. However,countries China. and the development and theand Baltics. The sequence thesummits of countries) and lack of self-identification self-identification of lack and countries) concerns about the using China goal seems togoal be to cultivate non-transparent manner, manner, non-transparent CEECs than the formatCEECs than has been onehas of the un coo should be be should ‌ peration. peration. CEE CEE - - - 33

Empty shell no more: China’s growing footprint in Central and Eastern Europe 34 Empty shell no more: China’s growing footprint in Central and Eastern Europe the region’s the China’s tempts to the membership extend ofinstitutionalization. the platform its and further channels. diplomatic and contacts government official cumvent should the CCP, with CEE parties by understand that engaging they help it to cir the and CCP.towards non-transparent parties local between dealings The democratic There vigilance. shouldgreater thewarrants society be civil by and scrutiny media attention. avoid to contacts of such cooperation China’s and economic interest, the CEE should states pay attentionthe to politicizationpotential operation largely gone has that now. under until the radar mostly motivated While by China’s 17+1 the should improve also communication their and coordination feasible in to build areas countriesof togrowth China’sthe offset Balkans times used at for but been skillfully by benefit. has its China, playerdivision Theinternal towards China. theof member has statesnot createdbeen interests the member of all states. the efforts in to shape a TheprovingEU relations their includeneeds China. to with the EU CEE members Westernand members EU should the interest recognize of the CEE countries im in those emphasizing connectivity. emphasizing those to intocountriesintegrate better Partnership theEastern 17+1 First foremost, and should the EU open a The 17 The More attention shouldgiven be the sub-nationalto dimension of China-CEE co Theincreased prominence thetheof in CCP Chinese approachthe towards CEE one’s Putting

assurances that the platform that accordance in assurances is the EU’s with attentionposition. among theonly will erode CEE theircountries bargaining

into a into

countries should watch closely accordance in act and China’s regarding

peculiar geographical positionpeculiar should emphasize the need particularly

multilateral forum serving primarily their interests. their Competition primarily for forum serving multilateral

house order in a is common should policy EU that towards China represent the efforts to take advantage of the lower profile of local local of profile lower the of advantage take to efforts precondition for effective to the EU being an clear path to path membershipclear to the Western political influence. The 17 projects, particularly policies along with with along policies countries countries at - - - - to relations, however, while the V4’s Union. of the platform from the case In imports China indeed gave a to the early 2000s, coinciding the accession with of CEE countries to the European years, however, the increase dates back prior to the official launch of the 17+1 deficit their of Chinesethe exports, as arevalueshighest well. 75 around to and A Serbia Bulgaria. and Slovenia, Romania, by followed flows, trade highest the show countries Visegrád kans) have a the majority reveals that China theof countriestheandthe in Baltic Bal (especially country’s it not is entirely whether a clear is this yet. More its infancy in the region, more and visiting are however, Chinese tourists the region but implemented ones cooperation toalso find, rare are financial is while a in leading to increased deficit.FDI Chinese flows to the region aremodest, concentrated up ofdriven bilateral relations, warming the relations trade relatively remain low, thedecadein past to a significantly leading China’s China’s out by Chinese companies from chapterexamines financed and This Chinese loans. projects carried of Chinese investment recently and infrastructure through also economic benefitsthe to regionthrough developingtrade inflowsrelations,growing Leonte Szunomár, Andreea Karindi and Liisi Ágnes stick? cane, or asugar-coated A relations: Economic 2. rapidly. decreased slightly for a of V4’sthe growth nectivity and infrastructure, financial cooperation financial and tourism. andinfrastructure, nectivity NOT SO SPECIAL: MODEST IMPACT MODEST NOT SO SPECIAL: 17+1 OF

A When comparedWhen to China’s CEE countries have increasingly perceived a as China Trade V4 between few, mainly EU member countries. Infrastructural projects negotiated are overfew, all member EU mainly countries. Infrastructural – in the past fifteen years – fifteen – steadily theyears past –increasing in deficit. In 2018

comparative of 17 analysis

economic However, on impact small. CEE countries remains increased it has presence CEE by in mapping investment and trade relations, issues of con expanding army of army middle travelers. class expanding

relatively the whole Within low China. with trade CEE region the four billion USD. the V4 As exports to China remained rather modest after 2012, and rather remained modest even to China after 2012, exports countries and China has increased the most in the past few increased the most the past has in countries China and common a is feature of China CEE with trade few years after 2014. As a few years after 2014. economic presence globally or in the developed world, world, developed the in or globally presence economic Central and Eastern European countries’ Eastern and with trade Central countries (especially Poland) receive the majority

imports from China increased substantially, substantially, increased China from imports result of the 17+1 number of challenges. Despite a ON TRADE RELATIONS TRADE ON result, the deficit trade increased sugar sugar country whichcountry could bring cooperation or due to the

83 the deficit amounted amounted deficit the new impetus new impetus considerable considerable politically initiative: initiative: - - 35

Empty shell no more: China’s growing footprint in Central and Eastern Europe 36 Empty shell no more: China’s growing footprint in Central and Eastern Europe The fact that thethree above-mentionedthat The fact V4 further. leave and kia territory from customs the EU Czechia) elevate dependency this even (wherewhile exports indirect goods declared for are for in, example, export Slova as an export destination. export an as a relatively remained solute therefore small, still has change these numbers may give from a emphasized they started that a may suggest ofthe case Slovakia. Although Polish, Czech percentage or even numbers Hungarian of Czechia (above 50%) Poland (43%) (31%) shows and Hungary and a When it2014. comes to V4 (18 modest 66%, respectively), Slovakia and rather while is from the imports increase Hungary in 2012 since imports Chinese China. with may give Germany a with depen Source: own compilation based on UN Comtrade (https://comtrade.un.org) Comtrade UN on based compilation Source: own lags behind. The export increase 2012 between behind. Thelags export pressive: about Poland value, Czechia, the same export while Slovakia Hungary and GRAPH 1: TRADE BETWEEN THE VISEGRÁD REGION AND CHINA (IN MILLIONS USD) MILLIONS (IN CHINA AND REGION VISEGRÁD THE BETWEEN TRADE 1: GRAPH misleading indication of countries’ relative performance the and role plays China

million USD the trends weIf broken analyze down by each of the V4 of the case In the V4, Slovakia, and the export Hungary Czechia, especially dency obvious: is on Germany 25-30% of V4 - - - - 84 4 6 8 2 8 6 4 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 T 0 The products or spare parts are often exported to China fromare exportedChina Germany. to The often products parts spare or 0 o 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 t 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

a and 14%). Slovakia’s 14%). and 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 l

V 4

significant increase in these countries’ exports to China, it has to has be theseit increasein to China, countries’significant exports i m 2 0 p 1 o 2 r t

f r o m

C 85 2 h 0 i 1 n countries’ export performance,countries’ the numbers export less are im 3

more nuanced on picture these countries’ deficit trade a is the highest in the case of the case Poland the in highest is Czechia and (79

imports evenimports decreased for a years in three 2 0 T 1 4 o very low initial export amount, where export lowvery the ab initial t a l

V 4

e x countries are in a countries in are 2 p 0 o 1 r 5 t and 2018 and

t o

C exports are directed to directed Germany, are exports h i n 2 a 0 1 6

was the highest in the case the case the in highest was countries, the increase in constant trade surplus trade constant V 4 2 - 0 C 1 7 h i n a

t 7% decrease7% in r a d 2 e 0

b 1 8 a row after l a n c e and and - - - Source: authors’ compilation own MAP 2: MAJOR COMMODITIES EXPORTED FROM 17 Belgium France Members of the17+1format Netherlands EU 17+1members Luxembourg wood agricultural products metals ﬁsh machinery minerals textile electronic products electronics automotive products Switzerland Denmark Norway Germany Slovenia Bosnia andHerzegovina Croatia Non-EU 17+1members Italy Republic Austria Czech Sweden Montenegro Albania Hungary Poland Slovakia EU memberstates Serbia

CEE COUNTRIES TO CHINA COUNTRIES CEE Kosovo Greece Macedonia Lithuania Romania Bulgaria Finland Estonia Latvia Non-EU memberstates Ukraine Belarus Moldova Turkey Russia 37

Empty shell no more: China’s growing footprint in Central and Eastern Europe 38 Empty shell no more: China’s growing footprint in Central and Eastern Europe the volumes trade of agiven vis-à-vis country China. relocationchange deliveries internal or in can change significantly among affiliates ducts, mainly footwear apparel. and ducts, mainly the period, due potentially to a Greeceand (around 40%). Croatia In even Chinese imports decreased by 36% during Serbia and Bulgaria (all around 50%Albania, to 60%) Slovenia, and Macedonia North currently, ComtradeUN statistics, 10 all Montenegro countries –Albania, of Balkan Serbia. and three on Based partners trade SloveniaBulgaria, side. Croatia and on among is the main export the three China and partners import important further as Bulgaria and Serbia Slovenia, by followed China’s 2012), in to China deficit the trade exports as althoughmany persisted, a declined were from different(imports andwere China exports the 5 case imports in of However, sideport be observed the Balkans. can volumes trade in since the starting a exports, than extent V4-China with contrast relations, trade where increased to Chinese imports a V4’s companies. Because the volume of relatively is trade (compared small to, for example, products be bound several and (multinational) to can certain been still and has China companies. local in on based the activity companiesof globalin multinational production networks, not due to flows the large of automotive, electronicsand telecommunications products, of the case Hungary.in However, technology the high intensity trade mainly is of sitytrade. of high-techThe exports has been highestvolume the andChina share to a by arecharacterized changes teen well. years, slightly it as Thesestructural changed has 1%, 3and less and respectively, than to China, Slovakia. and of the case Hungary in not is below significant: exports in 6% Poland’sagricultural globallygrowing products been has recently, high-qualityagricultural the share of a represent the aforementioned product groups, (such metals refined as copperand copperalloys) vehicles,as electronics and the exception with machinery of Poland, where besides side,electronics. the On export V4 metals constitute 94% constitute metals of the country’s Montenegro exclusively almost ores exports aluminum lead and ores These to China. by low value-added characterized are products and/or consist of a the CEE regionwithin deficit, followed by Greece(3.177 billion USD) Serbia and (2.075 billion USD). leading Romania the group, enormous with an with China, 4.425 and Montenegroand (94% 80%, and respectively), followed by Herzegovina, and Bosnia When examining the patterns of trade between China andthe trade the patterns China of between When examining V4 V4 all In While Chinese imports in the Balkans are similar to elsewhere Chinese imports similar are the Balkans in Chinese imports While Theintensity tradevaries from to of Greece are country: andcountry Romania Trade between countries in the Balkans and China has also risen since risen In 2012. also has China and Trade countries the Balkans between in Theincrease imports sincein Chinese 2012

sharp rise in exports of high-tech exports in rise products,sharp technology the increasing high inten trade with the EU or the EU Germany) with trade one decision of a

most important trade partners from the region, both for imports and exports, exports, and imports for both region, the from partners trade important most significant portion of its exports to China. Although China’s to China. portion significant hungerexports of forits countries, the main import products import and countries, machinery the are main from China 86 Therefore,the bulk of tradeforeign between V4 50% increase on the side import a and 87 , the Chinese export baskets of most of the Balkan countries baskets of most of, the Chinese export the Balkan decline of purchases in Chinese textile-related pro countries’ exports consist ofcountries’ product exports groups such exports to China. North Macedonia exports Macedonia North to China. exports exports Balkan countries have a Balkan is the highest in the case of the case Serbia the in highest is global company concerning concerning company global and Czechia’s and 65% increase on the ex few raw materials. billion USD trade trade deficittrade with in the past fif the past in countries and and countries

total exports exports total times as as times greater greater bit. bit. - - - Source: own compilation based on UN Comtrade (https://comtrade.un.org) Comtrade UN on based compilation Source: own a as responsible for the major to China. share of exports their vehicles and products electronic machinery, with countries aforementioned the different is from countries –Slovenia, structure Croatia –the export Romania and comprise copper, ores, of other the case slag member three in EU ash. and contrast, In olivewaste, (10 oil fruits and sulphur, cement fuels and mineral products(60%)suchas paper as agricultural as well by lower characterized is value-added production salt, Greece exports exports. and basket shows the non-EU with more similarities countries of the 17 oriented usually – are towards higher added-value products, Chinese their export Greece and Although members, Bulgaria EU are where production exports –and a tive products (45-55%),tural tobacco such as wood, and since the launch of the 17+1 beech) products andtextile cover up 80%. to almost Although agricul Serbia exports iron alloys which 60% almost constitute of the country’s Twingo Forfour. Smart and Similarly, from 2016 to produce –Renault models, Daimler and export – and includingstarting the new to Revoz, Slovenia’s accounts for more 20% is than shift This probably of to Slovenian China. exports due Slovenia category before, this in to did China not export but after 2015, automotive China, while in Bosnia and Herzegovina agricultural products (such while Herzegovina and Bosnia in lumber agricultural as China, and responsible are Chromium ore exports for more 86% than of Albania’s GRAPH 2: TRADE BETWEEN THE BALKAN REGION AND CHINA (IN MILLIONS USD) MILLIONS (IN CHINA AND REGION BALKAN THE BETWEEN 2: TRADE GRAPH In Slovenia,In there a is million USD the country’sresult in of the upturn

rising share ofrising the machinery, electronics vehicle and sectors T - o - - 2 2 2 1 1 - 1 1 t 5 5 5 5 5 a 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 l

B 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 a 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 l k a n s

2 i m 0 p 1 2 o r only automotive one and of manufacturer exporters, the largest t

f r o m

slight after 2015, but to China persistent increase exports in C 2 h 0 i 1 n 3 a %) to China, while%) around to 70% China, exports of Bulgarian T 2 o 0 t 1 a 4 l

B automotive exports. Apart from components, components, from Apart exports. automotive a l k a n s

2 e 0 x 1 p 5 o r onwards, there a is t

t o

C h i 2 n 0 a 1 6 overall exports to China. overall exports B a l 2 k 0 a 1 n 7 89 s - C can be observed. can significant surge h i CEECs, which n a

t r 2 a 0 exports to exports d 1 e 8

b a l initia a n c e 88 - -

Empty shell no more: China’s growing footprint in Central and Eastern Europe 40 Empty shell no more: China’s growing footprint in Central and Eastern Europe vary considerably. productsvary (mainly wood) agricultural cover up Latvia, In to 45-50%, side, the On export cases. however, three all in textiles and Baltic countries’ exports 2012: 135in USD. million Estonia’s from a countries both started misleading as again 2012 Latvia’s respectively). 18%, 2012 products such apparel together as tires, and wood. some and agricultural with textile machinery, electrical components, and vehiclemedical apparatuses, parts car such as products to the Chinese market exported machinery, have been industrial and optical sectorsport include machinery, electronics wood. and Finally, Romanian the main (and then fell of exports slightly total third 2017). in ex traditional Croatian Other a to shipscargo and other vessels. Transport vehicles were previously to China exported vehicles, which be attributed totransport China can especially to exports Croatian in even lower the V4-China than base relations. Theincrease imports sincein Chinese deficittrade rapidly.risen has China increased to a China the to are Patternssimilar V4-Chinatrade relations: Baltic countries’from imports Source: own compilation based on UN Comtrade (https://comtrade.un.org) Comtrade UN on based compilation Source: own GRAPH 3: TRADE BETWEEN THE BALTIC REGION AND CHINA (IN MILLIONS USD) MILLIONS (IN CHINA AND BALTIC THE REGION BETWEEN 3: TRADE GRAPH

Baltic-China trade has also increased since also the inception has trade Baltic-China of the 17+1 The main import products from China are electrical and industrial machinery machinery andindustrial import productsareThefrom main electrical China When it comes to trading with China, the three Baltic countries started from an Baltic countries the three started When it China, comes with to trading value of only a

million USD and 2018 and is the highest in Lithuania (48%), Lithuania the highestin is followed (29% Estonia and by Latvia and T o - - - t

1 2 3 4 3 2 1 a exports to China show to China a exports 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 l 0

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 B 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 a l t i c s

seems huge, above 150%alone but cases both theseare in figures i m p 2 o 0 r few dollars, million but 2016 in 1 t 2

much greater extent than their exports to China, as a as to China, much exports their greater than extent f r o m

C h i

2 n and Lithuania’s and 0 a 1 3 60% increase but slightly just was the higherbase T o 2 t a 0 l 1

B 4 a l t i c s

e export performance to China between between performance to China export x p 2 0 o r 1 5 t

t o low level (below 100 (below level low

C h this category accountedthis for one i n a 2 0 1 6 B a l t 2 i c 0 s 1 - 7 C h i n a

million USD). t r a 2 d 0 e initiative. initiative. result the 1

8 b a l a n c e - Source: own compilation based on UN Comtrade (https://comtrade.un.org) Comtrade UN on based compilation Source: own the deficit trade issuean not easily solvedso remains of local increasingexports by them. better-known Often like EUlabels or Nordic/NorthernEurope are used.Thus, amongknown Chinese consumers which it for makes hard the companies to to sell general, In not are the respective Baltic states their moting countries China. well in protocols by signing China dairy, meat for fish and productsas exporting as prowell nuts. and fruits as equipment and appliances, machinery mechanical and electrical machinery well as would probably place take industries copper, such in as and wood, fuels mineral oils, re-exports Lithuania, with to China of exports the structure in some similarities equipment well machinery, as as nuclear reactors boilers. and photo, optical, highest in andelectronic electrical andmedical apparatuses, technical and equipment. machinery oils and electrical mineral appliances,driversand mechanical fuels and of were mineral machinery re-exports 62% bycreased almost reached and a into account. 2017, In for of example, in goods from to re-exports China Lithuania too. role (wood) agriculture with aprominent playing exports, together represent textiles and machinery more 60% than of the country’s (wood while agriculture to fish) and China, represents 30%. metals, Lithuania, In equipment and machinery well industrial a constitute as as electrical well. Estonia, as In part important an playing metals and minerals with vide data on exports of Latvian origin or re-exports. However, or re-exports. origin into account of Latvian vide taking on data exports GRAPH 4: COMPARING V4, BALTICS AND BALKANS TRADE DATA USD) TRADE BILLIONS (IN BALKANS BALTICS AND V4, 4: COMPARING GRAPH All three Baltic states have Baltic states three been workingAll to improve hard relations trade with play may also a exports Although indirect T o T o t T a B t o T a B a l

o t T B a l l a

k t o B l a a l a t t

a i T l a V B l n c k

o l B 4 l a a s t s

t i V - - a - n l c a C C C k 4 l s s l a t

h h

i V i i i n c m m m i i i 4 n n n s s

a p p

a a p e e e o

o o

x x x t t t r r r p p r r p r t t a t a a o o o

f f f d d d r r r r r r t t t e e e o o o

t t t m m m b b b o o o a a a

C C C C C C l l l a a a h h h h h h n n n i i i i i i n n n n n n c c c a a a a a a e e e - 6 0 value of 48.7 - 4 0 -59,9 - 2 role, have also to be taken re-exports 0 -2,6 -14,9 billion million EUR. The main growth growth Themain EUR. million 90 0 In Estonia re-exports are the are re-exports Estonia In 9 0,6 18,5 3,3 3,6 half of the country’shalf 2 0 91 Latvia does not pro Latvia - 68,9 4 0 6 0 Chinese Chinese exports exports - - 41

Empty shell no more: China’s growing footprint in Central and Eastern Europe 42 Empty shell no more: China’s growing footprint in Central and Eastern Europe haven’t 17 the four Visegrád countries more 75% take of Chinese theOFDI than total to the the V4 in than Balkans ever, therethe differences are CEE within regionas laborare well; lowercosts thein while been growing, laborhas lower are costs average. the EU CEE than in How considered a first: a accelerated significantly.When searching forpossible the make factors that region few yet years the the last capital inflow in has small, very invested capital, still is of that the other groups. times many two a As combined. more the Baltic countries to the and China Balkans from than export and 17 and prefabricated furniture to China).22% exports constituted buildings Lithuanian of 17% and whereas Lithuania, in 45% Latvia, Estonia, in in (24% to China of exports of wood articles and tend categories to be one export the of Baltic states in the main electronic with Estonia, equipment Also, wood to up China. 31% exports making of all produce. Foreign companies Ericsson like contribute numbers to greatly in export and non-tariffand barriers (e.g. quotas or embargoes) marketto access. playssafe.2) China or company purchase sites member EU in to states avoid tariffs such as barriers trade their with products,marketsEU companiesthey oftenprefer are targeting to establish differencetwofold:this is 1) Chinese companies preferEU memberstates.As Chinese play here. might also arole Other, or presumably the political, and Baltics in factors the Balkans. institutional –there more is Chinese the Balkans foreign investmentthan direct the V4 in influencereally investors Chinese as –even if moreexpensive in labor terms of cost textile products in its export basket. products its export textile in and agricultural well metals, as as electronics both with machinery and between, The Baltic lie tocountries China. somewhere exports the Balkans’ in characterize value-added high and products, while low value-added products raw and materials dominated are to by China foreignports (mainly Western European) multinationals has not affected the structure of bilateral trade relations with China. trade of with China. relationsbilateral notthehas structure affected hasn’t This to anywhere theChina world else in (mainly electronics, textiles). and machinery from to imports which of similar from fact the case imports in in is China, cially WE ARE THE CHAMPIONS: THE CHAMPIONS: ARE WE V4 favorable investment for destination the cost quality and laborof China, is to be

CEECs, countries –despite while the other thirteen slight cases many increases in when of terms in volume it China: comes with to trading the V4

COUNTRIES AND CHINA’S To from up, the group sum of partners countries Visegrád the most are important The share of Chinese FDI in Central and Eastern TheandEurope,theEastern FDI all share comparedof Central Chinesein with for thequite stagnant remains wholepicture CEE region,Thestructural espe Similarly to relations, trade degrees: CEE countries host Chinese FDI to varying In contrast, CEE exports to China differ significantly within the region:within differ significantly to China CEE contrast, exports In V4’s result, the deficit trade the between is is fourand countriesVisegrád China

receivedamounts significant FDIof Chinese flowsfar. so reason The behind

changed a changed skilled laborskilled force available is sectors in for which Chinese interest lot since leading to 2012, the conclusion the 17+1 that or the Baltics. Nevertheless, these differences don’t differences these Nevertheless, Baltics. the or

FOREIGN DIRECT INVESTMENTS countries import import countries platform platform

seem to than than ex - - - - Source: own compilation based on OECD data (https://data.oecd.org) data OECD on based compilation Source: own more attracted and services time moreinvestment. Initially, Chinese investment flowed (assembly), into mostly manufacturing but over general,in V4 FDI in investments from elsewhere, for example the US, Japan or Western Europe. Indeed, European countries have that Eastern and already attracted FDI Central It with targets appreciate a appreciate Since Chinese companies infrastructure. lack ofand size efficientto its small transport the region,in followed by Poland while Czechia, and Slovakia a lags BBCA, Shenda). Shanghai received has Hungary the majority investmentof Chinese Machinery), while there were examples of also founding joint ventures (Orient Solar, mergers acquisitions and (Wanhua/Borsodchem, importance (M&As) gained Liu Gong Lenovo, TCL) assembly bringing to the region activities the early in 2000s. Since 2011, wereand common especially forinvestors Chinese the first (Hisense, Huawei,ZTE, support evencountry the owner if not is the Chinese state. directly companies champion national so-called are companies which of home assumes China, privatenominally firms as (such Huawei or BYD). However,themajority ofprivate rather some mixed: state-owned are companies (such Wanhua as well as as or ZTE) theinvestingof The Chinese companiesBYD Comlink. and ownershipis structure investorthe largest V4, in major investors Huawei, are Corporation, Lenovo, ZTE addition In to transportation. and the chemical companychemical industry Wanhua, these telecommunications, countries in interestedgeting are primarily elec V4 IN STOCK FDI 5: CHINESE GRAPH

million USD dominated investments greenfield modes, entry companies’ Chinese the Regarding sectors of Chineseand investors target secondary tertiary typically V4 3 4 3 4 2 2 1 1 5 5 5 5 5 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 business agreement being supported by the host country’s 2 0 1 3 T o countries the CEE the in region. highest is t a l 2 0 1 C 4 z e c h COUNTRIES (IN MILLIONS USD) MILLIONS (IN COUNTRIES i a H 2 u 0 n 1 g 5 a r y

P o

The main Chinese investors Chinese Themain tar

n d P

H S l

a u

l o n

n v

d g

1 a

y a little behind due due behind little

z S e government, government, l c o

h tronics, the v

a i a countries. k i a 2 0 1 7 - 43

Empty shell no more: China’s growing footprint in Central and Eastern Europe 44 Empty shell no more: China’s growing footprint in Central and Eastern Europe negro, Slovenia host Croatia and less 100 also USD that million Chinese FDI stock. (dataat indicates all below are both 10 bania FDI the Visegrád region). stock in countries Al such on as Based Chinese statistics, host 80% it one (still, just of is Chinese quarter of Chinese the FDI Balkans stock in candidates.potential Serbia, Romania, the Greece top are recipients; Bulgaria and they vestment despite from China, some that the fact of members them EU are others and a promotes and as China in Eximbank, Hungary to Investment buildmised closer relations Promotion the Hungarian with Agency and company the of network supply the and operations to agreed establish its European for Information Centre Hungary developing in the ment into the country. the framework In of such agreements, Wanhua, for example, lack of ‘controversial’ of its gestures political representation Chinese invest spurred Hungary’s Source: own compilation based on data provided by the National Bureau of Statistics, China Statistics, of Bureau National the by provided data on based compilation Source: own GRAPH 6: CHINESE FDI STOCK IN THE BALKANS (IN MILLIONS USD) MILLIONS (IN BALKANS THE IN STOCK FDI 6: CHINESE GRAPH

million USD haven’t countries The Balkan 95 and Bosnia and Herzegovina and Bosnia and Chinese any seem not FDI significant to attract 1 1 8 0 6 4 2 2

high-level foreign agreements strategic with companies combined the with 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 0 1 3 B B A T o l u o b t s l a g a n l a n i

a B i r a i

a a a l n k 2 a d 0 n

1 H s 4 e r c

S e

e g

r o b

v i so far receivedso far big amounts of foreign in direct

a i n a million USD), while North Macedonia, Monte Macedonia, North USD), while million 2 0 1

G r

R e

e o

c m N M G C e

o a o r r o r e n n European investment destination. t a e h

t i

a e c t

i M e n a 2 e 93 a 0 g c , while the Bank of China pro of, while China the Bank 1 r 6 e o d

o B

n u

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a g a r i a 2 0 96 1 7 S S R l e o o r m v b e a i a n n i i a a 2 0 1 8 94 - - -

subsidiaries, therefore it doesn’t appear in Chinese statistics. Source: own compilation based on OECD data (https://data.oecd.org) data OECD on based compilation Source: own facilities. examples desulfurization There are (Tianjin State of agriculture FDI into Electronics Group, Great Wall Motors Technology, and Insigma which operates sectors.investors Chinese Themain Videoare andHuawei, Shanghai AudioZTE, automotive and electronics telecommunications, in companies important hosts also Nidera and were that panies by purchased a Chinese companies have that invested indirectly, Romania in foreign through com important other some are there but producer), (bicycle DHS Eurosport Company, region. The biggest investors Chinaare Huawei, ZTE, Tobacco EuropeInternational the sectors Visegrád in as Chinese companies similar target the Balkans. in China 2018 in of home appliances Europe, in Gorenje acquired was by Chinese company Hisense butis one mentioning: worth is that FDI case one of the eight manufacturers largest velopment city solutions ofalso smart was addressed.the In in future, Slovenia there investment cooperation established. was Huawei’s relations. economic strengthen to aiming countriestwo signed several Memoranda of Understanding (MoU) on investment, Chinese PM Keqiang Li visited Croatia forin time 2019.occasion this the theOn first recently.member become the region, has in states China active the very Balkans in as GRAPH 7: CHINESE FDI STOCK IN THE BALTICS (IN MILLIONS USD) BALTICS MILLIONS (IN THE IN STOCK FDI 7: CHINESE GRAPH

million USD less is compared significant Chinese Bulgaria FDI in to however,Romania, it member EU an As state, the investment is most Romania popular destination for The above-mentionedtrendthe thecase in may EU of soonchange, especially

for 339 for 1 1 1 8 0 6 4 4 2 2 101 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 . 2 0

1 million USD. 3 T o t a l 98 2 This purchase purchase This wentthrough one Hisense’sof 0 E 1 4 s t o n Chinese company, such as Smithfield as such company, Chinese i a 97 For a purpose, this L a 2 t 0 v 1 i a 5 interest contributing in to the de L

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s joint task force for for force task joint

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Empty shell no more: China’s growing footprint in Central and Eastern Europe 46 Empty shell no more: China’s growing footprint in Central and Eastern Europe gained somegained Chinese investments into sector estate the real due to its “golden visa” to security, national some theirhavecountriespolicy and frame strengthened legal its debt China. in Group, but the company forced was to some sell of its shares later order in to reduce by AMC Theatres,EUR timewhichthelargely theat was of owned deal by Wanda the regionin been, however, has the takeover of Nordic Cinema Group for 865 43 for Technology Aviation Hangxin best-known been the takeover has deal so far of MRO Magnetic by Guangzhou fintech companiesand received a program 23 by to region increase Chinese FDI managed stock this that the in only is country Latvia M&A projectsgreenfield or projects.interested been has in 2) China infrastructure big tively bigger, morepopulous andcloser to theirwith marketsWestern European region likely: are 1) Chinese companies preferred countries to which target rela are the 2% Balkans. less times than than of 12 Chinese FDICEE, stock in 17+1 the have been mentally quite open to Chinese investments have and made active use of the after Visegrád region,the Baltics comes third. Evenin thoughthe states Baltic technologies. disposal level, the possibilityrial countries the two discussed waste investments of in future energy, high-tech. and estate real one In of the latest high-level at ministe meetings nese companies showed interest an a in theirinvestment increasing significantly presence thelast few years. during to the top ten source countries of foreign investment Greece in over decade, the last –together Hong China operates with port. ping giant, Kong the Piraeus –belongs sectorenergy China’s which with line in is Belt Road and initiative. park close toof industrial Belgrade. an andtakeover SmeltingMining of Combine the firm BorBor),(RTB and construction a of construction the like projects greenfield sident Vu investmentof significant projects to Serbia announcedwerevisitthe Preof during companies the –such automotive as producer parts Mei Ta –arrived,while a 5,000 companydistressed as as well the financially saving conglomeratesteel manufacturing Hesteel Group acquired the Smederevo steel mill, Russia headquarters the same Today. as having and TodayChina newspaper entered editors the same has market, sharing the Bulgarian Farms joining the group, Greece enjoyed a cooperationthe effects this of FDIthebuton Chinesestockin even country before While the Balkans as a as the Balkans While With awareness the growing of challenges from potential Chinese investments In SerbiaIn to invest Chinese companies 2016: in started the Chinese iron and Two possible reasons for the lower representation of Chinese companies this in When it comes to Greece, a as

times, however,times, only around 100 still stock is this deals in the technology in deals sector, where countries have small not much to offer. Agribusiness

format to promote the region Baltic opportunities, their only hosts a 105 c i . Lithuania has positioned has . Lithuania the gateway itself to as Europe for Chinese and his ministers to Beijing ministers September his in ć and 2018. Theagreements included 106 Group) rather and curiously into the media sector, recently, as 104 region the second is option for Chinese companies CEE in newcomer to the 17+1 few investments segment. the that in Estonia, In privileged position since COSCO, China’s

million EUR in 2018. in EUR million Historically, the top deal 102 wide area of sectors, including infrastructure, wide of area sectors, including infrastructure, These FDI cases are TheseFDIclosely cases connectedthe to

tire factory in Zrenjanin, a in factory tire group, it to evaluate hard is million USD.million The country jobs. Later on a few other Chinese Chinese bit more more bit number 103 million ship Chi - - - - of or national significance companiessecurity” and to of national “with facilities and the experiences of the 17+1 from learn also the and CEE countries. can China the On otherbetween China hand, relations enhance also cooperation can kind of this Belt Road and infrastructure and 17+1 the and Initiative a When taking power plants (among hydro, others thermal, coal-firedas as well nuclearpower plants). or well building as as expanding railways or reconstructing highways, constructing the 17 in jects different theandrulesEU.of standards (and sometimesregulations or strict) very experience from developing not or countries Southeast Asia Africa considering in the funds)are not available are or less accessible. negotiationshamper processes, and while other resources (such structural EU as relatively is do regulations and not poor rules EU there, strict and the infrastructure implementedare the rather non-EU in of states the 17CEECs since the Balkans, in projects the CEEin region the opposite just are of the FDIInfrastructural patterns. havethat in countries stronger,significant morefriendly relationshipswith China. but since governments decide on whether to block a FDIthe Chinese affect in region will these rather screening mechanisms newfangled a Without mechanisms. record yet of a of the principlesall mentioned the EU’s in a utilizes police more the domestic directly investment system market, while the Hungarian the Polish law introduced a the model notit with line was in necessarily defined theby Commission: European such amechanism. creating coordination. on work nor it established has but its mechanism, own it relies on regulation the EU zones. protected certain notification andeconomicfacilitate of investmentsvetting in certain sectors in or on the protection of “objectsto require security” national of to importance ensuring European critical infrastructures. a be implemented 2020, in while not Slovakia seems so far to be considering drafting to investment own their Czechia the expected law in and is screening mechanisms work to better controlsuch situations. have alreadyandPolandcreated Hungary COOPERATION IN INFRASTRUCTURE AND CONNECTIVITY AND INFRASTRUCTURE IN COOPERATION ALL ROADS TO LEAD CHINA: law. established a Latvia Currently, pro negotiatingand several infrastructure-related planning is China Interestingly but understandably, projects the patterns of infrastructure Chinese In its first infrastructure-building attempts in CEE, China tried to replicate China attempts in CEE, its infrastructure-building its first In Interestingly, where place already in was the pipeline, or in the mechanism was

rather obscure politicized and oversight less is bound that mechanism by Central and Eastern European countries. China is interested European is countries. building China in Eastern and Central foreign investment project under investigation on based the screening closer look, a 109 The majority of Balkan states, Themajority however,Balkan of have not even considered

platform. one On the hand, CEE region a is

sufficientnumber of records,difficult is it topredict whether 108 mandatory review mechanism for review ownershipmandatory mechanism in transfer Estonia has not has Estonia updated frame the regulatory current initiative so far and can use it its broader in can and soinitiative far Belt Road and much more invasive the Polish system, allowing to state clear link can be found can China’s between link clear

107 Lithuania adopted Lithuania updated an version of the law regulation. deal ordeal be less not, the impact will 110 However, been there no has strategic area for area strategic the Belt Road and 111 - 47

Empty shell no more: China’s growing footprint in Central and Eastern Europe 48 Empty shell no more: China’s growing footprint in Central and Eastern Europe in 2019. to in 8,255 grown has 25% China-Europe of all trains. example on public procurement regulations. procurement public on example on involvement of Chinese for companies rules, EU materials) and may go against conditionsfunding asas the certain opportunity fundsthis (such requirementof initiative. However, later out member on EU it that could turned states not use those of 17+1 part credit was line modern technologiesinvestments and the economy. green infrastructure, in This offered a China-Europe later Express on – were tested 2008 in media. state cooperation under 17+1 of newOpenings connections have been to used by herald China the results of the geographicaltheir position, gateway to markets. EU the CEE countries the natural are injected impressive into the China-Europe growth connections. freight rail With cooperation among the involved countries leading to shortened travel have times momentthe most important cooperation in the European between Union China. and it called Orbán when Minister Prime it agreement signed the construction 2014, in Junein 2015.government The was Hungarian keen very the railway on projectand Silk Road, ChineseMaritime Foreign during Wang Minister Yi’s on promoting China randum of with understanding the Silk Road Economic Belt and BRI, including V4 subsequentand doubts. and backlash a strategy. border, terminal. the Małaszewicze using around the connectionsas of 95% all have the route taken the Poland-Belarus via the biggest benefactor theEuropeexpressof China connections been has Poland, 17+1 everhave political support exponentially under since, grown the BRI and gaining and rolling stock and also impetus for of sector. the logistics impetus rollingtheand growth stock also and settlements, includingtries, from tariff feesinfrastructure rail for the use of their cost of rail freight transport, infrastructure improvements progress and customs infrastructure in freightcost of transport, rail freight. recent in tries ofrail in terms Thebeen years in connectivityhas decreased completed a be in will China political economic and sphere of interest. routes Once are the alternative transport In addition,In projects completed the 17 in toand work off some over-capacitiesindustrial of its accumulatedin recent years. routes, be ablealternative will transport to reach markets easier its faster and target Chinese investment the broader in region, Western in especially Europe. clearer definition of couldgoals thehelp toin future avoid excessive expectations During the then Prime Minister Wen Minister the then Prime Jiabao’sDuring The China-Europe economiccan bring express benefits for the involved coun and connectionsEurope the first China – between While brandedofficially asthe One of of the most salient cooperation areas the and CEE coun China between China’s Central and Eastern European countries have Eastern and beenCentral cautiously welcoming of the

initiatives. While thereinitiatives. were While only 11 112 special credit 10 worth line special Such experiences are, for example, more that effective communicationand

motivations are easy to understand, as BRI will allow its it tomotivations to expand BRI will understand, as easy are

countries. Hungary was the first European country to sign a to sign European country the first was countries. Hungary and BRI and have gained significant coverage have BRI and and significant gained in Chinese 116 cooperation, available for countries gathered the in all more favorable position have strategic it more as will 119

billion USD to the CEE region to be used for CEECs may provide a 118 China-Europe trains in 2011, the numberChina-Europe in trains Thecity in Łódź of itselfPoland services visit tovisit Warsaw 2012 in by private companies private by reference for further visit tovisit Budapest 117 115 So far, memo China China , they 113 - - Source: authors’ own collection Source: authors’ own THE INITIATION OF 17+1 INITIATION OF THE EXPANSION — UNDER IMPLEMENTATION OR NEGOTIATION IN 17 TABLE 1: LIST OF CHINESE PROJECTS — CONSTRUCTION/RECONSTRUCTION/ Montenegro Macedonia North Lithuania Latvia Hungary Greece Estonia Czechia Croatia Bulgaria Hercegovina Bosnia and Albania country Slovenia Slovakia Serbia Romania Poland country’s the of renewal potential); –all plant power thermal plant, power (e.g. hydro projects energy various in investment Park; Wind Mozura highway; Bar-Boljare highway; Smokovac-Matesevo Miladinovci-Shtip and Kichevo-Ohrid linking motorways the on stretches two plant; power hydro Kozjak (potential) plant power heat Kaunas combined (potential); port interest); (Chinese of Rail raised Klaipeda Baltica Construction Construction of Rail Baltica (Chinese raised interest) Belgrade-Budapest high-speed railway (planed to be built by 2023) failed) bids (both Meliti and Megalopoli at plants power lignite Hellenikon; at airport former Athens’ of development the port; Piraeus expanding Further (potential) Construction of Rail Baltica (Chinese raised interest); FinEst Bay’s in 2015) (CGN/CGNPC)Corporation raised interest); Hodonín logistic centre (potential, planned Power Nuclear General China (company plant power nuclear Dukovany on blocks New (potential) motorway Luka-Split Banja railway; Zagreb-Rijeka the of modernization construction); (under Bridge Pelješac expansion) Burgas; Belene nuclear power plant; Plovdiv management airport for 35 to near base alogistic of development (potential); section railway Sad-Subotica Novi the of modernization (Gabrovo-Kazanlak); Balkanthe Mountains development; Varna port a Varna-Burgas) and (Veliko Vidin-Botevgrad, Tarnovo-Russe, Four motorways branch Vukosavlje-Brcko and highway Vukosavlje-Doboj motorway; Grad Luka-Nov Banja (potential); plant power thermal yet); Banovici started not have works construction the but signed been has agreement credit plant (the power Tuzla coal-fired plant; power thermal Stanari companies) Albanian with it build to decided Government Albanian the when 2018, till (potential Sea Black Bulgarian the to Sea Ionian Albanian the between motorway (potential); connection see Corridor’/Adriatic-Ionian ‘Blue Kr guarantees. sovereign provide to government Slovak the of unwillingness to due through come not did negotiated. The project of a be to seem projects construction potential No implementation. under projects no are There yet) started not has construction signed, been already has agreement (credit plant power thermal Kostolac at unit 350MW started); already has project the for documentation technical and (planning Sad Zrenjanin-Novi and Belgrade-Zrenjanin between highway of construction motorway; XI Corridor of section Surcin-Obrenovac the motorway; XI Corridor of sections Lajkovac-Ljig the and Obrenovac-Ub the of construction railway; Belgrade-Niš-Preševo the 2023); by built be to Danube (“Mihajlo Pupin”) bridge in high-speed Belgrade; railway Belgrade-Budapest (planed Beijing and Bucharest between connection air direct the of restart the or line rail high-speed Bucharest-Iași-Chișinău thermal and hydropower plants; the Constanța-Bucharest-Budapest high-speed rail and nuclear, various as such initiatives, many the despite yet, projects finalized no are There failed) cooperation the end the in but made been has a contract plant (a Chinese power company raised interest, coal-fired Jaworzno Łódź); and Kutno Małaszewicze, in (for example Rail Express Chengdu-Europe the to connected hubs Logistic projects s ko nuclear power plant (potential); Divača-Koper railway line railway line (potential) (potential); plant power ko Divača-Koper nuclear ship fleet (potential) shipfleet 114 hydroelectric dam on river Ipeľ was discussed in the past but but past the in discussed was Ipeľ river on dam hydroelectric

CEE COUNTRIES SINCE SINCE COUNTRIES CEE Tallinn-Helsinki tunnel tunnel Tallinn-Helsinki years (plus potential potential (plus years tunnel under under tunnel 49

Empty shell no more: China’s growing footprint in Central and Eastern Europe 50 Empty shell no more: China’s growing footprint in Central and Eastern Europe get to process 50% or China-Europe cargo, negligible. remained its share has rail China. to open a Cooperation on trying and Logistics retariat establishing collaboration sector the logistics in by the CEECs-China Sec creating cheaper than by air is necessary. is bycheaper air than competitive for a for competitive a to promote have however, been to trying Chinese partners, ports their Latvia without have port into been ongoing, Klaipeda no concrete with results yet. and Estonia Both and land sea. via connectivity For a havecountries that or either have begun already been completed. projects member EU in states, there a are 17 the in negotiation keysituation. the seen table in Chinese As projects listing under implementation or it comes a countries in are projects, to Chinese construction the Balkan more cautious Chinese (as with well Russian) as constructors. V4 he t ready before 2023. Chinese companies interest have several an projects in raised in the Budapest-Belgrade –although the contractor railway been chosen has –won’t 17+1 the before operation Chengdu connecting Europe the Polish Rail Express already with in was Lódź city projects the V4 in infrastructure funds, there are notmany too attractive forms funding, structural of including EU continue. will ume the subsidies,withdraw to it be seen how remains much of vol trade the current distortions. market significant connections have been heavily subsidized by governments local leading to China, in goods to Europe opposed as to by the sea, overall rail higher of costs transporting half-empty journey to China. the on also andbecause reasonForreturn this the of whelmingly towards tilted inbound often to cargo Europe,returning trains with been over has the China-EU overall in transportation imbalance trade trade, rail Hungary. and the Balkans Land-Sea Route Express Europe joins of the port that Central and Pireaus through 17+1. within area this A spearheaded also connectivity issues which has in cooperationforLatvia with China of Transport even a has Ministry hoping advantage to take of for also its ports shipment further by sea. Latvian The being stopped completely. been another has champion freight of transport, Latvia rail to the relevantto the procurement procedures. the project andthe financed the is three Baltic by EU governments,subject it remains The chief reason has been the situation in Ukraine Thetimeswhichchief theUkraine transit several beenled inreason has situationto clear success so far. However, freight not is cooperation rail China always smooth. with Mirroring Although Slovakia has tried to promoteAlthough tried Slovakia has alternative route, an itself as a with W h i le V4 le i h W Since companies public and from have states EU access institutions to more Also Baltic states have been actively promoting infrastructure development have Baltic states Also been actively promoting and infrastructure

126 region, Dukovany such as nuclear power plant, but V4 Rail Baltica is the largest infrastructure project the region, in however, infrastructure the largest is Baltica Rail as

countries more are cautious or bound when by regulations and rules EU

selected segment by sea but of than goods, faster where transport 123

125 Finally, despite only remains the lowered transport rail costs, CEE countries since while 2012, there only are a In addition, Latvia has been active within the 17+1 been active within has addition, In Latvia potential for growth of transport also exists on the so called exists also for ofpotential transport growth

cooperation and keeps initiated, was on expanding, 121

122 With the central government With the central to gradually planning representative in China, stressing the importance ofrepresentative the importance stressing China, in or the Baltics.aforementioned The in Chengdu- while, talks aboutwhile, Chinese potential investments talks 127 Another project of potential interest from from interest potential of project Another number of projects potential non-EU in train route totrain the region from countries seems to be very different very few potential format in 124 while while tar be be 120 - - - -

such as Deutschesuch as Telekom, Orange, Telia Elisa, Sonera Vodafone and do that so. decidedLatvija to continue to work Huawei with other citing companies Europe in profitability. cussion there as a is it the Chinese company seems notthat be completely will excluded from the Po to at NATO be taken levels. EU and a taken has of Hungarian-Chinese relations. of Hungarian-Chinese cooperation recentlynance has financial called one theof rapidly most areas growing developed be further it that and will there no are concerns Huawei, regarding thewith cooperation satisfied they are that the representatives of of Serbiathe construction 5G infrastructure, have that stated Huawei thewith project. in being the key Since partner the US Huawei banned from technology 5G enable will that infrastructure telecommunication of construction the on working already Telekom is company telecommunication state-owned the while Huawei with rating for a less committed. Despite concernsin some raised EU countries, Serbia been has co Huawei from 5G network development. countries the region Other in are, how MoU signed an the US, 2019, also Romania with August in to exclude the Balkans, In to be a Slovak Prime Minister’s November 2019 wentMFA ry evensincethe further alreadyHungarian announced in Beijing in most likely followwill Germany’s governmentof the German which did not exclude Huawei. Nonetheless Prague Huawei unprecedentedan 2019, in against following warning the announcement lish market. The Czech National CyberandInformation AgencySecurity issued on a 5G by signing 2019, Poland made a offering its new modelsmarket. theEstonian on wei’s Hua company technology mobile Chinese the of use the restricting development, signed a the USA influenced decision-makers 31 On regard. this in to collaborateallegedly Huawei willing with and matter onrecent this frompressure earlyas be finishedas 2024. Chinese companies become has Bay’s FinEst Furthermore, Latvia’s Furthermore, Visegrád region seems again to be the most active. The Hungarian Minister toVisegrád region be theMinister of most active.Fi seems again The Hungarian FOLLOW THE MONEY: FINANCIAL COOPERATION IN V4 The Baltic states have been keen on building 5G infrastructure andhave been Thehavestates Baltic been keen infrastructure on 5G building Attitudes andtowards 5G Huaweidiffer in V4 When analyzing financial cooperation between China andthe cooperationCEE region, China the financial between When analyzing

products. security threat the security (in absence of compelling evidencethe to contrary). memorandum the USA with cooperation toand strengthen on 5G security more approach, careful advocating for decisions on Huawei technologies 129

130

As a As that Huaweithat would build its 5G wireless network. joint US-Poland declaration on 5G. on declaration US-Poland joint certain skepticism concerningcertain its completion well its as as time

reaction, Huawei announced it that would reconsider continuing

political statement showcasing its support for the US stance Tele2 long time: “Safe city” and “Smart city”long andprojects “Smart have time: “Safe city” beenset,

declaration, Slovakia does not seem to consider Huawei

has chosenhas Huawei for handset. 5G its first 128 Theimplementation under dis projectthis of still is 140 And indeed, the Bank of China has established indeed, has And of China the Bank 134 approach, despite the US preference. US the despite approach, 139

. Tallinn-Helsinki which tunnel should 131 In Latvia, Huawei’s Latvia, In countries, too.countries, September In 135 However, of as early 2020, October 2019, Estonia 137 Based on Based the

133 partner Bitepartner 136 Lithuania Lithuania Hunga ever, ope 138 132 - - - -

Empty shell no more: China’s growing footprint in Central and Eastern Europe 52 Empty shell no more: China’s growing footprint in Central and Eastern Europe entering the Greek market. Greek the entering of Commercial and have China) (BOC Bank interest expressed their banks in two 10 money licenses one and institution payment license additional an and institution 2015. in Commission signedof a Lithuania gateway to Europe by developing a 17+1 the the finances projects.that Ex-Im China it usually is projects the Balkans, Bank in mentioned infrastructure now locally.can be utilized When it comes the already to Chinese to loans realize UnionPay (PBZ) so Zagreb that Banka of cards Privredna the Croatian bank with ing (2018), Croatia and Herzegovina and Bosnia (2019). UnionPay already been work has announced its intention Bank Construction July to in enter 2019, Bulgaria opened also of itssameoffice first year.in the China Bank in China Romania The region the country,in (2019). –and Romania the Balkan well in as as TheAgricultural where opened of China the Bank its first branch (2017), bank Chinesethe first being respective their in territories.lack any Chinese banks Exceptions include Serbia – Greece, together Serbia, with joined 2019. summer in Themajority of these countries countries decided to become members of joined Romania the AIIB: late in 2018, while er level cooperationwith ofChina. financial Forexample, three only of ten Balkan Hungary. in while ICBC looking is, at of theinto time writing, the possibility a of opening a for lobbied long has BOC doesn’tbank. branch of BOC, which opened was 2015, in belongs branch of to the the Hungarian branches (opened of of China Bank 2003 in Kong. Hong in and market onshore the issuer,eign 2017, in sold government bonds (dim bonds) Panda and sum on both a well as having increasingly closerwell having as economic cooperation trade and Pacific, Asia with Europe emerging travel in destinations as the Baltic states for as Chinese tourists groups Europe Northern in of the UnionPay and Baltic Sea. banking the largest sees been established also UnionPayration between has Swedbank, and International one already host (ICBC), branches of Commercial and Prague China Bank of Industrial bank card to Europe be card issued in of bybank China. Bank forint debit Hungarian and 2017, in card case of a the first which also was UnionPay China and Chinese issued therenminbi first Hungary in of China Bank the country, in commercialthe largest bank opened itsoffice first in Beijing in 2017. Slovakia has noSlovakia intention immediate has to participate. not it initiate atmosphere itthe and current in unlikely is Czechia would that join. Investment (AIIB),ture Bank while Czechia considered joining for a regional and CEE headquarters in Budapest, while Hungary was the first soverregional the first CEE and Budapest, headquarters was in while Hungary

companies intend to join the bank’s the join to intend companies In the financial sector, the financial In China’s When it comes the V4, in to Chinese banks Poland and Hungary in there are When compared to countries the Visegrád region, have a Balkan None become of has the Baltic states a

format, Lithuania has been the mostformat, promoting active has in Lithuania the FinTech itself as 143 Similarly, Polandand Hungary decided to Infrastruc join the Asian have any representation Slovakia although in the Slovak PM Fico 147

cooperation agreement with the China Banking Regulatory Regulatory cooperation Banking agreement the China with Chinese bank to up set Chinese operations bank Slovakia. Warsaw in and Since four then granted it Chinese companies has electronic 145

UnionPay International (UPI) expanded toUnionPay Serbia expanded International (UPI) FinTech coordination centre Vilnius. in The Bank

central payment system Centrolink. payment system central 141 Furthermore, the Hungarian OTP Bank, Bank, OTP Furthermore, the Hungarian member of the AIIB. and 2012, respectively), 2012, and while the Czech 142 146 However, within

relatively weak while but did 148 renminbi 144 Coope

branch branch while while - - - - tourists visited the country,tourists while these numbersin increased 2018. even further Holiday of Destination the Year 2018”. 2017, In a ted been Poland. seen in has Chinese increase tourists in was designa Thelar country addition to this already existing connection, and flightaddition another between Athens direct already existing to this 2018 in visited Hungary According National Tourist to the China Office in Budapest, 256,000 offices 48 China or theinquick within – Chongqing) ofthe such services, opening as but 14 customized also notbased (Beijing, only flights onChengdu,and direct recentlyShanghai, Xian also travel for services Chinese visitors. scale. a large Hongespecially Kong, South Korea Russia,and where UnionPay used on are cards most of the officialagencies tourism have a European Countries’ Eastern and Tourism Coordination Centre. from But, this, apart the establishment in the and CEECsoperation resulting China of between the Central operation platform the field in theaim increasing withof of tourism co tourism 21 over from 12 some V4 Slovenia.trend The also contributed is flightsBeijingbetween to direct by and major while other countriesCzechia Austria, and of interest include Poland, Croatia and –countriesnot of all the V4. A of a part as destinations the CEE region. within Sincetourists visittheir groups tourist typically from China weredestinations Croatia (up 45.7%), (up Estonia (up 35.8%), Hungary and 25.1%). 2.4%), (up Germany 2.6%), France and (up 7.7%), however, growing fastest the three of terms in volumedestinations were of the United Chinese arrivals Kingdom (up Chinese middle Over the course class. expanding of 2018, the top European three in Slovakia are lower (61,000 lower are Slovakia in The grewnumbers foras Although the Slovakia well. numbers of Chinese tourists four and Chinese citiesPrague (Beijing connections air operate Czechia: and direct few between China years between last Thehigh that numberbe mostly putcan flights opened in the the direct down to tion with China (between Athens Beijing), and (between China tion with since operated 2017. China by Air In same period),same 262,000 and THE IRRESISTIBLE DRAW: CHINA-CEE TOURISM AS A TOURISM DRAW: CHINA-CEE IRRESISTIBLE THE

cities, Warsaw. and Budapest, such as Prague average, On spend Chinese tourists - as the only Travel- as –by European China country the „New as Agency magazine As far as Hungary is concerned, is Hungary as the number grown far has As of Chinese tourists the V4 for destination the most is popular visiting ChinesePrague tourists amongTheare thecountries Visegrád forpopular destinations most Chinese The CEE regionan placeis visitattractivebecoming to for the continuously Among the ten countries in the Balkans, onlyAmong Greece the ten a countries the Balkans, has in In 2013 In days in Europe days in one during visit.

at the Bucharest summit, China called upon Hungary to upon establish called Hungary China at the Bucharest summit, 149

million peoplemillion visited 2018, Czechia in that 619,000

travel package, the majority if themvisitthree – of at least (while 23,600 (while tourists arrived in the first 11 the first in arrived tourists in 2017), in 2016. in as many as twice it was Budapest merged tour a usually is with

152 Hungarian tourists visited China during the during visited China tourists Hungarian hours of –issuance accepted applications. visa , Shanghai, Xi’an Chengdu). and , Shanghai, Chinese language site and/orChinese language customized record number of 138,000 months of 2019 of months SUCCESS STORY direct flight connec flight direct were Chinese. Chinese tourists tourists Chinese Hungarian visa visa Hungarian 155 153 journey to to journey . A Chinese Chinese region: region: simi a co 150 154 151 ‌ - -

Empty shell no more: China’s growing footprint in Central and Eastern Europe 54 Empty shell no more: China’s growing footprint in Central and Eastern Europe tries to increasetries the number they have from other of taken steps China, to tourists closed Novemberwas in 2018, after one year of operation because was it not profit launched 2017, in Airlines, operated and however, by the Chinese Hainan route this mobile application. mobile the country,within Slovenia up set payment has points for Alipay, the Chinese 2018 In either. Nevertheless, countries. both the number in been growing has of tourists Sloveniaand do not have any preferential treatment for visa Chinese nationals Beijing in embassy 2017 between the and number issued by small very the Romanian is of of Chinese visas tourists regime for simplifiedthe visa was in Chinese citizens 2017. beavailablewill Chinese. in official portal tourism Bulgarian China’s with oforder Tourism Minister agreement to signed tourism, the boost Bulgarian an has the and numbertowards China either. not ofis significant Chinese that tourists In period of the previous year. at about estimated 8,600, double was tourists the number registered the same in visa-free policy helped to develop by as tourism June 2018 Qatar, Russia, Saudi Oman, Arabia Thailand. and China, Belarus, Bahrain, 2016. in than system brought over 000 92, which took effectin 2018,in a resulting A charge. free visas of such as visa requirementsabolishing Chinese tourists, attract granting or connection. air adirect nations their with visiting Chinese tourists Herzegovina, Slovenia Montenegro, and to the number boost seeking also of are that whilefromcountries the there further are region,including Macedonia,and Bosnia considering also are airlines a launching given 2014 in to low their profitability. wasthus achievednever The–restart the reason official airline Tarom, national the Romanian however, the flights werestopped in 2003 connection air Bucharest between Beijing, and the direct wanted to with restart also a able only a carried and Airlines. Juneyao been announced has to open June in Shanghai 2020, operated by the Shanghai-based around 200,000 packages fortourist Chinese Nationals (e.g. COSCO Shipping, Fosun) Greece, along the involvement with of some big Chinese companies offer that special had a had only 50,000 while Slovenia in tia number increased by this has 300% since 2015 flight to Beijingin 1979 Romania, too,Romania, a lacks Even a if As mentionedAs above, the Beijing-Athens benefitedhas flight direct in tourism Bulgaria, Macedonia, and Montenegro don’t Montenegro and Macedonia, Bulgaria,

mutual visa free bilateral policy with China since free 2017. bilateral China policy with visa mutual friendly tourist This

the number of Chinese tourists was estimated atthe about number estimated 250,000 of was Chinese tourists

mutual visa exemption exists between China and Bosnia and Herzegovina, and Bosnia China exemption between visa mutual exists

(0.8% tourists). of all leading tour operator, announced the that International, has and HiSeas 160 direct flight connectiondirect is an notoption forcoun themost of Balkan was that Russia that deniedwas the right for Tarom toairspace. flyin Chinese its In 2018, Albania also announced 2018, In a also Albania

Chinese nationals visit Greece visit Chinese nationals each year. 156 Serbia did have a 166 few passengers. and operatedand late 2000. until Romania’s preferential system for visa However, Chinese citizens. 162 Chinese tourists to SerbiaChinese tourists 2019, during fivetimes more and 2019 and 165 To facilitate consumption by Chinese tourists direct flight connecting Belgrade with Beijing, Belgrade flight connecting direct 157 Before JAT that Yugoslav launched Airlines growing number of tourists. growing direct flight between Zagreb andZagreb Beijing, flight between direct

averaged around 3,300. Currently,

have any preferential policy visa visa-free policy for from citizens 168 Greece a has 164 the number of Chinese 163 Even so, number the

Ponta government government Ponta 158 167

159 when it was . At present, golden visa visa golden Serbia has in Croa in Croatia 161 This This due due - - - spent accommodation at tourist CEE countries in by by calculated Chinese tourists, fromgion being far “invaded” is by on Chinese based tourists: the number of nights Co., Leasing Ltd.Financial airBaltic and signed a UnionPay totheir better Chineseclients.serve operators the sector tourism in have introduced also Wechat Pay, well as as AliPay spend more. TheEstonia-based ship cruise operatorand Grupp some Tallink other themways of to getting move intootherBalticfurther stay countries, longer and made thehas that regional playersChinese tourists look attracting into in Finland after. with 20.6%with more a than from China among the most important partners for China. for partners important most the among ortrade concerned, are investment statistics the CEE from region being far also is member represents states, while China a dependenthighly on investmentand trade both relations developed, with mainly-EU China’s 1,16% tourists) of the and lowest (0.18%). all Bulgaria in (1,4% and Czechia Hungary and the in highest ratio is this on the Eurostat dataset, representEurostat, Chinese tourists the region. 1% in less tourists of than all year of middle travelers: class average wealthy an Chinese take 5.9 dueare to the better promotion of or CEE China’sin China countries countries of the region. However, it not is entirely whether clear these developments countries which increasing number resulted an has in several in of Chinese tourists China. to Latvia off taking the possibilityfrom flights direct of leaseback” of four A220-300 Airbus 2016. in than destination. a the Baltic region. 2019, In Tourist the Estonian at Board Enterprise put Estonia out years of residency uninterrupted a bility to renewthe residencytheinvestmentif permit in Greece. Afterremains seven investmentsstrategic Greece in (over 250,000 five-year place in program grants that residencyrights investors forall who make China’s agreementsigned an on long cooperation tourism term the Group Alibaba with on Investmentnesses on Development and the Chinese market, the Latvian Agency visa holders are Chinese. are holders visa context publication, of this it mentioning worth is more 65% of that the golden than CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS CONS: PROS AND OF ECONOMY THE tender to find a When comparedWhen to China’s It the 17+1 seems that Similar to other regions,Similar one tourism is of the industries most in important 178 173 and European destinations are on Nevertheless, European and are destinations shortlist. their the CEE re In Lithuania, in 2018, in Lithuania, rapidly, In incoming markets grew from tourism distant

largest travel websitelargest 2017. in Alitrip economic impact on CEE countries relatively is CEE countries small. are 171 172 In 2017, In 20,000 In Latvia, the number 22,774, was but Latvia, declined In a partner in China to more China in activelypartner promote a as Estonia 170

cooperation led to has better promotion theof 17

tourists arrived from China to – fromfive Estonia arrived times China tourists more economic presence globally or in the developed world, world, developed the in or globally presence economic resident apply also can for citizenship. aircraft, which coincidedaircraft, speculation with about year earlier. minor (although increasing) as share. far As

176 EUR) orEUR) buy a estate, with real Furthermore, 2018, in China’s 175 In order In to busi promote Latvian 174 Letter Letter Intentof fortheand “sale It was especially the success It especially of was 180 international trips per international trips 177 bit (-0.2%) the year

expanding army 169 179 tourism tourism In the In Based Based possi CMB CMB CEE CEE - - - 55

Empty shell no more: China’s growing footprint in Central and Eastern Europe 56 Empty shell no more: China’s growing footprint in Central and Eastern Europe trade deficittrade the all in 17 economic development, engagement their providing and the enhancing EU with EU’s policy.trade Since a by solutions; single country CEE countries shoud follow the EU’s experience,their on reservations plans and how to proceed. where summits, the representativesthe annual of the 17 precede 17+1 –wheremeetings economic interests intentions and should be gathered –should CEE countries should China, with work together. and act 17+0 Regular 17 the 17+1 economic own their intentions, they do not coordinate among themselves. a As with withonly results. slightlybehind beneficialstagnating lagging or are importance. Serbiaand Relations other CEE with seem countries to be of particular CEE countries. the countries of with Bilateral relations the Visegrád region especially handles its economicbe emphasized it that still on a affairs a play however,China, number the growing of Chinese middle travelers class may also framework of 17+1, since CEE countries have been higher achieving visibilityin to limited member currently EU is countries. momentum, cooperation regard.gaining it Althoughis financial this reservations in growing EU and Europewhile expressEastern member tunity Central in countries overall the region but non-EU countries seem to be more oppor open to use this projectsfromare –financed – Chinese negotiatedloans added sectors. Infrastructural countries to receive big amounts of investment, not the higher especially in value- Czechia Poland and being at the forefront, nofor opportunity the almost with other and/or a the exception of Slovenia, Croatia –consist Romania and of low value-added products baskets countries of while –with Estonia, and most the Chinese of export the Balkan by higher value-addedracterized products of the case the region, Visegrád in a credible enlargement perspective. in non-EUin member states. may have less, or even no effect. Westernmainly European companies decisions –multinational local CEE, in based Chinese FDI modest are concentrated and a in Trade relations relatively remain low increasing leading unbalanced, and to an When it comes to non-EU countries’ recent rapprochement the China, with Themajor challenges trade of traderelations,such as deficit,cannot be overcome Most of the CEE countries don’t Although China createdAlthough the China 17+1 Tourism perhaps is success the real of story economic cooperation the within Coordinated should rules be established to investment relating screening also

responsibilityundeniable:is it must play a economic the agenda sets cooperation driven that China by mainly is China: role here. here. role

countries rarely question. order In to benefit morefrom economic cooperation few raw materials. summits. Moreover, monitoring and evaluation meetings could follow follow could meetings evaluation and monitoring Moreover, summits. significant portion significant of CEE’s countries with China. The structure of CEE exports is cha is exports of CEE Thestructure China. countries with have a have platform the CEE to region, with deal to it has

clear China strategy and even and they have if strategy China clear more active role these countries’ in exports to China is connected is to China to – exports few Hungary, countries with CEE countries can shareCEE countries can bilateral basis with the with bilateral basis strategic aims in in aims strategic consultation Lithuania Lithuania result, - at a at V4 were Poland, CIs in Slovakia in six fiveand three Czechia, in in two Hungary. Thus, opened Krakow, in Poland of 2006. As in late Budapest, and 2019, Hungary there of the platform. the V4 In to the 17+1 government. Chinese the foreignwith of image relative an universities independence while maintaining from of Educationto – a the Chinese Ministry (Confucius Headquarters),Institute a by Hanban CIs managed are versities, of structures. internal their thus becoming part established –they are bilateral cooperation through uni institutionally local with or British Française, Institute Goethe Council)Alliance the way in they operate kind Confuciusdiffer this from Institutes other(suchinstitutions of as national (CIs). ofarea cooperation CEE and countries the Confucius are China between Institutes possibleassessing implications future this level. at tieswith China tighteningfor considered “government-to-people”. element This into taken to has be account when of “people-to-people” type particular cooperation should to a Chinese regime the and penetration ofthis the society theby party-state apparatus, Europe beenern perceived has relatively as uncontroversial, of given the the nature Alicja Bachulska, Una Aleksandra Bērziņa-Čerenkova and Nina Pejić China with relations societal of 3. We the people? The challenges region (e.g.in 2005; Belgrade, Serbia Sofia, in in Bulgaria 2006 there wereWhen it initially comes only a to the Balkans, to include other universities middle and schools beyond. the and capitals in both reportedly due of size to the countries, the small but a Slovak Medical University or at University of in Pecs Hungary. or culture-related, the such promotion as Chinese of medicine at traditional (TCM) CIs. Some of them focus on areas specificof cooperationare that not purely education (Tirana, 2013),(Tirana, (Cluj-Napoca, Romania 2009; Brasov, 2011 Slovenia in the Balkans: (Ljubljana,in 2009), (Veliko Bulgaria Turnovo, 2012), Albania 2006). Coinciding with China’s Estonia, then in Riga, Latvia, in 2011. No in additional CIs have been Latvia, established Riga, then since, in Estonia, opened the Baltics in relatively late 2010, –in Tallinn, in and Vilnius, Lithuania, in

hosts 16 hosts

The development parallel in andEuroperun Eastern seems to Central in of CIs societal the Although The first issue that issue Thefirst most probably comes to one’s number of universities the V4 within 182 CIs’ official aim is CIs’ is aim the official promotion culture abroad.and language Chinese of

initiative as someinitiative as were of the institutes opened before the inception CIs in total. Additionally, total. CIs in several Confucius Classrooms (CCs) operate 181 183 regiontwo it dates CIs back to the first the 2000s, with level of East and cooperation Central and China between

newfound interest the region, in fifteen moreopened nominally non-profit organization that reports reports that organization non-profit nominally type of setup that enables of setup type CIs to cooperate with the potential to expand to full-scale to the potential expand with mind when thinking about whenmind this thinking

network of expanded CCs has and Bucharest,and 2013), Serbia few CIs established the in large extent be rather extent large 184 or Sibiu, in Romania In comparison, CIs CIs comparison, In - - 57

Empty shell no more: China’s growing footprint in Central and Eastern Europe 58 Empty shell no more: China’s growing footprint in Central and Eastern Europe number rather of modest. CEE CIs remains in to It establish hard any also causal is through multilateral frameworks multilateral through related to 17+1, the suchChina-CEECs Higher as and China takes place takes bilaterally outside China and of of these kinds networks. educational cooperation the most between prestigious universities V4 in this omissionthis were: anticipation of controversial the institutes’ related and nature have entirely omittedthe topic of CIs.One thespeculate onlycan what reasons for most four active, with universities members, as including Gediminas the Vilnius been the China-CEECs has Higher Education Lithuania Consortium. Institutions Schools V4 with members thetheAlliance consortium.of There also RoadSilk is within Business of Liberec and Tomáš University Baťa Zlín).in doand nothaveSlovakia anyHungary versity Sciencesof Social and twofromandHumanities) (Technical Czechia University V4 theand CEE region. together brings Education that Consortium 134 Institutions reasons. Either way,ministrative CIs seem to be largely left out theof 17+1 a or problems 1,000 pledged to “[e]nhance inter-universityandexchanges joint academicand research, send five the next in China in years”.countries toalso the Chinese study language China theClassrooms 16 in program cation, where promised China to “supportand theConfucius Confucius Institutes Countries. Measures for Promoting Friendly European Eastern and Cooperation Central with only document of mentions that the 17+1 part CIs as universities. given CIsrather have seems that been established on based bilateral negotiations between establishment their between precise and link advancements of the 17+1 184 total in are Europe.Eastern According website to the Hanban CIs, operating there all which lists 18 Altogether 2019). Montenegro (Podgorica, 2014) Greece and (Athens, 2008, Thessaloniki, 2018, Thessaly, Republika Srpska 2017), –in Macedonia North (Skopje, 2013), Croatia (Zagreb, 2013), Sad,(Novi 2013), Herzegovina and Bosnia (Sarajevo, 2014 member –the Academyas –joined the ofmeeting the consortium first during Arts universities 2016 joining in 2013. in meeting two Theinterestuniversities with Lithuanian of has diminished, not Technical University Sweden (2 of terms In mereItaly 12. numbers, CEECs more are comparable to countries like any CEE state. For 19 example, has Germany with 30 with

countries: from two Poland University (Białystok of Technologyand SWPS Uni As ofAs late 2019, altogether 37 As with V4 with As lessOther visible include activities academic cooperation universities between The rolethe within of CIs 17+1

students scholarsand to the 16

CIs 3 and 186 CIs), (2 Denmark The document’s The

more mundane decision to leave them aside for or ad other managerial institutions of this kind in Europe. in kind of this institutions universities, universities the Baltic have states in joined also the academic institutions from Czechia and Slovakia. and Czechia from institutions academic CCs, while other major European players host more also CIs than CIs function in the Balkans. the CIs functionin Balkans. 190 188 , which joined its alreadythe Consortium during inaugural Among them, there four are academic from institutions and oneand applying for membership 2018. in Estonia’s CIs) (5 or Portugal

ninth measure concernsninth cooperation of the area in edu countries and invite 1,000 Confucius Institutes were operating in Central and ConfuciusCentral in were Institutes operating format has remained surprisingly limited. The format surprisingly remained has countries in the next fivecountries the next in years”. CIs (the Russia), as same France 18 CIs). Despite development, their the 185 framework China’s was The UK seems to be theUK seems Theto be leader and Banjaand –capital of Luka

institutions from students from relevant relevant from students 189 It seems that 187 framework. It Guidelines Guidelines framework. countries countries Twelve Twelve China only only and and - - COUNTRIES 17 THE IN INSTITUTES 3: CONFUCIUS MAP Belgium France Members of the17+1format Netherlands number of ConfuciusInstitutes ineachcountry EU 17+1members Luxembourg Switzerland Denmark Norway Germany Bosnia andHerzegovina Non-EU 17+1members Italy Slovenia Republic Sweden Austria Czech CONFUCIUS INSTITUTES Montenegro 37 Croatia CENTRAL AND EASTERN EUROPEAN EUROPEAN EASTERN AND CENTRAL Albania Hungary Poland Slovakia EU memberstates Serbia Kosovo Greece Macedonia Lithuania Romania Finland Bulgaria Estonia Latvia Non-EU memberstates Ukraine Belarus Moldova Turkey Russia 59

Empty shell no more: China’s growing footprint in Central and Eastern Europe 60 Empty shell no more: China’s growing footprint in Central and Eastern Europe with ASEM, UNESCO and EU programs on programs education EU and ASEM, UNESCO with the only as references to su raised about establishedraised its agenda, Budapest the Institute China-CEE is in by the down. related Another to institution knowledge exchange, which suspicions had has Center. Czech-Chinese the of the benefits thethrough a of BRI covertlythe Chinese embassy fundeduniversity an entire eventsas as well courseon Center at Charles UniversityIn in October Czechia. 2019, uncoveredCzech media that influencean be in audit revealedvia European can academia the of Czech-Chinese involvement some in of the projects. Thefirst precedent ofyielded China how its to look suspicion with on cooperation Chinese academia with Chinese and embassies’ ofis cases specificanalysis needed. Given China. and of the fragmented cooperation nature the field in morein-depth framework the of lines defining what the main is for cooperation CEECs between spilled over has China intoin Chinese higher education well. as institutions should be noted also a absence of other high-profilefrom especially foreignpartners, Western academia. It China-led a as initiatives cooperation, while less and smaller well-known ones perceive in participation their CEE havein the capabilities both the and resources to establish bilateral forms of frameworks. pranational representatives the and latter four. format, the former countries with this eight in most active having among Balkan Montenegro (University of DonjaGorica). far,So and Serbia Romania have the been University KlimentSt. Ohridski, University ofRuse), (University Croatia Zadar) of or joined states early 2013,from as the initiative as (Sofia other Balkan Bulgaria like them joined 2019). the consortium in Representatives of some academic institutions Herzegovina University or Romanian andof Bucharest Universityall of – of Pitesti sity of UniversityTirana; Banja ofand Luka University Sarajevo East and in Bosnia of though of many them only recently (e.g. University Albanian andof Shkodra Univer When it universities local comes have to joined the Balkans, also the consortium, University,them (Vilnius University are homesLatvia) of to ConfuciusInstitutes. the Universityhave – not Latvia accededof the to evenconsortium, twothough of universities –University Estonia, Vilnius of of University and Tartu of Lithuania, relatively 2017. in meeting late, the fourth during onlyhas one member Technical the consortium –Riga in University – which joined well, but have no applied institutions a since, signaling initially suggested theby Chinese side,initially someraised suspicions the scoperegarding of a as institute Beijing). in based Academy The Hungarian of Sciences reluctantwas to establishthe Chinese Academy of Sciences Social (CASS, a science The most recent Sino-Baltic that cooperationdocumentsregulate in education and fer bilateral cooperation or other formats of cooperation Chinese universities. with Similarly to developments in Australia, the US and Canada, Europe has also started Similarly to developments started Europe also the US has Canada, and Australia, in Limited cooperation happened also under has the BRI umbrella Interestingly, while some universities joined the consortium, others either pre either others consortium, the joined universities some while Interestingly, 192 do not mention 17+1 mention not do joint-venture between the two academies. The joint- The academies. two the between joint-venture general European interest heightening Eastern and of Central 193 chance to internationalize and build and chance global to internationalize networks the in It the most prestigious that universities might be the case 196

or BRI cooperation purely –they are at bilateral, all As a As private business established by several em

result of the center the scandal, closed was

top-level national research organization organization research national top-level 191 Notably, the biggest national loss of interest. Latvia also also loss of interest. Latvia 195 , further blurring blurring , further venture format, format, venture ployees 194 - - -

Tanks, a tions of Chinese public holidays visits. mutual and Friendship.are Theirmostly guestcelebra related activities exchanges, lectures, to of Slovenian-Chinese Society the Society, Friendship Chinese-Montenegrin the soft-power e.g.Association with China, relationsThe Friendship, of Bosnia-China have established non-governmental local work that organizations on establishing fields of science,and research education. its enthusiasm when cooperation it comes Chinese entities the with in to nurturing closeregarding cooperation the Chinese side, with maintained at has large the country byorganization CASS only. Academy Despite the Hungarian of Sciences’ hesitation the institute’s Forum. This can be taken as a taken Forum. be can This 2020 In edge high-tech in exchange incubators, parks industrial innovative start-ups, etc. knowl supports which Mechanism, Coordination Technology Communication and Guidelines, Croatia took of the initiative the establishing China-CEECs Information include business delegations from the Chinese side. Furthermore, the Dubrovnik in the conclusion conferences that the field in of scientific cooperation mightactually ofport Herzegovina and Bosnia the and Sarajevo Municipal Government, leading to ofsigned Communications cooperation and Trans documents the Ministry with 2018. October in Herzegovina and Bosnia science. applied Beijing’s deserves international attention, the and Balkans as pointsit China tween towards been largelyof has influenced the meetings theby Chinese side. contentwhilethe theas as overall agenda, actual well confirmation participants of guests) have been disproportionately of placed Foreign on Ministries local Affairs, burden logistical and (such venue,the organizational as of or catering transportation accommodation). receivefunding to full the join event (includingtravel and expenses international CEE. and from China platforms for knowledge former among exchange diplomats experts, academics and the and CEECs” China supposedic are and between so to exchange far as function According to the Chinese side, represent the symposia high-level largest “the academ will be re-branded of the 17+1will part as fromtries Slovenia but again, it the and region. be thewill organized This year forum Forum 2018 in events: of Thethe SlovenianSlovenia organized ForeignMinistry Affairs Creative an open calls for whose open papers, calls participants an papers that accepted indicating are will have visibility. limited fromsupport theylittle seem institutional with to local functiongovernments and people who a as or interested are China Chinese culture in influence the on environment local theyas seemfunction gatheringplaces as to for Another specific case is theAnotheris High-Level China-CEECs specificcase Symposium Think of is, case however,The Hungarian thenot only one.the Several in countries Balkans Unlike countries the V4 in

Slovenia will host the fifth China-CEECs Cultural and SloveniaChina-CEECsCreative hostCultural the fifth Industries will regular event sinceregular hosted 2013 annually new of area interest, namely a

work Finally, planned and activities. established it was a as 202 and 2019 and 200 The third 17+1third The However, some as evidence region from suggests the Balkan 199 Themajority of conferences havethrough been advertised

in an effortthegather an to in representatives creativeof indus and theand Baltics, one aspect of specificcooperation be case study on study howcase some CEE countries host these

Conference on Innovation Cooperation was held in in held was Cooperation Innovation on Conference initiative, possibly dueconstraints. to financial recent focus on cooperation innovation in and 197 203 Interestingly, at the conference Huawei in either orin CEE China countries. 198 They do not seem haveto a travel destination. So far, non-profit non-profit big big 201 ------, 61

Empty shell no more: China’s growing footprint in Central and Eastern Europe 62 Empty shell no more: China’s growing footprint in Central and Eastern Europe China. Moreover,China. China-CEECs’ the 1st Literature Forum held was Budapest in in Hungary in 2015 in Hungary opening, the CCC does not of a seem to be part 2015-2016. several had soft Having launches in 2018,visit big priorthe ministerial to cooperation. The founding theof centerinitiative an thehad beenof Chinese sidefrom of Tourismand Culture Luo Shugang on the sidelines of the 17+1 the of visit during the Minister Latvia formally launched was Baltic states Riga, in been established. November In 2019, Centre Culture the only (CCC) China the in however, institutions, existing through some in have new cases also institutions Festival ofChinese Art 2015 CEECs,” to and “hold a Festival of improve to Baltic Culture gradually with exchanges its model of cultural involved,country the Chinese that side stating ready is tothe “use theof opportunity presented a problematicleast of Sino-Baltic aspects of all relations. The Belgrade Guidelines (2014) 2016 a example, 2016 in Kraków Forumevents the China-CEECs’like on Heritage Intangible Experts (held Cultural in Initiative cooperation issues library such (e.g. as rather marginal China-CEECs’ Libraries Union opera dance and cooperation, to contacts publishing between industries, to even theater, film, CEE and operation rather from is broad, China art, between ranging field andand advertising, marketing publishing).architecture,(e.g. media in to positioncreative international pioneer an itself as industries, trying it also is the in accelerated significantly years has its domesticown development state-supportedof of area cooperationthis clearly represents a region, Beijing’sof the Balkan creative in stark industries, especially the Dubrovnik Given summit. the lack of resources to invest anddevelop in the field potential, creative goods objects, and however, not it has yet been implemented since residency creativeart platform the of of the goal exchange with artistic supporting Montenegro expressed its desire to host China-CEECs’ Creative Hub to an serve as enhance orenhance downsize the framework depending on the previous results. Since the establishtheframework, first, then see how finally, muchand, substance it attracts, other sectors. It the following seems that logic been applied has by the Chinese side: illustration of China’s in the Baltic throughoutcapitals in place taken have exchanges 2015. mainly Cultural most probably events referring to took several China-organized separate that place V4 controversial,countries the least as despite its for potential generating tensions. In media in Visegrád countriesmedia in have shown little interestthe on events.in reporting 2015, Hangzhou,and 2017). However, while a the 17+1 through organized

countries, participants fromcountries, the region participants haveforums attendedcultural biannual From been the most has active the perspective of and the Baltic states, culture Cooperation related to heritage been preservation on also the with rise, has Beyondand Confucius academicInstitutes exchange,the co- scope cultural of

and martial arts training sessions were organized in both Hungary and Poland. and sessions Hungary were both in training organized arts martial and 204

Chinese Performing Arts delegationChinese Performing Arts visited Poland 2014, Czechia and in ). In general, cultural cooperation with China has been seen in all CEE been all seen in has cooperation China ). with general, In cultural regional rather than a regional rather than 206 and Slovakia in 2016 in Slovakia and ). events Other included by Chinese delegations. visits various For

inventive approach to institution-building, already observed in Chinese art festival in the three Baltic countries 2015.” the three in in festival Chinese art platform (Beijing, from 2013, its beginning very Sofia, is mentionedis one as of the official format outcomes cultural approach each towards with exchanges cultural

in orderin to commission performances back in softpower strategy.in recentAs China number of events have been held, the strong, pre-planned strategy, but an Forum on Tourism move towards towards move 207 The The 208 205 ,

established order in down to the controversies tune CIs. surrounding nator for (atin culture the2018), Sofiasummit and Skopje selectedwas theto host a taken has exchanges between China and the Baltic states have the and Baltic states China indeed between exchanges increased significantly, referring to both Estonia, BRI cooperation. and China-CEE two-way The cultural is supposedis to host a Heritage Forum 2017 in region, Serbia. in Serbia especially co-hosted also China-CEECs the first Cultural been covered has opening by the press much more of the openings the CIs in than promotionstates, cultural likely is to be conducted the CCCs, via however, their region, it as covers eight floorswith a center Thethe establishmentin CEE cultural Bulgaria. the Chineselargest became facilities. cational a by implemented bombed 1999 former in embassy Chinese which added exhibitions. has for facilities cultural public. Montenegro, In been its building new has since embassy China late 2018, its establishment, to the expert the center largely unknown and inactive remains Center for Coordination Cooperation of of Cultural the 17+1. However, months after (including subsequent and publications), translations choral and folk classical, music. exhibitions, art contemporary including culture, have been providing Chineseand counterparts top venues for showcasing Baltic exhibitions Road-themed education cooperation in than science. and cultural For example, a the conclusion the official the Baltics andBRI in that 17+1 shaping Sino-Lithuanian cooperation along the of lines 17+1 reference makes gram toCooperation, the Sofia China-CEE Declaration on Cultural Cooperationof for Bilateral Cultural 2017–2021. most the cooperation Program is recent China with document cultural regulates that 17+1 for 2018Ministries fields. er libraries, cinemaand oth music translation, and literature arts, performing and arts, and applied the fields in visual heritage, tangibleandmuseums, intangibleof cultural of tothe Baltic states being the last do so.China, The document covers cooperation intergovernmentalsigned an cooperation agreement on with cooperation culture in Cooperation China-CEECs’ Hangzhou forum (2017), in Cultural the third Latvia a as over take the CCC some will of promotion the CIs’ culture serve will and functions of Education), ultimately and the Ministry Hanban there grounds that are to assume of Tourism and Culture CCC by curated is the Ministry (unlike the CIs, by curated agreement, namely, Chinese and theof Cooperation Cultural the Estonian Program first first venue Its locationthe in kind Balkans. coincides of its thewith location theof Center (CCC) Xi’s during inaugurated was As far as cultural cooperation between China and the Balkans is concerned, is cooperation it the and Balkans China between cultural as far As In terms of terms In agreements bilateral signed at the level of the 17+1

testing ground fortesting a and BRI are addressed BRIand are only towards the end of the document. 209 At event, the same signed Estonia the latest addition to its pre-existing variety of variety Macedoniaformats. chosen North as a was 216

Chinese company Chinese

to 2022. The program mainly speaks exchanges,of speaks bilateral to 2022. while Themainly program A cinema, a

Chinese Cultural Center was also opened Center also 2017 in Chinese was Cultural 217 new institutionalized form promotion, of Chinese newculture institutionalized 212 , which helping resulted China in a and concerts have taken place in Lithuania, Latvia, and and concerts and have Latvia, place taken Lithuania, in

theater, a theater, 215 of area total 4,000 – will supposedly cost 45 –will

library of Chinese bookslibrary edu various and

visit tovisit June Belgrade in 2016. It the was by NATO. The project – whichis to be 211 213 Theintroductory clause theof pro theater shows, literature festivals festivals literature shows, theater 214 In Serbia, In the Chinese Cultural narrative is more is narrative visible in m2. Similarly to them2. Baltic exchanges, leading to Serbian town applySerbian town 210 framework, during For Lithuania, the the For Lithuania, million USDmillion and multitude of Silk sectorial coordi sectorial in Sofia, Sofia, in - - - 63

Empty shell no more: China’s growing footprint in Central and Eastern Europe 64 Empty shell no more: China’s growing footprint in Central and Eastern Europe nature of this organization, which falls under which organization, of the United falls this nature Front Work Department, of the CCP and serving as an informal channel of channel communication informal an outside as of with the CCP serving and Federation. All-China as as well China Committee of thethe Central of Party Communist Youth Political Leaders’ Forum, of by the been International it Department organized has happenedprogram on a chosen Bridge to in participate for the Future. who attendedthe course theon sponsored BRI, theby Chinese embassy, werelater at the Czech-Chinese Center at Charles University SomePrague. in thestudentsof Moreover, element an was program the same of the previously mentioned scandal Bridgeseems legitimate that to assume for would the Future goals. have similar political highly is and serves the the needs CCP’s of expanding of life to and encourage walks youngall people Marxism-Leninism”. to learn to unite educate and socialism, and of the banner high patriotism young people from Communist Party of China of China (CCP). Party Communist workthat under government directly the central Committee the the and Central of Youthmunist at of its core China well 36 League as as ration (ACYF), a Bridge for been coordinated has the Future sponsored and Youth by All-China Fede International Forum for Young Innovators). According to scarce media reports, attend and organizations events (in 2019 different regions theof world, travelwhovisitdifferent to to China and enterprises Young Political Leaders’ Forum. The formeris a specific deservecloser programs attention:Bridge China-CEECs’and for the Future been to on to seems and the establishment be linked the rise of the 17+1 the absence in especially of the most anticipated the economic results in domain. easy, to become be expected it a can politicallyleast abrasive, it does not require exclusivityand its deliveryis relatively order in be analyzed value. their to assess However, the is cooperation as culture in sides. Also, the quality of output generatedthesethroughframeworks wouldhave to into long-term achieving directly existence translates their that mean on goals both tion the 17+1 associated with acrossand regions. The multitude high-level of seemingly frameworks for coopera brought about any long-term over and be tangible sustained time connections will that of culture. the supportmusic, of dance and with ministries local drama China-CEECs’ Music Academies’ Union, founded 2017 in Croatia, Montenegro,supportthe Serbia, financially Romania) Albania, also Bulgaria, took heritage also place followingcultural the event. Reportedly,for heritage listing. UNESCO several academic regard to in exchanges DON’T YOUTH COOPERATION AND ITS PERILS YOUTH ITS PERILS AND COOPERATION It seems difficult to assess whether the existing frameworks Itassess seems difficultexisting to whether the for cooperation have Similarly to cultural cooperation,Similarly youth to cultural cooperation has CEE China and between

TRUST ANYONE UNDER THIRTY: THIRTY: ANYONE UNDER TRUST 224 The former is an agency reporting directly to the Central Committee Thethe to Central directly agencyformeran is reporting body bringing together 16 body bringing rather arbitrary basis. When it When basis. comesrather arbitrary to China-CEECs’ Young initiative, BRI as well bilateral cooperationinitiative, BRI as as does not 221 leading success of story cooperation, China-CEE One of the official of the goals “hold is to ACYF participants from CEE attendedparticipants the BRI

national organizations with the Com the with organizations national 223 program targeting youth leaders targeting program from It admission their seems that to the 218 Some Balkan states (Slovenia, (Slovenia, states Balkan Some provincial level organizations organizations level provincial to promote cooperation in

outreach. Thus, it initiative. Two initiative. 219

222 The The 220 - -

via political parties’ channels: invitations channels: have political parties’ beenvia sent out to the leading political Theinformation from thestates Baltic shows beenthat has conductedrecruitment frameworksboth have been close to non-existent media’s local in bodies responsible for these events organizing on the Chinese side. who supposed are the events to in participate well the political agenda as as of the Leaders’ Forum should cause concerns given of group the the political target nature low. information on limited and the Young especially of Lack transparency Political youth to take part in the initiatives. in youth part to take the Confucius of Institute Vilnius University invitations to whichhas been posting respect. electorate) the Russian (traditionally associated with seems the most active this in Saska of Democratic the youth the Social From party Restart.lv organization Latvia, and bodies in each affiliated and their notcountry to the respective parties embassies. regions. different from individuals influential partners, cally Year,Exchange regional actors regard. Specifi have active this in not been particularly abroadimpact of on studying CEE China students. in of each studentcircumstances problematic and it remains to generalize about the Yet, the impact of assessing receiving education depends China on in the individual world regions does seem to be one of of of these kinds scholarship the aims programs. a of exaggerated, seems criticism nurturing whoviduals might not be able Beijing’s assess to critically a forming scholarships government Chinese academicrestricted freedom at most Chinese universities, there have been fears of recently,criticism. of cooperation type even attracted Givenhas this increasingly academic excellence for the chosen few. relatively initially uncontroversial, While sity), which China’sboost the Yenching (like international postgraduate programs Academy of Peking Univer from V4, have well Baltic states as as joined the most Balkan prestigious Chinese Representatives taught English postgraduate Mandarin. and and programs, in both to differently(issuedfunded by training) CIs focused and onundergraduate language have been issued to students from from the region, Confucius ranging scholarships fortravel to China the youth. DifferenttypesChinese of governmentscholarships building a of power the future. in foreign rising with influencers and politicians who is believedit holdwill positions Beijing’s to further also is of China of Committeethe International the Central Department the of Communist Party Moreover, some company-specific the of projects part as being wereframed camps, but no proactive involvement cooperation place. taken or has active institutional Estonia). for (lower during the courseduring of several years”, numbers have similar and been found for Lithuania Even though the year 2019 One of the most prominent of cooperation aspects which contributed has to Given that the rather suspicious of it programs, both rather is character striking in the Baltic states, Latvia reported “around 250 the Baltic states, Latvia in 227 through which through Beijing promotes its to perspective seeks and foster ties with In Lithuania, information about Lithuania, In through the events been disseminated has

more to positive opportunities increase in CEE an is in of image China 229 Baltic representatives Baltic Bridge in for have part taken the Future 226 softpower as a image thean andof country

was declared thewas China-CEECs Education and Youth long-term friendly ties interests by maintaining 228 Theinterest participation in seems generally

new generation of China-minded indi 225 China-friendly cohort from different different from cohort China-friendly One of the most prominent of goals Latvian students studying in China China in students studying Latvian behavior. line this While coverage CEE. in place offering ņ a a - - -

Empty shell no more: China’s growing footprint in Central and Eastern Europe 66 Empty shell no more: China’s growing footprint in Central and Eastern Europe might seem rather marginal, yet its importance has risen in light of in risen yet China’s has its importance might seem rather marginal, of under the CEE contacts China and between the 17+1part nificant part theof previouspart nificant 17+1 respective foreign countries. foreign respective a eventkind: an at nurturing aimed seems toinitiative follow logic the same other as China-initiated of programs this mit. However, participants “the the mention that stated and vague extremely was in the construction of facilities”. the construction sport in practices managementbest welling exploring in possibilities as as of cooperation short long and camps, seminars, of exchanges term coaches, training “joint shar as Budapest Guidelines some listed areas specific of cooperation to be established,such welcome cooperation and exchanges the field in sports”.of the 2015in tion for the Winter Olympic 2022. Sports cooperation in Games mentioned first was ofmiracle its reform up opening and policy”, the official as brochure indicates. Young understand and China’s to learn Leaders treasure the contextin of the program’s questions raises aboutthe meeting the motivations behind such a to relevant recipients Slovenia in setup of Croatia. and Theunusual organizational sityand invitations of Graz throughwere distributed academic and businesscircles politics, society. the media civil and government,the Austrian which identified young leadersfrom academia, business, YoungEU Leaders’ September in to Visit China 2019 Program CEECs”. youths between understanding Centre, and of “enhance which mutual China will decided wouldwas Albania that establish the China–CEECs Youth Development Huawei’s to students the from best technological universities worldwide by sending them to introduction culture and well an as as to the Chinese language training technical its global Seeds for at providing aimed initiative CEE –an in program both the Future to the Chinese state. Huawei It worth noting that links also actively is has promoted the youth EU-wide the well growing as as controversies Huawei surrounding its and of the youthskills CEE countries” in “toimprove contributionOne aims social Thousand Dreams that the digital program the sidelines of the Dubrovnik Summit (2019), Huawei announced the launch of the 17+1 time that sports cooperation sports should that time be centered The around sports. winter topic was the potential tothe potential be promotedguidelines CEECs.stated in also The same for the first in the V4 Baltic and in outcome initiative, but traction of not there this grounds it are gain to assume will 2022 THE BEFORE CHINA FOR SUPPORT SPORTS? COLLECTIVE Apart from academic, cultural and youth and from academic, cooperation,Apart another constitute cultural sports As far as the Balkan states are concerned, are states youth the Balkan as cooperation far As not had been a

framework. 231 headquarters in Shenzhen headquarters in for all-expenses-paid an trip. Slovenia members Croatia EU and and Belt as the first in Road participated Medium-Term Agenda for Cooperation the issuedSuzhou during sum For example, during the China-CEE Economic and Trade Forum on on Forum Trade and Economic China-CEE the during For example, countries due both to the relatively literacy among digital high official motivations,assumption“EU that as the such 232 summits. However,summits. at it the Dubrovnik summit, China-friendly cohort among youth elites from The visit was organized theby thevisit TheCI was at organized Univer 230 235 –it too is early to provide a Martial arts were mentioned also arts having as Martial splendid the and culture 234 framework. Theissue in collaborationin with Two years later, the move, especially prognosis of the OLYMPICS prepara 233 The The sig - - - - - negotiated in part also during the 17+1 during also negotiated part in Super League the football player Pavel Nedvěd the replaced face as of the Chinese David Beckham owner the state-owned took CITIC overbankrupt, later and on the asset sold it to a distinguish between bilateral cooperation, between the 17+1distinguish memorandum no bears mention of it to the hard framework making such, as yet again of Sport of Scienceand Administration the and theGeneral PRC of Latvia gineering. officialin 17+1 such. as about interest Prague Slavia any in special than of investor CEFCan as improving and proving CEFC’s the trustworthiness broader motives (e.g. access further to morethestrategic sectors in market,Czech about connections personal people between involved the investment in their and the European in market). expansion ucts, more it of was the case Prague, Slavia In invests foreign in clubs sports for specific reasons (e.g. theirmarketing of prodown which (orin China rather Chinese individuals or enterprises, state-owned) also who the Czech served as also president’s company invested at the time that heavily Czechia. CEFC’s in of newinstead formats. creating multilateral cooperationlateral respective between at the levels, organizations and local national cooperation evident. was However, simultaneously, bi on was enhancing the stress Guidelines. of the case the in latter, Especially the focus on Winter Olympics-related subsequently the 2018 in raised in luge, bobsleigh and skeleton, and bobsleigh luge, in Winter Olympics, the Chinese side interest Latvia’s expressed an in has na-CEECs including meetings, Summit (2016). at the Riga Given the upcoming Beijing Chinese Ice Hockey Association. been Huawei advertising also to products cooperate the Czechia) in with started ment followed Czechia, in by a a initiated has allegations. This football club 2015 in saved was from bankruptcy becomeinvestment also has a jointamong efforts actorsinvolved. a at theso level far 17 of all CEE countries,in it no seems that large-scale events or projects have been organized mention the establishment of the China-CEECs Coordination for Mechanism Sports Baltic coaches such players and sports in China in have careers their been pursuing of the official scope of the 17+1 However, investmentof the type exemplifiedfalls outside case Prague by theSlavia the Beijingthe 2022 to the preferred level of political interaction economic and Beijing. with exchange under presidentCzech publicpolarizing further and Zeman opinion when it comes tool coordinating for rather than communicating bilateral needs expectations and None of been mentioned the has Baltic states relation in to cooperation sports in As with many other many issues connected with the V4As in to China Sinobo. Czech have sportsmen worked also ambassadors China: in sports as 243 An MoU on Sports Cooperation between the Ministry of MoU Education An on Cooperation Sports the Ministry between 239 documents, however, the topic come has up on the agenda of Chi , while sporting veteran former and , while Jaromír (who Jágr sporting superstar has Winter Olympic Hockey Games Tournament.

states. Yet it the 17+1 seems that again, public debate Prague’s reassessing framework. it Instead, points towards a topic of controversy, when as Czech Prague Slavia 242 period of uncertainty period of CEFC-relatedforall uncertainty invest Sofia theGuidelinesin as as 2019 well 240 both in regard to athlete training and track en track and regard to in both athlete training The latter has also agreedalso to become Thehas latter the face of events 2018, signed and in but of the the text advisor, under China in unclear detained was 236 Although the Dubrovnik Guidelines Guidelines Dubrovnik the Although by CEFC Europe, a format BRI. and Moreover, several 238 When CEFC itself went chairman Ye Jianming, region, sports-related sports-related region, 241

framework serves as

pro-Beijing policy Chinese private private Chinese larger trendlarger Dubrovnik Dubrovnik experience experience 244 was was new PR), PR), 237 - - - - -

Empty shell no more: China’s growing footprint in Central and Eastern Europe 68 Empty shell no more: China’s growing footprint in Central and Eastern Europe TCM organizations from Hungary, Poland, Romania, Czechia, Latvia and Slovenia. and Latvia Czechia, Romania, Poland, Hungary, from organizations TCM (WHO) rules should rules (WHO) be applied. the absence in that of domestic stating usually World regulations, Organization Health of TCM V4 in typehas enabledbeen of TCM situation services. This that the duepractice to the fact down, while the hospital decided to create a CEFC’s sponsored TCM the first center at a the Czechin Republic to been the previously linked has mentioned CEFC, which been a has been either treated as has a been there a legally recognized as has established most was probably in The institution Hungary because since 2015 Traditional Chinese Medicine up set Budapest in was 2017, March in including local heritage. and When itculture comes to V4 Despite the Chinese side that, keeps of promoting China’s TCM part as practices Europe. health in of mainstream at the margin TCM remains constraints, Medical University)(Universityand onein Hungary of Pecs). However, due to legal preoccupied are institutions the promotion with of TCM: one Slovakia in (Slovak the official agenda of the 17+1 guidelines. intotraditions the framework; however, not has yet been this incorporated the in Serbia, April 2019. in Slovenia reportedly planned has to include its ski-jumping 2018 August Events have place that taken include the 4th Dance Summer held Camp Croatia in in sports-related cooperation andthe region the 17+1 China between within PRC. the in minority 2019late country the in controversies equipmentChinese surveillance production sparked has Hangzhou Hikvision giant the Sūduva state-owned football club Marijampole, in the and partially Lithuania, have the Baltics in place.by taken China However, a nobear relation to the political initiatives. of As 2019, no acquisitions clubs of sports basketball, footballas ice and hockey. was held in Prague in June in heldwas 2015 Prague in sides. on all China-CEECs’Ministers’ Thefirst bers of administrations Health Forum people cooperation, not the cooperation as among governments, it as includes mem been categorized has people- as Chinese their and counterparts ministries health CHINESE MEDICINE AS AN EXPORT COMMODITY CASE TRADITIONAL OF NATURAL REMEDY? CURIOUS THE As for the Balkan states, dance and winter sports seem to states, be dance thewinter and sports only forAs elements the Balkan of Interestingly, according to the official 17+1 The promotion of beenTraditional Chinese has quite high (TCM) Medicine on

financial problemsfinancial and Ye Jianming’s

for detention its role mass and of the surveillance in the Uighur ethnic debate the parliament in about promoting TCM

and the annual meeting of held meeting the Dance Alliance Belgrade, Culture and the annual in countries has remained largely unregulated, with local organizations organizations local with largely remained countries unregulated, has 247 246 paramedical or a paramedical , as the company, as been by blacklisted has the US since 250 framework. mentioned As before, CI-related two and itsand outcomes included Declaration the Prague 245 hospital Hradec in Králové. However, due to medical practice. other In V4 This type of cooperation, This however, seems to countries, China-CEECs Association of detention the center closed China, in was special fund in fund orderspecial to keep providing documents, cooperation between local local documents, cooperation between therapeutic activity.there In Czechia, sponsorship contract between between contract sponsorship 249 . The promotion of TCM

countries, TCM TCM countries, framework. framework. traditional TCM TCM to- 248 -

infectious disease monitoring. the disease infectious second During China-CEECs’ Ministers’ Health upon issues including increased need an to develop communication, e.g. related to and multilateral events multilateral and agreements were in signed resulting between organized, fromDelegations the region of vice-versa. and visited journalists China Bilateral acquired media. into Czech media outlets resulted exclusively in the positive in on China reporting related the V4 in to China effective, seems very theas strategy project ChinfluenCE,which mapped reporting cooperationmedia, PR local companies with or media outlets investing in publishingto China, sponsored or even articles placing whole supplements to local side include placing ambassadors’ op-eds to journalists media outlets, local inviting Europe. Eastern and Methods applied Central in itsmoting image by the Chinese undoubtedlyChinese embassy) has action, China been increasingly active pro in 17+1 work. fewTCM the past years, in while Chinese medical professionals would monitor their center who would by to have Serbian practice be managed specialists been trained a equipment hospital equipping the rooms. theand military Following the of visit Hospital Centre) Serbia in by the end of 2019, the Chinese side with donating the of medicine cooperation, a Slovenia Serbia and sessions for promotional and training 2016. in purposes terms In Forum Ministers’ Health held June in was Budapest, in 2017. Hungary China- of Cooperation, Health the China-CEECs’ Hospital the and Cooperation Alliance announced the establishment of the China-CEECs’ Association on the Promotion Forum held Suzhou in 2016, in issued the Suzhou China Joint Communiqu development. and cooperation health on International Conference on Traditional Chinese Medicine in 2019. in Medicine Chinese Traditional on Conference International which held was Serbia in October in 2018, while the Qigong Health Team visited operation. One of the few eventsQigongChina-CEECs the first was Health Forum, region’s the one investments lifestudents sciences, in in –drawing Chinese study to attracting interest cooperation health China-CEE in for economic an is, the yet Baltics again, of methods and the of registration ing TCM pharmaceuticals treatment. Themain forcedriving of regard cooperation China-CEE persist limitations TCM. in Legal mentionedwas the Sofia in Guidelines (2018), nonethe thebeen has statesof Baltic TELLING THE CHINA STORY CHINA THE TELLING ESTATE FOURTH THE A AND medical delegation of the People’s 2017 itdissect difficult is to While whether cooperation media isa Although Lithuania’s Similarly, there have been few very the Balkans in developments co health - in

framework or a 252 CEECs’ Public Cooperation Health China-CEECs’third The Mechanism. Bulgaria also hosts several TCM also centers, Bulgaria while hosted Romania the First

was officiallywas branded as theChina-CEECsYear of Cooperation. Media medical schools, medical and promotion. tourism 255 specific bilateral or evenunilateral from(coming the local

“exploration in the field of traditional Chinese medicine” medicine” Chinese traditional of field the in “exploration region, discoveredinvestmentthat Chinese findings with TCM Center was planned to open at the VMA (Military TCM Center (Military planned to open was at the VMA NEW GLOBAL POWER: Liberation Army,thethat confirmed it new was 251 The was broadanddeclaration touched

253 result of the 254 . The last . Thelast e , and - - 69

Empty shell no more: China’s growing footprint in Central and Eastern Europe 70 Empty shell no more: China’s growing footprint in Central and Eastern Europe for statements the Chinese ambassador. interviews with and However, recently the issues in Bosnia and Herzegovina and Bosnia issues in covered are (including economics, politics, culture sy’s Herzegovina out due of the area stand in journalism, to the Sarajevo Chinese Embas several Chinese correspondentsstates, with and covering Bosnia the regional affairs. world”. the around activities foreigntheir but for counterparts” also coverage of “China’s a the region, Baltic editions separate each state, including in with a of Latvia. the Chinese in Embassy which published a due to of allegations corruption) on well as as the online news platform Delfi.lv, Lembergs, whose were assets recently blocked the US in under the Magnitsky Act Avīze Rīta (a Neatkarīgā as op-eds and byexample, Chinese officials have paid inserts in such media appeared seems problematic,tic states of several cases cooperation have been recorded. For precise or media-related bilateral multilateral the Bal in China agreements with including to Tibet, China, ists were 2017 in organized edition on China Chinese cooperated Embassy a with now). marginal rather Spring of the Prague 1968, during paper used to however, be famous particularly it is nation-wide Právo, daily other supplements Noviny Literární (the in occurred news supplement.” commercial a in of establishing diplomaticanniversary Beijing ties between published Prague, and 70th the promoting supplement long eight-page an sponsored Embassy Chinese the Rzeczpospolita. daily appeared the Polish in also has of most media, China notably a in by the PRC representatives well sponsored as as content related to the promotion a Service, Information Economic Television and Radio Chengdu and conglomerates, well radio stations, as as including stations Hubei TV Media Group signedowned a broadcaster TVP broadcasterslocal For and their Chinese counterparts. example, the Polish state- clusion the supplement that of the paper. reporting the usual was content attributedthe was daily’sto and a and sador on the Hong Kong protests in the form of an advertorial. an of form the in protests Kong Hong the on sador (PAP) Poland-Asia and Studies Center (CSPA) have agreement China signed an with relations the cities Chengdu. between and of Łódź Moreover, Polish Agency Press a of guage news the outlets region.guage allows in This twofor activities: for Beijing to reach

broader audience, “not only high-profile Chinese between leadersandsummits

As far as the Balkans are concerned, are Beijing the Balkans as established far has As several foreign lan Event-specific cooperationalso beenmedia recordedhas thein region. In Czechia, In the Baltics,noIn high-level media-related event place. taken has Trips of journal sponsorship of a of sponsorship documentary about the importance of the BRI for Sino-Polish connectivity and and connectivity Sino-Polish for BRI the of importance the about documentary nation-wide daily, Právo. The sectionwas obscurelylabeled as a

disinformation outlet Správy have Hlavné the medium been used as of choice 262 piece by Shen Xiaokai, the Economic and Commercial Counselor Counselor Commercial and Economic the Xiaokai, Shen by piece , and the, and weekly published also op-ed of an the Chinese ambas

website “Kina-danas” (“China Daily”) 261 In Slovakia, the marginal leftist internet portal Nové Slovo Slovo Nové portal internet leftist marginal the Slovakia, In 259 The coverageexclusively was positive, the while whole newspaper of oligarch Aivars the controversial Latvian 265 Xinhua News present Agency Xinhua also is the Balkan in

body affiliated with Xinhua News Agency.with body affiliated number of Chinese local media agreements with 264 257 mainstream business weekly,mainstream Trend, on a Thelatter platform isa reporters, possibly leading readers to the con . Theagreementlatter included co-production and 2019.and Although tracking 266 , in which, in China-related strong media player in more under-reported under-reported more 263 version in Russian. version Russian. in 260 popular centrist centrist popular Apart from the Apart “theme and and “theme 258

Op-eds Op-eds special special 256 ------

of societal dynamics in the region. in of dynamics on societal Overcoming the side these asymmetries of CEE a has forward. CEE and actors China carried is between der of to understanding and achieve how cooperation greater societal transparency itself a is in presentany attitude towards uncritical an form of cooperationwith Beijing, which example the non-governmental in sector, the media academia) and who seem to a forward in to be carried media coverage. A CEEand countries have under-reported remained closeand to non-existent local in populacelocal needs yetresearched. to be further impact thetheseofon perception initiatives’ specificdata, among actual the of China motivated, implementedlitically programs exchange the region. in Given the absence Chinese government scholarships issued to CEE students other, and - po seemingly countries. Youth cooperation been increased on numbers also with the rise, has of effects on academicfreedom, numbers Confuciusof have Institutes in CEE increased Despiteculture. international concerns growing related to deteriorating potential their regional when landscape, especially it comes to the promotion and of Chinese language yield tangible can results relativelyBoth seem and easily to have visibly the changed ground. the on implications its and cooperation to be borne has framework any when specific mind in aspect analyzing for societal people-to-peopleratus, Chinese government-to-people means actually This CEE. in of its regime the and level of penetration of Chinese society theby party-state appa a consider it a state. Chinese the from funding a It established was long before the of media era it and social seems to be working as its audience So far, seems to unknown. reach and have CRI remain outreach. limited Czech, Croatian, Polish, Greek, Serbian), and Hungarian, Bulgarian, Romanian yet outlets (such languages. local Xinhua) in as written orby eds authors)local articles but copythe contentfrom Chinese official BRI news. and enhance”) These outlets do includenot content original as (suchop- Greece”,visiting cooperationwants SerbiaMinister between and “The Huawei to to the 17+1 sports).and They thereport on news from also butcoming on China, news related CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS PEOPLE-TO-PEOPLE’S rather outdated tool oflargely soft becausepower exists it that receives continued soft/normativepower projectionin given core.its thethe nature case In of China, Most of the events related level to the societal of cooperation China between Regardless of the actor the performing people-to-people exchange, scholars (Albanian, languages local nine in airs Radio International (CRI) also China Because of the asymmetries in size, resources in Because of free and the access asymmetries to information, China Education seem to be the success culture and stories of cooperation. China-CEE considerable advantage over CEE when states it understanding comes to gaining framework which connected (e.g. also is to China headlines “Xi such as problem. More independent, fact-based media coverage needed is or in non-neutral form of international cooperation –the form involves that few, scarce sourcesthat some suggest forms of cooperation seem REPUBLIC RELATIONS: rather non-transparent manner, targeting individuals (for individuals targeting manner, non-transparent rather

- - 71

Empty shell no more: China’s growing footprint in Central and Eastern Europe 72 Empty shell no more: China’s growing footprint in Central and Eastern Europe nationals and their presence their and nationals the region. in public between be drawn criticism of government or party-ledand Chinese activities order In tourists. and to avoid of the rise Sinophobia divisions clear CEE, should in students into the attitudes towards racist diaspora, Chinese turning towards China a level field playing for cooperationactorsall involved. between in integritycreating terms of well maintaining as as be on transparency achieving The threats. forms potential of with focus cooperationshouldall societal China with issues. these towards strategy a coherent oneis of the problems prevents that communityfrom the widercreating expert region or sector-based –China-oriented communication and platforms. of Lack trust Europe (CHOICE) work can example other inspire of an – as practice best can and Chinese actorswith outside of the PRC.andEastern TheObserversCentral in China to governing democratic level threats the societal potential standards of cooperation from the rest of ofcounterparts Europe the world other and parts order in to detect actors knowledge producing disseminating and about Chineseandculture. society andfucius other Institutes PRC-related becomeinstitutions the influential most the field researching is institutions neededin order to avoid a EU, state, or regional level)support private well as as for financial academiclocal the PRC. in politicalthe current climate unsolved an countries of prospects limited remains improvement, issue with given China watchers from CEE should exchange knowledge and experience with their their with experience and knowledge exchange should CEE from watchers China CEE countries should be aware of a associated the with risks someWhile recommended, is degree of not vigilance to equate crucial it remains Given the relative lack ofin CEE, more funding studies for public China (onthe situation where Con where situation

growing skepticism skepticism growing - Authors tries fortries 20 years. almost who Estonia counin been working other and has Asian China with Liisi Karindi at Association for (AMO), International Affairs Czechia. Europenator Eastern (CHOICE) and Observers of Central China in Political Excellence, Serbia. Serbia. Excellence, Political Ágnes Szunomár Relations, Faculty Sciences,of Social University of Ljubljana, Slovenia. Pejić Nina for the Study of the Asia-Pacific(RISAP). Leonte Andreea Ivana Karásková of International Affairs. Institute Silk Road at the program Latvian UniversityStradins Center Studies China andthe Head theof New Aleksandra Bērziņa-Čerenkova Una Academy of Sciences’ Graduate School for Research Social (GSSR). Universityin Warsaw, Poland. a also Sheis Alicja Bachulska Studies International and Politics at University, Vilnius Lithuania. Konstantinas Andrijauskas Stefan Vladisavljev Stefan (AMO),International Affairs Czechia. Europe Eastern (CHOICE) and Central servers in at Association for Filip Šebok Hungary. Budapest, Studies, Regional and Economic for Development Economics of World at the Institute Economics, Center is a is is a is

is a is Research Fellow Project Ob and of Manager China business developer and government advisor located located advisor government and developer business Young Researcher at the Center of International is a is is a is , Ph.D., a is , Ph.D., the Head is of the Research Group on China analyst at Asia Research at Asia Center, analyst China War Studies China Studies FellowChina Institute at the Romanian is a is Program CoordinatorProgram at Belgrade Fund for , Ph.D., Associate Professor an is of Asian Research Fellow, Founder and Coordi Fellow, and Founder Research , Ph.D., the Head is of Riga Ph.D. candidate at the Polish - - - 73

Empty shell no more: China’s growing footprint in Central and Eastern Europe

Prague-based foreign policy think tank and NGO. and foreign tank a Prague-based policy think assessment. CHOICE by the Association for run is (AMO), International Affairs a build Europe which the China-proposed in participate 17+1 influenceing theof People’s Europe (CHOICE) collaborative platform. CHOICE monitors evaluates and the ris Theand publicationEastern theObserversCentral in China within was prepared About CHOICE FOLLOW US! @ ChinaObservers and #ChinaObservers @ ChinaObservers www.twitter.com/ www.facebook.com/ www.chinaobservers.eu

multinational platformmultinational for open discussion, critical and experience-sharing chinaobservers ChinaObservers Republic countries Eastern and in of of China Central initiative. CHOICE to strives - 75

Empty shell no more: China’s growing footprint in Central and Eastern Europe

it supports an activeit approach an supports to foreign policy, provides independent an of analysis think-tank, which not is boundor toideology. any political party With activities, its The ResearchCenter theAssociationof isa forAffairs International → → → → → → → on international affairs with special special focus with on Czech onforeignpolicy. international affairs of goal the Researchmain Center systematic is observation, commentary and analysis public and politicalcurrent issues encourages and expert debate on related topics. The policy. foreign and relations international of establishedAMO has the Czech itself as leading independent the field in institution thein to Czech activities its Republicties. Thanks and abroadand 20-yeartradition, through a ofing international affairs founded 1997. in Themission AMO been has toof contribute to a Associationis a for International Affairs AMO About AMO RESEARCH CENTER RESEARCH AMO FOLLOW US! TO: STRIVES ITS GOALS TO AMO ACHIEVE ORDER IN

cooperate with like-minded international and with local institutions. cooperate public domain; wider in international in the interest relations support create vital conditions generation; for of growth expert anew internationaland press; events current local for on comments and critical assessments present projects; educational organize debates; arrange international conferences, seminars, expert roundtables, public formulate and publish briefing,research and policy papers; www.instagram.com/ www.youtube.com/ www.twitter.com/ www.facebook.com/ AMO_cz AMOcz AMO.cz AMO.cz broad of range educational research and activi non-governmental non-profit organization organization non-profit non-governmental deeper understand deeper leading Czech - - 77

Empty shell no more: China’s growing footprint in Central and Eastern Europe

2 1 Footnotes 13 12 11 6 5 4 3 10 9 and Wen on PM Jiabao’s speech based post ex such as repackaged only were measures 12 The 8 7

odstoupení z kodstoupení vládu vyzývají “Zelení UGxVAg7hnEn0gRbcIGlNndeJ9PyVPIzaU_384 eastern-europe-summits-idUSKCN1GO1PI?fbclid=IwAR08-JNiy-MGJk5b8jS1f_ article/us-china-easteurope-exclusive/exclusive-china-may-pare-back-divisive- https://www.reuters.com/ 2018, March Reuters, summits”, Europe eastern divisive‘ back‚ pare may China “Exclusive: Tsolova, and Tsvetelia Emmott Robin Barkin, Noah https://www.zeleni.cz/zeleni-vyzyvaji-vladu-k-odstoupeni-z-cinske-site-171/ https://thediplomat.com/2019/03/chinas-161-is-dead-long-live-the-171/ “China’s https://berlinpolicyjournal.com/divide-and-rule/ 2018, 2, March 161-equals-much-ado-about-nothing/ 2017, December 5, Asia, Reconnecting https://reconnectingasia.csis.org/analysis/entries/chinas- EPRS_BRI(2016)586608_EN.pdf 2016, https://www.europarl.europa.eu/RegData/etudes/BRIE/2016/586608/ July Briefing, Parliament European initiative,” integration regional (OBOR): Road One China‘s Belt, “One e.g. appear. 2019) may April in format the to accession Greece‘s 16+1 (before term the a Where Slovenia). and Slovakia, Serbia, Romania, Poland, Montenegro, Macedonia, Lithuania, Latvia, Hungary, Greece, Estonia, Czechia, Croatia, Bulgaria, Herzegovina, and Bosnia as Albania, 17+1 (encompassing the platform of name the uses publication The developments further worsening the situation (see bellow). (see situation the worsening further developments recent with Czechia, in politics domestic in controversial extremely been have ties Czech-China Rc8pYaJdljBOglRxgHa_Kif6GrC3D6r_LdX8eLJy4 archModelUUID=d9686725-4476-4ad6-be34-0263fd2bd2e0&fbclid=IwAR3I5P8mUQpU5Zmw1- lt/portal/legalAct/lt/TAP/62656bf0289a11ea8f0dfdc2b5879561?positionInSearchResults=0&se 27, https://e-seimas.lrs.2019, December portal, LRS santykių”, Kinijos ir Lietuvos dėl “Rezoliucija https://www.beltroad-initiative.com/projects/ initiative, Road and Belt Overview,” “Project 107. 2017), n. Visions Asie Relations, of International Institute French (Paris: Europe, Central in ‘MultilateralChina’s of Bilateralism’Assessment An the 16+1: of years Seven Szczudlik, Justyna 7, https://chinaobservers.eu/xi-for-li-swap-without-a-second-thought/ 2020, January Europe, Š Martin Strategy-for-the-Region-of-Central-and-Eastern-Europe-2.pdf https://chinaobservers.eu/wp-content/uploads/2019/06/BP07_Could-There-be-a-Common-China- 2019, (AMO), June Affairs for International Association (Prague: Europe? Eastern and of Central Region for the Strategy China Be aCommon There Could Karásková, Ivana and Josh Hickman Republic of China, September 12, 2018. 12, September the of China, Republic People‘s of of Affairs Foreign Ministry Future”, aShared with Community China-Africa Stronger Even an Declaration-Toward “Beijing theregion. to offer aChinese as presented 107, 2017), n. 9. Visions Asie Relations, of International Institute French (Paris: Europe, Central in ‘MultilateralChina’s of Bilateralism’Assessment the 16+1:An of years Seven Szczudlik, Justyna ‘16+1’ Is Dead? Long Live the ‘17+1’,” ‘16+1’ the Live Long Dead? Is 2019, 29, March Diplomat, The second thought?,” China Observers in Central and Eastern Eastern and Central in Observers thought?,” asecond China “Xi-for-Li without ebeňa, swap “16+1” Equals Much Ado About Nothing?,” Ado Much About “16+1” “China’s Equals Gaspers, ; Jan čínské sítě 17+1,” zeleni.cz, January 14, 2020, 2020, 14, January 17+1,” sítě čínské zeleni.cz, ; Jan Gaspers, “Divide and rule,” Berlin Policy Journal, Journal, Policy Berlin rule,” and “Divide Gaspers, ; Jan . ; author’s ; Slovak expert. aSlovak with interview . ; mentioned in Emilian Kavalski, Kavalski, Emilian in ; mentioned timeframe is observed, observed, is timeframe . . . . 79

Empty shell no more: China’s growing footprint in Central and Eastern Europe 80 Empty shell no more: China’s growing footprint in Central and Eastern Europe 30 29 21 19 28 23 22 20 18 27 26 25 24 17 16 15 14

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signing of Serbia-China Joint Statement on Establishment of Comprehensive Strategic Strategic of Comprehensive on Establishment Statement Joint of Serbia-China 2016 signing “The

http://www.knsrk.gov.rs/eng/a0090.php People’s the and Federation Russian the with of Cooperation for Coordination Council National relations,” of Sino-Serbian Nikoli by Presidents Partnership http://www.xinhuanet.com/english/2019-04/12/c_137969689.htm 2019, 12, April Xinhuanet, rain,” amid project Bridge Peljesac visit PMs Croatian “Chinese, in BRI Era,” Romanian Journal of International Affairs, Vol 18 (2018). Affairs, of International Journal Romanian Era,” BRI in Challenges Economic and Political Relations. “Romania-China Andreea, Brinza and Liliana Popescu s Slovenska spolupráce amožnosti Postavenie Turcsányi, Richard disengagement-from-china/ https://jamestown.org/program/the-161-initiative-and-polands- 2019, 15, February Brief, China Jamestown China,” from and Poland’s Disengagement “16+1” “The Initiative Sarek, Łukasz article/3045917/czech-president-skip-beijing-summit-over-china-investment 13, https://www.scmp.com/news/china/diplomacy/ 2020, January Post, Morning China South letdown’,” ‘investment over China summit Beijing skip to president “Czech Lau, Stuart Series, New 9(2015):1-32. – Vol. Governance European in Change and Continuity Factor,” – Europolity Ukrainian The Unexpected 16+1 Cooperation: CEE-China On Perspectives “Polish Tuszynski, Rafal http://www.ceec-china-logistics.org/en/ Platform, Information Cooperation Logistics on the Secretariat CEECs-China and-china-is-created-in-lithuania coordinators-under-the-17-1-cooperation-format-between-central-and-eastern-european-countries- 27, November https://finmin.lrv.lt/en/news/a-network-of-fintech- 2019, Lithuania,” in Created 17 the under “A Coordinators of Fintech Network of Lithuania, Republic of the of Finance Ministry https://www.echo-wall.eu/whose-line-it-anyway Association. Inter-Bank China-CEECs and Societies Medicine of Chinese Federation CEE Medicine, Chinese Traditional of Association China-CEECs Center, Coordination Tourism China-CEECs Institute, China-CEE 2016). CEIAS, (Bratislava: policies/ https://thediplomat.com/2019/07/which-countries-are-for-or-against-chinas-xinjiang- 2019, 15, July Policies?”, Diplomat, The Xinjiang China’s For Are or Against Countries “Which Putz, Catherine the-situation-in-the-south-china-sea 16,July 2016, https://www.kormany.hu/en/ministry-of-foreign-affairs-and-trade/news/statement-on- of Hungary, of Affairs Foreign Ministry Sea,” China South the in situation on the “Statement Latvia and Estonia,” Journal on Baltic Security, Security, on Baltic Vol. 4(2018): 25-37, 30. Journal Estonia,” and Latvia Lithuania, for dilemmas security and challenges strategic States: Baltic the and “China David, Scott, dalai-lama-525-368302 https://www.15min.lt/en/article/in-lithuania/lithuanian-president-holds-private-meeting-with- September 15 min, 2013, 11, Lama,” Dalai with meeting holds private president “Lithuanian https://domov.sme.sk/c/20376187/cinska-strana-zrusila-bilateralne-rokovanie-s-ficom.html “ https://chinaobservers.eu/a-diplomatic-incident-in-lithuania-troubles-its-relationship-with-china/ 17, (CHOICE), September 2019, Europe Eastern and Central in Observers China China”, ”A Andrijauskas, Konstantinas Č kos Keller-Alánt, “Whose Line is it anyway,” Echowall, August 8, 2019, 2019, 8, August it anyway,” Echowall, is Line “Whose Keller-Alánt, kos ína zrušila stretnutie, Fico pozval premiéra na Slovensko,” Sme, November 5, 2016, Slovensko,” na 5, Sme, November premiéra Fico pozval stretnutie, zrušila ína Cooperation Format between Central and Eastern European Countries and China is is China and Countries European Eastern and Central between Format +1Cooperation . . Republic of China, August 23, 2016, 23, August of China, Republic . Diplomatic Incident in Lithuania Troubles Its Relationship with with Troubles Relationship Its Lithuania in Incident Diplomatic strong development development strong for today‘s basis created Jinping Xi ć and . . . . . ínou v Čínou . rámci platformy 16+1, platformy rámci . . . 39 46 44 38 37 36 35 42 41 40 45 43 48 32 31 34 47 33

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politics-of-chinese-influence.pdf https://www.amo.cz/wp-content/uploads/2018/04/AMO_central-europe-for-sale-the- 2018), (AMO), Affairs for International Association 03/2018 Paper (Prague: Policy Influence, China‘s of The Politics Š Matej and Q. Turcsányi Richard Matura, Tamás Karásková, Ivana https://kuaibao.qq.com/s/20191119A0PQTL00?refer=spider 2019, 19, November http://www.xinhuanet.com/world/2015-10/26/c_128360067.htm chinese-influence.pdf https://www.amo.cz/wp-content/uploads/2018/04/AMO_central-europe-for-sale-the-politics-of- China‘s Š Matej and Q. Turcsányi Richard Matura, Tamás Karásková, Ivana at findings research ChinfluenCE previous see China, with of relations promotion lobby the involved in business and politics Czech the in actors main the about For information http://www.cpifa.org/article/content/view?id=599 “«Saska dialogue/ http://www.miniszterelnok.hu/viktor-orbans-speech-at-the-conference-china-cee-political-parties- 442e6079.html https://www.bis.cz/annual-reports/annual-report-of-the-security-information-service-for-2015- (BIS), Service Information for2015”, Security Service Information Security of the Report “Annual http://cz.china-embassy.org/chn/zjgx/t1622386.htm David Shambaugh, China and the world (New York: Oxford University Press, 2020), 99. 2020), York: worldPress, the (New and University Oxford China Shambaugh, David http://www.xinhuanet.com/world/2019-11/18/c_1125246661.htm https://www.respekt.cz/tydenik/2020/2/pan-sung-laka-babise 2020, 5, January Respekt, Babiše,” láká Sung “Pan Kundra, Ondřej http://www.gov.cn/xinwen/2016-10/07/content_5115689.htm lv/raksts/zinas/latvija/saskana-nelauzis-ligumu-ar-kinas-komunistisko-partiju.a253381/ https://sc.bns.lt/view/item/307679 2019, 31, BNS, May rinkoje,” Kinijos galimybių ieško verslas Lietuvos kancleris: “Vyriausybės 2013), York:Press, (New University 177. Oxford Power Partial The Global: Goes China Shambaugh, David e.g. See country. the outside and within both parties political other with contacts forCCP’s designed initially Front The was workUnited stories/sr/story/9/politika/3724983/brnabic-si-potvrdio-da-ponovo-dolazi-u-srbiju.html http://www.rts.rs/page/ 2019, uSrbiju,” 4, November ponovo RTS, dolazi da Si potvrdio “Brnabic: https://www.ft.com/content/d3d56d20-5a8d-11e9-9dde-7aedca0a081a 10, 2019, April Times, Financial ruin,” to it on road put will highway China-backed fears “Montenegro Valerie Kynge Hopkins, and James debt-trap. e.g. See a is Montenegro 2019 Huo Yuzhenfor the at 17+1Ambassador cooperation Chinese by articulated example, for was, This 中联部“搭台”，八省市向中东欧多国执政党代表发出合作邀请函 Daily, Metropolis ”, Southern 中国同捷克的关系中国与中东欧执政党圆桌会在京举行中东欧政党及智库代表盛赞“一带一路”推动互利共赢发展捷克友好人士代表团访华第二届中国与中东欧青年政治家论坛即将召开聚焦共建“一带一路 17+1 ņ (Prague: Association for International Affairs 2018), (AMO), Affairs for International Association 03/2018 Paper (Prague: Policy Influence, a» nelauzīs līgumu ar Ķīnas Komunistisko partiju,” LSM, October 11, 2017, 11, https://www.lsm. October LSM, partiju,” Komunistisko Ķīnas ar līgumu nelauzīs a» . think tanks symposium in Bled, Slovenia. Bled, in symposium tanks think speech at the conference “China-CEE Political Parties Dialogue”, October 6, 2016, 6, October Dialogue”, Parties Political “China-CEE conference the at speech . potential to fall into the the into fall to and apotential loan Chinese repay to problems to due its case specific ,” China’s ,” . ”, Chinese people’s ”, Chinese Embassy in Czechia, Czechia, in Embassy . . ”, Xinhua, November 18, 2019, 2019, 18, November ”, Xinhua, institute of foreign affairs, September 4, 2019, 2019, 4, September affairs, of foreign institute imalčík, Central Europe for Sale: The Politics of The forPolitics Sale: Europe Central imalčík, . . ”, Xinhua, October 7, 2016, October ”, Xinhua, . . . . ””, Xinhua, October 26, 2015, 2015, 26, October ””, Xinhua, imalčík, Central Europe for Sale: for Sale: Europe Central imalčík, . . . . 81

Empty shell no more: China’s growing footprint in Central and Eastern Europe 82 Empty shell no more: China’s growing footprint in Central and Eastern Europe 67 54 52 55 63 62 66 65 64 50 53 51 61 60 59 56 49 58 57

Biography, CIRSD Official Website, Website, Official Biography, Wei‘s CIRSD Li

Ibid.

227–242. Volume 17 Journal, (2019): Europe Poland,” Asia in region Lodzkie of the study level? Case national sub- the on cooperation EU-China successful the behind factors the are “What Tomasz Kamiński, sign-framework-agreement-on-economic-technological-infrastructure-cooperation.php https://www.srbija.gov.rs/vest/en/58295/serbia-china- 2009, 21, August Serbia, of Government The cooperation,” infrastructure technological on economic, agreement framework sign China “Serbia, News, June 21, 2017, 21, June News, http://english.hanban.org/article/2017-06/21/content_690904.htm Hanban Belgrade,” in Held Cooperation on China-Serbia Forum Road” International and “Belt “First https://www.b92.net/eng/news/politics.php?yyyy=2018&mm=10&dd=16&nav_id=105305 16, 2018, October B92, projects,” infrastructure in leader European be can “Serbia https://www.cirsd.org/en/leadership/board/he-mr-li-wei https://apnews.com/95ec4896aa284a189a5234f14883b884 2018, 28, November News, AP businessman,” Kong Hong indicted backs president UN “Former Mustian, Jan University, 2016), https://is.muni.cz/th/c79an/Bakalarska_prace.pdf 2016), University, Č vůči krajů českých “Paradiplomacie Hořínková, Michaela inicijative-pojas-i-put_1047325.html http://rtv.rs/sr_lat/ekonomija/aktuelno/djokovic-kina-i-srbija-postaju-lokomotiva-razvoja- 2019, iput“,” 11, RTV, „Pojas September Inicijative razvoja lokomotiva iSrbija postaju Kina “Đokovi: partnership-with-Taiwan https://asia.nikkei.com/Politics/International-relations/Shanghai-breaks-with-Prague-over- 2020, 15, January Nikkei, Taiwan,” with over partnership Prague with breaks “Shanghai Fang, Alex cina_1910102246_pj Č Č “Zeman: china-eastern-seskrtaji-linku-do-sanghaje-1366212 https://www.e15.cz/byznys/doprava-a-logistika/dalsi-cinske-aerolinky-rusi-lety-do-prahy- 2020, 23, doŠ linku seškrtají Eastern Prahy.China do lety ruší aerolinky čínské “Další China. and Czechia between flights direct twelve were there backlash, the Before http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/business/2015-05/15/content_20729317.htm 2015, 15, May Daily, China Europe,” Eastern Central, with ties deepen to seeks “Ningbo Xiaofeng, Shi summoned-lithuania-over-deplorable https://www.scmp.com/news/hong-kong/politics/article/3025417/chinese-ambassador- 2019, 2, September Post, Morning China South for protesters,” Kong Hong show of support Vilnius’ during by officials behaviour’ over ‘deplorable Lithuania in summoned ambassador “Chinese Lum, Alvin China Relations (Warsaw: Polish Institute of International Affairs, 2019). Affairs, of International Institute Polish (Warsaw: Relations China EU- of Dimension The Sub-national and Kaminski, Tomasz Szczudlik Justyna Skorupska, Adriana York: (New 2018), Mendes 135-152. World Routledge, Carmen Order, ed. Emerging An Road. Silk New China’s in Road,” the Silk New in Governments Local Role of “The Mierzejewski, Dominik 12/17/c_138638352.htm December 17, http://www.xinhuanet.com/english/2019- 2019, leader,”Xinhua, party Serbian says reputation, China‘s undermine to in Kong Hong over fire“ oil US „pouring “Interview: European Market, Volume Market, 3(2019). European “ Xu Gang, eský rozhlas, October 10, 2019, https://www.irozhlas.cz/zpravy-domov/milos-zeman-praha-slavie- 10, 2019, October rozhlas, eský ína na postup Prahy reaguje odvetnými opatřeními. Má být zastaveno financování Slavie,” Slavie,” financování zastaveno být Má opatřeními. odvetnými reaguje Prahy postup na ína 中国与中东欧国家地方合作: 历程、现状与政策建议 ...... íně” (Bachelor’s íně” ,” Russian Central Asian & East &East Asian Central ,” Russian . . thesis, Masaryk Masaryk thesis, . anghaje”, E15, January January E15, anghaje”, . . . 84 77 76 74 73 83 82 81 79 78 75 72 71 70 69 80 68

Ibid.

romanias-position-on-chinese-investments/ https://jamestown.org/program/not-really-probing-the-east- 2019, 19, September Brief, China Jamestown Investments,” Chinese on Position Romania’s East: the Probing Really “Not Ciurtin, Horia https://apnews.com/d6639cadbde74b6d8bf2acc0e86c4550 2019, 12, February News, AP meddling,” Russian and on Chinese Europe Eastern warns Lee,Pompeo “Mathew (mid-2017). far thus Trump by Donald visited been have to country CEE only the as regard this in out stands particularly Poland ed. Andrea Elteto (Budapest: Institute of World Economics, CERS, 2018), of World 112-145. CERS, Economics, Institute (Budapest: Elteto Andrea ed. regions, Visegrád and Baltic Iberian, the in factors influencing Export in crisis,” the after tendencies and characteristics regions: peripheral of the services and of goods trade „Foreign Elteto, Andrea treated with reservations. thus be to have and of Statistics Bureau National of China’s dataset the via obtained were Balkans the on Data countries). V4 i.e. (where applicable, Baltic on data OECD the relies and investments direct on foreign focusing chapter the while database, Comtrade UN on the draw relations on trade Data increasing/ and-pompeo-in-a-joint-statement-the-bilateral-cooperation-of-the-united-states-and-estonia-is- https://washington.mfa.ee/reinsalu- 2019, 9, October U.S., the in of Estonia Embassy increasing,” is Estonia and States United of the cooperation bilateral the statement: ajoint Pompeo in and “Reinsalu http://thesrpskatimes.com/chinese-will-build-three-hydro-power-plants-and-pipe-factory/ 2019, 4, December Factory,” Times, Pipe The and Srpska Power Hydro Plants three build will “Chinese president-meets-with-delegation-of-chinese-city-of-tianjin/ 2019, 19, December of Serbia, President the Office of The City of Tianjin,” of Chinese Delegation with Meets President of Srpska “Republic Contemporary China, Volume 674-687. 113 (2018): 27, China, Issue Contemporary of Journal of 16+1 Cooperation,” Power:Case The Symbolic and China “Global Vangeli, Anastas Letter-of-Intent-for-Cooperation-between-Vojvodina-and-Chinese-Province-of-Hainan 2016, http://en.region.vojvodina.gov.rs/News/ 24, October of Vojvodina, of Province Autonomous Government Hainan,” of Province Chinese and Vojvodina between Cooperation Intent for of “Letter eu-china-summit-for-germanys-2020-presidency-sources-idUSKCN1P81P1 https://www.reuters.com/article/us-eu-china-germany/merkel-planning- 2019, 14, January Reuters, 2020 for Germany’s summit EU-China planning “Merkel Rinke, Andreas http://195.182.83.198/lt/naujienos/archive/p140/rokiskyje-daug-zadantis-suhg.html 2019, 16, October Rokiskis, vizitas,” kinų žadantis daug – “Rokiškyje saites-medicinas-joma https://www.daugavpils.lv/pilseta/par-daugavpili/pilsetas-zinas/daugavpils-un-harbina-stiprina- 16, 2019, October Daugavpils, jomā,” medicīnas saites stiprina Harbina un “Daugavpils 2019). Affairs, of International Institute Polish (Warsaw: Relations China EU- of Dimension The Sub-national and Kamiński, Tomasz Szczudlik Justyna Skorupska, Adriana misguided-discourse-on-chinese-influence-in-central-europe/ https://chinaobservers.eu/the- 2018, 4, (CHOICE), October Europe Eastern and Central in Observers China Europe,” Central in influence Chinese on discourse misguided “The Matura, Tamás and-china-in-central-europe-1.3790250 https://www.irishtimes.com/news/world/europe/us-pledges-to-face-down-russia- 2019. 11, February Times, Irish Europe,” central in China and Russia down face to pledges “US McLaughlin, Daniel . . . http://www.predsjednikrs.net/en/republic-of-srpska- . . . . presidency: sources,” sources,” presidency: . . . . 83

Empty shell no more: China’s growing footprint in Central and Eastern Europe 84 Empty shell no more: China’s growing footprint in Central and Eastern Europe 93 98 97 96 94 92 91 90 89 88 95 87 86 85 100 99 Ibid.

n 2017 In

and 2015, these engineering materials accounted for 80-90%. accounted materials engineering these 2015, and 2014 In

between-huawei-and-wanhua-in-hungary-2/ 16, 2016, https://www.obserwatorfinansowy.pl/in-english/business/strategic-cooperation- August Observer, Financial Hungary,” in Wanhua and Huawei between cooperation „Strategic Braun, Gabor Law. Dacheng and Firm Law Yingke as such firms, law Chinese largest the some of offices of as well as region the in established been have of China Bank Commercial and Industrial and of China of Bank branches For example https://www.verslilietuva.lt/wp-content/uploads/2018/10/2018.09.11_China_EN.pdf 2019, 10 December, accessed Lithuania, Trade Review,” Enterprise Bilateral “Lithuania-China http://www.sloveniatimes.com/brussels-clears-hisense-s-takeover-of-gorenje „Brussels clears Hisense‘s chapter-in-economic-and-trade-relations/25727 https://vlada.gov.hr/news/croatia-and-china-open-ambitious- 10, 2019, April of Croatia, Republic of the Government relations,” trade and economic in chapter ambitious open China and „Croatia region. Visegrád of the case the in than more reliable are statistics Chinese therefore directly, rather Balkans the in invest companies Chinese that we assume therefore of V4‘s case stock, the FDI in as Chinese differences significant showed such cases of However, these neither cases. several in discrepancies found we but also other each to similar were datasets two the where cases were there countries, respective their in stocks FDI on Chinese banks national countries‘ the from data receive to managed we Where statistics. Chinese use to we decided therefore possible, always not it was but statistics bank national with datasets Chinese compare to We tried or subsidiary. company country, a foreign V4for the we use dataset OECD the for example, with, contrast –in as source data reliable aless prove be to they this, from however, apart stocks, FDI outward of Chinese trends main show to the adequate are statistics Chinese that note to important It is Balkans. the in stock FDI of Chinese picture real the to show difficult it makes database international from statistics reliable to access limited The https://news.cgtn.com/news/794d444d35454464776c6d636a4e6e62684a4856/share_p.html. 20, 2019, December accessed 2018, 12, August in updated last CGTN, industry,“ oil Albania in invest China AMI Sector: USD. „Oil e.g. See million field for400 oil Patos-Marinze the acquired Petroleum Geo-Jade company Chinese 2016in the since suggest, statistics Chinese the than Albania in FDI more is there reports, media on Chinese Based caution. with treated be should However, data the finances/890-china-in-europe-hungary-s-key-role-in-a-strategic-partnership https://eng.polgariszemle.hu/archive/139-vol-13-special-issue-2017/economic-and-public- 216-238, (2017): –Hungary’s Europe in „China Rozsas, Tamas plastics and electronics textiles, machinery, industrial i.e. Á Elteto, Andrea and Eastern Europe,” International Journal Of Business And Management, Vol. IV(1), Management, (2016): And 24-48. Business Of Journal International Europe,” Eastern and cases. these lower much in were shares percentage etc.), while States, United the to 8billion around Germany, to 65 (above elsewhere export Czech other to compared insignificant however, remained 1,67 was China to export Czech 2012 in performance, export Czech of the case the in For example, ChemChina acquired the Italian company Pirelli in 2015. in Pirelli company Italian the acquired ChemChina 2013.Food in Smithfield company American the WH Group) purchased (now Shuanghui company Chinese The billion USD. 2018 By billion overall exports to China. to exports overall of Serbia‘s 35% almost represented sectors three these country through through to acountry flowed have that investments show don‘t Chinese –they Baltics and gnes Szunomár, „Chinese investment and trade – strengthening ties with Central Central with ties –strengthening trade and investment „Chinese Szunomár, gnes billion USD. The increase was relatively high 50%),(above high relatively was USD.increase The billion 2,58 it reached takeover of Gorenje“, The Slovenia Times, August 8, 2018, 2018, 8, August Times, of Gorenje“, The Slovenia takeover Key Role in a Role in Key . .

Strategic Partnership,” Civic Review, Civic Vol. 13, Partnership,” Strategic . . . billion USD USD billion 106 105 104 103 102 111 110 108 107 101 116 113 112 109 115 114

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. ; 85

Empty shell no more: China’s growing footprint in Central and Eastern Europe 86 Empty shell no more: China’s growing footprint in Central and Eastern Europe 132 133 131 130 129 128 121 127 125 124 123 122 120 117 126 119 118 „Latvia’s

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https://www.baltictimes.com/bite_latvija_will_not_suspend_its_partnership_with_huawei/ 2019, 15, Times, February Baltic Huawei,” The with partnership its suspend not will Latvija „Bite ga=2.214784023.1072525030.1574062225-1528243199.1546958798 https://tehnika.postimees.ee/6830408/huawei-mobiilide-tulevik-eestis-on-udune?_ 2019, 20, November Technika, on udune,” Postimees Eestis tulevik mobiilide „Huawei Pau, Aivar https://www.mobileeurope.co.uk/press-wire/latvia-s-tele2-announces-first-5g-handset tallinn-helsinki-tunnel-build https://news.err.ee/959815/vesterbacka-wants-chinese-company-in-on- 2019, 9, July err, News build,” tunnel on Tallinn-Helsinki in company Chinese wants “Vesterbacka ERR, for example See memo-on-5g-security-exclude-chinese-huawei/ https://estonianworld.com/security/estonia-and-the-us-sign-a- 2019, 8, November Estonianworld, Huawei,” Chinese exclude security, on amemo 5G US sign the and „Estonia Hankewicz, Sten Website at https://finestbayarea.online/. Website at Panevežys, Kaunas, Vilnius, Warsaw. Website http://www.railbaltica.org/about-rail-baltica/ at Vilnius, Kaunas, Panevežys, Riga, Pärnu, Tallinn, Helsinki, connect It will Finland. also indirectly and Estonia Latvia, Lithuania, – Poland, Unioncountries European five includes The project network. rail European the into States Baltic the integrating of the goal with project infrastructure transport rail agreenfield is Baltica Rail investment-or-propaganda-tool https://www.merics.org/en/blog/eu-china-rail-freight-trade-infrastructure- 2019, 15, April MERICS, tool?,“ or propaganda investment Trade infrastructure freight: rail „EU-China Mardell, Jacob (2019) https://ceias.eu/no-belt-no-road-slovakia-on-the-margins-of-chinas-bri-initiative/ (2019) Š Filip https://www.chinadaily.com.cn/regional/2016-11/17/content_27407904.htm 17, November Daily, 2016, China Rail,” Express Chengdu-Europe via reach expand to Road „Silk https://www.osw.waw.pl/en/publikacje/osw-studies/2018-02-28/silk-railroad No.72, 2019, 62. Wschodnich, Studiów Ośrodek Warsaw: interests,“ actors, background, connections: rail EU-China The Railroad: „The Silk Kaczmarski, Marcin Popławski, Konrad Jakóbowski, Jakub See also Naglis Navakas, Holger Roonemaa, Mari Eesmaa, Inese Liepi Inese Eesmaa, Mari Roonemaa, Holger Navakas, Naglis also See track_20180523.html https://www.joc.com/rail-intermodal/huge-subsidies-keep-china-europe-rail-network- 2018, 23, May Commerce, of The Journal on track,” network rail China-Europe keep subsidies Knowler,Greg „Huge Studies No.72, 10,Studies https://www.osw.waw.pl/en/publikacje/osw-studies/2018-02-28/silk-railroad OSW 2019, Wschodnich, Studiów Ośrodek Warsaw: interests“, actors, background, connections: rail EU-China The Railroad: „The Silk Kaczmarski, Marcin Popławski, Konrad Jakóbowski, Jakub silk-railroad No.72, 2019, https://www.osw.waw.pl/en/publikacje/osw-studies/2018-02-28/ Wschodnich, Studiów Ośrodek Warsaw: interests“, actors, background, connections: rail EU-China The Railroad: „The Silk v8dMYYZmkGvyUmfzJcF2w handcuffs-of-chinese-investment/?fbclid=IwAR0-W5RdGhECnU9n34O6bSkXiS_HFcja5JjrB_ https://en.rebaltica.lv/2019/09/the-golden- 2019, 5, September Re:Baltica, Investment,” Chinese surge-to-million-teu-in-2025-but-with-subsidies/ https://www.railfreight.com/specials/2019/06/04/new-silk-road-could- 2019, 4, June Railfreight, subsidies,“ with but 2025, in TEU million to surge could Road Silk „New Leijen, van Majorie BRI initiative“, Bratislava: CEIAS, CEIAS, Bratislava: initiative“, BRI of China’s margins on the No Road- Slovakia Belt „No ebok, Tele2 http://www.ceec-china-logistics.org/en/ . chooses Huawei for first 5G handset,” Mobile Europe, July 25, 2019, 2019, 25, July Europe, Mobile handset,” 5G for Huawei first chooses ...... ņ a, “The Golden Handcuffs of Handcuffs Golden “The a, ...... 149 148 147 146 145 144 142 141 150 143 140 138 137 136 139 135 134

„China‘s https://etc-corporate.org/uploads/2019/03/Chinese_Tourists_Flock_to_Europe.pdf 20,2019, February Commission, Travel European to Europe,” flock tourists „Chinese www.aiib.org/en/about-aiib/governance/members-of-bank/index.html at website AIIB’s see AIIB of members and prospective the members of list For full the https://bbj.hu/economy/hungary-issues-panda-bonds-for-rmb-1-bln_136406 2017, 26, July Journal, Business 1bln,” Budapest for RMB bonds panda issues „Hungary hungarian-chinese-relations national-economy/news/financial-cooperation-is-one-of-the-most-rapidly-growing-areas-of- https://www.kormany.hu/en/ministry-for- 2019, 15, February of Finance, Ministry Hungarian relations“, of Hungarian-Chinese areas growing rapidly most one of the is cooperation „Financial newsCenter/companyNews/5663.shtml https://www.unionpayintl.com/en/mediaCenter/ 2019, 23, September International, Union Pay UnionPay’s expand jointly Swedbank and International ”UnionPay gateway-to-europe/ https://emerging-europe.com/news/lithuania-positions-itself-as-chinas-fintech- 2018, 22, October Europe, Emerging Europe,” to FinTech China’s gateway as itself positions „Lithuania Shah, Shakhil become-one-of-europes-most-exciting-fintech-hotspots/#20a80b67dc21 https://www.forbes.com/sites/joewalleneurope/2018/10/28/how-has-lithuania- 2018, 28, October Hotspots?,” Forbes, Fintech Exciting Most of Europe‘s One Become Lithuania Has „How Wallen, Joe greece-four-questions-waiting-to-be-answered/ https://chinaobservers.eu/xis-visit-to- (CHOICE), 20, 2019, November Europe Eastern and Central Plamen Tonchev, ”Xi’s ank%2C+China+Construction+Bank%2C+Is+Considering+Entering+Bulgaria https://www.novinite.com/articles/198378/China%27s+Second-Largest+B 2019, 8, July Novinite.com, varga-signs-strategic-agreement-with-world-s-largest-bank 27,November https://www.kormany.hu/en/ministry-for-national-economy/news/mihaly- 2019, of Finance, Ministry Hungarian bank,” world’s with largest agreement strategic Varga signs „Mihály http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/business/2017-01/24/content_28041573.htm 2017, 24, January Daily, China Hungary“, in debit card dual-currency UnionPay issues of China „Bank huawei-approach-minister-idUSKBN1X30TV https://www.reuters.com/article/us-czech-telecoms/czechs-unlikely-to-differ-from-germany-on- 2019, 24, October Reuters, minister,” approach: on Huawei Germany from differ to unlikely „Czechs huawei-for-5g-network-rollout-idUSKBN1XF12U. https://www.reuters.com/article/us-hungary-telecoms-huawei/hungarian-minister-opens-door-to- 2019, 5, November rollout,” Reuters, for network Huawei 5G to door opens minister „Hungarian 5g-technology-cooperation-65338394 September 2, 2019, https://abcnews.go.com/Technology/wireStory/us-poland-sign-joint-document- News, technology,” on 5G ABC cooperate to agreement sign Poland „US and Colvin, Jill https://en.bfpe.org/how-did-serbia-and-huawei-cooperate-a-chronology/ 2019, 29, July achronology,“ BFPE, cooperate: Huawei and Serbia did “How Vladislavjev, Stefan security-threat-prime-minister-idUSKCN1PO1TO https://www.reuters.com/article/us-usa-china-huawei-slovakia/slovakia-has-no-evidence-of-huawei- 30,2019, January Reuters, minister,” – prime threat security of Huawei no evidence has „Slovakia on_huawei_technologies_must_be_made_at_nato__eu_level/ https://www.baltictimes.com/lithuanian_defmin_says_decisions_ 2019, 4, June Times, Baltic The NATO, at level,” made EU be must technologies on Huawei decisions says defmin „Lithuanian Second-Largest Bank, China Construction Bank, Is Considering Entering Bulgaria,” Bulgaria,” Entering Considering Is Bank, Construction China Bank, Second-Largest . Visit to Greece: Four Questions Waiting To Be Answered,” China Observers in in Observers China To Waiting Answered,” Be Four Questions Greece: to Visit ...... acceptance in the Baltic States,” States,” Baltic the in acceptance ...... 87

Empty shell no more: China’s growing footprint in Central and Eastern Europe 88 Empty shell no more: China’s growing footprint in Central and Eastern Europe 154 156 155 170 169 168 167 166 165 161 153 152 157 158 164 163 162 151 160 159

Ibid.

November 13, 2019, http://www.xinhuanet.com/english/2019-11/13/c_138550873.htm 13, 2019, November Xinhua, ties,” closer amid visitors Chinese increasing sees „Greece Georgakopoulos, George skyrockets-through-golden-visa-program/ https://greece.greekreporter.com/2019/12/10/number-of-chinese-investors-in-greece- 10, 2019, December Reporter, Greek for Visa,” Golden Greece to Rush Investors „Chinese Kokkinidis, Tasos payment-with-alipay-app-for-chinese-tourists/ https://turisticni-novinarji.si/engl/2019/04/11/ljubljana-tourism-introduced- 2019, 11, April Press, Travel Slovenian tourists,” for app Chinese Alipay with payment introduced Tourism „Ljubljana repuloter_budapest_csungking_repolojarat_koronavirus/ https://index.hu/gazdasag/2020/01/24/liszt_ferenc_nemzetkozi_ 2020, 24, January Index, indítottak”, repülőjáratot új most ferihegyre, tavaly érkezett turista kínai ezer “220 Balázs, Bozzay year-2018/ https://www.polandservice.com/blog/2018/12/14/poland-awarded-new-holiday-destination-of-the- 2018, 14, 2018,” Travel,December Wygoda year of the destination holiday new as awarded „Poland November 2, 2019, https://www.shine.cn/news/metro/1911025130/ 2019, 2, November (Shine), Daily in June,” Shanghai begin to flight Athens Shanghai, direct „1st Yang Jian, http://www.xinhuanet.com/english/2018-05/28/c_137210562.htm 2018, 28, May 2017,” in Xinhua, of tourists number record registers „Slovakia greece-four-questions-waiting-to-be-answered/ https://chinaobservers.eu/xis-visit-to- (CHOICE), 20, 2019, November Europe Eastern and Central Tonchev, „Xi’s Plamen http://idos.gr/wp-content/uploads/2017/12/Chinese-Investment-in-Greece_4-12-2017.pdf 2017, 4, December Relations, Economic of International Institute Athens: Relations,” Greek of Sino- Picture Big the and Greece in Investment „Chinese Tonchev,Plamen Davarinou, Polyxeni few days. days. afew within faster, much visa the now obtain can citizens Chinese time, same At the stays. or short visas for tourist (IGI-MAI), Affairs of Internal Ministry the within for Immigration Inspectorate General by the approved be to needed that invitation an submit to obligation an under no were longer citizens Chinese https://bnr.bg/en/post/101066082/bulgaria-intends-to-attract-more-chinese-tourists 2019, 1, August Bulgaria, Radio tourists,” Chinese more attract to intends „Bulgaria http://www.xinhuanet.com/english/2019-03/06/c_137871517.htm 2019, 6, March Xinhua, season,” tourist during for 8countries regime visa lifts „Albania https://kafkadesk.org/2019/02/10/czech-republic-saw-record-number-of-tourists-in-2018/ 10,2019, February 2018,” Kafkadesk, in of tourists number record saw Republic „Czech Flights scrapped in early 2020. early in scrapped Flights 2019, https://www.tourism-review.com/serbia-attracts-more-chinese-tourists-news11272 2019, Review, 18, Tourism November tourists,” of Chinese numbers growing enjoys Luebke, „Serbia Anna https://simpleflying.com/croatia-china-flights/ 2019, 28, May Flying, Simple To Flights Croatia,” Launch To Battling Are Airlines Baily, „Chinese Joanna https://www.exyuaviation.com/2018/11/new-carrier-to-take-over-belgrade.html route,” Ex-YU –Beijing 2018, 26, November News, Aviation over Belgrade take to carrier „New http://www.tiranatimes.com/?p=138465 13, 2018, September Times, Tirana Albania,” to tourists Chinese boosts „Visa travel free December 20, 2019, http://www.bhembassychina.com/requirements.php 20, 2019, December Beijing, in Herzegovina and of Bosnia Embassy China,” and B&H between „Visa regime free . Visit to Greece: Four Questions Waiting To Be Answered,” China Observers in in Observers China To Waiting Answered,” Be Four Questions Greece: to Visit ...... 189 188 187 183 191 190 186 185 184 182 181 177 180 178 176 175 179 174 172 173 171

“

Ibid. Ibid. Ibid. Ibid.

“China‘s “

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Empty shell no more: China’s growing footprint in Central and Eastern Europe 90 Empty shell no more: China’s growing footprint in Central and Eastern Europe 204 203 202 205 199 195 196 193 192 201 200 194 198 197

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Empty shell no more: China’s growing footprint in Central and Eastern Europe 92 Empty shell no more: China’s growing footprint in Central and Eastern Europe 236 232 230 229 237 234 233 231 228 235 227 226 238 225 223 224 Ibid. Ibid.

Ibid. Ibid.

sadarbibu-izglitibas-joma https://www.izm.gov.lv/lv/aktualitates/2945-sanaksme-parruna-latvijas-un-kinas- 2018, 28, May “Sanāksm 04/13/c_137973910.htm http://www.xinhuanet.com/english/2019- 13, 2019, April Xinhua, Countries,” European Eastern and Central and China between for Cooperation Guidelines Dubrovnik of the text “Full Young_Leaders_call_en.pdf http://www.eseia.eu/files/attachments/10457/601963_EU_2019, 2, April Konfuzius-Institute, of Graz, University People’s the to of China,” Republic Visit Young –EU Road Leaders’ and Belt “1st https://www.ceec-china-croatia.org/files/dubrovnik-guidelines.pdf 2019, 12, April CEEC, Countries,” European Eastern and Central and China between Cooperation for Guidelines Dubrovnik “The europe https://www.huawei.com/en/press-events/news/2019/4/huawei-ict-one-thousand-dreams-program- 2019, 12, April Huawei, Europe,” Eastern and Central in for Children Care Provide and the for Education Improve to Youth ICT Program Dreams Thousand One the Launches “Huawei =3&theater https://www.facebook.com/185767401445288/photos/a.274800285875332/1846093348746010/?type 2018, 13, April publicpost, Facebook Institutas, Konfucijaus Universiteto Vilniaus https://www.fmprc.gov.cn/mfa_eng/wjdt_665385/2649_665393/t1514534.shtml 2017, 28, November the People’s of of China, Republic of Affairs Foreign Ministry Europe,” Eastern and Central and China between Cooperation for Guidelines Budapest “The php?fbid=2427763117281422&set=a.632440603480358&type=3&theater https://www.facebook.com/photo. 2019, 24, July Facebook public post, Veronika Beluza, https://chinaobservers.eu/czechia-and-china-on-a-collision-course/ 2019, 19, (CHOICE), September Europe Eastern and Central in Observers China Europe,” Eastern and Central in Observers China course, on acollision China and “Czechia Karásková, Ivana https://www.fmprc.gov.cn/mfa_eng/zxxx_662805/t1318038.shtml 2015, 24, November the People’s of of China, Republic of Affairs Foreign Ministry Countries,” European Eastern and Central and China between Medium-Term“The Cooperation for Agenda china-investement-champions-league-kyiv. https://www.theguardian.com/football/2018/aug/13/slavia-prague-fans-czech-club- 13, 2018, August Guardian, The backfires,” investment Chinese after for future fear fans Prague “Slavia Gosling, Tim communist-party-international-department-overlooked-yet-ever-present/ 2016,8, https://thediplomat.com/2016/08/the-chinese- August Diplomat, The Present,” Ever yet Overlooked Department: International Party Communist Chinese “The Fang, Leah Gitter, David http://www.china-un.ch/eng/xwdt/t1092934.htm 2013, 24, October Switzerland, in organizations international other and Geneva at People’s the of Mission Permanent Forum,” Leaders Political Young China-CEE of Ceremony Opening the Tao Song Attends Minister Foreign “Vice how-chinese-embassy-in-prague-secretly-funded-activities-at-the-top-czech-university/ (CHOICE), 7, November https://chinaobservers.eu/the-czech-chinese-centre-of-influence- 2019, Europe Eastern and Central in Top the at University,” Observers Czech China Activities Funded Secretly Prague in Embassy Chinese How Influence: of Centre Czech-Chinese “The Bajerová, Alžběta . pārrunā Latvijas un Ķīnas sadarbību izglītības jomā,” Izglītības un zinātnes ministrija, ministrija, zinātnes un Izglītības jomā,” izglītības sadarbību Ķīnas un Latvijas ē pārrunā . . . .

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Empty shell no more: China’s growing footprint in Central and Eastern Europe 94 Empty shell no more: China’s growing footprint in Central and Eastern Europe 266 264 265 263 262 261 260 259 “Romania’s 253 255 254 CP i “CSPA 258 257 256

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Content available at http://www.kina-danas.com/ at available Content https://www.cfr.org/backgrounder/chinas-big-bet-soft-power “China’s Albert, Eleanor https://komentare.sme.sk/c/22199398/ako-slovenske-media-uverejnili-cinsku-propagandu.html Matej Š Matej WhlOzzCd-DNRXBrWLoTWxTVhqSViQrMOgNQ kinas-un-latvijas-tirdzniecibas-sadarbibu.d?id=51480949&fbclid=IwAR0vAIznkUZD2ex1ZYhE6pI0 https://www.delfi.lv/news/versijas/sen-sjaokai-pieci-svarigi-jautajumi-par- 2019, 24, September lt, cina/edition-1298.html Č “Focus cina-spoluprace/r~f68e6648316811eaa24cac1f6b220ee8/ 27, https://zpravy.aktualne.cz/domaci/literarni-noviny- 2020, January Aktuálně, dotace,” statisícové AČ propagandu. čínskou šíří noviny “Literární Konrád, Daniel Valášek, Lukáš eastern-europe/ https://thediplomat.com/2019/11/how-china-influences-media-in-central-and- 2019, 19, November Diplomat, The Europe,” Eastern and Central in Media Influences China “How Karásková, Ivana 2019. 25, September Právo, xinhua-chinska-panstwowa-agencja-prasowa/ http://polskiemedia.org/cspa-i-pap-podpisaly-porozumienie-z- 2018, 8, Mediów,Polskich January international-conference/ https://www.beltandroad.news/2019/06/08/romanias-1st-traditional-chinese-medicine- 2019, 8, June sale-the-politics-of-chinese-influence.pdf https://www.amo.cz/wp-content/uploads/2018/04/AMO_central-europe-for- 2018, (AMO), Prague, Affairs International for 03/2018, Association Paper AMO Policy Influence,” China‘s of The Politics Š Matej Q. Turcsányi, Richard Matura, Tamás Karásková, Ivana eastern-europe/ https://thediplomat.com/2019/11/how-china-influences-media-in-central-and- 2019, 19, November Diplomat, The Europe,” Eastern and Central in Media Influences China “How Karásková, Ivana https://www.tvp.info/30735380/tvp-podpisala-porozumienie-o-wspolpracy-z-telewizja-chinska z owspółpracy porozumienie podpisała “TVP potentatem-medialnym 2017, 26, May https://centruminformacji.tvp.pl/30968044/tvp-rozpoczyna-wspolprace-z-chinskim- TVP, Informacji Centrum medialnym,” potentatem zchińskim współpracę rozpoczyna “TVP en Sjaokai, “ Sjaokai, en imalčík, “Ako slovenské médiá uverejnili čínsku propagandu,” SME, August 27, 2019, August SME, propagandu,” čínsku “Ako uverejnili médiá slovenské imalčík, Xinhua – Państwową Agencją Prasową,” Stowarzyszenie Stowarzyszenie Prasową,” Agencją –Państwową zXinhua porozumienie PAP podpisały /2018, https://www.etrend.sk/trend-rubrika/10603-trendfocus- /2018, 2018 26, Trend, April ína,” 1st Traditional Chinese Medicine International Conference,” Belt and Road News, News, Road and Belt Conference,” International Medicine Chinese Traditional 1st Š en Sjaokai: Pieci svarīgi jautājumi par Ķīnas un Latvijas tirdzniecības sadarbību,” Delfi. sadarbību,” tirdzniecības Latvijas un Ķīnas par jautājumi svarīgi Pieci Sjaokai: en . . . . Big Bet on Soft Power”, Council on Foreign Relations, February 9, 2018, 2018, 9, February on Relations, on Soft Power”, Bet Big Foreign Council . . telewizją chińską,” TVP Info, May 13, 2017, May Info, TVP chińską,” telewizją . . . . . for Sale: Europe “Central imalčík, esko jim dává dává jim esko

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