sign in sign up
<<
Home , Alberti family, Alfonso V of Aragon, Alonso de Ojeda, Anne of Brittany, Battle of San Romano, Brunelleschi (crater)

THE Other Books in the Greenhaven Encyclopedia Series

Ancient Egypt Ancient Greece Ancient Mesopotamia Ancient The Civil War The Paranormal Phenomena Terrorism World Religions THE RENAISSANCE

by Tom Streissguth

Konrad Eisenbichler, Consulting Editor Christine Nasso, Publisher Elizabeth Des Chenes, Managing Editor

© 2008 Greenhaven Press, a part of Gale, Cengage Learning.

Star logo is a trademark and Gale and Greenhaven Press are registered trademarks used herein under license. For more information, contact: Greenhaven Press 27500 Drake Rd. Farmington Hills, MI 48331-3535 Or you can visit our Internet site at http://www.gale.cengage.com

ALL RIGHTS RESERVED

No part of this work covered by the copyright hereon may be reproduced or used in any form or by any means—graphic, electronic, or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, taping, Web distribution, or information storage retrieval systems—without the written permission of the publisher.

Articles in Greenhaven Press anthologies are often edited for length to meet page requirements. In addition, original titles of these works are changed to clearly present the main thesis and to explicitly indicate the author’s opinion. Every effort is made to ensure that Greenhaven Press accurately reflects the original intent of the authors. Every effort has been made to trace the owners of copyrighted material.

Cover photograph reproduced by permission of © Araldo de Luca/Corbis.

ISBN-13: 978-0-7377-3216-0 (hardcover)

ISBN-10: 0-7377-3216-4 (hardcover)

Library of Congress Control Number: 2007938127

Printed in the United States of America 12345671211100908 Contents

Preface ...... 11 Boleyn, Anne ...... 45 Borgia, Cesare ...... 45 A Borgia, Lucrezia ...... 46 academies (Fiorentina, Infiammati, Bosch, Hieronymus ...... 47 Intronati, etc.) ...... 19 Bosworth Field, Battle of ...... 48 Agricola, Rudolf ...... 20 , Sandro ...... 48 Alberti, Leon Battista ...... 20 Bourbon ...... 50 alchemy ...... 21 Bracciolini, Poggio ...... 51 Alexander VI ...... 22 Brahe, Tycho ...... 52 , Donato ...... 52 (the Magnanimous) ...... 24 Brenz, Johannes ...... 54 Alighieri, Dante ...... 24 Bronzino, Agnolo ...... 54 Anguissola, Sofonisba ...... 26 ...... 54 Anne of ...... 26 Brueghel family architecture ...... 27 , Filippo ...... 56 Ariosto, Ludovico ...... 29 Bruni, Leonardo ...... 57 Aristotelianism ...... 30 Bruno, Giordano ...... 58 Ascham, Roger ...... 31 Byrd, William ...... 58 astrology ...... 32 C astronomy ...... 33 Caboto, Giovanni (John Cabot) ...... 61 Aurispa, Giovanni ...... 34 ...... 61 Austria ...... 34 Calvin, John ...... 62 Aviz, House of ...... 35 , Luis Vaz de ...... 63 B , da ...... 64 Bacon, Francis ...... 37 Carpaccio, Vittore ...... 65 Barocci, Federico ...... 38 Cartier, Jacques ...... 66 Bartolommeo, Fra ...... 39 Castagno, Andrea del ...... 67 Battiferra degli Ammannati, Laura .....40 , Baldassare ...... 67 , Gentile ...... 40 Catherine of , Saint ...... 68 Bellini, Giovanni ...... 41 Catholicism ...... 68 Bellini, Jacopo ...... 41 Cellini, Benvenuto ...... 70 Bentivoglio, Giovanni II ...... 42 Cereta, Laura ...... 71 , Giovanni ...... 42 , Miguel de ...... 71 Bohemia ...... 44 Charles V ...... 73

Greenhaven Encyclopedia of The Renaissance 5 Contents

Charles VIII ...... 74 , John ...... 105 cities ...... 75 Drake, Sir Francis ...... 105 classical literature ...... 77 d’Aragona, Tullia ...... 106 Clement VII ...... 78 d’Este, Isabella ...... 107 Clitherow, Margaret ...... 79 , Albrecht ...... 108 clothing ...... 79 Clouet, Francois ...... 81 E ...... 111 Colleoni, Bartolomeo ...... 81 Edict of Colonna, Vittoria ...... 82 education ...... 111 Columbus, Christopher ...... 82 Edward VI ...... 112 commedia dell’arte ...... 84 Elizabeth I ...... 112 confraternities ...... 85 England ...... 114 Copernicus, Nicolaus ...... 86 Erasmus, Desiderius ...... 115 Correggio ...... 88 Eugenius IV ...... 117 Cortes, Hernán ...... 89 ...... 117 Corvinus, Matthias ...... 91 Council of Basele ...... 91 F Fall of ...... 121 Council of Constance ...... 92 Farnese, Alessandro ...... 122 Council of / ...... 92 Fedele, Cassandra ...... 122 Council of Trent ...... 92 Ferdinand I of ...... 123 courtesan ...... 93 Cranach, Lucas ...... 94 Ferdinand II of Aragon (Ferdinand V of Castile) ...... 123 Cromwell, Thomas ...... 95 Fernando Alvarez de Toledo ...... 124 D Ferrara ...... 125 da Gama, Vasco ...... 97 Ficino, Marsilio ...... 126 da Sangallo, Antonio (the Younger) ...97 flagellants ...... 126 de Gournay, Marie le Jars ...... 98 Florence ...... 126 de Pisan, Christine ...... 98 Fontana, Lavinia ...... 128 de Poitiers, Diane ...... 99 Fonte, Moderata ...... 129 de Soto, Hernando ...... 99 fortifications ...... 129 de Vega, Lope ...... 100 Foscari, Francesco ...... 129 del Sartro, Andrea ...... 100 Fouquet, Jean ...... 130 d’Este, House of ...... 101 Fra Angelico ...... 130 Diet of Augsburg ...... 102 ...... 131 Diet of Worms ...... 102 Francis I (Francois) ...... 133 Donatello ...... 102 Franco, Veronica ...... 134 , John ...... 103 Fugger, Jakob ...... 135

6 Greenhaven Encyclopedia of The Renaissance Contents

G Isabella of Castile ...... 167 Galilei, Galileo ...... 137 ...... 168 Galindo, Beatriz ...... 138 J Gentileschi, Artemisia ...... 139 James I of England (James VI of Gesualdo, Carlo ...... 140 Scotland) ...... 171 ghetto ...... 140 Jews ...... 171 Ghirlandaio, Domenico ...... 141 Joan I of Naples ...... 173 Giorgione ...... 142 Joan of Arc ...... 173 di Bondone ...... 142 ...... 174 Gonzaga, Gianfrancesco ...... 144 Jones, Inigo ...... 174 Gonzaga, House of ...... 144 Julius II ...... 175 Gonzaga, Ludovico ...... 145 Granada (Sultanate) ...... 145 K Great Schism ...... 146 Kepler, Johannes ...... 179 Greco, El ...... 146 Knox, John ...... 180 Grey, Lady Jane ...... 147 Gritti, Andrea ...... 147 L Labe, Louise ...... 183 Grotius, ...... 147 Las Casas, Bartolomée de ...... 183 Grünewald, Matthias ...... 149 Lasso, Orlando di ...... 184 Guicciardini, Francesco ...... 149 Leo X ...... 185 Gutenberg, Johannes ...... 150 ...... 186 H Lepanto, Battle of ...... 188 Habsburg dynasty ...... 153 Lovati, Lovato dei ...... 189 Hakluyt, Richard ...... 154 Loyola, Saint Ignatius ...... 189 Henri III ...... 155 ...... 190 Henri IV ...... 155 Luther, Martin ...... 190 Henry the Navigator ...... 156 Henry VIII ...... 157 M Machiavelli, Niccolo ...... 195 , Hans (the Younger) ...... 158 Magellan, Ferdinand ...... 196 ...... 159 Malatesta, Sigismondo Pandolfo ...... 197 Hungary ...... 160 Mantegna, Andrea ...... 198 Hus, Jan ...... 162 ...... 199 Hutten, Ulrich von ...... 163 Manuel I ...... 200 I Margaret of Austria ...... 200 Index ...... 165 Margaret of ...... 201 Inquisition ...... 165 Marguerite of Navarre ...... 201

Greenhaven Encyclopedia of The Renaissance 7 Contents

Marlowe, Christopher ...... 202 P Masaccio ...... 202 painting ...... 237 mathematics ...... 203 Palestrina, Giovanni Pierluigi da ...... 239 Maximilian I ...... 204 Palladio, Andrea ...... 239 Medici, Cosimo de’ ...... 205 Papacy ...... 240 Medici, Lorenzo de’ ...... 206 ...... 241 medicine ...... 207 Paracelsus ...... 241 Médicis, Catherine de ...... 208 Parr, Catherine ...... 242 Médicis, Marie de ...... 209 Paul III ...... 243 Mehmed II ...... 210 Paul IV ...... 244 Melanchthon, Philipp ...... 210 ...... 245 Peasants War ...... 246 Memling, Hans ...... 211 perspective ...... 246 Mercator, Gerardus ...... 211 Perugino ...... 247 mercenaries ...... 212 ...... 248 Michelangelo Buonarroti ...... 213 Philip II () ...... 249 , John ...... 216 Pico della Mirandola, Giovanni ...... 251 Montaigne, Michel de ...... 217 Piero della Francesca ...... 252 Montefeltro, Federigo da ...... 217 ...... 252 , Claudio ...... 218 ...... 253 More, Sir Thomas ...... 218 Pirckheimer, Willibald ...... 254 Mühlberg, Battle of ...... 219 Pisanello ...... 254 music ...... 220 Pius II ...... 255 ...... 221 Muslims Pizarro, Francisco ...... 256 mythology ...... 222 plague ...... 257 N ...... 258 Pliny the Elder ...... 259 Naples ...... 225 Poliziano, Angelo ...... 260 Neoplatonism ...... 226 ...... 260 Netherlands ...... 227 printing ...... 262 Nicholas of Cusa ...... 228 Prussia ...... 263 Nicholas V ...... 229 Nogarola, Isotta ...... 229 Q Nostradamus ...... 230 Quercia, Jacopo della ...... 265 O R Ottoman Empire ...... 233 Rabelais, Francois ...... 267 ...... 234 Raleigh, Sir Walter ...... 267

8 Greenhaven Encyclopedia of The Renaissance Contents

Raphael ...... 269 ...... 304 Reformation, Catholic ...... 271 Torquemada, Tomás de ...... 306 Reformation, Protestant ...... 271 Toscanelli, Paolo ...... 307 Rome ...... 272 trade ...... 307 Ronsard, Pierre de ...... 273 Tudor dynasty ...... 308 , Peter Paul ...... 274 U Rudolf II ...... 275 Uccello, Paolo ...... 311 Russia ...... 276 universities ...... 311 S V ...... 279 Valois dynasty ...... 313 Salutati, Coluccio ...... 280 van der Weyden, Rogier ...... 314 Savonarola, Girolamo ...... 280 , Jan ...... 314 Savoy ...... 282 van Hemessen, Catherine ...... 315 Savoy, Louise of ...... 282 Vasa, House of ...... 315 Saxony ...... 283 Vasari, Giorgio ...... 316 Scotland ...... 283 ...... 317 sculpture ...... 284 Veronese, Paolo ...... 319 Sforza, Caterina ...... 285 Verrocchio, Andrea del ...... 320 Sforza, Francesco ...... 286 Vespucci, Amerigo ...... 321 Sforza, Ludovico ...... 287 Villon, Francois ...... 321 , William ...... 288 Virgil ...... 322 Visconti dynasty ...... 323 ships and shipbuilding ...... 289 Vitruvius ...... 324 Siena ...... 291 ...... 291 W ...... 292 William I of Orange ...... 325 Spenser, Edmund ...... 293 witchcraft ...... 325 Stampa, Gaspara ...... 294 Wolsey, Thomas ...... 326 Strozzi family ...... 295 X Suleiman ...... 296 Xavier, Francis ...... 329 Sweden ...... 297 Z T Zwingli, Huldrych ...... 331 Tasso, Torquato ...... 299 Chronology ...... 333 Teresa of Avila ...... 300 For Further Research ...... 337 theater ...... 301 Index ...... 341 Thirty Years’ War ...... 302 About the Author ...... 352 , Jacopo ...... 303 About the Consulting Editor ...... 353

Greenhaven Encyclopedia of The Renaissance 9

Preface

On May 20, 1347, a small band of people mobs di Rienzo had at his back, the noble gathered in the streets of Rome. Led by a families fled to their country estates. man dressed in a full suit of armor, they He had the support of powerful and marched to the , the heart important people, including Petrarch, a of the ancient capital. They watched as the poet also fascinated by Roman history. Pe- man climbed onto the crumbling founda- trarch saw in di Rienzo a new Brutus—a tion of a Roman monument. He spoke and fighter against tyranny (Marcus Junius gestured for hours, stirring the crowd to Brutus had conspired to assassinate Julius cheers. The wretched state of the city, he Caesar in 44 B.C., believing Caesar a man declared, was the fault of corrupt and determined to hold the powers of a dicta- greedy noble families who cared only for tor over Rome). Petrarch had made a life- fighting each other and nothing for the long study of Roman writers and had pride or safety of the common people. The translated many of their manuscripts, sev- man pronounced the city overthrown and eral of which he had discovered himself. the ancient republic restored. Rome would Although Rome had been a pagan city, he again become the caput mundi, the center believed that it could serve as a model for of the world. pious Christians, and that the ancient Cola di Rienzo, the speaker perched books and monuments of Rome served as on the ancient stone, was born into the worthy inspirations for writers and artists humble family of a tavern keeper. As a boy of his own day. he learned to read and had spent Di Rienzo battled in vain. In 1354, the many hours studying Rome’s history and Roman mob turned against him, attacking writing. The power and glory of Rome fas- and murdering him during a speech. His cinated him, but when he looked at the power in Rome had been fleeting, but the city of the fourteenth century, he felt only example of classical Rome endured for Pe- anger. Medieval Rome was a shambles—a trarch and the generations that followed. collection of miserable hovels and danger- Writing, art, sculpture, and architecture ous neighborhoods, surrounded by the brought a Renaissance, or rebirth, of the crumbling temples, monuments, and aq- ancient world of the Romans and Greeks. ueducts of the past. Wealthy families This creative flowering spread from Italy warred from their fortified towers, de- to the rest of and brought forth scending into the streets to murder their the most famous works ever created on rivals and anyone who got in their way the continent. which on one dark day included Cola’s own brother. The Renaissance in Italy Di Rienzo was obsessed with the mis- In the fourteenth century, scholars such as sion of restoring Rome to its former glory. Petrarch and Poggio Bracciolini were In 1344 he began gathering friends and al- combing the libraries of monasteries and lies to overthrow the city authorities. After cathedrals, where the ancient books of three years, he succeeded. Terrified of the Plato, , , Vitruvius, and

Greenhaven Encyclopedia of The Renaissance 11 Preface others had been copied down and pre- the virtues of and Greece in served. Most of these books were written their own society through education and in Latin, the language of ancient Rome training of the young. A basic humanist that still served as a universal language for education was believed to lay the proper the educated people of Europe. Some had foundation for studies in the fields of law been preserved by Arab scholars and had and medicine and life as a worthy citizen. returned to Europe through the Moorish Wealthy families employed humanists to kingdom of Spain and the Islamic realms tutor their children, believing that knowl- of the Middle East. Scholarship in the clas- edge of classical literature in its original sics was further helped by the arrival of language was the mark of a truly educated Greek scholars from the Byzantine Em- man or woman. Instead of learning and pire, who fled as the Ottoman Turks con- following church dogma, the scholars of quered their homeland in the middle of the Renaissance posed questions and of- the fifteenth century. fered criticism of the church and of long- A new scholarship emerged, as the accepted public institutions. To the Re- books were studied and translated into the naissance humanist, the Middle Ages was modern languages, such as French and a time of primitive art, science, and phi- Italian, that had evolved from Latin. In losophy—a time that was drastically dif- doing so, these scholars and editors were ferent, and less worthy, than their own. carrying out a revolution in thought. No This humanist trend in art began in longer were their efforts concentrated on Italy, with the works of Giotto di Bondi the philosophy of , and the and Masaccio, who strived to portray the works of church fathers such as Saint Am- reality of the human form and human brose and Saint Augustine who had made emotions in their works. It was present the interpretation of the Bible their life’s also in written works, such as the short work. Instead, the ancient pagan authors stories written by in and their approach to art and philosophy his Decameron—a collection of one hun- were found worthy of study. The doctrines dred tales of very human , lust, and of the Christian church that had domi- folly. “Humanism” was taken up by the nated medieval society now competed with philosophers of Florence, such as Giovanni the sensibilities of ancient Greece and Pico della Mirandola, who combined many Rome. different faiths into a single all- In the fifteenth century the passion for encompassing worldview that he credited ancient writers traveled from scholars to not to divine inspiration but to the cre- rulers. In describing the Florentine prince ativity of authors, religious leaders, and Cosimo de’ Medici, the historian George philosophers. Holmes wrote, “Cosimo … combined great At the same time, art and writing be- wealth with a genuine in both clas- came more accessible. The streets and sical literature and the arts. Cosimo fell squares of Florence, Venice, Rome, and under the spell of a belief in the spiritual other cities displayed new monuments and value of truths to be gained from ancient statuary, created in the classical . Latin 1 literature.…” texts were not just privileged to the few, Humanists such as Cosimo de’ Medici but available to many through translation strived to lead a virtuous life, and to instill and through the new technology of print-

12 Greenhaven Encyclopedia of The Renaissance Preface ing. Books circulated widely in towns State and Church in the among aristocrats and members of the Renaissance middle class. The works of an Italian au- The Renaissance was a time of artistic in- thor could be studied widely in Germany, novation and unruly, violent politics. The France, the Netherlands, and England, social and political turmoil was due to the while artists in those countries found it expanding economy and the rise of new worth their trouble and expense to visit social classes. Merchants, artisans, and Rome and other Italian cities to study the petty all demanded attention to art of the ancients. The French writer their . To quell this factionalism, Michel de Montaigne wrote that “mixing the Renaissance prince ruled with arbi- with men is wonderfully useful, and visit- trary power, unchecked by elected assem- ing foreign countries to bring back knowl- blies or councils. He had the power to levy edge of the characters and ways of those nations, and to rub and polish our brains taxes, raise armies, arrest and punish op- by contact with those of others.… [There ponents, and promulgate laws that in is] no better school for forming one’s life many cases served for his personal benefit. than to set before it constantly the diver- He relied on prestige and the fear of his sity of other lives, ideas, and customs.”2 subjects to secure his authority and, ulti- mately, establish a family dynasty. The Artists of the Renaissance escaped their tools of this task were diplomacy, military medieval role as craftsmen and artisans, who had been obedient to the rules of force, bribery, marriage, and assassination. their guilds and working on commission A good prince knew the proper time and from churches and wealthy patrons. Mich- place to use all the weapons at his dis- elangelo Buonarroti and Leonardo da posal; politics became not simply an exer- Vinci created an individual point of view cise of power but a demanding profession and philosophy, and fully expressed this at which certain men excelled and others outlook in their works. The best artists did not. took their place as equals of kings and Some Renaissance leaders emulated popes, who vied for their artworks and Rome in forming republics, and claiming their allegiance. that their power came directly from the Many political and religious leaders consent of the people. The Renaissance re- took great pains to patronize artists and public, however, was far from a democ- give their cities a cloak of classical gran- racy. It was an oligarchy of leading mer- deur meant to reflect the virtues of its chants or nobles, who passed laws in leaders. Lorenzo de’ Medici, the prince of assemblies and governed through councils, Florence, and Popes Julius II and Leo X in which the term of office was brief, recruited the bests artists of their day, sometimes as short as two months. City commissioned hundreds of important republics, including Siena, . Flo- works, and paid their charges handsomely. rence, and Venice in Italy, controlled sur- The taste for art extended to the merchant rounding land and taxed its farmers, al- class that strived to imitate the nobility by though granting no right of representation decorating their homes with paintings, to peasants living outside the walls. sculpture, and architecture in the classical Secular power often vied with sacred style. authority, with the

Greenhaven Encyclopedia of The Renaissance 13 Preface remaining the most powerful institution Renaissance.… Europe, in the later in Europe. The church offered eternal life Middle Ages, was entering a period of to believers and threatened eternal damna- … intermediate technology. Especially tion to sinners and heretics. It collected in the , Germany and tithes and indulgences (remissions of pun- Italy, thousands of workshops of all ishment for sins) from practicing Catho- kinds emerged, specializing in stone, leather, metal, wood, plaster, chemi- lics, took part in conflicts among the na- cals and fabrics, producing a growing tions, and patronized artists and writers, variety of luxury goods and machin- who still dedicated many of their works to ery. It was chiefly the families of those religious themes. who worked in these shops that pro- duced the painters and carvers, the An Economic Rebirth sculptors and architects, the writers The Middle Ages waned as humanism and decorators, the teachers and flowered and as Europe experienced an scholars responsible for the huge ex- pansion of culture that marked the economic revival. Safer roads and sea-lanes 3 encouraged trade between southern and beginnings of the early modern age. northern Europe. Banking houses, such as At the same time, scholars were taking that of the Medici in Italy and the Fuggers to the roads, seeking out patrons and in Germany, made loans and investments spreading their knowledge and their con- that increased credit and the circulation of stant questioning of long-held ideas. The money. The manufacturing of luxury Medici brought the leading humanist goods, such as silk in Florence and glass in scholars to their palaces in Florence, and Venice, and foreign trade enriched even employed them as tutors for their chil- those without aristocratic titles to their dren. Niccolo Machiavelli, Sir Thomas name. The wealth accumulated by aristo- More, and Desiderius Erasmus offered the cratic families no longer was spent on de- example of Greek and Roman thinkers in fensive works and the arming of private solving practical problems of the world in militias. Instead, the display of art and which they lived. Universities in good taste became paramount, and the pa- and , Italy, educated the young in tronage of a skilled artist in his court the new sciences of medicine and as- marked the Renaissance noble as someone tronomy, and in the philosophies of Plato worthy of admiration and respect. and Aristotle. Reasoning was applied to the study of ancient texts, which were The expanding economy and improv- studied in their original language, and the ing technology played a vital role in the medieval scholastic method—which fo- innovations of Renaissance artists. In the cused on theological debates—was gradu- words of Paul Johnson in his book The ally left behind. Students examined the Renaissance: works of ancient philosophers, rather than As wealth accumulated, those who sacred texts, and concentrated on worldly possessed it gratified their senses by poetry, ethics, rhetoric, and grammar. The patronizing literature and the arts, cultural flowering in in- and they were joined by sovereigns, popes and princes, who found ways spired native sons such as da Vinci, Mich- of taxing the new wealth of their sub- elangelo, and to incorpo- jects. But wealth alone would not have rate classical concepts and mythology into produced the phenomenon we call the their paintings and sculpture.

14 Greenhaven Encyclopedia of The Renaissance Preface

Renaissance art and humanism spread concept of the church and the authority it to the rest of Europe through the sixteenth should hold over believers. The German century. The French kings Charles VIII and monk Martin Luther was inspired to cre- Francis I brought in artists and writers ate the doctrine of “justification by faith from Italy. The German painter and en- alone.” Belief in Christian principles, ac- graver Albrecht Dürer spent many years in cording to Luther, should be left to the in- Italy, observing the works of Italian paint- dividual, and not made dependent on his ers and sculptors. The Hungarian king good works or the purchasing of indul- Matthias Corvinus hired Italian architects gences sold by the church. Luther broke to raise new palaces and civic buildings in with the Catholic Church and the pope, his capital of Buda. The Renaissance sensi- its leader, and created a Protestant sect bility arrived in Spain, Portugal, Poland, that offered its believers a rival institu- Scandinavia, Bohemia, and northern Ger- tion—one that served religious as well as many, having a far-reaching effect on writ- political ends. The Protestant Reformation ers and architects. The English Renaissance was taken up in northern Europe and in was marked by profound literature, includ- England, where King Henry VIII rode the ing the plays of William Shakespeare, Ben wave of Protestantism to establish a new Jonson, and Christopher Marlowe and the religion the Church of England and to de- poetry of Edmund Spenser and John Mil- clare independence from the pope and ton, still considered among the greatest settle his divorce from his first queen, works ever written in the English language. Catherine of Aragon. But Protestantism was resisted with great determination by Reformation in the Church Catholic rulers, such as the Habsburg lead- The direct questioning of long-accepted ers of the Holy . The con- ideas eventually reached the Christian hi- flict would endure for generations and erarchy. In the late fourteenth century the bring about the devastating Thirty Years’ church had been split in two, with rival War in the seventeenth century. popes claiming their title in Rome and in , a city of southern France. For a New Art and New Science brief period, three men all claimed to be Renaissance artists developed a more natu- the true heirs to the Papacy, and the re- ralistic depiction of the world. The Floren- sulting bitter debate greatly damaged the tine architect Filippo Brunelleschi virtually church’s reputation as an infallible me- invented perspective, the accurate depic- dium between God and the faithful. Al- tion of three-dimensional space on a flat, though the schism was resolved, the church two-dimensional surface. Leonardo da fathers continued living as worldly, and Vinci, an artist of a later generation, gave immensely wealthy, monarchs, decorating his paintings great depth with the use of their palaces with extravagant art, librar- areas of varying light and shadow. Da ies, and collections and lusting for money, Vinci also applied his personal study of territory, and power to rival Europe’s secu- human anatomy to figures in his painted lar kings. canvases, and placed many of his subjects Repelled by the corruption of the in a natural setting of mountains, rocks, church, dissidents began a close study of and trees. In northern Europe, artists uti- the and arrived at a novel lized new painting materials. In the

Greenhaven Encyclopedia of The Renaissance 15 Preface

Netherlands, for instance, Jan van Eyck smaller and weaker . Spain and others began using oil-based paints as had been united by the marriage of Ferdi- a medium and stretched canvas as a sur- nand II of Aragon and Isabella of Castile; face—materials that gave painting a greater the French kings extended their control to range of more naturalistic color. The Flem- once-independent states such as Brittany. ish painter Pieter Brueghel expanded the England under the Tudor dynasty, which subject matter of art to the everyday ended with the reign of Elizabeth I, had world. Instead of saints and holy men, become a major naval power and the seat Brueghel depicted peasants, farmers, and of a far-flung . ordinary city-dwellers going about their By the middle of the sixteenth century daily lives. younger artists had fully accepted the As artists took up new techniques and naturalistic approach of the early Renais- materials, mathematicians and astrono- sance, and commonly took classical my- mers relied on logic, reasoning, and obser- thology as their theme. Artistic innovation vation to challenge long-held concepts of slowed; the masterpieces of the High Re- the natural world and the heavens. The naissance, in the opinion of many, simply earth lost its position as the center of the could not be surpassed. Artistic innova- universe in the observations and writings tion declined as creators imitated their of Nicolaus Copernicus, who rejected the predecessors, adding only complex com- geocentric system of the as- position and exaggerated forms and emo- tronomer Ptolemy that had been accepted tion. Architects decorated their structures wisdom since the second century. The tele- with elaborate forms and statuary, mar- scope allowed Galileo Galilei to observe ring the simply geometrical beauty that the moons of Jupiter. Biologists began the Brunelleschi and others had strived for. systematic classification of plants and ani- This “Mannerism” spelled the end of the mals. Physicists explored the properties of gravity, light, and motion. A new approach Renaissance and the “rebirth” of classical to medicine and healing replaced tradi- virtues, such as the balance of the elements tional concepts of the “bodily humors” and of a picture or building. As humanism be- the influence of the stars and on came a virtue of the past, a new period of the human body. The scientific method Baroque art came into being, and the map employing observation, deduction, and of Europe was soon to be dominated by reasoning, replaced the slavish devotion to wealthy and powerful states such as France the rigid systems of ancient Greek thinkers that saw their interests extended well be- Aristotle (in the natural sciences) and Ga- yond the old borders. len (in medicine). Over a short span of two centuries, men and women of the Renaissance cre- Mannerism and the End of ated many of the world’s greatest works of the , sculpture, architecture, music, and lit- The Renaissance began with a fragmented erature. Writers and scientists accepted the map of small states and principalities. It humanist worldview, while artists in the ended with a few national monarchies following generations imitated towering dominating the continent, after consoli- figures such as Michelangelo and Le- dating their authority of surrounding onardo, and many others who still exert a

16 Greenhaven Encyclopedia of The Renaissance Preface powerful influence on artists of the twenty- Notes first century. The Renaissance patron be- came a paradigm for collectors and con- 1. George Holmes, Renaissance.New noisseurs of art in the modern world, York: St. Martin’s, 2006, p. 87. while the princes of the age made a few 2. Quoted in William James Bouwsma, The halting steps toward the modern, republi- Waning of the Renaissance, c. 1550– can form of government. In many ways, 1640. New Haven, CT: Yale University the history of modern Europe began with Press, 2000, p. 8. the Renaissance and still takes place in the 3. Paul Johnson, The Renaissance: A Short shadow of its fascinating people and History., New York: Modern Library, events. 2000. pp. 15–16.

Greenhaven Encyclopedia of The Renaissance 17

academies der suspicion by the Catholic Church from Italian humanists and scholars revived the 1560, however, for teaching ideas counter ancient Greek academy beginning in the to official doctrine. The academy was for- middle of the fifteenth century. The acad- mally condemned by the church in 1580 emy was an informal group that met for and quickly disbanded. teaching, discussion, lectures, readings, and To establish a Renaissance academy debate. Most importantly for Renaissance marked a patron or scholar as a person of scholarship, these groups were a way for advanced ideas, a devotee of the new hu- newly discovered manuscripts to circulate manism and scientific inquiry that was in- in a time when printed books were rare spired by Greek and Roman writers. But and expensive commodities. The original in many cases the purpose of the academy akademia was a school founded by the was as much social as educational. Many Greek philosopher Plato in a sacred pre- academies had informal names, such as cinct outside the walls of Athens. In 1462, the Confusi (the Confused), the Gelati (the under the patronage of Cosimo de’ Medici, Frozen) and the Infiammati (the Inflamed). the ruler of Florence, a Platonic Academy Members adopted rules, symbols, secret began meeting in a Medici villa. Medici signs, and garb that proclaimed their appointed as head of the group the scholar membership and marked them off from Marsilio Ficino, whom Medici held in high the ordinary run of city-dwellers. regard as the collector and translator of By the end of the sixteenth century, many significant ancient-Greek texts. The there were several hundred academies in Platonic Academy had its imitators in Flo- Italy. In cities that were growing into re- rence and other cities. gional and national centers, academies per- By the middle of the sixteenth century, sisted and grew, while in minor cities they the academy was a common feature of declined and eventually disappeared. Some large cities and university towns through- academies concentrated on a single area of out Italy and was spreading to the rest of interest, such as language (the Florentine Europe. In some cases, the academies Academy) or art (the Academy of Design, posed an apparent threat to the established also in Florence). The Accademia dei Lin- authorities, in particular the Catholic cei (Academy of the Lynxes) was founded Church. The Accademia Secretorum in Rome in 1603 by Federico Cesi, who Naturae (Academy of the Secrets of named this group for the sharp vision and Nature), began meeting in Naples in 1560. observational powers of the lynx. The most Under the direction of the scientist Giam- famous member of this group was Galileo, battista della Porta, the academy welcomed who found support among its members members who wrote about or taught the for scientific theories found heretical by natural sciences. The group soon came un- the church. This academy was revived in

Greenhaven Encyclopedia of The Renaissance 19 Agricola, Rudolf the eighteenth century and is now the na- the University of Heidelberg in Germany. tional scientific institute of Italy. The Re- Over the years Agricola added Hebrew to naissance academy also has survived in his knowledge of Greek and Latin, and France with the Academie Francaise and took up the study of the Old Testament in in England with the Royal Society, both its original language. He traveled to Rome founded in the seventeenth century. in 1485 to accompany the embassy of John of Dahlberg to Innocent VIII, the newly SEE ALSO: education; Ficino, Marsilio; hu- elected pope. On this journey Agricola was manism; Medici, Cosimo de’ struck with an illness and died soon after Agricola, Rudolf returning to Germany. (1444–1485) Alberti, Leon Battista A Dutch scholar and humanist, Rudolf Ag- ricola was born in the town of Bafflo, in (1404–1472) the Low Countries (comprising present- An Italian painter, essayist, poet, philoso- day Belgium, Luxembourg, and the pher, mathematician, musician, and archi- Netherlands), as Rudolf Huysmann. He tect, Alberti was one of the universal schol- studied the works of Cicero and Quintil- ars of the early Renaissance. Born in ian at the universities of Erfurt in Ger- Genoa, he was the illegitimate son of many and Louvain in Belgium, where he Lorenzo Alberti, a merchant of Florence became a skilled critic and debater. In who had been placed under a ban by the 1468, he began study at the University of city. After moving from Genoa to Venice, , in northern Italy, and in 1475 joined Lorenzo Alberti established a bank. He the court of Ercole of Ferrara, who soon entered a well-known academy in also employed him as a musician. Agricola Padua run by Gasparino Barzizza, then befriended the leading humanists of Italy, studied law at the University of Bologna. studying and disputing the works of an- He earned his doctorate in canon (church) cient Latin and Greek authors. His first al- law in 1428. Skilled in Latin, he wrote legiance was to Germany and the Low Philodoxius in Latin verse and fooled a Countries, however, and he left the duke’s publisher into claiming it to be the work court in 1479 to spread his enthusiasm for of the ancient poet Lepidus. classical authors to northern Europe. In 1429 the Alberti family returned to Agricola’s restless life was typical of Re- Florence, where Leon began a study of ar- naissance scholars and humanists, many of chitecture. He joined the Florentine court whom wandered from one state, princely of Pope Eugenius IV, who had been driven court, and university to the next in search out of Rome, and became canon of the of patrons and appointments. cathedral of Florence. At some time in the Agricola is best known for his treatise he moved to Rome where, in 1432 De inventione dialectica (On Dialectical he became an abbreviator, whose job was Invention), a manual for teachers of logic to prepare documents for the pope and and rhetoric. After his , this work his administration. Alberti wrote treatises grew popular with scholars and students on a variety of subjects. His works from throughout northern Europe. At the invi- this early period include On the Advan- tation of John of Dahlberg, the Bishop of tages and Disadvantages of Letters, biogra- Worms, in 1482 he became a lecturer at phies of the saints, and Descriptio urbis

20 Greenhaven Encyclopedia of The Renaissance alchemy

Romae, a guide to the ancient ruins of motifs, including a triumphal arch and a Rome. In De Componendis Cifris he ex- great dome in imitation of the ancient plores cryptography; in I Libri della Pantheon of Rome (the dome was never Famiglia he instructs readers on domestic completed, however, as work on the church life and the education of children. ended with the death of Malatesta in Alberti took a great interest in art and 1466). architecture, and was one of the first crit- San Francesco was the first structure ics to write extensively on the emerging Alberti designed on the principles de- trends of the early Renaissance. His book scribed in De Re Aedificatoria, his best- De Pictura was a manual on the art of known work. De Re Aedificatoria held up painting. Writing for the aristocratic pa- ancient Roman architecture as a model for trons of art in Italy, Alberti expounded on his Italian contemporaries, and pro- the science of mathematics as the founda- pounded principles of architecture that tion for the art of painting. De Pictura Renaissance builders would follow for the contained a detailed explanation of linear next two centuries. Modeled on the work perspective, as first developed by Filippo Brunelleschi, the architect who designed of Vitruvius, a Roman architect, De Re the dome of the cathedral of Florence. In Aedificatoria covered town planning, build- Alberti’s view, the true aim of the artist, ing techniques, engineering, and aesthet- whether painter or sculptor, was to create ics. The book spread the ideas of the Flo- harmony by imitating nature to the best rentine Renaissance to the rest of Italy and of his ability. This perspective represents remained a standard text on architecture an important break from the medieval sen- until the eighteenth century. To historians sibility that emphasized biblical themes Alberti represents the classic Renaissance and devotion to the Christian faith. humanist, the universal man who applied his talents and genius to many different Alberti’s appointments allowed him fields and who strived to achieve a classi- time and freedom to pursue his studies cal harmony and balance in his works. and writing. He was appointed as of San Martino in the town of Gangalandi, SEE ALSO: architecture; Florence; human- , and in 1448 became the rector of ism; Vitruvius the parish of San Lorenzo in Mugello. In 1447 he became an inspector of monu- ments for the pope, an appointment he alchemy held until 1455. He was employed as a mu- Alchemy is the historic inquiry into the sician as well as an architect, and was ap- nature of matter, a research undertaken by pointed by to restore the many individuals in different cultures papal palace and to design the Trevi Foun- around the world. Alchemists were chem- tain. Alberti designed the facade of Santa ists, physicists, and philosophers, who had Maria Novella in Florence, an important as their ultimate goal the transformation symbol of early Renaissance architecture, of ordinary matter into gold. They under- as well as the church of San Andrea and took experiments, speculated on the com- the church of San Francesco in Rimini, a position of matter, and wrote treatises that work commissioned by Sigismondo Malat- were notorious for their complexity and esta, the city’s ruler. San Francesco mar- their obscure, often made-up language. ried religious architecture with classical During the Renaissance, the reputation of

Greenhaven Encyclopedia of The Renaissance 21 Alexander VI alchemy and alchemists declined. Some monarchs and church officials banned their work, and alchemists were subject to arrest and execution as magicians and her- etics. The ancient Greeks and Romans told of an ancient sage, the Egyptian Hermes Trismegitus, who was believed to have dis- covered many of the secrets of matter. Europe’s medieval alchemists collected plants, minerals, soil, and other substances, combining them and altering them in a search of the “philosopher’s stone,” which would allow them to create gold or silver from more common materials. In the quest for curing illness, they also under- A medallion bearing the likeness of Pope Al- took a search for a universal panacea that exander VI. THE LIBRARY OF CONGRESS. would relieve deadly maladies and bring the sick back to health. stances and their properties. The German The alchemists applied principles of scientist Andreas Libavius wrote Alchemia, astrology, religion, and metaphysics in considered by many to be the first chemis- their books of formulas, attempting to ar- try textbook. In some cases, the principles rive at universal principles that would ex- of alchemy provided a framework for in- plain their observations. Although they fluential systems of philosophy and knowl- failed in their efforts to find the edge. Paracelsus (1493–1541), considered philosopher’s stone, they did uncover use- by many as the greatest alchemist of the ful compounds. In their research into the Renaissance era, created an all- nature of light and illumination, the al- encompassing chemical trinity, in which chemist Hennig Brandt discovered phos- all earthly substances were grounded in phorus in 1669. Alchemical knowledge also salt (the principle of fixedness), sulfur (the contributed to industries such as dyeing, principle of inflammability), and tanning, metalworking, and glassmaking. (the principle of combining). Alchemists of the Renaissance drew on SEE ALSO: Paracelsus the medieval scholastic tradition of logic and argument, the knowledge of Arab herbalists and chemists, and the applica- Alexander VI tion of scientific research in industry and (1431–1503) manufacturing. During the Renaissance, Pope from 1492 until 1503, Alexander VI many philosophers and scientists wrote al- is known as one of the most charismatic, chemical works. Sir Isaac Newton devoted but also one of the most corrupt and more than thirty years to the investigation decadent, church leaders in history. of alchemy, setting down experimental He was born as Rodrigo Lancol in the notes, transcribing and editing the works town of Xativa, near , Spain. After of others, and making up catalogs of sub- his uncle Cardinal Alfonso Borgia was

22 Greenhaven Encyclopedia of The Renaissance Alexander VI elected as Pope Calixtus III in 1455, Rod- of France, a who had plans for rigo adopted the family name of Borgia the conquest of Naples. In 1493, however, and was appointed as a bishop. Under his Alexander made peace with Naples, ar- uncle’s patronage he studied law at the ranging the marriage of his son Giuffre to University of Bologna and in 1456 was a granddaughter of Ferdinand. In order to made a cardinal. He was widely praised ensure his authority in Rome, Alexander for his ability, energy, and gift for conver- created twelve new cardinals, and also be- sation and persuasion. When Pope Inno- stowed the title of cardinal on his son Ce- cent VIII died in 1492, Borgia emerged as sare. a leading candidate to succeed to the Pa- On the death of Ferdinand I in 1494, pacy. He won the election by bribing the Alexander allied again with Charles VIII cardinals who met to choose a successor and invited the French to invade Italy and and promising his rivals high positions in conquer Naples. After the French army ar- the Curia, the papal administration. rived, however, Alexander began to fear On reaching the papal throne, Alex- French domination of Italy and formed a ander began conducting himself more like league against Charles. This alliance de- a worldly king than a religious leader, mak- feated the French at the Battle of Fornovo. ing alliances and fighting wars to increase Alexander afterward sent his papal armies the power and wealth of his family. In against the Orsinis, who remained his de- Rome he dealt with a crime wave by or- termined enemies. dering criminals hanged in public and Under Alexander’s rule the papal ad- their houses razed. He ordered magnifi- ministration became a ruthless agency of cent palaces to be built in the city, as well blackmail and murder. The church sold as the raising of fortifications and the im- indulgences (remissions and pardonings of provement of roads and bridges. He in- sin) as well as church offices to raise enor- vited scholars, musicians, and theater mous sums of money, and the pope spent troupes to the papal court, and organized this wealth in supporting Cesare Borgia’s magnificent processions and ceremonies. military campaigns in northern Italy. In the meantime, he bestowed high While Rome became the scene of rampant church offices on his favored children, violence, the Vatican itself was used as a three sons and a daughter by his mistress luxurious place of entertainment and Vannozza dei Cattani. He made Cesare sumptuous orgies. Alexander also had a Borgia the archbishop of Valencia and Gio- great appreciation for art, however, and vanni Borgia a cardinal as well as the Duke brought the most renowned Renaissance of Gandia, a realm in Spain. He arranged artists of Italy, including Donato Bra- the marriage of his daughter Lucrezia to mante, Michelangelo Buonarroti, and Giovanni Sforza. ,toworkinRome. While attempting to lay claim for the The last years of Alexander’s life were Borgias on papal lands, Alexander was op- spent in fighting a conspiracy among the posed by the king of Naples, Ferdinand I, Orsini and Colonna families against him. as well as the powerful Orsini clan of To defeat his opponents, Alexander swept Rome. Ferdinand organized an alliance members of the Orsini clan into dungeons with Florence and Venice, while Alexander while Cesare lured two of the plotters to a sought the help of Charles VIII, the king palace in the town of Senigallia, where the

Greenhaven Encyclopedia of The Renaissance 23 Alfonso V of Aragon (the Magnanimous) men were strangled. In August 1503, Alex- lease him, then gathered another fleet and ander and Cesare suffered some form of returned to Naples. He besieged the city in mysterious poisoning at a Vatican banquet. 1441 and finally captured it the next year. Although Cesare survived, Alexander died The pope formally recognized him as the a slow and gruesome death. By this time king of Naples in 1443. Alfonso left the he was widely despised and feared; only rule of Aragon to his wife and brother and four church officials attended his funeral lived in Naples. He beautified and im- Mass. proved the city, repairing aqueducts, pav- ing streets, and building monuments. Al- SEE ALSO: Borgia, Cesare; Borgia, Lucrezia fonso introduced humanism to Spain and made Naples the Alfonso V of Aragon center of the Renaissance by patronage of (the Magnanimous) artists such as . (1396–1458) Alfonso founded the academy of Naples and commissioned from Laurana a King of Aragon and Naples, and an im- triumphal arch for his entrance into the portant Renaissance patron of the arts and city in 1443, which formed part of the scholarship, Alfonso was the son of Ferdi- . An important patron of the nand I of Aragon and the adopted son of arts and literature, Alfonso held the classi- Joanna II of Naples, who made him the cal Roman writers in reverence and set an hereditary king of her realm. This queen, example for future princes of Italy, who who had no direct heir, allied with Alfonso considered patronage of great art and ar- against Louis III, a prince of Anjou, whom chitecture a way of making their perma- Alfonso defeated on the battlefield in 1421. nent mark on the states they ruled. In this way Naples, then one of the wealthi- est states in Europe, was made part of the SEE ALSO: Naples Spanish realm of Aragon. In 1423, how- ever, Joanna and Alfonso broke off their Alighieri, Dante alliance and in 1435 the queen abdicated (1265–1321) the throne of Naples to Louis, who had Medieval poet who set his three-part work the support of . The Divine Comedy in Italian, breaking To contest Naples, Alfonso hired the with the tradition of writing serious liter- mercenary to lead his ary works in Latin, and who is considered forces. Joanna’s captain Muzio Sforza then the greatest poet of the . defeated Alfonso and the queen officially Born in Florence, Italy, he was a member named Louis III as her heir. After the death of the minor aristocracy who traced their of Louis in 1434, Joanna named Rene of lineage to celebrated Crusaders and to the Anjou as her heir in her will. She died in nobility of ancient Rome. Dante’s clan 1435, leaving Naples as a prize for any sided with the Guelph faction, which sup- ruler with the ambition and the manpower ported the popes in their struggles with to capture it. Alfonso led his forces into the . Dante was edu- Italy, capturing the important towns of cated in monastic schools in Florence and and , but was then defeated also privately with Brunetto Latini, a re- and taken prisoner. A persuasive speaker, nowned teacher of rhetoric. In 1289, he he convinced his captors in to re- took part in the battle of Campoldino in

24 Greenhaven Encyclopedia of The Renaissance Alighieri, Dante

forts by any Italian writer to express him- self in the vernacular (everyday language) of his homeland. Dante involved himself in the civil struggles that were then dividing Florence into two hostile camps. He joined the doc- tors and apothecaries guilds (guild mem- bership was required for anyone who sought high public office), and a few years following the appearance of Vita Nuova, he became a member of the city . When he traveled to Rome as Florentine envoy to Pope Boniface VIII in 1301, his opponents in the Guelph party who remained behind had him banished from the city, seized his property, and threatened him with execution should he ever return. For the remaining twenty years of his life, Dante lived in exile, wan- This by depicts “Dante dering from town to town and never re- Meeting Manfred in Purgatory,” a scene ceiving a pardon from the city of Florence from the third canto of Dante’s “Purgato- that would allow him to return. He lived rio.” in , Bologna, and , taking ref- uge in the homes of patrons and nobles which the Florentine Guelphs soundly de- who either admired his works or who feated their rivals in the Ghibelline fac- shared his political beliefs. He became a tion. supporter of Emperor Henry VII in the Dante was a devoted student of the latter’s drive to reunite the Italian city- ancient Roman poet Virgil as well as Ci- states. In 1310 an invasion of Italy by cero, a famous Roman politician and ora- Henry temporarily gave Dante hope for a tor. Drawn to poetry, he studied the an- return to Florence. These hopes were cient Latin poets as well as the songs of ended with the death of the emperor while the troubadours of Provence (southern on campaign in Tuscany in 1313. Dante’s France). He began composing love sonnets letters to Henry angered the Florentine as a young man. An encounter with a leaders further; when the city offered him young noblewoman, Beatrice Portinari, a pardon with certain strict conditions, who struck him as an ideal of beauty and Dante refused the offer and was afterward grace, inspired many of his poems. Her condemned to death. death at an early age in 1290 moved him While in exile, Dante wrote De Vul- to collect his poetry in Vita Nuova,or garii Eloquentia, a treatise on Italian as a “New Life.” The poems and prose passages literary language, and On Monarchy,a of this book, which was completed by work on politics in which Dante supported 1294, were written in Italian, and not the idea of a king to unite and control the Latin, and represent one of the earliest ef- many squabbling political factions of Italy.

Greenhaven Encyclopedia of The Renaissance 25 Anguissola, Sofonisba

Il Convivio,orThe Banquet,wasasecond who agreed to critique copies she made of collection of poems and commentaries. his sketches. Social conventions prevented The Divine Comedy, which Dante began her from rendering mythical allegories or about 1306 and originally named simply biblical subjects, which frequently con- The Comedy, tells the story of the author’s tained nude figures, or large-scale histori- imaginary voyage through , Purgatory, cal works. As a result she specialized in and Paradise. The three books of the poem portraits of family members and acquain- consist of more than fourteen thousand tances in domestic settings. In 1559 she lines, contained within one hundred can- became a court painter for Elizabeth of tos. In the first two books of the work, he Valois, the queen of Spain. At the royal is guided by Virgil, the historical author of court in Madrid she painted official por- the epic poem The Aeneid; on the trip traits that found favor with the royal fam- through Paradise he accompanies Beatrice, ily as well as aristocratic patrons. King a distant love of Dante’s youth to whom Philip II of Spain rewarded her with a gen- he dedicated all of his works. The poem is erous pension. In 1580 she returned to divided into three-line stanzas in a scheme Italy, settling in Genoa, where she set up a known as terza rima, in which the first private studio and became one of the city’s and third lines rhyme with the middle line most prominent artists. As the first woman of the previous stanza. The Divine Comedy to win renown as a painter during the Re- is an allegory of an ordinary man’s jour- naissance, she inspired many younger ney through life, and his striving to escape women to pursue similar careers. worldly sin and misery through reason, represented by Virgil, and the spiritual en- Anne of Brittany lightenment and hope offered by God. (1477–1514) Dante’s work established the Tuscan dia- lect of Italian as a worthy language of - Queen consorts of France and Duchess of etry and other literary forms; the use of Brittany, Anne was a wealthy patroness of everyday language in his works and those Renaissance art and music who devoted of Giovanni Boccaccio greatly expanded her life to keeping Brittany independent of the audience for poetry and prose. Dante’s French control. Born in Nantes, a port city blend of religious and secular themes in of the Breton coast, she was the daughter his work also helped to bridge the medi- of Duke Francis II and Margaret of Foix. eval and humanist eras of European litera- Brittany had remained independent of ture. France even after the defeat of England by the French at the close of the Hundred SEE ALSO: Boccaccio, Giovanni; Florence; Years’ War. Although Brittany fought the literature French armies to a stalemate in 1488, by the Treaty of Verger that concluded this Anguissola, Sofonisba war Anne was not allowed to marry with- (1532–1625) out the approval of the French king. The A painter and portraitist, Sofonisba An- only surviving child of her parents, Anne guissola was born in , Italy, the inherited her father’s title when he died in daughter of noble parents. She studied a riding accident and left no male heirs. painting in Cremona and in 1554 traveled In the French kingdom the to Rome, where she met Michelangelo, prohibited women from reigning; the ar-

26 Greenhaven Encyclopedia of The Renaissance architecture rival of an unmarried girl as the nominal head of Brittany set off a diplomatic crisis between Brittany and France. To head off the claims of the French, a marriage was arranged between the twelve-year-old Anne and Maximilian, the Habsburg em- peror of the , long an enemy of France. The wedding took place by proxy in December 1490, without the bride and groom actually meeting to take part in a ceremony; at the insistence of France the marriage was soon dissolved by a decree from the pope. The French king Charles VIII then began a siege of Anne’s capital at Rennes, which ended with the city starving and capitulating and Anne agreeing to marry Charles. The wedding took place at the chateau of , in the face of angry protests from the Hab- sburg dynasty, which claimed the marriage An aerial view of Brunelleschi’s “Il Duomo,” to be illegal. the dome of the Cathedral of Santa Maria As a result of her marriage to Charles, Del Fiore in Florence. THE BRIDGEMAN ART Anne was crowned as the queen of France LIBRARY/GETTY IMAGES. in February 1492. She gave birth to four children, all of whom died before reaching architecture adulthood. When Charles died in 1498 Anne was married to his successor, Louis The architecture of the Renaissance drew XII, but also returned to Brittany, where on forms and techniques recovered from she allowed a parliament of representatives ancient Greece and Rome. This classical to meet. Although Louis claimed the right architecture came to light with the redis- to govern her , she defied French covery of the Roman architect Vitruvius, claims on Brittany until her death in 1514. whose book On Architecture revealed She had two surviving daughters by building techniques that had been lost in Louis—Claude and Renee. By her will the the Middle Ages. Vitruvius’s work was duchy passed to her younger daughter translated into many languages and ap- Renee; however, Louis forced the issue of peared in several new editions; On Archi- Breton independence by decreeing Claude tecture inspired new treatises by Renais- as the rightful heir to Anne’s title. By the sance writers striving to explain and marriage of Claude to Francis of inspire the use of classical proportions and Angouleme, who became King Francis I in harmony. These authors, including Leon 1515, Brittany passed on the control of Battista Alberti and Andrea Palladio, as- France. pired to teach universal ideals, grounded in mathematics, classical philosophy, sci- SEE ALSO: Charles VIII; Francis I; Maximil- ence, geometry and the art of perspective. ian I They were translated and spread quickly

Greenhaven Encyclopedia of The Renaissance 27 architecture throughout Europe as the taste for the the basic geometry of a building. The fa- classical ideal spread. By the time of the cade and the interior of the building High Renaissance, appearance in the an- worked together, rather than being entirely cient style (all’antica in Italian) gave a separate elements as in the Middle Ages. church, private home, or palace the stamp Church architecture was more consis- of an aristocratic and intellectual elitism. tent across the continent, with two major Giorgio Vasari, in The Lives of the Most plans dominating—the basilica in the Excellent Italian Painters, Sculptors, and Ar- shape of a cross, with elongated nave and chitects, had the honor of coining the term short transept, and the Greek cross. The rinascita, or “re-birth,” a designation for Greek cross was admired for its balance the entire age of returning to classical ide- and perfect proportions of the square and als. circle, but after the Catholic Reformation Italian architects were the first to aban- the church, in its effort to echo the virtues the medieval Gothic manner of de- of the early Christians, returned to the tra- signing sacred and secular buildings. The ditional basilica plan. saw the Gothic style as a strange Private architecture also assumed clas- and foreign importation, brought by sical models. Roman homes, with severe northern barbarians and imposed on the street fronts, individual rooms coming off heirs of the ancient Romans. Throwing off long corridors, and colonnaded interior the old style was a point of pride; the edu- courtyards, were imitated in majestic Re- cation of many artists and architects in- naissance palaces, with the Farnese Palace cluded a pilgrimage to Rome to investigate of Antonio da Sanagallo in Rome one of and measure the remains of the ancient the best-known examples. Facades were city. The work of Filippo Brunelleschi in regular and symmetrical, surmounted by a Florence was an important harbinger of cornice, and centered on immense door- the new architecture of the Renaissance. ways that advertised the owner’s wealth Brunelleschi’s architectural masterpieces and prestige. The rooms were decorated included the Santo Spirito and San with fresco paintings, another imitation of Lorenzo in Florence, and the dome of the Roman style. Country homes adopted Ro- city’s cathedral. In the next generation, man features, such as grottoes, elaborate Donato Bramante, Giovanni Amadeo, gardens, fountains, pools, and open-air Leon Battista Alberti, Andrea Palladio, An- courtyards. tonio da Sangallo, Raphael, and Michelan- Accompanying new ideas in architec- gelo Buonarroti carried the classical ideal ture was the new science and art of town throughout Italy. planning, which began to change Europe’s Their new style emphasized symmetry, urban landscape. Comprehensive plans the balance of different elements, and har- cleared away the organic web of medieval monious proportions. Plain surfaces and streets and replaced it with logical grid clear lines swept away the exuberant clut- plans (borrowed from Roman colonies), ter of Gothic spires and sculpture. The large and open public squares, and wide classical arch and dome came into style; boulevards that served as an axis of traffic columns in the three ancient orders— and commerce. Renaissance cities were also Doric, Ionic, and Corinthian—gave the ap- decorated with classical features such as pearance of a classical temple, and revealed columns, arches, and monumental statu-

28 Greenhaven Encyclopedia of The Renaissance Ariosto, Ludovico ary. The largest example of urban renewal works of the Renaissance. Born in the was the city of Rome itself, where the dark town of Reggio Emilio, the son of a mili- and chaotic medieval neighborhoods were tary commander, Ludovico Ariosto moved cleared away and the city knit together to Ferrara while still a boy. He later stud- with wide avenues, with a practical pur- ied law despite his preference for poetry. pose of accommodating the many religious He was instructed in Latin and Greek by pilgrims making their way to Saint Peter’s the scholar Gregorio da Spoleto, but on Basilica. the death of his father in 1500 he became Italian architecture and its classicism responsible for his nine siblings. Two years spread throughout the rest of Europe, later, he became the commander of the where builders blended the new style with town of Canossa. techniques and traditions of their own As a young man, Ariosto found a countries. Toward the end of the sixteenth needed patron in Cardinal Ippolito d’Este, century, classicism became an international who showed ignorance and contempt for idiom, used in the monumental buildings his works and used him as a common ser- such as the Louvre palace in Paris, and the vant. In 1516 Ariosto completed Orlando Escorial near Madrid. Furioso, an epic poem in forty-six cantos. The architecture of the sixteenth cen- He based the poem on Orlando Innam- tury used classical buildings as a mere orato, an unfinished work of Matteo Maria starting point for new innovations. The Boiardo. It was a tale of romance and chiv- leading figure of the new Mannerist style alry that borrowed themes and characters was Michelangelo Buonarroti, who de- from the popular chansons de geste, epic signed the Campidoglio in Rome, a beau- romances of the medieval age. The poet tifully proportioned public square atop the takes on the role of a singing troubadour, Capitoline Hill, the heart of the ancient describing the adventures of Orlando, a city. Churches and aristocratic palaces were knight who fights the Saracens for the em- built, structures that were unknown to the peror and goes mad with ancient Romans. In France, the Renais- love for the beautiful Angelica. In Orlando sance style was expressed in graceful cha- Furioso Ariosto showed great respect for teaus, such as Chambord and Azay-le- chivalric poetry but also chided the chan- Rideau, that replaced the fortresslike sons de geste for their old-fashioned atten- castles of the medieval age. In England, tion to courtly manners. His work inspired Inigo Jones applied classical design to royal several major poets to create imitations palaces and private homes in the early sev- and leading painters to illustrate scenes enteenth century. from the poem. SEE ALSO: Alberti, Leon Battista; Bramante, Ariosto left the cardinal’s household in Donato; Brunelleschi, Filippo; Michelan- 1518 and joined that of Alfonso I, the duke gelo Buonarroti; Palladio, Andrea; Vitru- of Ferrara, whom he served as ambassador vius to Pope Julius II. The duke later appointed him governor of Garfagnana, a remote dis- Ariosto, Ludovico trict in the Apennine Mountains. Ariosto (1474–1533) was responsible for managing a lawless re- Italian poet whose Orlando Furioso,be- gion infested with bandits, but had won came one of the most famous literary such a reputation for his poetry that he

Greenhaven Encyclopedia of The Renaissance 29 Aristotelianism was immediately released by a band of ing Nicomachean Ethics, Physics, Politics, criminals after being kidnapped. and Poetics. Aristotle’s teachings were also Known throughout Italy, Ariosto’s preserved and studied by Islamic scholars, poem found an even larger audience when including Ibn Sina (Avicenna) and Aver- it was published in its final form in 1532. roes, whose commentaries spurred a re- Ariosto’s other works include satires and vival of Aristotelian studies in Europe. stage comedies, including La Cassaria and Aristotle attempted to encompass the Il Suppositi, modeled on the works of the entire natural world and all phenomena in ancient Romans Plautus and Terrence. The his philosophy known as Aristotelianism, latter work was borrowed by William which included the studies of logic, rheto- Shakespeare for his play The Taming of the ric, poetics, natural science, politics, math- Shrew. ematics, and ethics. He classified all knowl- edge into a threefold system of science SEE ALSO: Ferrara; Tasso, Torquato (episteme), conduct (praxis), and created works (poesis). Logic was the most impor- Aristotelianism tant discipline as it provided a means of Aristotelianism is the philosophy inspired understanding science and the analytical by the Greek philosopher Aristotle, who processes through inductive reasoning. was born in Stagira, a town of the Chal- Renaissance scholars throughout Eu- cidice region of northern Greece, in 384 rope presented Aristotle’s theories as a B.C. A student of Plato, he founded the Ly- foundation for studying the natural world ceum, a school modeled after Platos’ Acad- and human conduct through the theoreti- emy in Athens. At the Lyceum, Aristotle cal, practical, and productive sciences. instructed students in science, rhetoric, Theoretical science (theoria) combined and natural philosophy. His most famous natural philosophy, or things that can be pupil was Alexander of Macedon, who es- seen and are made up of matter, with the tablished Greek lyceums in the many cities study of theology, mathematics, astronomy, of Asia, the Middle East, and that and thought processes. Practical sciences he conquered or founded. Medieval schol- analyzed ethics, politics, and human con- ars began studying Aristotle’s system of duct. The practical sciences attempted to thought in the twelfth century, when his advance the cause of moral virtues, such works were translated into Latin. Modern as courage and moderation, by instilling translations and the newfound interest in such virtues in the young through educa- classical authors made the Aristotelian sys- tion and then carrying them out through tem a major branch of scholarship during a well-reasoned system of laws and justice. the Renaissance. According to Aristotle’s teachings, the Most of the writings of Aristotle that proper conduct and exercise of virtues will survived into the Middle Ages, and to bring true happiness to society as well as modern times, were composed of teaching the individual. The productive sciences in- notes. They were written on scrolls that cluded poetics, rhetoric, architecture, and survived centuries of war, political chaos, medicine. and neglect to be preserved in European Aristotelianism further spread after the monasteries, where they were then tran- fall of Constantinople in 1453, when Greek scribed and collected into editions, includ- exiles began arriving in western Europe.

30 Greenhaven Encyclopedia of The Renaissance Ascham, Roger

For the first time, many of Aristotle’s sors to the modern school textbook. works were being studied in the original ancient Greek language that was slowly SEE ALSO: Bruni, Leonardo; classical litera- spreading with the revival of classical texts. ture In addition, translations were made into common languages such as Italian and Ascham, Roger French. New branches of Aristotelian stud- (ca. 1515–1568) ies were also forming, along with various A noted scholar of England, Ascham was schools of thought on how to organize born in Yorkshire and entered Cambridge Aristotle’s texts and present his system of University at the age of fourteen. He be- knowledge. Many of Europe’s leading uni- came so proficient in ancient Greek stud- versity lecturers devoted themselves exclu- ies that he presented lectures on the sub- sively to the study of Aristotle, with some ject to his fellow students, and won strictly following the texts, and others ap- widespread admiration for his writing and plying the Aristotelian system to the ever- speaking abilities. He completed his changing natural and social worlds they bachelor’s degree at the age of eighteen experienced. For example, Leonardo Bruni, and soon after was made a fellow of the an important translator of Aristotle’s university. Wearied by the constant study, works, replaced the word-for-word trans- writing, and lecturing, Ascham diligently lations of the medieval era with a freer applied himself as well to the sport of ar- translation more fit for study in Latin. Ga- chery. His work Toxophilus was an essay lileo Galilei and Philipp Melanchthon also on the manly, English sport, and imparted incorporated Aristotelianism into their the lesson that practice, physical work, and works. While some writers were content to sheer repetition is more useful in certain simply annotate Aristotle’s works, others arts than mere theory. The essay, written probed deeper, posing questions and prob- in a straightforward English free of the lems in an attempt to extract deeper uni- pretentious language of other academics, versal meaning to their new systems of won the favor of King Henry VIII, who natural philosophy. granted Ascham a pension of ten pounds a year and hired him as a tutor to his As the organizer of philosophical and daughter Elizabeth, later Queen Elizabeth scientific thought, Aristotle was the most I. Ascham instilled a love of the Greek and important figure of the classical world for Latin in Elizabeth, and as a re- all Renaissance scholars, and his works spected scholar he was appointed by Henry provided the basic framework of all uni- as a diplomat. He became Latin secretary versity studies. Aristotle’s works were read to Queen Mary and continued in the posi- in lecture halls in the three stages of lectio tion as secretary when Elizabeth succeeded (lecture), repetio (repetition), and disputa- her half sister to the throne of England. tio (disputation, or argument). The inven- Ascham was a key figure in the teaching of tion of printing in the mid-fifteenth cen- classical literature in the English Renais- tury allowed Aristotle’s works to be widely sance. Late in his life he completed The distributed to a literate public. Lavish print Scholemaster, a famous treatise on the editions, with commentaries, indexes, and teaching of Latin. summaries along with questions for argu- ment and examination, were the precur- SEE ALSO: Elizabeth I; Henry VIII

Greenhaven Encyclopedia of The Renaissance 31 astrology astrology unpredictable natural world a little more Astrology, the study of the planets and predictable. Almanacs were calendars, with their position in order to predict future a schedule of holy days and saints’ days, events, has its origins in ancient Babylo- advice on planting and harvesting, weather nia. The basic principles of astrology as set forecasts, and prognostications of impor- out in the Tetrabiblos of Ptolemy, the Al- tant events. Worldly predictions made al- exandrian astronomer of the second cen- manacs suspect to kings and their minis- tury, formed the basis of astrology as it ters, however, and in many corners of was practiced in the Middle Ages. Planets, Europe it became a crime to publish as- the “wanderers” of the night sky, were be- trological data and predictions. The church lieved to have certain characteristics that remained adamantly opposed to astrology had a corresponding affect on earth. Sat- as an occult practice, and in 1586 Pope urn, for example, was considered a cold, Sixtus VI condemned the practice in a fa- dry, and harmful , while the moon mous papal bull (decree). was viewed as warm, moist, and beneficial. Nevertheless, nobles and royalty—and The position of the planets relative to each many of the popes—were devoted believ- other, and their motion along the ecliptic ers in astrology; many of them employed plane or zodiac, also came into play. astrologers at their courts and made no The complexities of this system made important decisions without taking into it a difficult and esoteric science, under- consideration their advice. Important mat- standable only to educated men and out ters of state, and especially of war, never of the reach of commoners. An occult were decided without the advice of as- mystique surrounded astrologers, who trologers, who claimed to eliminate chance seemed to have access to hidden knowl- and misfortune with their complicated edge of how the universe really worked. charts and obscure language. Lucas Gauri- The church condemned astrology as her- cus was the official astrologer to Pope Leo esy, and as the practice of magicians and X and Pope Clement VII. Philipp Melanch- charlatans. But astrology was strongly de- thon was a renowned German astrologer fended by medieval authors such as Guido whose advice was often called upon. Bonatti, the official astrologer of the city Catherine de Médicis, a queen of France, of Florence, who set out his opinions in was devoted to astrology and employed the influential book Liber Astronomicus.At Michel de Notredame, or Nostradamus, the mercy of a capricious natural world, the most renowned astrologer of France. and the workings of fate that were often Nostradamus published an important difficult to explain, nobles and kings work on astrology in 1555. At the re- sought the assistance of astrologers, who spected universities of Pavia and Bologna, promised to turn the wheel of fortune in astrologers held professorships and vied their favor. with astronomers for student followers. In the fifteenth century, the printing Bologna, Milan, and Mantua were impor- press began spreading astrology to a wider tant centers of astrological research during audience. In addition to his Bibles, Jo- the Italian Renaissance. hannes Gutenberg produced almanacs that Traditional astrologers cast personal were widely imitated throughout Europe horoscopes based on the position of the and that served to make the dangerous, planets at the time of one’s birth. There

32 Greenhaven Encyclopedia of The Renaissance astronomy were many variations of this practice. The mentaries by the medieval scholars Georg English astrologer William Lilly practiced von Peuerbach, Johann Müller (known as horary astrology: the prediction of events Regiomontanus), and Georg Joachim based on the time when a person poses a Rheticus. To verify their observations as- question, not when he or she is born. tronomers drew on the Alfonsine Tables Lilly’s accurate predictions gained him the that were set down in Toledo, Spain, in support of King Charles II and a salary 1252, and that were based on the Ptole- from the government of Oliver Cromwell. maic system. The earth was the center of His predictions also got him in serious the universe around which the sun, plan- trouble with the authorities, who accused ets, and stars revolved; the heavens were him of setting the 1666 Great Fire of Lon- permanent and unchanging; a perfect har- don after predicting this event. mony and balance existed in which, ac- Astronomical observation brought cording to astrologers, celestial phenom- about new theories of the true nature of ena had their effect on events and people the universe during the Renaissance; the on the terrestrial globe. Polish astronomer Nicolaus Copernicus As the skill of observers improved, theorized that the earth revolves around however, the Ptolemaic system came under the sun, not the other way around. This question. The Polish astronomer Nicolaus heliocentric theory was a drastic change Copernicus, while using the Alfonsine from traditional beliefs and initiated a Tables in 1504 in observing a conjunction gradual decline in the acceptance of as- of Mars and Saturn, found them inaccu- trology among scientists and philosophers. rate. Trusting in his own calculations, Co- The philosopher Giovanni Pico della Mi- pernicus began questioning the Ptolemaic randola was skeptical of astrology, but system and concluded that a heliocentric many astronomers, including Johannes Ke- (sun-centered) structure accounted more pler and Tycho Brahe, offered their ser- accurately for the motions of the planets. vices as astrologers to nobles and princes. This theory was revolutionary and, in The influence of astrology among scien- Copernicus’s view, dangerous, as it ques- tists waned at the end of the Renaissance tioned the accepted wisdom supported by and disappeared altogether in the Enlight- the church for centuries. He did not allow enment, which followed. his theory to circulate in print until the SEE ALSO: astronomy; Brahe, Tycho; end of his life, although heliocentrism be- Melanchthon, Philipp; Pico della Miran- came a common topic of debate among dola, Giovanni clergy and scientists in the early sixteenth century. The Alfonsine Tables would be re- astronomy placed by the Prutenic Tables of Erasmus Astronomy of the Middle Ages was Reinhold, which were based on the Coper- grounded in the work of Ptolemy, a scien- nican heliocentric universe. tist of ancient Alexandria, whose work The In 1572, the Danish astronomer Tycho Almagest set out the Ptolemaic system of Brahe discovered a new star and, in 1577, an earth-centered universe. The Ptolemaic a comet. Through these observations view was accepted by philosophers and Brahe showed that the heavens were ever- sanctioned by the church, and his work changing, producing new objects and phe- was the foundation of studies and com- nomena that were not accounted for in

Greenhaven Encyclopedia of The Renaissance 33 Aurispa, Giovanni traditional astronomy. The invention of ditional view of the heavens through a the telescope in the early seventeenth cen- transformation, explaining the universe tury allowed astronomers more accurate was a skill passing out of the hands of phi- observations that led to improvements in losophers and the church and to a class of the Copernican system. Using a telescope scientific specialists who rejected medieval and colored lenses, in 1611 Christoph traditions of astrology and religious doc- Scheiner observed sunspots—dark spots trine altogether. that appear at times on the sun—proving SEE ALSO: astrology; Copernicus, Nicolaus; that the sun was a mutable body, and not Galilei, Galileo; Kepler, Johannes a perfect sphere of fire or light. In study- ing the motion of Mars, Johannes Kepler Aurispa, Giovanni concluded that the circular orbits of tradi- tional astronomy were a mirage. Instead, (ca. 1369–1459) according to Kepler, the planets moved in An Italian scholar and renowned book col- elliptical orbits, with the sun lying at one lector, Aurispa was born in the town of focus of the ellipse. According to Kepler’s , on the island of . In 1413 he harmonic law, the orbital period of a traveled to the island of , where he planet varied with the distance of the unearthed works by the ancient Greek planet from the sun. Astronomers would scholars , , and Thucy- later use this law to calculate the dimen- dides that were still unknown in western sions of the solar system. Europe. On two occasions he visited the city of Constantinople, capital of the Byz- The complex equations theorized by antine Empire, to search for ancient Greek Kepler and others replaced the fixed and books and manuscripts. He gathered 238 unchanging doctrines of the past. Sir Isaac volumes before returning to Italy in 1423, Newton introduced the law of universal but finding himself without financial gravitation, which explained the relation- means, he had to pawn many of his finds. ship between orbit and velocity. The Ru- Among these ancient works were the plays dolphine Tables created by Tycho Brahe of Sophocles and , the ancient and Kepler in 1627 replaced the Prutenic epic known as the , and works of Xe- Tables. Astronomy became a science, car- nophon and Plato. Aurispa taught Greek ried out through accurate observation. Re- in Bologna and Florence, Italy, and be- naissance astronomers dared to question came secretary to Pope Eugene IV in 1441. traditional wisdom, even at the risk of los- He was kept in this post by Eugene’s suc- ing their reputations and their lives. The cessor, Nicholas V. Aurispa produced sev- Italian scientist Galileo Galilei, using a tele- eral Latin translations of ancient Greek scope, discovered the moons of Jupiter and writers, including . He was a the mountains and craters of the moon. key figure in the rediscovery of classical For his theories on the nature of the solar literature in Renaissance Italy. system; and his discovery of worlds previ- ously unknown, he was threatened by the Inquisition of the Catholic Church—a tri- Austria bunal that punished heresy—and his Austria during the Renaissance was a works were censored. Nevertheless, the duchy of central Europe that had impor- work of Galileo and others placed the tra- tance as the seat of the Habsburg dynasty.

34 Greenhaven Encyclopedia of The Renaissance Aviz, House of

In 1273, Count Rudolf of the Habsburg masters. The Schloss Neugebaude, an im- family was appointed king of Germany. perial villa, and the Hofburg, the Habsburg Five years later his sons Albert and Rudolf palace in Vienna, were built in the classical became the rulers of Austria, a small do- style then popular in Italy. main along the Danube River. Habsburg SEE ALSO: Dürer, Albrecht; Habsburg dy- archdukes reigned in Austria for more than nasty six hundred years afterward. They brought new territories under their control through Aviz, House of marital alliances. In the fifteenth century A ruling dynasty of Portugal that assumed the Habsburg king Frederick III became power in 1385 with the coronation of Joao Holy Roman Emperor, and from that point I, master of the Order of Aviz, as king. on the Habsburgs remained in possession The Order of Aviz, symbolized by a green of this title. Archduke Maximilian married cross, was founded in the twelfth century a princess of Burgundy in 1477, bringing to contend with the Moors, Islamic occu- that wealthy realm of northwestern Eu- piers of the . Under the rope under the Habsburgs’ control. kings of Aviz, Portgual became one of the Through another marriage, Maximilian’s wealthiest realms in Europe. Portuguese son Philip reigned in Castile, Aragon, and mariners explored the coasts of Africa, Italian possessions. By the time of Em- Asia, and the western hemisphere, laying peror Charles V, the Habsburgs also were claim to in South America and trad- in control of Bohemia and Hungary, mak- ing ports in the East Indies, India, and ing their realm the largest in Europe. China. Patronage of artists and scholars by The second ruler of the dynasty, Du- the Habsburgs made Vienna an important arte I, the Philosopher, supported the center of the Renaissance in central Eu- founding of a school of navigation by his rope. The attracted noted art- brother, Prince Henry the Navigator, at ists, sculptors, architects, and composers. Sagres. Duarte allied Portugal with En- Many Dutch composers were employed at gland by marrying , the sixteenth-century courts of the Hab- daughter of the English prince John of sburgs. One of the notable Renaissance Gaunt. His son, Afonso V, succeeded him humanists to make his home in Austria in 1438 at the age of six. After coming of was Enea Silvio Piccolomini, who was the age, Afonso attacked and conquered sev- royal poet laureate of Emperor Frederick eral important ports in North Africa, earn- III, later the emperor’s secretary, and fi- ing the nickname of “the African.” Joao II, nally Pope Pius II in 1458. The University coming to power in 1481, dealt with rebel- of Vienna, under the leadership of Conra- lious nobles in his country who were be- dus Celtis, drew scholars from throughout ing supported by the Spanish realm of the empire. Celtis had the works of an- Castile. To put an end to the conspiracies, cient authors translated into German, Joao summoned three noblemen to his staged ancient Roman plays in Vienna, and royal palace and murdered them. founded a college for poets. He had come Manuel I reigned from 1495 until to the capital at the invitation of Maximil- 1521. This was an important time for over- ian I, who also commissioned work from seas trade and the establishment of Albrecht Dürer and several other German Portugal’s far-flung colonial empire. Por-

Greenhaven Encyclopedia of The Renaissance 35 Aviz, House of tuguese explorers traveled to Brazil, dis- violent struggle over the throne of Portu- covered routes across the Indian Ocean, gal. Anthony, grandson of Manuel I, and staked Portuguese claims in India. The claimed his right to inherit the throne in style of Portuguese architecture known as 1580 but was opposed by Philip II, king of was named after this illustrious Spain and a member of the Habsburg dy- king. Under Joao III, called the Grocer nasty. Philip defeated Anthony at the Battle King, Portugal sent missions to China and of Alcantara, after which Anthony re- Japan, colonized Brazil, and secured a mo- treated to the Islands and Philip nopoly in the rich trade of cloves, nutmeg, assumed power, ending the reign of the and cinnamon from the East Indies. Joao’s House of Aviz. Until 1640 Portugal and successor Sebastian I died fighting in Mo- Spain would be united under the rule of rocco in 1578. the Habsburgs.

Sebastian never married and died SEE ALSO: Henry the Navigator; Manuel I; without an heir, the vacancy leading to a Philip II; Portugal

36 Greenhaven Encyclopedia of The Renaissance Bacon, Francis essay “A Declaration of the Practices and (1561–1626) Treasons of the Earl of Essex.” English philosopher and essayist, and a On the death of Queen Elizabeth in key voice and advocate of the Scientific 1603, James I, the first of the Stuart dy- Revolution that followed on the heels of nasty, ascended the throne of England. Ba- con earned recognition from the crown the Renaissance. Bacon was born in Lon- for his help in condemning the Earl of Es- don, the son of Sir Nicholas Bacon, Queen sex. He was bestowed a knighthood in Elizabeth’s Lord Keeper of the Great Seal, 1603, became a solicitor in 1607, and was and Ann Cooke Bacon. He was the nephew appointed clerk of the king’s Star Cham- of William Cecil, the chief counselor to ber in 1608. In 1613 James named him at- the queen, and his family connections pre- torney general, and in 1616 Bacon became pared him from an early age for a public a member of the king’s Privy Council. In career. At the age of twelve, he entered 1618 he attained the post of Lord Chan- Trinity College, Cambridge, where he stud- cellor, in which he advised the king on ied Aristotelianism but found it lacking in objectivity. In 1576 he traveled to France, where he stayed until 1579, upon the death of his father. Unable to prosper from his father’s meager legacy, he studied law at Cambridge and became a barrister in 1582. Bacon took a seat in the English par- liament in 1584 and began seeking ad- vancement and the patronage of the queen. His opposition to a scheme for rais- ing taxes, however, brought him into Elizabeth’s disfavor. He improved his pros- pects by allying himself with the Earl of Essex, a favorite of Elizabeth, and serving as Essex’s counselor. In 1596 Bacon was appointed counsel to the Queen, but his financial situation did not improve and in 1598 he was arrested for debt. After a fall- ing out with the Earl of Essex, Bacon was appointed to investigate Essex on the sus- picion of treason. Essex was executed in English politician and philosopher of science 1601; Bacon explained his findings in the Sir Francis Bacon.

Greenhaven Encyclopedia of The Renaissance 37 Barocci, Federico economic and political matters and also proceed on faith. This philosophy marked advocated the union of England and Scot- the end of an age in which strict religious land under a single monarch. At the same doctrines bound European thinkers, writ- time, his continuing financial troubles ers, and scientists; and when philosophers brought him under suspicion of corrup- constructed elaborate but artificial systems tion. In 1621 Bacon was investigated and to explain the evidence of their senses. then forced out of office for taking bribes. New Atlantis isanovelBaconwrotein He was fined forty thousand pounds, im- the 1620s in which he creates a utopian prisoned in the Tower of London for sev- society founded on scientific principles eral days, and banned from holding any that bring about a variety of useful inven- official position in the future. After this tions: a way to preserve food by chilling it, fallfromgraceBaconretiredfrompublic a system of controlling the air temperature life and turned to studying and writing. within closed rooms, and a method of Bacon’s works include The Colours of speaking across long distances. Although Good and Evil, Meditationes Sacrae, The he was no scientist, throughout his life Ba- Advancement of Learning (1605), and No- con sought to apply his philosophical prin- vum Organum, published in 1620. His ciples to experiments to the best of his most famous work is a book titled Essays, ability, using materials at hand. In 1626, a collection of writings that he began as- while traveling on a cold winter’s day, he sembling in 1597 that span thirty years. In was inspired by a new idea for preserving his essays and books Bacon describes a food. He had a woman kill and clean a new method of deductive reasoning, urg- chicken that he then stuffed with snow. ing scientists and philosophers to proceed Falling ill with pneumonia, he then ate the on the foundation of observable facts in- chicken in an attempt to ward off the ill- stead of from popular religious or philo- ness and soon came down with a fatal case sophical doctrines, whether they originated of food poisoning. in the ancient or medieval world. Further, Bacon enjoyed little popularity during the scientist should avoid certain habits of his lifetime, but his reputation grew post- mind, which Bacon called “Idols,” that humously through the seventeenth cen- arose from their own nature, from their tury, when many scientists relied on the use of language, from their upbringing, philosophical foundation he had laid in and from the society in which they lived. their pursuit of scientific truth. The estab- In his view a rigorously factual investiga- lishment of England’s Royal Society in tion and controlled experiments would 1660 was largely inspired by Bacon’s phi- eventually lead to the discovery of general losophy, which advocated benefitting the principles that governed all natural phe- general public welfare through the ad- nomena. In De Augmentis Scientiarum, vancement of science. published in 1623, Bacon separates duty to society from duty to God, and denies the SEE ALSO: Aristotelianism; Elizabeth I; idea that universal principles should gov- James I of England ern human actions in their social, nonreli- gious lives. He recognizes the separation of Barocci, Federico science and religion, maintaining that faith (ca. 1526–1612) could not be justified through the intellect One of the leading Italian artists of the and that scientific investigation could not early Baroque period. Born as Federico

38 Greenhaven Encyclopedia of The Renaissance Bartolommeo, Fra

Fiori in Urbino, he studied with his uncle, an attempt by the church to return Protes- Bartolomeo Genga. Barocci moved to tant lands to Catholic control. He became Rome in his twenties and, while training a member of the Capuchin religious order with a minor painter named Taddeo Zuc- and completed two major altarpieces for caro, came under the influence of Raphael. the mystic preacher Saint Philip Neri: The Barocci also studied the works of Correg- and The Presentation of the Vir- gio, who used warm colors in a graceful, gin. Barocci’s Martyrdom of St. Vitale be- flowing design. In Rome Barocci learned came a strong influence on Baroque paint- the demanding skill of copper engraving ers of Italy and northern Europe in the and also became a portraitist and fresco age following his death. painter. In Rome he was commissioned to paint frescoes at the Vatican and also com- SEE ALSO: Correggio; Michelangelo pleted a in the church of Santa Buonarroti; Raphael Maria Sopra Minerva. While decorating a ceiling at the Vatican for Pope Pius IV, Bartolommeo, Fra however, he came down with a case of (1472–1517) food poisoning that he feared was a delib- Artist born in Savignano di Prato, near erate attack by jealous rivals. Florence in Tuscany. Showing talent as a Soon afterward Barocci retreated to boy, Bartolommeo was apprenticed to the Urbino, where for the rest of his life he re- workshop of Cosimo Rosselli, where his mained under the protection and patron- first works were influenced by Piero di Co- age of the Duke of Urbino, Francesco Della simo, , and Fra Fil- Rovere, for whom Barocci did a striking ippo Lippi. He also made an intense study portrait. Barocci was an extremely slow of the works of Leonardo da Vinci. In 1498 and methodical painter, but his works he created a famous portrait of Girolamo show soft lights, a confident ability to draw Savonarola, the Dominican friar who de- and position figures, a full range of colors nounced in his sermons what he pro- and an ingenious use of light, much in claimed to be the vain and degenerate contrast to the darker and more somber works of Florentine artists. Bartolommeo works of many of his contemporaries, in- took Savonarola’s sermons to heart and cluding the more widely acclaimed Mich- brought many of his own works to the elangelo da Caravaggio. Among art histo- bonfires where books, art, and sculptures rians, Barocci is known as much for his were destroyed. He joined the Dominican sketches and drawings as for his paintings, order in 1500, and became a monk in the as the studies and cartoons he completed convent of San Marco in Florence. He gave before putting his brush to canvas are as up painting until 1504, when his superior skillfully performed as his full-scale com- ordered him to run the monastery’s work- pleted works. For his sketches, Barocci shop. Under the instruction of Raphael, he used the new medium of colored pastel, studied the use of perspective and color. which has remained a favorite method of He completed altarpieces for cathedrals in modern painters. Lucca and Florence, Italy, and Besancon, Devoted to the cause of the Catholic France. In 1513 he moved to Rome, Church, Barocci was an ardent supporter painted Peter and Paul and St. Mark Evan- of the Counter-Reformation, which was gelist, considered by many to be his finest

Greenhaven Encyclopedia of The Renaissance 39 Battiferra degli Ammannati, Laura work. His paintings show a mastery of devout Catholic, she also created Italian color, light, and texture, and he was espe- translations of the penitential psalms in cially masterful in painting clothing and the 1560s and donated much of her wealth intricate drapery. to the Society of , or the Jesuits.

Battiferra degli Ammannati, Laura Bellini, Gentile (1523–1589) (ca. 1429–1507) Italian poet, known for several volumes of The son of Jacopo Bellini, Gentile was one herwritingsaswellashermarriagetoBar- of the most renowned Venetian painters of tolomeo Ammannati, a renowned sculptor the Renaissance. Trained by his father, he who worked closely with Michelangelo closely followed Jacopo’s painting style in Buonarroti. She was born in Urbino, the his early works. In 1474 he began work on illegitimate daughter of a wealthy man of the church, Giovanni’ Antonio Battiferri, a cycle of historical paintings that would and his concubine, Maddalena Coccapani. decorate the Chamber of the Great Coun- First married to a professional musician, cil in the Doge’s palace in Venice. For the Vittorio Sereni, Laura was widowed in Scuola Grande di San Lorenzo, Bellini 1549. Some time in her youth she had met painted another grand cycle, including The Ammannati, an up-and-coming artist who Procession of the True Cross in the Piazza carried out commissions for the church San Marco, a work completed in 1496. and for the duke of Urbino, who hired These huge canvases contain hundreds of him to decorate a country villa in the Um- figures and highlight the splendor of the brian town of Pesara. city of Venice. Bellini also made Venice the Laura Battiferra’s marriage to Amman- setting for paintings he made for the reli- nati was arranged by her influential father gious confraternity of San Giovanni Evan- and took place in the spring of 1550, not gelista. These works, which include Proces- long after the death of her first husband. sion in St. Mark’s Square and Recovery of The couple lived in Rome, where he the Holy Cross, celebrate a holy relic owned worked on several important commissions. by the school. After the death of his patron, Pope Julius In 1479 the Doge of Venice sent Bellini III, they moved to Florence, where Am- as a diplomat to the court of Muhammad mannati was taken into the court of Co- II, the sultan of the Ottoman Empire, who simo de’ Medici. There, Battiferra earned had requested a skilled painter. Muham- her reputation as a poet. In 1560 her po- mad defied Islamic traditions forbidding ems appeared in the First Book of Tuscan representations of the human form by hav- Works, a collection of several different po- ing Bellini paint his portrait, a lifelike pic- ets from Florence and its surroundings. ture that became one of Bellini’s most fa- Inspired by the Italian poets Petrarch and mous works. Bellini’s reputation in the east Dante Alighieri, and the ancient Roman gained him prestige in Venice and imbued poets Ovid and Virgil, she wrote more his later works with elements of Islamic than three hundred sonnets in which she artistic style. Bellini was also known for used great skill in language and a wide- his portraits of the doges of Venice and ranging knowledge of philosophy, mythol- other nobility, including Caterina Cornaro, ogy, and literature. A pious woman and a the queen of Cyprus.

40 Greenhaven Encyclopedia of The Renaissance Bellini, Jacopo

Bellini, Giovanni still a student, classical art was inspiring (ca. 1431–1516) several mature Florentine artists of the Considered the master of Venice Renais- time, including Masaccio, Donatello, sance painting, Giovanni is the brother of Lorenzo , and . This Gentile Bellini and the son of Jacopo new approach left a permanent mark on Bellini. He began painting in his father’s Bellini and on the art and architecture of workshop and was hired to work with his Venice. brother at the School of San Marco. After his apprenticeship Bellini re- Bellini was hired by the Doge of Ven- turned to Venice, where by the late ice to manage the artwork and decoration he was master of his own workshop. He of the ducal palace. He worked to preserve swiftly established himself as the most re- and restore paintings within the palace and nowned painter in the city. He was com- painted an original series celebrating the missioned by the city of Verona to paint a history of medieval wars between the Holy large Crucifixion for the city’s cathedral, a Roman emperors and the popes. Bellini work that was later destroyed. In 1441, he also executed many famous, richly detailed entered and won a competition with the altarpieces in churches in Venice and Vice- artist Antonio Pisanello to create a por- nza. Working in the new medium of oil trait of Leonello d’Este, the marquess of paints, he was able to infuse a wider range Ferrara. He designed an altarpiece for the of color and to shade one hue carefully funerary chapel of the Gattamalata family into the next. A master of landscape art, in Padua and also did large-scale works Bellini added lush and beautifully detailed for two Venetian confraternities, San Gio- natural scenes as backgrounds to his sub- vanni and San Marco. All of these works jects, a talent that was widely copied in greatly enhanced Bellini’s reputation and the Venetian school and in particular by all of them disappeared or were destroyed the painters Titian and Giorgione. after his death. Art historians believe that his surviving painting Sts. Anthony Abbot Bellini, Jacopo and Bernardino of Siena,whichisnow (ca. 1400–1470) housed in Washington’s , A painter of Venice, Bellini was the elder made up part of the Gattamalata altar- of an important family of artists. His two piece. sons Gentile and Giovanni also emerged Bellini’s works straddle the Late Gothic as prominent artists; his nephew Leonardo and Early Renaissance styles. He painted Bellini was a painter of manuscripts. His icons of the Madonna in the traditional daughter Nicolosia married Andrea Man- Byzantine style that was popular for cen- tegna, one of Bellini’s pupils and a note- turies in Venice. Although he held to this worthy artist in his own right. older style in depicting figures and drap- Jacopo Bellini was the son of a pew- ery, and in the use of gilding, under the terer. He was born in Venice, where he influence of the Florentine artist Leon Bat- studied with Gentile da Fabriano, a famous tista Alberti, Bellini also introduced the painter who had workshops in Venice and new technique of one-point perspective . In about 1414, Bellini followed into his works. He trained younger artists, Fabriano to Florence. While Bellini was including Andrea Mantegna, in these new

Greenhaven Encyclopedia of The Renaissance 41 Bentivoglio, Giovanni II techniques that gave paintings depth and Bentivoglio was then captured by the volume they had lacked in the Gothic style. forces of the French king Louis XII, and Two of Bellini’s notebooks, containing died in Milan as the king’s prisoner. more than two hundred sketches, were SEE ALSO: Julius II even better known to contemporary artists than his paintings. Left to his sons in Boccaccio, Giovanni Bellini’s will, they were used for genera- (1313–1375) tions by Venetian artists as models in clas- Born in Florence as the illegitimate son of sical and biblical themes and as studies in Boccaccio de Chellino, a merchant, Gio- techniques of perspective. vanni Boccaccio felt a strong ambition to

SEE ALSO: Bellini, Gentile; Bellini, Gio- become a poet from a young age. His fa- vanni; Mantegna, Andrea ther was employed by the Bardi banking house; he tutored his son in Latin and in- tended to make him a man of business. In Bentivoglio, Giovanni II about 1328 father and son traveled to (1443–1508) Naples, where Giovanni trained as a Ruler of the Italian city of Bologna who banker while his father served the king as made important improvements to the city an adviser in financial matters. This ap- and reigned over a splendid Renaissance prenticeship lasted six years and left Boc- court. He was the son of the city’s chief caccio with an ever-stronger desire to magistrate, Annibale I Bentivoglio, who study classical literature and write poetry. was murdered in 1445 at the hands of a Through his father’s position at the Neo- rival, Battista Canneschi. With Annibale’s politan court he met philosophers, writers, son still too young to rule the city; the and scientists, and also developed exper- people of Bologna sent to Florence for tise in the subject of classical mythology. Annibale’s cousin Sante, who reigned until Boccaccio found an early inspiration his death in 1463. Then twenty years of in his unrequited love for a young noble- age, Giovanni made himself signore,or woman, whom he first saw on Holy Satur- lord of the city. He put his skill as a mili- day 1336 in the Church of San Lorenzo in tary commander to use on behalf of the Naples. Named Fiammetta in his works, more powerful cities of Florence, Naples, she was the daughter of the king of Naples, and Milan. whose high-born position and marriage Bologna’s court flourished during drove Boccaccio to write Fiametta Amo- Bentivoglio’s reign. He commissioned roso, an account of his frustrated passion. paintings for churches and civic buildings He also wrote Filocolo, a medieval romance and also ordered the building of the on unrequited love that describes in vivid Palazzo Bentivoglio, a magnificent town detail the people and society of Naples. hall. In 1506, Bentivoglio was excommuni- Although he was schooled in the clas- cated and deposed by Pope Julius II, who sics and in Latin and Greek, Boccaccio felt had designs of his own on Bologna. He at home in his native tongue and with the fled the city at the approach of the pope’s popular poetic forms of Italy. His Filos- army. After his sons attempted to retake trato isalongpoemcomposedinoctavo, the city, the citizens of Bologna rebelled an eight-line scheme from the island of against him and destroyed his property. Sicily that was popular with singers and

42 Greenhaven Encyclopedia of The Renaissance Boccaccio, Giovanni common Italian poets. Describing the tor- acters includes fools, clowns, heroes, vil- mented jealousy of a young lover, Troilus, lains, artists, monks, nobles, and mer- this poem represents the first time any au- chants, all subject to the strange whims of thor had attempted to make the Italian fate and all struggling to apply reason and language, and the octavo form, an element prudence to the situations they face. of serious literature. Both Geoffrey Chau- The Decameron soon gained a wide cer and William Shakespeare borrowed the readership throughout Europe, although characters and story of Filostrato to create the author himself later stated his regrets important works. for having written it. In 1350 he hosted In 1340, with his father in dire finan- Francesco Petrarca, or Petrarch, in his cial straits due to the bankruptcy of the home in Florence. Petrarch, a scholar and Bardi company, Boccaccio returned un- Latin author, had a strong influence on happily to Florence. There he wrote Ameto, Boccacio, who had begun an encyclopedic an allegorical romance in terza rima, the work on classical mythology. In the fol- form of three-line stanzas that was em- lowing years, at the urging of Petrarch, he ployed by Dante Alighieri in The Divine wrote a biography of Dante and helped to Comedy. With this epic poem, Boccaccio introduce , the ancient Greek au- was maturing as a writer, creating more thor of the Iliad and the Odyssey, to the serious works with great psychological in- readers of Florence. He also wrote a long sight. In the Elegy of Lady Fiammetta he series of biographies, On Famous Women describes the plight of a woman aban- and On Famous Men. In 1362, a monk re- doned by her lover and overcome by de- lated a prophecy of imminent doom to spair. The Ninfale Fiesolano is considered the author, who resolved to give up study- by many as his finest work of poetry. ing and writing in favor of the consola- Boccaccio traveled to Ravenna in 1346 tions of religion. In his later years he and returned for a short time to Naples. served Florence as a public lecturer on the By 1348 he was once again in Florence, works of Dante and as an ambassador to where the Black Death—the bubonic Prussia, Milan, and the papal court at Avi- plague that struck Europe in the four- gnon. After failing to secure a position at teenth century—had arrived to claim more the court of Naples, he returned to his na- than half the population. The plague in- tive Tuscany to live out his years in the spired Boccaccio’s Decameron, a book of town of Certaldo. one hundred short tales told by a com- In the Decameron and his poetry pany of young men and women who take Boccaccio’s ambition was to make Italian a refuge in the countryside to avoid the literary language—equal to Latin in de- plague. In the Decamaron, the company scriptive and expressive power. Although decides on a new theme each day that is he was grounded in the ideas of the medi- then expounded and explored in stories eval period, he abandoned allegory for re- told by each person. The stories cover the alism, and the very human outlook of his entire range of human experience and works, particularly the Decameron,por- emotion; some are lighthearted, bawdy tends the humanistic outlook of the Re- comedies while others relate the tragic and naissance, when the traditional forms of serious consequences for all-too-human epic poetry and chivalric romance were desires and weaknesses. The cast of char- gradually left behind for the more per-

Greenhaven Encyclopedia of The Renaissance 43 Bohemia sonal expression of plays, lyric poetry, and expounding a doctrine of defiance of the novels. Catholic authorities. Invited to the Coun- cil of Constance, Hus was taken prisoner, SEE ALSO: Dante Alighieri; Florence; hu- tried, and burned at the stake for his he- manism; Petrarch retical views, a punishment that was car- ried out on the orders of Emperor Bohemia Sigismund. The death of Jan Hus inspired Kingdom of central Europe and a leading a violent rebellion in Bohemia, known as northern center of literature and scholar- the Hussite Wars, and also served as an in- ship during the Renaissance. The name of spiration to the Protestant movement of Bohemia comes from the Boii, a tribe of Martin Luther in sixteenth-century Ger- Celts that inhabited this region in the time many. Although the anti-Catholic forces of the Roman Empire. After the fall of the were eventually defeated, Bohemia decreed in the fifth cen- freedom of religion within its borders in a tury, Bohemia was settled by Slavs from document known as the Basel Compact. the east. The Przemyslid dynasty estab- In 1526 with the death of King Louis lished itself with the reign of King Bole- in battle against the Turks, Bohemia was slav I in the ninth century, when the joined to the Habsburg Empire of Austria people of Bohemia converted to Christian- under its new king, the Habsburg mon- ity. From about this time, the kings of Bo- arch Ferdinand I. The Catholic emperors, hemia were subject to the ultimate author- as kings of Bohemia, often found them- ity of the Holy Roman emperor, a fact that selves at odds with their subjects over reli- led to a number of religious and political gious doctrine. One such conflict between conflicts during the Renaissance. King Ferdinand II and the Protestants of After the invasion of the Mongols in Bohemia touched off the Thirty Years’ War the thirteenth century, the western and that would devastate central Europe from northern borderlands of Bohemia were 1618 until 1648. settled by large numbers of Germans. In Bohemia was a nation quite open to 1310, King John I established the Luxem- the new artistic and intellectual move- bourg dynasty. Bohemia became an im- ments of the Renaissance. Printing presses portant center of learning in the middle of arrived in , the Bohemian capital, the fourteenth century with the founding by the , helping disseminate essays of the University of Prague during the and poetry in Latin and scholarly works in reign of Charles IV. Charles ascended to the Czech language. Bohemian translators the throne of the Holy Roman Empire and rendered ancient Latin and Greek texts, as brought Bohemia its greatest success, con- well as the works of contemporary Renais- trolling several regions of Germany, the sance authors such as Martin Luther and duchy of Luxembourg, Moravia to the east, Erasmus, into the Czech language. The his- and Silesia in what is now southern Po- torian Daniel Veleslavina published works land. of history, travel, and geography; other Bohemia’s tradition of scholarship and scholarly works covered law, medicine, and religious tolerance was put to the test early botany; the astronomers Johannes Kepler in the fifteenth century, when Jan Hus, the and Tycho Brahe both lived and worked at rector of the University of Prague, began the court of Rudolf II in Prague. More dar-

44 Greenhaven Encyclopedia of The Renaissance Borgia, Cesare ing authors of Bohemia wrote satirical queen gave birth to a girl, the future verses and parodies that ridiculed the em- Queen Elizabeth I, who would maintain peror, the Catholic Church, and the nobil- the primacy of the Church of England. ity. Henry’s many mistresses sparked bitter marital conflict, however, and Anne’s fail- Boleyn, Anne ure to have a son also worsened his view (ca. 1501–1536) of her. Henry turned his attentions to an- Queen of England and second wife to King other court lady, Jane Seymour, while Henry VIII, Anne Boleyn was born to the Anne quickly fell out of favor. In 1536 she wealthy Sir Thomas Boleyn, the Earl of was arrested and charged with adultery Wilshire. When still a young girl, she trav- and treason. She was convicted and the eled and studied in the Netherlands and in marriage to Henry was officially annulled. Paris, where she served the French royal A few days later she was beheaded in the court as an interpreter and as a lady-in- Tower of London. waiting to the queen. When she returned to England, she entered the service of Catherine of Aragon, the first wife of Borgia, Cesare Henry VIII. (1475–1507) As a young woman Anne became a Scion of the powerful Borgia family, Ce- headstrong and charismatic figure at court, sare Borgia was born in Rome to Cardinal and soon attracted the king’s eye. Henry Rodrigo Borgia and the cardinal’s obscure offered Anne her own staff of servants and mistress Vannozza dei Cattani. Cesare’s showered her with attention, presents, and uncle Alonso was elected as Pope Calixtus proposals of marriage. Worried over the III in 1455. His father Rodrigo became succession and the survival of the Tudor Pope Alexander VI in 1492. Soon after- dynasty, Henry was eager to have sons, ward Cesare was made the archbishop of which Catherine of Aragon had failed to Valencia, and in the following year, at the provide. However, Pope Clement VII re- age of eighteen, became a cardinal. As a fused to grant Henry the divorce he sought young man he prepared to follow in his from Catherine of Aragon. In 1531, Henry father’s footsteps; the pope intended to es- banished Catherine of Aragon, an action tablish a lasting family dynasty through that elevated Anne to a powerful position his eldest son Giovanni, the Duke of Gan- at court as an adviser to the king. Under dia. This gave rise to a violent jealousy on her influence, Henry broke with the Catho- the part of Cesare, who saw greater power lic Church and, with Anne’s encourage- and glory in a career outside of the limita- ment, established the Church of England, tions of the church. For this reason, histo- an institution free of the pope’s authority. rians believe Cesare had a central role in Henry and Anne were married in secret, the assassination of his brother in 1497. and in 1533 Anne Boleyn was formally This event ended Cesare’s career in the crowned as the new queen of England. Her church. He became an ambassador for the rise to power and Henry’s actions in dis- pope in Naples and his father worked to avowing the pope greatly encouraged Prot- arrange a useful marriage for him with estant reformers in Europe such as Martin Carlotta, the daughter of the king of Luther. Naples. In 1498 Cesare resigned his office, In September of that year the new the first cardinal in history to do so, and

Greenhaven Encyclopedia of The Renaissance 45 Borgia, Lucrezia became an ambassador for the pope to of his enemy Giuliano as Pope France, who was requesting a papal annul- Julius II. This pope sought the return of ment of his marriage to Jeanne of France captured cities in Romagna to the papal in order to marry Anne of Brittany. Cesare territories. Cesare was taken prisoner and brought the papal bull (decree) annulling abandoned by the king of France. The the marriage and was rewarded by Louis pope demanded the return of territories XII with the title of Duke of Valentinois conquered by Cesare’s armies. Cesare fled (Valence). to Naples. Julius schemed with the rulers of Spain, Ferdinand and Isabella, to have The pope sent Cesare north to subdue Cesare arrested in Naples, then a Spanish the rebellious cities of northern Italy. Ce- possession, by the city’s governor Gonzalo sare brought an army of Swiss, Gascons, de Cordova. In 1506 he escaped from French, and Italians, he marched to the prison in Spain and fled to Navarre, ruled Romagna and established a base at Ces- by his brother-in-law John III of Navarre, ena. He conquered Imola, and Forli. As the brother of his wife Charlotte d’Albret. commander of the armies of the church, He died at the siege of Viana in 1507. he formed the new state of Romagna. In Cesare is best known as a model leader, 1500 he defeated Rimini and Pesaro, and the ideal of the Renaissance prince, in the in the next year he defeated Faenza, whose eyes of Niccolo Machiavelli, the Florentine leader was sent to Rome as a prisoner and historian who believed Cesare’s combina- later murdered. Greatly feared throughout tion of ambition and cunning were best northern Italy, Cesare was rising in his suited to rule in his times. The historian, father’s estimation and arriving at his plan serving as an ambassador for Florence, to establish a hereditary monarchy in cen- spent some time at Borgia’s court in 1502– tral and northern Italy. Alexander named 1503 and described his actions and tactics him gonfaloniere of the church (a presti- in his work The Prince. Borgia’s conquest gious post) and as the Duke of Romagna of Romagna and the murder of his rivals in 1501. Still opposed by several northern at Senigallia on New Year’s Eve 1502 in princes and condottieri (leaders of merce- particular earned Machiavelli’s praise. nary soldiers), four of them repented their resistance to him and captured the town of Senigallia for his benefit. Arriving in Borgia, Lucrezia the city, Cesare lured them to his palace, (1480–1519) where on New Year’s Eve 1502 he ordered The daughter of the Spanish cardinal Rod- two of them to be strangled. Cesare sought rigo Borgia and his mistress Vannozza dei to form an independent base of power to Cattani, Lucrezia Borgia was born in the serve his own ambitions, independent Italian town of Subiaco. In 1492 Rodrigo from that of the Papacy, and to this end Borgia was elected as Pope Alexander VI, maneuvered, schemed, and bribed among and the Borgia family became one of the the Italian nobles. most powerful—and ambitious—in Italy. The widespread fear and hatred he in- In the next year the pope arranged the spired eventually proved his downfall, marriage of Lucrezia, aged thirteen, to however. Both father and son came down Giovanni Sforza, a scion of the ruling fam- with a fever in 1503; although Cesare re- ily of Milan. Sforza’s usefulness to the pope covered, Alexander VI died. The election soon declined, however, and he was pres-

46 Greenhaven Encyclopedia of The Renaissance Bosch, Hieronymus sured to annul his marriage. He eventually His first commission, undertaken with his agreed to a divorce on the grounds of his father and two brothers, was an altarpiece, own impotence, but not before spreading offered by the Brotherhood of Our Lady tales that the pope wanted Lucrezia for his to the local cathedral. own mistress. A faction opposed to the The Flemish school of painting to Borgia family took up the slander, also which Bosch belonged was known for re- spreading the rumor that Alexander VI as alistic depictions of everyday life; it in- well as Cesare Borgia, Lucrezia’s brother, cluded such masters as Pieter Brueghel, were having incestuous relations with her. who was a devoted student of Bosch paint- Thepopearrangedasecondmarriagefor ings. Few details are known about the pri- Lucrezia with Alfonso of Aragon, a mem- vate life of Bosch, other than that he was a ber of the dynasty that ruled the city of member of the strictly orthodox Brother- Naples. Out of jealousy or political ambi- hood of Our Lady, a group that venerated tion, Cesare Borgia ordered his henchmen the Virgin Mary. He lived at a time of to attack Alfonso in Rome and then strangle him in his bed. Lucrezia was then change, when the familiar religious mores betrothed to Alfonso d’Este, the prince of and artistic styles of the Middle Ages were Ferrara. As the Duchess of Ferrara, she being transformed into the humanism and presided at a renowned Renaissance court experimentation of the Renaissance. His of artists and poets, and was praised by work can be seen as a morbidly pessimis- those who knew her as a gracious and in- tic view of this changing world and a pre- telligent woman. The political turmoil sur- diction that the new, irreligious age was rounding the Borgia family sullied the condemning Christian believers to hell. reputation of Lucrezia Borgia, who would Bosch’s fame earned him many com- go down in history as an ambitious, con- missions from nobility and royalty. His niving, and evil woman. Modern histori- successful workshop produced paintings, ans question many of the misdeeds attrib- altarpieces, triptychs (three-paneled uted to her, however, and believe her worst pictures), and smaller works undertaken attribute was to have passively served her for local art patrons. For the Cathedral of brother and father as a useful political St. Johns, in his hometown, he was pawn. awarded many commissions to design al- tarpieces, garments, and stained glass, Bosch, Hieronymus none of which have survived to modern (1450–1516) times. His paintings are Christian allego- A Dutch painter known for his densely ries, many on the theme of temptation and crowded canvases and striking imagery damnation, with the most famous example that reflects an intensely religious outlook being The Garden of Earthly Delights. This and a fascination with sin, weakness, and vivid ensemble of strange forms, monsters, corruption. Born as Jeroen van Aeken, the devils, mythological figures, and grotesques son of Anthonius van Aeken, he took the includes more than one thousand figures. surname Bosch from the town of ’s- Its three panels are the Garden of Eden on Hertogenbosch, the place of his birth. The the left, Hell on the right, and in the cen- son and brother of skilled painters, he ter The Garden of Earthly Delights, which lived his entire life in this town, which shows an allegorical scene of man’s temp- then belonged to the Duchy of Burgundy. tation and downfall. The Garden of Earthly

Greenhaven Encyclopedia of The Renaissance 47 Bosworth Field, Battle of

Delights and other paintings by Bosch hold Richmond, gathered an army of about five up an unpleasant mirror to the vices and thousand men, consisting of French mer- foolishness of humanity. Their intent is to cenaries and knights of Lancaster, and shock with the wickedness revealed in hu- marched to the vicinity of Leicester in cen- man and animal forms, and inspire repen- tral England. There they faced Richard and tance on the part of the viewer. The Temp- the Yorkists, who mustered about twelve tation of St. Anthony is one of his most thousand, including a force of four thou- famous works. The Vision of Tondalys is a sand men under the command of Sir Wil- painting of dreamlike images, in which the liam Stanley and Thomas Stanley, Henry legs of a man sprout roots and people fly Tudor’s stepfather. Henry Percy, the Earl of through the air. The shows a Northumberland, and the Stanleys held group of people voyaging on a small boat, back their forces, however, and about an wasting their lives in insignificant and fu- hour after the start of the battle, the Stan- tile pursuits as the ship drifts far from leys deserted to Tudor’s army. Richard or- their harbor. Death and the Miser depicts dered a desperate raid on Tudor’s com- the last moments of a greedy man who pany, but was killed in the skirmish. After has hoarded his wealth and who now must marrying Elizabeth of York, the victorious face death, personified as an eerie phan- Henry Tudor was crowned as Henry VII, tom that is coming through his door. Mod- the first king of the Tudor dynasty. ern art historians see Bosch as an impor- tant precursor to the surrealist imagery Botticelli, Sandro popular in the early twentieth century. His (1444–1510) paintings were popular among wealthy and A Florentine artist and a leading painter noble patrons in the Netherlands, Austria, of the Renaissance, Botticelli was born as and Spain, and he has had many imitators Alessandro di Mariano Filipepi (the name up to the present day. “Botticelli” means “little barrel” in Italian, SEE ALSO: Brueghel family a nickname the painter borrowed from his elder brother). Historians know little about Bosworth Field, Battle of his youth except that he was the son of a tanner. He may have worked in a A decisive battle fought on August 22, goldsmith’s workshop, and may have been 1485, during the Wars of the Roses, a dy- an apprentice of Fra Filippo Lippi. His nastic civil war that took place in late- early paintings were influenced by Masac- fifteenth-century England. The conflict be- cio, one of the most important late- tween the houses of York and Lancaster medieval painters, as well as Andrea del had reached a crucial turning point with Verrocchio. the death of Edward IV in 1483. After this event, the late king’s brother Richard of In the 1470s, Botticelli opened his own Gloucester of the , had his workshop, and remained a citizen of Flo- two nephews, including the heir apparent rence for the rest of his life. Edward, held in the Tower of London, He won commissions from the church where they were likely murdered. After of Santa Maria Novella (The Adoration of their disappearance, Richard was pro- the Magi), and from the Medici family for claimed King Richard III. To contest the portraits of Cosimo de’ Medici, Cosimo’s throne, his rival Henry Tudor, the Earl of son Giovanni, and his grandson Giuliano.

48 Greenhaven Encyclopedia of The Renaissance Botticelli, Sandro

Sandro Botticelli’s masterpiece, “Birth of Venus.” THE ART ARCHIVE/DAGLI ORTI.REPRODUCED BY PERMISSION.

Pope Sixtus IV summoned Botticelli to francesco de’ Medici, a cousin of the Flo- Rome to execute frescoes for the walls of rentine despot Lorenzo the Magnificent. In the , where he painted The both paintings appears the figure of Ve- Youth of , The Punishment of the Sons nus, the ancient Roman goddess of love of Corah, and the Temptation of Christ.Af- and beauty. In these works Botticelli may ter returning to Florence, he worked on il- have been influenced by the philosophy of lustrations for Dante’s epic poem The Di- Neoplatonism, which was popular among vine Comedy, and his illustrations appeared Lorenzo’s court circle, and which at- in the first printed edition of the poem, in tempted to reconcile classical paganism 1481. and Christianity. Botticelli was schooled in traditional In 1480, Botticelli joined several im- religious themes. His works include several portant artists, including , famous Madonnas, and paintings of Saint Domenico Ghirlandaio, and Filippo Lippi, Sebastian, and Saint Augustine. But the to complete a series of frescoes for the villa artist’s most famous works borrow figures of Lorenzo the Magnificent. and themes from pagan mythology, and Botticelli’s artistic style changed in his are characterized by strong and precise later works, when he began painting more contour, soft colors, and mysterious set- staged, traditional settings and figures in tings. The canvases entitled stiffer, more formal poses. Botticelli grew (1478) and (1485) were conservative in his approach to painting, painted for the villa of Lorenzo di Pier- and filled his works with a sense of reli-

Greenhaven Encyclopedia of The Renaissance 49 Bourbon dynasty gious devotion and piety. At the same time a son of King Louis IX. Charles of Bour- he became an ardent supporter of the Do- bon, the last of the line, died in 1527; an- minican friar Girolamo Savonarola, who other branch of the family was ruling the was lashing out at the self-indulgent luxu- duchy of Vendôeme. This family became ries of aristocrats and rulers of Florence. lords of Navarre, a small kingdom on One of Botticelli’s later works, a Crucifix- France’s southern border with Spain, in ion, shows arrows raining down on Flo- 1555. In the meantime, the Protestant re- rence. The artist may have added some of volt against the Catholic doctrine and hi- his own works to the famous bonfires that erarchy was driving France to a full-scale Savonarola held to destroy what he saw as civil war. To make peace with the Hugue- sinful art and books that were corrupting nots (Protestants) of France, Catherine de the city. Médicis, the mother of the French king, Late in life Botticelli suffered from a arranged a marriage of her daughter Mar- physical disability that prevented him from garet to Henry, the Bourbon and Protes- working. He lost commissions and found tant prince of Navarre. On the wedding himself struggling to survive. His manner day, August 24, 1572, the Catholics of of painting, which reminded many people France took the festivities as an occasion of past medieval artists, went out of style. for a wholesale slaughter of Protestants in He was largely forgotten until the nine- the Saint Bartholomew’s Day Massacre. teenth century, when “pre-Raphaelite” Henry announced his conversion to the painters of England discovered his myste- Catholic faith but in 1576 again declared rious allegories and dreamlike imagery. himself a Huguenot. In 1584, after the Since that time, Botticelli’s style and works death of the younger brother of the king, have made him one of the most familiar Henry of Navarre became next in line for artists of the Italian Renaissance. the throne. In 1589, when the king of France was assassinated, King Henry III of SEE ALSO: Medici, Lorenzo de’; painting Navarre became the first Bourbon king of France as Henry IV. Bourbon dynasty The arrival of a Protestant on the A royal house whose members ruled many throne of France raised the ire of Catho- states of Europe, including France, Na- lics, who rallied around Henry’s uncle, varre, Naples, Sicily, and Spain, which still Cardinal Charles de Bourbon. Henry de- has a Bourbon member as its ceremonial feated Charles in battle in 1590, but was king. The most powerful branch of the unable to seize Paris, a Catholic strong- Bourbons ruled France from 1589 until hold, with the forces at his disposal. For 1792, when King Louis XVI was over- the sake of the French kingdom and a thrown and executed during the French hope for a lasting truce, he converted once Revolution. again to Catholicism, remarking that “Paris The family was established as the he- is worth a mass,” and was formally reditary lords of Bourbon and vassals of crowned in 1594. In 1598 Henry passed the that established the the Edict of Nantes that recognized Ca- French monarchy in the late tenth century. tholicism as the official religion of France In 1268, Beatrix of Bourbon married but also decreed tolerance for the Hugue- Prince Robert, the count of Clermont and nots. The civil war now at an end, France

50 Greenhaven Encyclopedia of The Renaissance Bracciolini, Poggio grew into the most powerful, united king- born Giovanni Francesco Poggio Braccio- dom in Europe. Henry and his successor lini in the village of Terranuova, in Tus- Louis XIII built new roads and canals, pro- cany. A scholar of Latin and Greek, he moted the growth of textiles and other in- could write and speak in both of these lan- dustries in the north, reformed and im- guages. He was an expert copyist and a proved French agriculture, and built the tireless collector of ancient manuscripts, French army and navy into a military force bringing hundreds of unknown works to second to none in the western world. The light for the first time, and inspiring a gen- Bourbons, through a system of their in- eration of scholars to make their own re- tendants, dominated the French nobles searches into the writing and philosophies and extended their absolute control over of the ancients. As a young man he jour- the kingdom’s many counties, , and neyed to Rome, where he became a papal the semi-independent domains of the no- secretary, serving first with Boniface IX. bility. Under Louis XIV, France fought sev- He traveled with the popes, in whose ser- eral wars for more territory in the north vice he had access to the libraries of mon- and east; but when the king revoked the asteries and churches where many books Edict of Nantes in 1685 an exodus of Prot- had been stored for centuries. While the estants from northern France took place, popes were embroiled in the Great Schism weakening the kingdom’s productive in- that divided the Catholic Church between dustries. the rival popes and their supporters in Avi- In 1700, when the king of Spain died gnon and Rome, Bracciolini brought to without an heir, Louis contested the throne light important discourses of the Roman of Spain with the Habsburg dynasty of orator Cicero. He painstakingly copied Austria. England, the Netherlands, and down hundreds of damaged fragments and Austria formed a coalition against the am- manuscripts, including books of Vitruvius, bitious French. A War of the Spanish Suc- Marcus Quintilian, Titus Petronius, Titus cession lasted until 1714, when Louis fi- Maccias Plautus, and other Latin authors nally succeeded in placing his grandson on who had been completely unknown dur- the throne of Spain, at the cost of nearly emptying the French treasury. At his death ing the Middle Ages. Louis had reigned longer than any other In 1452 Bracciolini left the service of king in the history of Europe. Under his the popes and returned to Florence. He great-grandson, Louis XV, France lost sev- had earned a reputation as a speaker and a eral major wars in Europe and North writer of panegyrics (praise for the dead), America, further damaging the kingdom’s as a translator, and a writer of essays on finances and leading to the widespread un- customs and morals, including On the Vi- rest that brought about the French Revo- cissitudes of Fortune, On Nobility, and On lution. Marriage in Old Age. He was also known for satires and obscene fables written in SEE ALSO: France; Henry IV beautifully expressive Latin, collected un- der the title Facetiae,aswellasinvectives, Bracciolini, Poggio or essays that criticized members of the (1380–1459) clergy for their hypocrisy and vice. He A leading humanist and scholar of the Ital- translated the works of ancient Greeks, in- ian Renaissance, Poggio Bracciolini was cluding , into Latin, then the

Greenhaven Encyclopedia of The Renaissance 51 Brahe, Tycho universal scholarly language. His famous pernova.” This observation was important work, De Varietate Fortunae, is a medita- for its revolutionary concept that the heav- tion on the passing of ancient glories of ens were not fixed and eternal, as in the Rome. He was an early archaeologist, traditional view. Tycho believed in a geo- studying the ruins of Rome and decipher- centric universe, in which the earth was ing their mysterious inscriptions. In 1453 fixed, the sun orbited the earth, and the he headed the chancery of the Republic of planets orbited the sun. He believed that if Florence, becoming the city’s official histo- the earth did move, then nearer stars rian. While in office he wrote a history of should shift with respect to background the city, in imitation of the Roman histo- stars; this “parallax shift” was indeed rian Livy. Bracciolini’s work remains one present but not visible at the time. (Brahe of the best sources of information on the was the last major astronomer to work by early Renaissance in Florence. the naked eye, without using a telescope.) At odds with the king of Denmark Brahe, Tycho over his theories, Brahe moved to Prague (1546–1601) in 1597 and won the patronage of Em- peror Rudolf II, who used him as a court A Danish astronomer, Tycho Brahe was astrologer. Brahe jealously guarded his as- born into a noble and wealthy family, the tronomical measurements; after his death son of a minister to the king of Denmark. by unknown causes they fell into the hands He studied at the University of Copen- of his assistant, Johannes Kepler. The cir- hagen,wherehepreparedforacareerin cumstances of Brahe’s demise have led law. On August 21, 1560, however, he wit- some historians to conclude that Kepler nessed an eclipse of the sun. Observation murdered his employer out of professional and mathematical calculations had already jealousy. Whatever the truth of the matter, predicted the eclipse, an achievement that in the following years Kepler relied on inspired Brahe to pursue astronomy. Dis- Brahe’s calculations to develop a set of new couraged by the conflicts and disagree- laws governing the motion of the planets. ments in astronomical measurements, he set out to collect as much information as SEE ALSO: Copernicus, Nicolaus; Galilei, possible from a single observation point Galileo; Kepler, Johannes with the most accurate instruments avail- able, and develop a more consistent and Bramante, Donato accurate system of astronomical observa- (1444–1514) tion. Italian architect, a leading figure of the Brahe built an observatory known as late Renaissance whose palaces, monu- the Uraniborg on the island of Hven. ments, and church architecture were in- There he developed his own model of the spired by the ancient ruins of Rome. Born universe, the Tychonic system, which rec- as Donato di Pascuccio d’Antonio, the son onciled the conflicts in the old Ptolemaic of a farmer in the village of Monte Asdru- (earth-centered) and new Copernican valdo, in the central mountains of Italy, he (heliocentric) systems. In 1572 he observed mayhavefirstworkedunderthepatron- a suddenly bright star in the constellation age of Federigo da Montefeltro, the duke Cassiopeia, and described his findings in of Urbino. As a young painter, he was in- De Stella Nova, which coined the term “su- fluenced by Piero della Francesca and An-

52 Greenhaven Encyclopedia of The Renaissance Bramante, Donato drea Mantegna. His first known commis- the facade of the palace as well as the sion was a painted frieze for the Palazzo Belvedere Court, which was built in a se- del Podesta in the city of , which ries of staircases and loggias (covered he completed in 1477. By the , he passageways) that run along a terraced was living in Milan and working as the hillside. Since the Belvedere was raised, court architect of . He was however, later designs all but destroyed commissioned to decorate the Church of Bramante’s original composition, and only Santa Maria Presso San Satiro in Milan, in a spiral staircase survives to the present which he created a trompe l’oeil (trick day intact. of the eye) choir through the use of deep perspective. Bramante designed the In 1505 Bramante prepared a design cloisters (enclosed courtyards) for the for Saint Peter’s, intended to be the great- Sant’Ambrogio church, and with Leonardo est basilica of Christendom and a worthy da Vinci he also worked on the Church of successor to the great Pantheon, a still- Santa Maria delle Grazie. He then traveled intact monument of ancient Rome. Bra- to Pavia, where he assisted in the design of mante initially created Saint Peter’s in the the city’s cathedral. shape of a Greek cross, as a tribute to the fallen city of Constantinople and its Hagia In 1499, Bramante fled Milan when a Sophia cathedral. Work began in the next French army besieged and conquered the city, overthrowing the Sforza dynasty. He year but progressed slowly as the design traveled to Rome, where he made a close was altered. Bramante and Julius became study of the city’s ancient ruins. The close companions and the pope bestowed monumental architecture of the classical on his favorite architect the office of piom- city influenced his design for batore, the aide responsible for sealing the of Santa Maria della Pace, which he com- pope’s letters and documents. Some time pleted in 1504. In 1502 he designed the after 1510 Bramante designed the Palazzo Tempietto, a small circular chapel in the Caprini in the center of Rome, a building courtyard of the Church of San Pietro in Bramante designed as his own dwelling Montorio. This elegant and simple build- and which was later acquired by the ing was designed as a monument to Saint painter Raphael. The Palazzo Caprini con- Peter, who was martyred on the spot. Its tained a first floor of simple city shops careful proportions give it a feeling of se- and higher stories designed as an aristo- renity and balance; the Tempietto has been cratic palace. The design of the palace dis- studied by architects ever since as a perfect appeared under later additions and alter- imitation of the antique style and one of ations but the building served as a model the most famous buildings of the Renais- for many Roman buildings in the follow- sance. ing centuries. Bramante died in 1514; at Under the patronage of the popes, Saint Peter’s only four columns and arches Rome was becoming a leading center of meant to support a huge central dome Renaissance art. Pope Julius II engaged were in place at the time of his death. The Bramante as his official architect and put completion of the work was assigned to him in charge of the rebuilding of Michelangelo Buonarroti, who completed Saint Peter’s Cathedral and working on the monumental dome that has since be- the Vatican Palace. Bramante redesigned come a familiar landmark of the Vatican

Greenhaven Encyclopedia of The Renaissance 53 Brenz, Johannes and the city of Rome. adopted son of the painter Jacopo Pon- tormo, whose pupil he became and who SEE ALSO: architecture; Julius II; Michelan- had a strong effect on his style. He became gelo Buonarroti the official court painter to Cosimo de’ Medici, creating portraits of the duke and Brenz, Johannes his family that were imitated throughout (1499–1570) Europe long after the close of the Renais- A German theologian and reformer, Brenz sance. He lived for two years in Rome, was born in the town of Weil and edu- where he created religious paintings in the cated at Heidelberg. He became at magis- emotionally cold, brightly colored and pre- ter, or master teacher, in 1518, and was cisely drawn “mannerist” style that was known far and wide for his lectures on the then in vogue. His famous works include Bible and on Christian theology. He was Venus, Cupid, Folly and Time,anallegori- ordained as a priest in 1520 but by 1523 cal account of love that Cosimo de’ Medici was no longer celebrating traditional Mass. presented as a gift to King Francis I, and Brenz supported the reform efforts of Eleanora Toledo and Her Son, a portrait of Protestant Church founder Martin Luther, de’ Medici’s wife and son. He helped to whom he accompanied at Luther’s famous found the Academy of Design in Florence disputation at Heidelberg in 1518. In 1525 in 1563. Brenz published the Syngramma Suevicum, in which he supported the idea that Christ Brueghel family was physically present in the Christian sac- A family of Flemish painters who pro- ramental offerings of bread and wine. In duced paintings and drawings largely in- 1530 he attended the Diet of Augsburg. spired by the work of its patriarch, Pieter When the Holy Roman Emperor, Charles Brueghel the Elder. This artist is best V took up arms against the Protestant known for his new way of rendering natu- Schmalkaldic League, Brenz was forced to ral landscapes and his bucolic scenes of flee for his life from the city of Hall. He peasant life. Born in the town of Breda, took refuge in the castle of Hohenwittlin- Brueghel apprenticed with the painter Pi- gen, under the protection of Duke Ulrich eter Coecke van Aelst and joined the of Württemberg, where he became a lead- Antwerp painters’ guild in 1551. Like many ing supporter of the Protestant Reforma- northern European artists, he traveled to tion. In 1552 he attended the to study the new styles pioneered by Trent, and in 1554 became provost of the southern painters. In Italy Breughel pro- cathedral of Stuttgart. duced his first signed painting, Landscape with Christ and the Apostles at the Sea of SEE ALSO: Luther, Martin; Reformation, Tiberius. On his way home to Antwerp, he Protestant crossed the Alps, where the dramatic mountain landscape inspired him to make Bronzino, Agnolo studies of natural forms that he later in- (1503–1572) corporated into his works. A painter of Florence, Agnolo di Cosimo On his return to the Low Countries, earned his nickname of Bronzino from his Brueghel worked as an engraver for an dark, “bronzed” complexion. He was the Antwerp publisher, Hieronymus Cock. The

54 Greenhaven Encyclopedia of The Renaissance Brueghel family workshop produced the prints that were come icons of the northern Renaissance: fashionable in merchant and middle-class Hunters in the Snow, Dark Day, Hay Har- families unable to afford commissioning vest, Wheat Harvest, and Return of the original paintings. A Brueghel drawing en- Herd. In beautifully rendered and vividly titled Big Fish Eat Little Fish appeared in colored compositions, these paintings 1557, with the signature of the better- show man in harmony with a beneficent known substituted for nature. Brueghel in these paintings left be- Brueghel’s to boost sales. Bosch, then a re- hind the religious context of medieval nowned Flemish painter, remained an im- painting, and rendered the world in its portant influence on Brueghel, and the natural visible state without the interfer- younger painter directly imitated him in ence of religious doctrine and symbolism. his 1558 series of engravings entitled Seven Because of this approach to his art many Deadly Sins as well as allegorical paintings, consider Brueghel to have been the first including and The truly “modern” painter. Fall of the Rebel . Completed in 1566, Brueghel’s Massa- Brueghel’s Combat of Carnival and cre of the Innocents was the painter’s view Lent, completed in 1559, was his first of the tyranny of Spain’s occupation of signed painting. The painter was still mod- the Netherlands. Brueghel gained his repu- eling his work on Bosch, but also using tation as a painter of peasant life through stronger colors and arranging elements in two of his most famous pictures, Peasant the picture to achieve a careful balance of Dance and Peasant Wedding Feast. In these shapes and lines. The Netherlandish Prov- paintings Brueghel made the human fig- erbs and Children’s Games,aswellasthe ures more prominent, using expressions, Combat of Carnival and Lent,werecrowded poses, and colors to convey elemental hu- canvases of multiple scenes and symbolic man characteristics: joy, greed, hunger, stu- characters, all standing for the foibles and follies of the everyday world. In this man- pidity, innocence, exuberance, and bore- ner Brueghel also painted Dulle Grief and dom. Peasant Wedding Feast shows not The Triumph of Death, a gloomy landscape only Brueghel’s masterful skill at rendering of fire, murder, and death that some histo- forms, but also an uproarious sense of hu- rians believe was inspired by the religious mor and great sympathy for the universal civil wars then consuming much of north- condition. ern Europe. The Tower of Babel, painted in One of Brueghel’s late works, Land of 1563, is based on a biblical parable show- Cockaigne,isareturntomedievalallegory. ing the folly of human ambition and the The painter renders a knight, a peasant, pretension to greatness. and a merchant, all of them slightly off Brueghel moved to , Belgium, balance and falling victim to their weak- in 1563. In the last few years of his life, he nesses. Magpie on the Gallows, painted painted his most famous pieces, including about the same time, shows a gallows ris- The Road to Cavalry and The Blind Lead- ing above a scene of peasants celebrating ing the Blind. Brueghel won a commission in a field. to paint a series of pictures of the seasons Brueghel’s son, known as Pieter Brue- and months. Five of these paintings have ghel the Younger (1564–1638), made his survived to the present day and have be- living producing copies of his father’s

Greenhaven Encyclopedia of The Renaissance 55 Brunelleschi, Filippo works. Jan Brueghel the Elder (1568–1625) Brunelleschi’s portico for this building was was known for his peaceful floral land- the first Renaissance structure to make use scapes and still lifes. Both men were boys of classical elements such as columns and when their father died. capitals.

SEE ALSO: Bosch, Hieronymus The design earned widespread admira- tion in Florence and led to Brunelleschi’s Brunelleschi, Filippo next important commission, a sacristy for (1377–1446) the Basilica of San Lorenzo. At the same The most renowned architect of Florence, time, Brunelleschi was studying the design Filippo Brunelleschi decorated the city of a dome for the Basilica of Santa Maria with imposing architecture that has en- del Fiore, the central cathedral of Florence. dured as a symbol of Renaissance genius. Begun in the fourteenth century, the struc- The son of a prominent notary, he joined ture was now finished except for the dome, the Silk Guild of Florence as a boy. Show- which would have to span a diameter of ing great talent in the demanding arts of 130 feet, a scale well beyond any dome at- metalworking, he was welcomed into the tempted since the time of the ancient Ro- city’s guild of master goldsmiths and won mans. The builders and architects of Flo- commissions to execute silver altarpieces rence had no idea how to construct such a for the cathedral of Pistoia. His reputation dome; raising a wooden scaffolding to sup- as a sculptor also was spreading through port it while building—the conventional the city and in 1401 he was invited to en- method at the time—was considered im- ter a competition to design the bronze possible. In 1419 Brunelleschi defeated his doors of the new Baptistery in Florence. rivals in winning the commission, then Unable to decide between the entries of solved the problem of the dome by de- Brunelleschi and his rival Lorenzo Ghib- signing a rounded cone, made of inner erti, the judges invited both men to ex- and outer shells supported by vertical and ecute the doors, a commission that horizontal stone ribs. The architect de- Brunelleschi turned down out of wounded signed not just the dome but also the ma- pride. His dramatic rendering of the sacri- chines and support structures used to raise fice of Isaac survived, however, and is now it, as well as a lantern that was added after housed in a Florentine museum. the dome was finished in 1436. The work Discovering a passion for architectural on Santa Maria del Fiore is considered to design, Brunelleschi joined his friend Do- be the architect’s greatest architectural and natello in a journey to Rome in 1402 to engineering achievement. explore the city’s ancient ruins. From his Brunelleschi’s other notable works in- and measurements of ancient clude the Pazzi Chapel, in the church of Roman structures, he developed a system Santa Croce, and the basilica of Santo of ideal mathematical proportions; he was Spirito, a church raised in an artisans quar- also one of the first artists to work out the ter on the southern banks of the Arno principles of linear perspective. He had River. This church was unfinished at the the opportunity to apply his system of time of the architect’s death; its facade was geometrical harmony in his first impor- eventually completed in a later Baroque tant architectural commission, the design fashion that awkwardly clashes with the of the Foundling Hospital in Florence. careful proportions of the interior.

56 Greenhaven Encyclopedia of The Renaissance Bruni, Leonardo

Brunelleschi’s floor design, in the form of whom he translated from Greek into Latin, a Latin cross with three naves, resembles making them accessible to many students that of San Lorenzo. Both churches be- and scholars for the first time. Bruni wrote came emblematic of the classical propor- popular biographies of the Italian poets tions and elegant style of Renaissance Petrarch and Dante, the Roman orator Ci- church architecture. cero and the Greek philosopher Aristotle. Fascinated by problems of engineer- He is best known for History of the Floren- ing, Brunelleschi also turned his attention tine People, which was inspired by the to the design of fortifications (for the city books of the Roman historian Livy. Writ- of ), aqueducts (near ), and river- inginLatin,hebeganthisworkin1415 boats for use on the shallow Arno. and continued on it until his death nearly Brunelleschi’s genius for design as well as thirty years later. Unlike the medieval engineering allowed him to establish the chroniclers, who relied on legends and occupation of architect as an independent hearsay, History of the Florentine People profession, free of the medieval restric- drew on primary sources and important tions of builders’ and masons’ guilds. He public and private documents. was honored at his death with burial in In his works of history, Bruni was the Santa Maria del Fiore, still the most first scholar of the Renaissance to describe prominent structure in Florence. a period of ignorance and superstition af- ter the collapse of the western Roman Em- SEE ALSO: architecture; Ghiberti, Lorenzo pire, an age followed by his own more sen- sible and enlightened times. (This gave rise to the concept of the “Middle Ages,” a Bruni, Leonardo phrase coined by Bruni’s contemporary (1369–1444) Flavio Biondo to describe the period in Scholar, historian, and leading citizen of Europe from A.D. 500 to 1500 that has en- Florence, Leonardo Bruni was born in the dured to the present day.) Bruni also pio- town of Arezzo. He studied law and the neered the movement of “humanism,” a classics, taking inspiration from the histo- secular study of art and philosophy that rians and orators of ancient Greece and made no reference to faith and that lay Rome. An ardent supporter of the Floren- outside the strict boundaries of religious tine republic, in 1401 he praised the city doctrine. As a political leader he advocated in a Panegyric to the City of Florence.In a streamlined and more democratic gov- 1405 he attained the important post of ernment for Florence; his De Militia sup- apostolic secretary to Pope Innocent VII. ported the founding of a citizen army for He was elected as the chancellor of Flo- the republic to replace the rapacious and rence in 1410 but resigned within a year unreliable mercenaries known as condot- and returned to Rome as a papal secretary. tieri. He was made an honorary citizen of In 1415, after Pope John XXIII was the city, exempt from taxation and other ousted from office, Bruni returned to Flo- forms of service, for penning the History rence. of the Florentine People, which the city gov- In the meantime, Bruni’s scholarship ernment published in 1442. In 1427, he was bringing to light the works of Plato, again attained the post of chancellor, Aristotle, Plutarch, and , which he held until his death in 1444.

Greenhaven Encyclopedia of The Renaissance 57 Bruno, Giordano

Bruno, Giordano French ambassador Michel de Castelnau. (1548–1600) In England his published works and his promotion of the Copernican system of- Italian philosopher who was executed for fended some. He also came under suspi- his teachings and beliefs that were con- cion for a powerful mnemonic system of trary to Catholic doctrine. Born in Nola, memory that he described in his works in the , Bruno was the The Shadow of Ideas, The Art of Memory, son of a soldier. He was a prodigy as a scholar and joined the , and Circe’s Song. In 1584 he completed two becoming a priest in 1572. He studied a of his most important works, On the Infi- wide range of philosophies and also took nite Universe and Worlds and The Expul- a keen interest in astronomy and math- sion of the Triumphant Beast. Bruno ar- ematics, training himself to prodigious rived in Prague in 1588. He was feats of memory that led many to suspect excommunicated there by Lutheran him of dabbling in the occult arts. He took Church officials and had to flee the city. up the Hermetic tradition, based on the He returned to Germany in 1591. At the writings of the ancient seer Hermes Tris- invitation of a Venetian noble, Giovanni megistus, a renowned figure since the Mocenigo, he moved back to Italy and be- Middle Ages and a representative of an- came a memory tutor to Mocenigo. The cient Egyptian wisdom and magic. Bruno two were soon at odds over Bruno’s un- also studied the works of Saint Thomas yielding philosophy and abrasive personal- Aquinas, a leading medieval scholar; Mar- ity. Mocenigo denounced Bruno, who was cilio Ficino, a Renaissance Neoplatonist, or arrested in May 1592 and charged with follower of Aristotelianism; and German heresy and blasphemy. He was transferred philosopher Nicholas of Cusa. Bruno grew to Rome and imprisoned, finally tried for familiar with the heliocentric universe pro- his negative views on Catholic dogma, in- posed by Nicolaus Copernicus, but took it cluding the rites of the Mass and the na- a dangerous step further by teaching that ture of the Trinity, for practicing magic, the universe was infinite, and that the and for his heretical belief in a multiplic- earth was only one among an infinite vari- ity of worlds. He was found guilty after a ety of worlds with no particular impor- trial that lasted seven years and burned at tance. This ran counter to Christian doc- the stake in 1600. trine. Accused of heresy by the order of fri- Byrd, William ars called Dominicans, Bruno left Naples in 1576 for Rome, then traveled to Geneva, (1540–1623) where he joined the Protestant Calvinist Prolific English composer whose works are sect but was excommunicated for slander- believed to have begun the Baroque style ing the philosopher Antoine de la Faye. In of harpsichord and keyboard music. Born 1579 he left Geneva, unhappy with the in Lincolnshire, he joined the Chapel Royal strict Calvinist methods, and became a as a boy and apprenticed to Thomas Tallis. professor of philosophy at Toulouse, Under the Catholic queen Mary I, this in- France. Under constant scrutiny wherever stitution, which produced and performed he went, he spent time in Paris and then music by appointment to the monarchy, London, where he worked in the service of was flourishing. Talented composers from

58 Greenhaven Encyclopedia of The Renaissance Byrd, William all over the continent of Europe were in- Lady Neville’s Book. Discouraged by the vited to take up posts in the Chapel Royal, anti-Catholic laws and politics of London, and Byrd contributed his own composi- Byrd moved to a small village, Stondon tions from a young age. At the death of Massey, in 1593 and remained there until Mary and the succession of the Protestant his death. He published two sets of Gradu- queen Elizabeth I, Byrd and his Catholic alia after the turn of the seventeenth cen- sympathies were out of favor. He left the tury, which were motets intended for per- Chapel Royal and, in 1562, was appointed formance during Catholic services. Writing as an organist at Lincoln Cathedral. He re- and publishing this music was an act of turned to the Chapel Royal, where he was daring in Protestant England where Catho- appointed to a salaried position, in 1572 lic worship was still banned by law. After and remained as a composer and organist. the “Gunpowder Plot” of 1605, in which Byrd and Tallis were granted a lucrative li- Catholics were suspected of attempting to cense to print music in 1578. Over the next destroy the English parliament, Byrd’s few years, they published several major Gradualia and all of his Catholic church collections of songs, including two in En- music was banned. Nevertheless, Byrd glish: Psalmes, Sonets and Songs in 1588 himself took part in illegal Catholic ser- and Songs of Sundrie Natures in 1589. Two vices, most of which were held in private collections of Latin motets (polyphonic homes, and continued to provide music to choral compositions), under the title of be performed during the Latin Mass. He Cantiones Sacrae, were published in 1589 also wrote stage songs, madrigals, and key- and 1591. These were among the first song board works that were collected in the collections ever to be brought out in print. Fitzwilliam Virginal Book, and various Byrd also published an important collec- shorter works for voice and strings. tion of his keyboard pieces, entitled My SEE ALSO: Elizabeth I; England; music

Greenhaven Encyclopedia of The Renaissance 59

Caboto, Giovanni (John Cabot) This expedition disappeared with all (ca. 1450–ca. 1498) hands, and no clue to its fate has yet been found. Italian explorer known in English as John Cabot, born in either Gaeta or Genoa, SEE ALSO: Columbus, Christopher Italy. The son of a merchant, he moved at a young age to Venice, where he married, Callimachus raised a family of three sons, and lived off the Asian spice trade. In 1490, Caboto (ca. 280 B.C.–245 B.C.) moved to Spain, where he became ac- An ancient Greek scholar and librarian, quainted with and Callimachus was known in the Renaissance sought patronage from the monarchs of for his poetry and for a lost work known Spain and Portugal for a new voyage of as the Pinakes, or Lists, a guide to the col- discovery to the Spice Islands. Failing in lection of the Library of Alexandria. Born this endeavor, he moved to England, where in North Africa, Callimachus may have be- he settled in the port of Bristol and began longed to a noble family, although histori- petitioning King Henry VII for support of ans know few details of his life. He was an expedition westward across the Atlantic well educated as a youth and eventually Ocean. Caboto believed a more northerly made his home in Alexandria, a city on route would prove shorter than those pio- the Mediterranean coast of Egypt estab- neered by the Portuguese around Africa, lished by , and which or the southerly route taken by Columbus, became the center of Greek scholarship, who mistakenly believed he had reached science, and philosophy. Callimachus the East Indies in 1492. In 1496, Henry of- joined the court of Ptolemy II, the king of ficially authorized the voyage with letters Egypt, and also became a member of the patent, while several merchants of Bristol Museum, the Alexandrian school of phi- agreed to sponsor it. Caboto set out that losophy and science that was built by year but turned back after experiencing Ptolemy I, founder of Egypt’s Ptolemaic bad weather and conflict with his crew. In dynasty. 1497, on his second expedition, he reached The hundreds of thousands of scrolls some unknown point on the eastern coast at the Alexandrian Library had been gath- of North America, declaring it “New ered from all corners of the Greek world Found Land,” then proceeded 900 miles and were meant to include every impor- (1448km) down the coast. He returned to tant literary, historical, philosophical, and Europe on a more southerly route, touch- scientific work in the world. Callimachus ing land again in Brittany. In 1498 Caboto organized the collection and compiled the set out with a larger fleet of five ships, with Lists to include the names of the books the intention of reaching Japan and China. and some information about the lives of

Greenhaven Encyclopedia of The Renaissance 61 Calvin, John their writers. The authors were arranged culture. Born Jean Cauvin in , a according to their field, such as law, po- town in the Picardy region of northern etry, history, mathematics, or rhetoric, and France, Calvin was the precocious son of a listed in alphabetical order, as were their lawyer who began studies at the University works. of Paris at the age of fourteen. He studied His poetic works, unlike the “Lists,” law, theology, as well as ancient languages, survived in the form of fragments and including Greek, Latin, and Hebrew. After quotations into the Renaissance. Aetia was earning a doctorate, he moved to Geneva, a group of narrative poems describing leg- in what is now the French-speaking region endary figures and events, while Iambi was of . Around 1533 Calvin re- a collection of shorter poems, some of belled against the Catholic hierarchy and them describing the scholars and students took up the cause of the German Protes- Callimachus knew or heard about in Alex- tants. He attempted to have the city fa- andria. He was also the author of a short thers adopt a new religious creed to be epic, Hecale, and a collection known as sworn to by all citizens of Geneva. Ex- Hymns. As a scholar, he wrote short stud- pelled from the city for his religious activ- ies in various fields of knowledge and col- ism, he moved to Strasbourg, Germany, lected them into the Epigrams. Callima- wherehebecameapreacherinaHugue- chus engaged in a famous and long- not (French Protestant) church. In 1541, standing debate with one of his own after several of his followers won election students, , over the to the city council of Geneva, he was in- proper form and length of poetry, with vitedtoreturntothecity,wherehere- Callimachus ridiculing the traditional mained for the rest of his life. longer epic poems and Apollonius mock- ing his rival’s preference for shorter forms. Calvin believed in a direct interpreta- Jealous of Apollonius’s securing the job of tion of scripture, without any human com- librarian, Callimachus endlessly needled mentators shaping the experience for the Apollonius for his pretentious and old- faithful. He believed in subordinating civic fashioned manner of writing. The work of government to religious authorities, and in Callimachus in the Library of Alexandria reforming the church through his own in- provided a foundation for later studies of terpretation of the will of God. His work ancient Greek writers; his debate with Institutes of the Christian Religion had a Apollonius over the nature of poetry was far-reaching effect on the Christian church also well remembered and provided schol- in Europe. First published in 1536, the In- ars and authors of the Renaissance with stitutes explained basic Protestant doc- one of their most common points of de- trines, such as the rejection of the author- bate. ity of the pope and the doctrine of justification by faith, which was first put SEE ALSO: classical literature forth by Martin Luther, former Catholic monk and founder of the Protestant Ref- Calvin, John ormation.Calvinbelievedinonlytwoof (1509–1564) the traditional Catholic sacraments: bap- Protestant theologian and founder of Cal- tism and Holy Communion; he disagreed vinism, a religious movement that had far- with Martin Luther in not believing in the reaching effects on European thought and physical presence of Christ in the offering

62 Greenhaven Encyclopedia of The Renaissance Camoes, Luis Vaz de of bread and wine, a strictly Catholic be- In Geneva Calvin preached the virtues lief. The Holy Spirit, in Calvinist doctrine, of thrift, sobriety, and industry. He em- could only be apprehended through the braced the economic changes sweeping spirit, and never through the senses; there across Renaissance Europe, where a medi- was no place in a Calvinist church for eval agrarian society was giving way to an graven images or human saints. early industrial age in which trade and Calvin also advanced the notion of money took precedence. predestination: the idea that the fate of the In the meantime, opponents of Cal- soul is determined before birth, and that vinist thought in Geneva were harshly sup- worldly actions, no matter how pious or pressed. Libertine and atheist Jacques virtuous, can do nothing to change it. The Gruet, who publicly berated Calvin and world was made up of the visible church satirized him in verse, was arrested, tor- and the invisible church, which included tured, and executed for heresy. The consis- those select individuals who were chosen tory also tortured and executed suspected by God to follow the righteous path to witches. Calvin’s most notable victim was salvation and paradise. The visible church Michael Servetus, a Spanish Anabaptist was made up of the elect on earth, who who had sworn enemies among Catholic and Protestant leaders. When Servetus was owed their first loyalty to their religion recognized in Geneva attending one of and who lay above and beyond the control Calvin’s sermons, he was arrested. With of secular authorities. Calvin’s support and approval, the council Calvin believed that religious doctrine of Geneva tried him for heresy and had should govern secular life. In 1559 he him burned at the stake. founded the Academy of Geneva, to edu- Calvin’s church gradually spread into cate the young in worldly subjects with a northern Europe through a network of strong grounding in faith. Seeking to cre- preachers, many of them French Hugue- ate an ideal Christian community, he also nots, whom he had trained and guided in employed a body known as the Consistory Geneva. His ultimate legacy was a harsh of Geneva as the city’s religious court and and unyielding Puritan outlook that enforcer of correct doctrine and obser- guided its followers in their public and vance. The consistory prohibited frivolous private behavior, and also brought many entertainments—dancing, gambling, and of its followers into open conflict with the card-playing—as well as Catholic worship; authorities who governed them. under Calvin, the consistory also had the right to excommunicate participants, SEE ALSO: Luther, Martin; Zwingli, Huld- which had once belonged to the civil au- rych thorities. Calvin established four officers of his reformed theocratic government: Camoes, Luis Vaz de ministers to preach and administer the sac- raments; doctors to teach the citizens and (1524–1580) train ministers; elders who would enforce Probably the best-known Portuguese poet strict regulations on morals and public be- and dramatist, author of Os Lusiades (The havior; and deacons, who oversaw the Lusiades), the national epic of Portugal. charitable institutions such as hospitals Camoes was born in to an adven- and poorhouses. turer, Simao Vaz de Camoes, a member of

Greenhaven Encyclopedia of The Renaissance 63 Caravaggio, Michelangelo da thepoorgentry.Simaodiedonavoyage king of Portugal with a small pension. The to India shortly after the birth of his son, poem was translated into several languages who would be schooled in monasteries and and served as an inspiration for the explo- at Coimbra, the leading university in Por- ration and settlement of new lands in Asia tugal. In 1543, after completing his stud- and Brazil, the Portuguese colony in South ies, he joined the royal court at Lisbon. He America. Camoes also wrote plays and po- was banished from the court in 1548 for etic works, including sonnets and lyric po- falling in love with a lady-in-waiting to etry that was collected and published un- the queen. He was further exiled from Lis- der the title Rimas shortly after his death. bon for an insulting characterization of His love poems took inspiration from the the king represented in one of his plays. work of ancient writers as well as his con- He enlisted in the Portuguese army and temporaries, including the Italian poet Pi- fought against the Moors in North Africa, etro Bembo. where he lost an eye defending the Medi- SEE ALSO: de Gama, Vasco; Portugal terranean port of . Returning to Lis- bon, he was soon in trouble over a fight Caravaggio, Michelangelo da with a member of the king’s household. (1573–1610) He was arrested but released from prison Italian painter whose expressive works on a pledge that he made stating he would overthrew the classical traditions of the serve in the Portuguese colonies in Asia. Renaissance with dark and striking imag- Glad to leave the intrigues and back- ery that would be widely imitated during stabbing at court, Camoes sailed for India the Baroque period that followed. Born in in 1553. He served honorably for three the town of Caravaggio to a carpenter, he years, taking part in expeditions against was orphaned as a boy and served as an the Malabar Coast and Arab ports along apprentice to the painter Simone Peter- the Red Sea. He won a commission as an zano in Milan. He then traveled to Rome, officer in the colony of Macau, a small is- where he struggled for a time as a painter land territory that Portuguese navigators of still lifes and flowers in a small and had seized off the coast of China. Some little-known painter’s workshop. time before or during these adventures he In Rome Caravaggio’s career turned began writing The Lusiades, which re- when he gained the patronage of Cardinal counts the voyages of and Francesco del Monte, who had admired extols Portugal as a daring nation of ex- and bought the artist’s realistic painting plorers and colonizers. Cardsharps. This and other early paintings, Recalled to India to answer charges of including Boy Bitten by a Lizard, Concert theft, he was shipwrecked in the off of Youths, and The Fortuneteller, dealt with the mouth of the Mekong River, in South- worldly scenes and ordinary people—an east Asia. He survived to return to Goa, a entirely new genre. But Caravaggio brought state on the Malabar Coast, then sailed to this interest in street life and everyday ex- Portugal’s African colony of Mozambique. perience to his religious art, beginning Destitute and nearly starving, he returned with works depicting Saint Matthew (The to Portugal with only The Lusiades to his Calling of St. Matthew and The Martrydom name in 1570. He published the poem to of St. Matthew). These paintings used com- popular acclaim and was rewarded by the moners as models and placed sanctified

64 Greenhaven Encyclopedia of The Renaissance Carpaccio, Vittore biblical stories and miraculous occurrences of Alof de Wignacourt, head of the Knights in a familiar setting, making a break with of , earned him the title of honorary the idealized figures and surroundings of knight of the order, and a payment of two past artists. Caravaggio also showed little Turkish slaves. A sword fight with one of respect for the gods of classical mythol- the Knights then landed him in prison, ogy; his portrait Bacchus, completed in from which he escaped; now pursued by 1595, shows the Greek god of wine and the authorities of Malta as well as Rome, revelry as an insolent teenager draped in a he wandered through Sicily and then bedsheet. His paintings had elongated, reached Naples, where he was found by oddly posed figures and areas of deep his Maltese pursuers and beaten senseless. shadow and startlingly bright color, used Through these events Caravaggio con- to highlight the personalities and themes tinued to produce expressive and startling of the work. This technique, called tene- religious imagery. The Madonna of Loreto brism, would be taken up by artists who shows the Virgin appearing before an old followed him during the Baroque period. man and woman, whose bare feet are in- The Saint Matthew series won Carav- solently turned toward the viewer of the aggio fame and future commissions, in- painting. One of his last works, The Resur- cluding The Deposition of Christ and Death rection of Lazarus, shows Christ raising of the Virgin. This last painting distressed Lazarus from the dead; according to some his patrons with his depiction of the Vir- accounts, Caravaggio exhumed a recently gin Mary as a plain, fleshy, and noticeably buried corpse to use as a model. pregnant woman. Caravaggio was accused Severely injured after the assault in of degrading religion and the saints, but Naples, Caravaggio left Naples for Port’ his revolutionary new style, full of dra- Ercole, where he was arrested by Spanish matic effects of light and posing, also at- police who mistook him for another tracted a legion of admirers, especially wanted man. He was released, only to among fellow painters. come down with a pestilential fever from Caravaggio’s turbulent private life got which he died within a few days. Three him into frequent trouble with the law. In days later after his death, he received a 1600 he was arrested for fighting with an formal pardon from the pope for the kill- officer at the Castle Sant’ Angelo in Rome, ing of Ranuccio Tomassoni in Rome. and in 1603 he was charged and jailed for SEE ALSO: Tintoretto, Jacopo; Titian; libel after writing derogatory poetry about Veronese, Paolo a rival painter. Several instances of dis- turbing the peace occurred in the next few years. In 1606, he got into a violent argu- Carpaccio, Vittore ment over a game of tennis that quickly (ca. 1460−1525) turned into a sword fight in which Carav- The painter Vittore Carpaccio was born aggio killed his rival, Ranuccio Tomassoni. into a humble family of seafarers and fish- Threatened with arrest, he fled Rome and ermen and lived his entire life in Venice, wandered through and Italy. He was a student of Lazzaro Bastiani Naples, then under the control of Spain. and also studied under Gentile Bellini, al- Caravaggio arrived in Sicily and in though Bellini outshone him in prestige 1608 sailed for Malta, where his portrait and commissions from the city’s rulers and

Greenhaven Encyclopedia of The Renaissance 65 Cartier, Jacques nobility. In 1501 the Doge of Venice com- then rewarded with a commission to re- missioned paintings from Carpaccio for turn to North America. He set out with the Doge’s Palace, where the painter’s Lion his young Iroquois guides and three ships of St. Mark can still be viewed. Carpaccio in May 1535, and sailed up the Saint painted for religious schools and confra- Lawrence, still determined to find a north- ternities of Venice and is best known for erly route to the Spice Islands as well as a The Legend of St. Ursula, a series of nine legendary land of blond men and mineral paintings completed about 1490 for Saint riches the local Indians knew as Sanguenay. Ursula, a Venetian fraternity of merchants. The expedition sailed past the site of Que- His most famous paintings are large pan- bec, where Cartier reunited the boys with oramic works, carefully drawn to glorify their father, Chief Donnaconna, and then the city and its history, and without the sailed as far as a large village of Huron In- intensity of religious and personal feeling dians, Hochelaga at a site named Mont that became fashionable among later Ve- Royal (Montreal) by Cartier. The expedi- netian painters. He depicted the lives of tion wintered along the river, but many the saints in painting cycles of Life of the members took sick from scurvy. The com- Virgin, Life of St. Stephen, Life of St. George, and Life of St. Jerome. His other famous pany was saved by the use of cedar works include Ten Thousand of bark, a remedy provided by Domagaya. Mount Ararat, St. Sebastian, and The Holy On a third voyage, in 1541, Cartier Pilgrim. He set his paintings in the streets sailed with five ships to the mouth of the and homes of the town where he lived, River Cap Rouge. He had brought farmers and in this way his works provide a realis- and convicts to establish a productive tic look at the Venice of the Renaissance. farming settlement; his instructions were to assist Jean-Francois de la Rocque in his Cartier, Jacques attempt to found a permanent North (1491–1557) American colony for the French king. A French explorer and the first European Cartier built a winter fort at Charlesbourg- to navigate the interior of Canada, Cartier Royal, skirmished with the Hurons, and was born in the port of Saint Malo in Brit- waited for de la Rocque to make his ap- tany, then a duchy independent of the king pearance. The settlement was decimated of France. He earned a reputation as an by scurvy and Indian attacks; Cartier fi- able mariner and, in 1534, set out on his nally abandoned it in the spring of 1542. first voyage of exploration with two ships While sailing off the coast of Newfound- and 120 crew members. He made short land, he finally crossed paths with de la work of the Atlantic crossing, arriving off Rocque but decided to return immediately the coast of Newfoundland after a voyage to France. On returning to France after of just twenty days. He sailed north to the this voyage, he settled in a country house Strait of Belle Isle, and explored what are near Saint Malo. Cartier’s exploration of now known as Prince Edward Island and the Saint Lawrence and surrounding land the Magdalen Islands. After returning opened this region to settlement and colo- south as far as the mouth of the Saint nization by France; the French-speaking Lawrence River, and taking two Iroquois province of Quebec has since this time boys named Domagaya and Taignoagny kept its ties to France despite the domi- hostage, he returned to France. Cartier was nance of the rest of eastern North America

66 Greenhaven Encyclopedia of The Renaissance Castiglione, Baldassare by English-speaking settlers from Great Castiglione, Baldassare Britain. (1478–1529)

SEE ALSO: Caboto, Giovanni A diplomat and author whose famous Book of the Courtier described the ideal Renais- sance gentleman. Castiglione was born into Castagno, Andrea del a noble family of in the town (ca. 1421–1457) of Casatico, near the town of Mantua in A notable painter of Florence, Castagno northern Italy. As a young man he at- was born as Andrea di Bartoldi Bargilla. tended the court of the Sforza family, rul- As a young man he was known for a mu- ers of Milan, and served during a cam- ral in the Palazzo del Podesta, an impor- paign against an invading Spanish army in tant civic building, showing the execution 1503. He became a diplomat for Duke of rebels. In the Castagno traveled Francesco Gonzaga of Mantua, and in to Venice, where he completed a series of 1504 joined the court of Duke Guidobaldo frescoes in the church of San Zaccaria, as Montefeltro of Urbino, who sent him as well as Last Supper and a Passion of Christ an ambassador to King Henry VII of En- cycle for the convent church of Saint Apol- gland. Castiglione also joined an expedi- lonia. These frescoes showed great skill in tion sent by Pope Julius II against Venice the handling of perspective, which Cast- and for his service was rewarded with the agno had learned through a study of the title of Count of Novellata. He became an paintings of Masaccio. ambassador to the papal court after the electionofPopeLeoX.InRomehestruck Castagno eventually returned to Flo- up a friendship with the Italian artist rence, where he painted fresco cycles in Raphael, who painted a well-known por- the churches of Saint Apollonia and Saint trait of the author. In 1521 Castiglione at- Annunziata, and in a private estate, the tained a position in the church: He was Villa . He was best known in Flo- sent as an ambassador to Spain by Pope rence for a portrait of Niccolo da Tolen- Clement VII, where he attended to Charles tino, a condottiere (mercenary) who had V, king of Sapin and Holy Roman Em- led the city’s forces to an important vic- peror. When Charles’s army attacked tory. The portrait was completed over Rome, Castiglione came under suspicion Tolentino’s tomb within the Duomo, the for not informing the pope of the disas- cathedral of Florence. Castagno drew his trous attack beforehand. Castiglione de- inspiration from contemporary and an- fended his actions and was exonerated. cient sources, making a study of Roman wall paintings as well as the striking new In 1528 Castiglione published Il Corte- style of Donatello’s lifelike sculpture. He giano, known in English as the Book of the realistically depicted the human figure, giv- Courtier. The book was based on the ing it a sculptural volume, realistic pro- author’s experiences at the ducal court of portions, and dramatic expressions and Urbino. In a series of lively dialogues and movement that became characteristic of conversations, based on those he heard at later , and notably in the court, he expounds on the training and the works of Michelangelo. manners of the proper gentleman. Cas- tiglione sees the courtier as a new type of SEE ALSO: Florence; painting man, one educated in the arts and litera-

Greenhaven Encyclopedia of The Renaissance 67 Catherine of Siena, Saint ture and trained for military service. The tween the church and several cities of courtier, in his view, should act with self- northern Italy that had banded together to control and the dignified ease that comes rebel against papal authority. When Pope from long experience of the world and Gregory XI raised an army to threaten Flo- training in a wide range of fields. This idea rence, one of the rebel cities, she traveled represents an important change from the to the papal court in Avignon, France, to medieval chivalric knight, who fought in mediate the conflict. After arriving in Avi- service to a feudal overlord and solicited gnon, she urged the pope to return his the affection of an idealized and unattain- court to Rome, against the opposition of able lady. French cardinals who were then dominat- The Book of the Courtier was translated ing the church administration. into French, English, German, and Span- After the death of Gregory, his succes- ish. It was held in high regard in royal sor Urban followed her advice and re- courts of France and England, and played turned to Rome, but the church was soon a key role in introducing the humanistic split between two candidates; Catherine outlook of the Italian Renaissance to supported Urban, elected by the cardinals northern Europe. The author is also of Rome, against Clement, supported by known for an elegy he wrote for his friend the French. Catherine diligently wrote to Raphael on the painter’s death in 1520, the men involved in this Great Schism, at- and letters that reveal in detail his life as tempting through sheer force of personal- diplomat and courtier. ity and eloquence to heal the breach. Im- pressed by her insight and the force of her SEE ALSO: Leo X; Raphael; Sforza, Ludovico personality, Urban invited her to live in Catherine of Siena, Saint Rome, where she died in 1380. Her liter- ary works include several hundred letters (1347–1380) written to the popes and princes of Eu- A mystic and visionary, and a noted liter- rope and the Dialogue of Divine Provi- ary figure of the early Italian Renaissance, dence. Catherine was revered throughout Catherine Benincasa was born in the Tus- Europe for her asceticism and her devo- cantownofSienatoawooldyer.Sheex- tion to the church, as well as her startling perienced religious visions as a child and and energetic involvement in worldly af- withdrew to a tiny room in her father’s fairs. She was canonized by Pope Pius II in house, taking little food, practicing self- 1461. mortification, sleeping on a hard wooden plank, and living the life of a religious her- mit. After joining the Dominican order at Catholicism the age of eighteen she gradually ended In the Middle Ages, Christians of western her solitude, tending to the poor and the Europe looked to the pope, the bishop of sick, even as the city was struck by a deadly Rome, as the earthly leader of their faith. outbreak of plague. She attracted a small The “catholic” church meant the entire crowd of devoted followers and became community of believers, whose lives were famous throughout the city and its sur- guided by church doctrine, and whose her- roundings for her virtue and saintliness. esies and sins were punished by church She was often called on to mediate dis- authorities. Catholicism knit Europeans putes and involved herself in the wars be- together at a time when political authority

68 Greenhaven Encyclopedia of The Renaissance Catholicism was weak, and when most people knew ment, which claimed that an assembly of little of the world outside their village or church leaders held ultimate authority over feudal domain. Although the Holy Roman the pope himself, became another source Emperors would challenge the popes for of debate and division. power in Italy, in the rest of Europe the In the Renaissance, as communication Catholic hierarchy remained an unques- improved, as the Bible was translated into tioned authority; the seven sacraments ad- new languages, and as scholarship brought ministered by a priest marked the most to light ancient philosophies, the Catholic important events in an individual’s life, Church found its doctrines and authority and the calendar of holidays, saints’ days, challenged. Jan Hus, a fifteenth-century re- feasts, and fasts guided believers through former from Bohemia, founded a national the seasons of the year. church that paid no allegiance to the pope. The Catholic Church grew into a Martin Luther, a German priest of the wealthy institution from the tradition of early sixteenth century, directly challenged the tithe, a donation of 10 percent of one’s the pope, accusing his church of corrup- goods or income to the church. In Rome, tion, worldliness, and godlessness. Hus, the popes lived in luxurious palaces and Luther, and other reformers sought to re- presided over the Curia, the papal head- turn Christianity to its roots, and restore quarters. Catholicism was a complex hier- the simple faith and religious devotion of archy of cardinals, archbishops, bishops, the apostles and the early Christians. and local priests, who administered the Luther’s reform took Christians out of the sacraments and guided the members of Catholic Church entirely, and denied the the parish. The church was a cultural as authority of popes, bishops, and priests well as religious institution. Catholic doc- over the lives of believers. trine guided artists in their works, univer- The Catholic Church fought this Prot- sities were founded under the authority of estant Reformation with religious trials the church, and scholars devoted their and threats of excommunication, which writings to interpretation of the Bible and denied the sacraments to a heretic and the works of the early church fathers. barred his entry into heaven. The church The authority of the popes, however, also fought heresy with the Inquisition, a posed a direct challenge to secular rulers religious court, and the Index, a list of pro- who were attempting to consolidate their hibited books. Catholicism was coming authority and create national governments. into conflict with many new currents of The kings of France had a long standing philosophy as well as scientific investiga- feud with the church over the authority of tion. Astronomers such as Galileo Galilei the pope to appoint bishops. Eventually, a and Nicolaus Copernicus had to be cau- French faction would take the Papacy out tious about advancing theories that con- of Rome entirely and establish a new flicted with accepted church doctrine. Catholic capital in the French city of Avi- In the century following Martin gnon. This Babylonian Captivity led to a Luther’s Reformation movement, civil and split in the church and to several men all international wars were fought in Europe claiming to be pope at the same time. To between Catholics and Protestants, with resolve the problem, church members held northern Europe largely breaking away, a series of councils; this conciliar move- and southern Europe remaining loyal to

Greenhaven Encyclopedia of The Renaissance 69 Cellini, Benvenuto papal authority. Although the Renaissance the service of the church. Even as the Prot- popes were the most powerful individuals estant movement was splitting the church in Europe, with immense treasuries and down a lasting divide, the popes were cre- armies at their disposal, they were looked ating an enduring artistic legacy in cities on as just another center of power, con- all over Europe. tending for land, taxes, and political au- thority with all the other rulers of the con- Cellini, Benvenuto tinent. The Papacy, in the hands of many (1500–1571) Renaissance popes, became an instrument Sculptor, jeweler, and goldsmith, Cellini of amassing wealth and prestige and ad- was a leading craftsman and artist of the vancing the interests of their families. Italian Renaissance who described a tur- The movement known as the Counter- bulent and violent life through a famous Reformation was in full swing by the end autobiography. Born in Florence to a well- of the Renaissance. The Council of Trent, to-do landowning family, he was appren- which first convened in 1545, passed de- ticed to a goldsmith but fled the city after crees against the Protestant movement, getting into a scrape with the law. He jour- clarified Catholic doctrine, and attempted neyed to Siena, the rival of Florence, then to set down uniform guidelines for the ad- to the more distant city of Bologna, where ministration of the church. Although the he became an accomplished musician as Council of Trent was meant to reassert well as a professional jeweler and metal- Catholic primacy, the church struggled for smith. At the age of nineteen he settled in centuries to implement the decrees in the Rome, where he became a musician at the far-flung domains that still accepted the court of the pope and an artisan in wide Catholic Church as the true Christian au- demand for delicately wrought medals, thority. The rise of powerful nation-states miniatures, and jewelry—some of the fin- brought the church directly into conflict est and most valuable works of art of his with kings over the appointment of bish- age. An accomplished soldier, he fought ops, the ownership of income-producing valiantly in the pope’s armies during a land, the authority of the religious courts, siege of Rome, but could not subdue his and other matters, while secular authori- violent nature in the face of challenges to ties sought to assert themselves as the final his freedom or his honor on the part of law of the land. friends, patrons, or the authorities. The most beneficial legacy of the Re- He fled Rome after killing the man naissance Catholic Church was its patron- who had murdered his brother, engaging age of artists and their work. Under the in a sword fight with a notary, and devel- commission of church authorities, artists oping a sworn enemy of the son of Pope such as Giotto, Michelangelo, Masaccio, Paul III. On returning to the city, he was and others raised artists well above their arrested on a charge of embezzlement and traditional status as mere artisans. The Re- imprisoned in the Castel Sant’ Angelo, the naissance popes made possible the new ancient fortress that stood high on the classicism in architecture, the monumental west bank of the River near the sculptures of Rome and other cities, and pope’s palace at the Vatican. the innovations in painting, woodworking, Enraged at his captivity and his treat- engraving, and metalworking, all done in ment in Rome, Cellini returned to Flo-

70 Greenhaven Encyclopedia of The Renaissance Cervantes, Miguel de rence. There he completed Perseus Holding noble family, Cereta was given the excel- the Head of Medusa, a famous sculpture lent education and tutoring that was usu- that stood for centuries in the main square ally offered only to sons. She spent much of Florence, and which many historians of her youth in a convent, where she rank next to the greatest works of Dona- learned Latin and Greek and made a study tello and Michelangelo. When Florence of the ancient writers Cicero, Virgil, and went to war with Siena, Cellini was hired Pliny. She returned home at the age of to strengthen the walls and defenses of the eleven and began the study of mathemat- city, a task that he carried out with great ics and science with her father. Married to skill and that earned him a pardon for the a merchant at the age of fifteen, she car- many accusations against him of violence, ried on her studies and her correspon- theft, and immorality. dences with scholars and writers from her Cellini created a celebrated gold me- new home in Venice. After the death of dallion of Pope Clement VII, who em- her husband from the plague, she devoted ployed him as a diemaker at the papal herself completely to the writing of letters, mint. He also created works on commis- essays, and speeches, and also gave public sion for Cardinal Pietro Bembo, King readings of her essays. She may have also Francis and Alessandro de’ Medici, the won an appointment as a professor of phi- duke of Florence. Cellini objects were rare losophy at the University of Padua. In treasures jealously fought over by Euro- 1488, she boldly defied convention by cir- pean kings and nobility, and remain ob- culating a collection of her letters under jects of rivalry and veneration to this day the title of Epistolae Familiares. These let- among museums all over the world. ters had been sent to friends and acquain- tances; they covered the topics of women’s The artist’s most renowned work, how- rights and social position, the institution ever, was an autobiography that he began of marriage, the right of women to an edu- writing in the 1550s. The author goes into cation, and women’s political ability and great detail about his art, his many love their attainments as artists. She criticized affairs and rivalries, his dealings with no- the institutions of marriage and house- bility and rival artists, and his love of vio- keeping as stultifying and condemned lence to settle any and all disputes. He in- women’s predilection for jewelry, fine terrupts his many strange, sometimes dress, and cosmetics. She was roundly supernatural, adventures with extravagant criticized for presuming to be the equal of praise of himself and his art, giving the men in intellectual ability, however, and impression of a chimeric, rough-edged after the Epistolae Familiares ceased trying character who outshines and outmaneu- to circulate her works. Her interest in over- vers all who surround him. Cellini’s auto- coming social barriers to women in the biography became a classic and one of the field of education and scholarship laid the most important written works to originate groundwork for the more widely published during the Renaissance. feminist writing after the Renaissance. Cereta, Laura Cervantes, Miguel de (1469–1499) (1547–1616) Renaissance author, humanist, and femi- Spanish novelist and playwright whose nist. Born in Brescia, the eldest child of a work Don Quixote has become a world-

Greenhaven Encyclopedia of The Renaissance 71 Cervantes, Miguel de

jury that remained a source of great pride throughout his life. He returned to active service and sailed in expeditions against the Turks in Greece and , a North African port. In 1575 he set out for Spain from Naples. In the waters off the northern coasts of Catalonia, Cervantes’s ship was attacked and he was captured by Algerian pirates, who brought him to the city of Algiers and sold him into slavery. He was held for five years until his parents ran- somed him and brought him back to Spain. Civilian life in Spain led him into a number of poorly paid positions as a civil servant. He worked as a purchasing agent for the fleet assembled against the English, known as the Spanish Armada, and as a tax agent, whose duties included the col- lection of taxes for the royal treasury. He suffered arrest and two short prison terms An engraving of Miguel de Cervantes. for misconduct and debt; historians be- lieve that during one of these imprison- renowned epic, laying an important foun- ments he began writing Don Quixote. dation for modern literature and the novel. He had begun his literary effort with Born in Alcala de Henares, a town near La Galatea, a short novel, in 1585. In 1597 Madrid, Cervantes was the son of a physi- he was accused of mishandling money as cian and minor noble. He left Spain as a a tax collector and was jailed in the royal young man and journeyed to Rome, where prison of . In 1607 Cervantes settled he entered the service of a cardinal. In in Madrid, where he remained for the rest Rome he discovered the literature of an- of his life. He wrote the Exemplary Novels cient Latin authors, and was inspired by in 1613, and a second part to Don Quixote the idea of reviving the literature of antiq- in 1615. He recounted his misadventures uity. as a slave in Algiers in two plays, The Traf- Cervantes enlisted with a Spanish gar- fic of Algiers and The Baths of Algiers. rison in the city of Naples, Italy, then un- Don Quixote first appeared in 1605. It der the control of a Spanish royal dynasty. was a tale of a poor Spanish nobleman, He sailed with the fleet that battled the who relives the glories of the chivalric age Ottoman Turks at the , through a fertile imagination and the com- off the western coast of Greece, in 1571. panionship of a simple and devoted com- He was wounded by gunfire in the battle panion, Sancho Panza. Don Quixote is in and lost the use of his left hand—an in- constant quest to fight injustice, defend

72 Greenhaven Encyclopedia of The Renaissance Charles V his honor, and win the hand of the fair maiden Dulcinea. The novel attracted a wide audience through down-to-earth language, realism, sharply drawn characters, and its vivid de- piction of the many ironic encounters that arise from the hero’s delusions. The book is seen as a break with the chivalric ro- mances that were the dominant form of literature in medieval Europe, and in this way paves the way for the modern novel and its basis in everyday experience and the inner emotional and spiritual life of its characters. Don Quixote has been trans- lated into dozens of languages and printed in more than five hundred editions and remains a landmark of Western literature.

SEE ALSO: Lepanto, Battle of; Shakespeare, William A 1548 portrait of Charles V by famed Ve- netian artist Titian, “The Emperor Charles Charles V V Riding at Muhlberg.” ௠ GIANNI DAGLI ORTI/ (1500–1558) CORBIS.REPRODUCED BY PERMISSION. King of Spain and Holy Roman Emperor, Charles governed the largest realm in Eu- first unpopular in Spain, where he levied rope since the time of Charlemagne. He heavy taxes and appointed Flemish outsid- was the son of Philip I the Handsome (the erstogovern. Duke of Burgundy) and Joanna the Mad of Spain. He was grandson of Ferdinand In 1519, on the death of his grandfa- of Aragon and Isabella of Castile, the joint ther Maximilian, Charles was elected as rulers of Spain, and of Maximilian I, Hab- the Holy Roman Emperor, governing an sburg emperor of the Holy Roman states. area that included Austria and other terri- Born in Ghent, he was raised by an aunt, tories in central Europe. His election frus- Margaret of Austria. Charles inherited the trated the ambitious King Francis I of Netherlands, a part of Burgundy, on the France, who also had claimed the title. death of his father in 1506, but ruled This encounter laid the seeds of a long ri- through Margaret, who served as his re- valry between the two rulers that would gent until 1515. On the death of Ferdi- endure for decades. In 1522, finding the nand II in 1516, Charles became the first huge realm too much for a single man to monarch of a united Spanish kingdom that rule, Charles gave up direct rule of his ter- included Aragon, Navarre, Castile, ritories in Austria to his brother Ferdi- Granada, Naples, Sicily, and , and nand. that also governed colonies established by Charles still disputed control of Bur- Spanish explorers and adventurers in the gundy and Navarre with Francis I; at the Americas. As an outsider, Charles was at same time, Italy was contested between the

Greenhaven Encyclopedia of The Renaissance 73 Charles VIII pope and foreign kings seeking to extend 1521, at the Diet of Worms, Charles had their influence to wealthy city-states such condemned the teachings of Martin as Milan and Florence. The emperor allied Luther, the German monk who was lead- with Pope Leo X and went to war against ing the revolt against the Catholic Church, Francis I in 1521. Charles’s army won an known as the Protestant Reformation. important victory at the in Charles sent inquisitors and troops to 1525, capturing Francis and bringing him ruthlessly put down Protestant rebellion to Spain, where the French king was forced and worked to ally the princes of Germany to sign the Peace of Madrid. This treaty with the Catholic Church and against the freed Milan from French control and Protestant movement. In 1531 his Protes- ended France’s claims to Burgundy. When tant opponents responded by organizing the Schmalkaldic League against him. The he returned to France, however, Francis league allied with France against Charles; claimed he had signed the treaty under its officers seized Catholic properties, ex- duress and renounced it. He formed an al- pelled Catholic leaders, and forcibly con- liance against Charles that included King verted many German cities to Protestant- Henry VIII of England, Pope Clement VII, ism. and the cities of Venice, Milan, and Flo- At the Council of Trent in 1545, rence. Charles responded with an invasion Charles persuaded several German princes of Italy. His armies brutally sacked the city to join his crusade against Protestantism. of Rome in 1527 and took the pope hos- With his opponents divided over strategy, tage. The Treaty of Cambrai in 1529 tem- he decisively defeated the Schmalkaldic porarily ended the conflict bctween the League at the Battle of Mühlberg in 1546. emperor and the French king; soon after- In 1555 the Peace of Augsburg finally es- ward Charles also signed the Peace of Bar- tablished a lasting compromise between celona with the pope. In 1535, Charles in- Catholics and Protestants. By this treaty, stalled his son Philip as the Duke of Milan the religion of each realm would be that in defiance of Francis, who was again of its prince. In the next year Charles ab- claiming the city. The war continued until dicated his throne. His brother Ferdinand 1538, then resumed in 1542 with Francis replaced him as the Holy Roman Emperor allying with Suleiman I, sultan of the Ot- and his son Philip II became king of Spain. toman Empire, and Charles allying with Charles entered a monastery in Yuste, Henry VIII. Spain, where he died in 1558. In 1530, after reaching a peace agree- ment with Pope Clement VII, Charles was officially crowned the Holy Roman Em- Charles VIII peror by the pope. The Spanish conquests (1470–1498) in the New World had brought him pres- King of France whose most important tige and a fortune in silver. Charles legacy was an invasion of Italy that threw strongly believed in the Christianizing mis- the political world of the Italian Renais- sion of the conquistadores; in Europe, he sance into turmoil for generations. Born saw his own holy mission in the fight in the castle of , he succeeded against Protestantism that was threatening Louis XI to the throne of France in 1483 the authority of the pope and emperor in at the age of thirteen. The young king, who Germany and in the Low Countries. In had little formal education and could

74 Greenhaven Encyclopedia of The Renaissance cities barely read, was soon dealing with a rebel- cities lion of his cousin Louis of Orléans and Europe during the Renaissance developed France’s powerful nobles, who were at- a thriving urban society. In this era, city tempting to stymie the authority of the life made a break with that of the coun- king in their lands. One revolt of the duke tryside; the peasants and townspeople had of Brittany endured for four years before less in common and were less dependent Charles finally defeated it in 1488. Al- on each other for food, trade, and defense. though he had been betrothed to the Renaissance cities served as economic as daughter of Emperor Maximilian I, Charles well as cultural centers, where the new believed it wiser to marry the duke’s scholarship, art, and literature thrived. The daughter Anne, and in this way bring Brit- most densely urbanized parts of the conti- tany at last under royal control. nent were northern Italy, the Low Coun- Looking for further conquests, Charles tries (modern Belgium and the turned to the wealthy kingdom of Naples, Netherlands), southern England, northern for which the rulers of the French Angevin France, and southern Germany. The dynasty had a long-standing claim. In continent’s largest urban centers were Ven- 1494, he made an alliance with Ludovico ice, Florence, Amsterdam, Paris, and Lon- Sforza of Milan and led a French army don. All of these cities had diverse social into northern Italy. With a powerful force groups, including a merchant class, a of Swiss mercenaries and seventy cannons wealthy aristocracy, skilled artisans, and at their disposal, the French marched the poor, a class that included migrants through Tuscany, defeating Florence, and from the countryside. by February 1495 had reached Naples, The physical appearance and layout of where Charles deposed the Neapolitan cities varied greatly from one region to the king Alfonso and had himself crowned next. Most had fortifications, such as tow- king. Soon afterward Milan, Venice, the ers and walls, and gates that were used to Spanish king Ferdinand of Aragon, the control the flow of traffic and closed at pope, and the Holy Roman Emperor night. Within the walls, palaces, cathedrals, joined forces and defeated the French at and town halls rose highest above the the Battle of Fornovo. Charles was driven streets and squares. Cities were divided out of Italy, but the fight for power and into neighborhoods, most of them identi- influence in Italy among France, Spain, fied with a particular economic activity. and the Holy Roman Empire lasted well Some cities had a large population of into the sixteenth century. In the mean- farmers, who lived within the walls but time, the chaotic condition of the Italian worked in fields just outside, or else held city-states encouraged many prominent plots of open, cultivable land at the city’s Italian artists and writers to leave their edge. homes and seek protection and patronage, a movement that had the effect of spread- Within the walls, a broad range of so- ing humanism and the classical ideals of cial classes met on the streets. Dress dis- the Renaissance up and down the Italian tinguished the rich from the poor, the peninsula. working class from the men and women of leisure and those connected with the SEE ALSO: Ferdinand II of Aragon; France; courts. The crowds included itinerant ped- Italy; Naples dlers, foreign merchants and, in university

Greenhaven Encyclopedia of The Renaissance 75 cities towns, students from far and wide, who the church. Political groups formed to con- formed an often-unruly faction tending to tend for power; guilds worked for the in- disturbances and disorder. With chaotic, terests of artisans, merchants, and artists. unplanned street systems, Renaissance cit- Academies brought together noble patrons, ies were choked with foot and vehicle traf- scholars, and students, for the exchange of fic, and many city-dwellers lived in ideas. All of these groups had their bylaws crowded, unsafe, and unsanitary homes, and elected leaders, and carried out a vital built high above the street. In the Middle function for ordinary individuals, who Ages, these conditions had forced many were powerless to effect change or further outside and into the street during the day, their interests on their own. making the medieval town a scene of pub- The Protestant Reformation—the re- lic spectacle and entertainment. In the Re- bellion against the Catholic Church initi- naissance, public life and entertainment ated by Martin Luther—had a drastic ef- began moving indoors, and took the form fect on Renaissance urban life. The of musical concerts, plays, dances, gam- Reformation divided many towns along bling houses, and other diversions. religious lines. Protestants reduced the role While medieval nobles and princes had of the church in civic life, ended any civic ruled feudal towns independently of mon- authority of the clergy, ended monastic archs, many Renaissance cities had elected life, and made worship more a private and assemblies and councils that governed personal affair. Catholic regions kept their their affairs. The larger city-states in Italy, sense of religious brotherhood, public fes- such as Milan, Florence, and Venice, also tivals and holidays, and the regular assem- had authority over a surrounding region, bly of Mass. To enforce Catholic ortho- including smaller cities and towns. These doxy, the church established inquisitions cities established separate authorities to in many regions to root out heretics and deal with public health, sanitation, fire pre- apostates, enforcing a uniform religious vention, public hospitals and charity wards, policing, tax collection, and defense. faith with the use of prisons, torture, and An important trend in the Renaissance was public executions. the loss of autonomy by provinces and The cities were nodes of exchange, in a their capitals—the old medieval patchwork system of trade that was expanding rap- of small principalities—as national mon- idly with the improvement of communi- archies consolidated their power in capital cation and transportation. Certain cities cities, such as Paris, Madrid, and London. had industrial specialties, such as textile The local princes who had held sway in making in the Low Countries, ironwork- their autonomous and fortified cities lost ing in the valley, and banking in both power and importance, while the ar- northern Italy. Port cities were centers of tisan and merchant classes gained prestige maritime industries: shipbuilding, ware- with the establishment of guilds, mutual housing, sail making, rope making, and protection societies, and increase in trade. provisioning armaments. In some cities Religious, social, political, and profes- professions were performed within certain sional clubs knit the urban population to- nationalities and ethnic groups; through- gether. Confraternities were secular asso- out Europe the Jews were limited in the ciations meant to carry out the works of professions they could follow, often herded

76 Greenhaven Encyclopedia of The Renaissance classical literature into walled ghettoes, or prohibited from Metamorphoses of Ovid inspired many me- cities altogether. dieval poets and artists. Toward the end of the Renaissance, The Italian poet Petrarch was the lead- economic stagnation took hold in south- ing medieval scholar of classical literature, ern Europe as trade shifted to the north and the first to seek out and collect un- and costly wars drained treasuries and the known ancient works, including the cities of men and material. Although Spain speeches of the Roman orator Cicero. Pe- drew an immense amount of money from trarch drew on classical ideas in his own its colonies in the Americas, its ambitious works of history and poetry. He devoted kings bankrupted their realm through muchofhisworktorevisingandediting costly wars in Italy and the Low Coun- manuscripts that had gone through many tries. Heavily taxed and with their produc- changes in the centuries since they were tive members levied into the royal armies, written. In his editing of the Roman histo- the cities of Spain saw their industries and rian Livy, for example, Petrarch made commerce decline. The Thirty Years’ War notes and suggestions wherever the mean- devastated cities in central Europe and ing or language was not clear, and brought Germany, while Venice and Genoa had to out corrected editions of his own. deal with the rising Ottoman Empire, In the early fifteenth century, collect- whose corsairs and navies were closing the ing ancient manuscripts became a popular Mediterranean to European merchants al- pastime of writers and scholars. Poggio together. Bracciolini spent years browsing through Nevertheless, the crowded, walled city the libraries and monasteries of northern had become a fixture in the landscape of Europe. The poet Angelo Poliziano mas- Europe, and continued to draw immi- tered ancient Greek, a rare feat in the early grants from the countryside. Urban popu- Renaissance, when the language was all lation would continue to increase after the but unknown in western Europe. Renaissance, and the city’s role as a center Poliziano’s scholarship was the most thor- of education, the arts, and an economic ough and skilled of his times. He carefully and cultural exchange between nations traced the history of the books he exam- would remain. ined, comparing the different versions in an attempt to arrive at the language of the classical literature archetype, or original work. This method The works of the ancient Greeks and Ro- of collation was an important advance mans survived the fall of the western Ro- over emendation, in which scholars ap- man Empire and the chaos of the early plied their own interpretations to the Middle Ages. In monasteries of Europe and original manuscripts and made additions the British Isles, scribes carefully copied and deletions directly to the text according these books by hand and preserved them to whim. in small libraries. Medieval scholars knew The invention of printing in the mid- the works of the Greek philosopher Aris- fifteenth century proved a great boon to totle, and the Roman historians Livy, Sal- classical scholarship. Books no longer had lust, and . Virgil’s The Aeneid to be transcribed by hand, and could be was considered the finest work of epic po- printed in large, uniform editions. Print- etry, and the themes and characters of the ing these editions in copies of hundreds

Greenhaven Encyclopedia of The Renaissance 77 Clement VII gave rise to a much larger audience and forebears of European civilization, even as widespread knowledge of ancient works. the formerly universal Catholic Church By the sixteenth century nearly all of the was torn by dissent and movements for currently known works of ancient Latin reform. authors were in print. In addition, the SEE ALSO: Aristotelianism; Aurispa, Gio- study and revival of classical Latin played vanni; humanism; Nicholas a key role in the flowering of art, philoso- phy, law, and science in Renaissance Eu- Clement VII rope. (1342–1394) Most of the new books were in Latin, “Antipope” whose election brought about while the ancient Greek writers appeared the Great Western Schism. Born Robert of in new Latin translations as the works of Geneva, the son of the Count of Geneva, , , Sophocles, and he was appointed bishop of Therouanne Aeschylus and Ptolemy began turning up in 1361 and of the city of Cambrai in in the fifteenth century. , 1368. In 1371 he became a member of the an enthusiastic manuscript hunter, trav- College of Cardinals, the body that elects eled to Byzantium to search out unknown the pope. As a cardinal he led a brutal works, while Greeks fleeing the assault of campaign against the town of Cesena, the Turks (who overthrew the Byzantine where the townspeople were resisting di- Empire in 1453) came west with their an- rect control of the pope. He put down the cient literature. Inspired by the story of rebellion but a massacre he ordered of sev- the library of Alexandria, Pope Nicholas V eral thousand inhabitants earned him the sought to establish its modern rival in the nickname of “Butcher of Cesena.” After Vatican and commissioned the translation this event, he was elected pope by a com- of Greek works into Latin. In the 1470s, mittee of French cardinals after the death the library was finally created by Pope Six- of Gregory XI, but the election was con- tus IV, who made an immense collection tested by another candidate, Urban VI. Al- of nearly four thousand books and manu- lied to the French king, Clement left Rome scripts available to scholars. to establish a rival papal court and admin- In northern Europe, classical scholar- istration in Avignon, in what is now south- ship of the sixteenth century went beyond ern France. This commenced the Great the discovery and explanation of the an- Schism that did lasting damage to the cient texts. Scholars of the Netherlands church. With rival popes enthroned at Avi- and Germany applied the actions and ide- gnon and Rome, all of Christendom was als of ancient rulers and philosophers to forced to choose sides. The authority of the events taking place in their own day, the church hierarchy was thrown into especially the many conflicts brewing doubt, inspiring the first stirrings of a around the Protestant Reformation. The movement for reformation of the church. ideas of Aristotle, Marcus Aurelius, Plato, Clement had the support of France, Scot- and Demosthenes entered the intellectual land, Spain, and the Kingdom of Naples, mainstream and were taken up by philoso- as well as several states in the Holy Roman phers, poets, playwrights, and university Empire, but he was unable to heal the lecturers. The ancient Greeks and Romans breach in the church that continued for became widely regarded as the intellectual another generation after his death.

78 Greenhaven Encyclopedia of The Renaissance clothing

Clitherow, Margaret refusal to confess to any crime at the place (1556–1586) of her execution made her into one of the most prominent martyrs of Catholicism. A Catholic who lived and died in the northern English city of York, some- SEE ALSO: Catholicism; Elizabeth I; En- times referred to as the Pearl of York. She gland was the daughter of Thomas Middleton, a chandler who would become the sheriff of clothing York in 1564. She was raised as a Protes- New styles of dress evolved in the Renais- tant, marrying a prosperous butcher, John sance, when men and women became Clitherow, who was a devout Protestant acutely aware of clothing fashion. but whose close brother was Catholic. Throughout Europe, the cut, color, and Margaret converted to Catholicism at the material of clothes became important in- age of eighteen. During the reign of Eliza- dicators of status, profession, and wealth. beth I, England was returning to the Prot- The clothing industry flourished, includ- estant Anglican church established under ing a busy international trade in textiles Elizabeth’s father Henry VIII. Strict laws and the creation of weaving and cloth- enforcing attendance at the Anglican par- making workshops. New technologies al- ishes landed her in prison for two years lowed manufacturers to weave and dye for her defiance. She made her home a clothing in larger quantities and at a faster center of Catholic resistance to the reli- pace. A general improvement in economic gious laws and Protestant domination. She conditions allowed members of the middle took in Catholic priests and held secret class more disposable income to spend on Masses in hidden chambers in her home, clothing and ornaments. The changing and sent her own son abroad to a Catholic style of clothing proved troublesome to school. the authorities, however, and new sumptu- In the meantime the English govern- ary laws limited the display of certain fab- ment had passed laws banning priests from rics and colors, in order to more clearly the realm, and against protecting any differentiate the classes and keep society Catholic or taking part in Catholic fasts, orderly. prayers, confessions, or religious ceremo- Clothing and luxury industries thrived nies on penalty of death. In 1586, her hus- in Italy, where Florence and Lucca became band John Clitherow was summoned to prosperous silk-weaving centers that im- appear before the magistrates of York to ported their raw material through the port explain his wife’s activities; during the in- of Venice. The Lucchese clothing indus- vestigation hiding places in her home were tries also imported eastern fashion with found, along with the robes of Catholic their raw silk, adopting patterns and mo- priests. Margaret was arrested and charged tifs of Chinese and Mongol clothing. Flo- with harboring fugitive priests and attend- rence was known for its floral patterns. ing a Catholic Mass. On refusing to plead Italian damask, velvet, lace, satin, and taf- her case or call any witnesses in her de- feta were sold throughout the continent, fense, in order to spare her children and and for those who could afford it, these servants, she was sentenced to be crushed luxury materials replaced heavy wool and to death. The sentence was carried out on simple linens as clothing material. The war 25, 1586. Her happy bearing and in northern Italy, in which French and

Greenhaven Encyclopedia of The Renaissance 79 clothing

German armies played an important role, Swiss over the armies of also served to spread Italian fashion and in 1476 brought about the rage for slashed material to northern Europe. clothing. The Swiss soldiers had taken Throughout Europe, taste in clothing clothing from the defeated on the battle- ran to heavy fabrics, elaborate drapery, field, slashing the garments with their close-fitting garments that emphasized the swords in order to improve the fit. For shape of the body, and head coverings. The many, slashing was a way to defy sumptu- fanciest clothes were lined with fur, er- ary laws decreeing that commoners should mine, or mink, and decorated with silver wear clothing of only one color. buttons, jewelry, fine lace, and gold thread. For artisans and the lower classes, Men wore elaborate costumes that repre- clothing was simpler, and more utilitarian. sented their authority and masculinity. The Men wore linen breeches and woolen jack- long robes and surcoats (overcoats) of the ets; women wore skirts that reached to the medieval era went out of style and was re- ground and bodices overlaid with cloaks placed by the doublet that was fitted and in cold or rainy weather. There were no belted at the waist, and which accentuated ornaments and most clothing was black, the shoulders. Lower legs were covered gray, or brown in color. with hose. The ruff was a lace ornament Toward the end of the Renaissance worn around the neck; the codpiece drew Spanish clothing fashion took hold attention to the genitals. Men commonly throughout Europe. Dark colors and espe- wore swords at their side or carried small cially black were favored, and the cut of pistols or daggers for self-defense. clothes grew more straight and linear (the Women’s fashions changed even more modern suit jacket evolved from late Re- drastically than that of men. Hemlines naissance clothing in the Spanish style). dropped to the ground, and the full figure Women’s upper bodies became more was magnified by several layers of cloth- tightly constricted, while the Spanish also ing. Accessories grew in importance; gave the world the farthingale, a hoop- women wore a variety of adornments, jew- skirt that completely concealed the shape elry, and headgear. Men and women of the legs. The farthingale was combined sported earrings, gloves, and rings. Women with puffy sleeves and lace ruffs that com- wore veils and wigs, which also became pletely covered the neck, giving women more popular for men at the close of the the appearance of a richly clothed fortress. Renaissance. In England, tight sleeves and narrow Northern Europeans had a taste for bodices were fashionable. In the late six- padded sleeves and doublets, which made teenth century, Queen Elizabeth I became the figure more plump and rounded, the leading fashion arbiter among the En- which was the ideal of Renaissance beauty. glish. The queen was ever conscious of the German clothing was known for its puffs effect of appearance and ornament on at the shoulders and knees, feathered hats, those she dealt with, and set the standard and slashing: two layers of cloth were of English Renaissance costume for placed one over the other, with the outer women, with simple bodices, narrow layer slashed to reveal the contrasting col- waists, full-length skirts, and elaborate lace ors and material of the inner one. Accord- embroidery. ing to one tradition, the victory of the The Protestant movement greatly sim-

80 Greenhaven Encyclopedia of The Renaissance Colleoni, Bartolomeo plified the color and cut of clothing as known as Lady in Her Bath, a work that well, and in some regions banished color took the court and the art world by storm altogether in favor of simple, unorna- and set off a rage for bath portraits that mented black or white. To modestly cover remained a staple of the late Renaissance the hair, women wore a variety of head- and early Baroque periods. These three dresses that harkened back to medieval works were the only paintings Clouet times, including the bonnet and the signed. He also executed paintings of wimple. Catherine de Médicis, Francis I, Mary In southern Europe and Italy, the Queen of Scots, and Charles IX. Clouet classes remained more sharply differenti- was a skilled draftsman and a painter with ated by their dress. At the height of fash- a special ability to reveal the emotion and ion were the nobility, who held luxurious character of his subjects in his works. His clothing as one of the bastions and sym- fame spread widely among the nobility of bols of superiority over the lower classes. France and Clouet found his work in high But matching the nobility, especially in the demand throughout his life. city of Venice, were the courtesans whose SEE ALSO: painting business it was to cater to wealthy aristo- crats and powerful men. Courtesans set Colleoni, Bartolomeo the fashion tone with lavish gowns, elabo- rate headgear, glittering jewelry, alluring (1400–1475) makeup, and high-heeled shoes—making Italian mercenary born in Solza, northern them indistinguishable from the women Italy. His father, Paolo Colleoni, was a lo- of the nobility. Eventually the Venetian au- cal nobleman who was killed by his own thorities took action and prohibited cour- cousins in a dispute over an estate. Barto- tesans from wearing precious gems, gold, lomeo trained as a soldier in the city of silver, silk, or necklaces and rings of any and then became a professional kind. soldier. He fought in southern Italy for Al- fonso of Aragon, who was disputing the throne of Naples with the Angevin dynasty. Clouet, Francois He then joined the army of Venice, where (1515–1572) he quickly rose within the ranks. He led French portrait painter and miniaturist, the Venetian army to victories against the born in Tours as the son of the artist Jean city’s arch rival, Milan. After Venice and Clouet. He learned painting from his fa- Milan reached a truce, Colleoni entered ther and was brought to the court of King the service of Milan, where he was arrested Francis I at a young age. He followed in for suspected treason by the Visconti fam- his father’s footsteps by winning an ap- ily, the reigning lords of the city. He re- pointment as the king’s court painter in turned to Venice, where he was made about 1540. After the death of the king, he captain-general of the army. Venice re- remained at the French court as the warded him with profitable estates and painter of King Henry II, Francis II, and lands and, on his death, honored his Charles IX. He is best known for two por- memory with an impressive statue of him- traits, Elizabeth of Austria and The Apoth- self created by Andrea del Verrocchio that ecarist Pierre Quthe,aswellasthework still stands.

Greenhaven Encyclopedia of The Renaissance 81 Colonna, Vittoria

Colonna, Vittoria and the writers Baldassare Castiglione and (1490–1547) Pietro Bembo. Italian poet and noblewoman, a significant SEE ALSO: Michelangelo Buonarroti friend and patron of Renaissance authors and artists. The daughter of a nobleman Columbus, Christopher who held the title of Grand Constable of (1451–1506) Naples, she was born in Marino, an estate Italian navigator who led the first Euro- of her father Fabrizio Colonna near Rome. pean expeditions to the coasts and islands Her marriage to Francesco D’Avalos, the of the Caribbean Sea and South America. marquis of Pescara, was arranged when Born in Genoa as Christoforo Colombo, she was just four years old. The wealth he was the son of a weaver, Domenico Co- and prestige of her family attracted several lombo, and Susanna Fontanarossa. He re- more offers of marriage, but she met and ceived some education and learned Latin fell in love with D’Avalos and finally mar- and Greek, and may have apprenticed with ried him when she was nineteen. Shortly his father as a weaver. But finding a stron- after the ceremony in Naples, her husband ger taste for adventure and the sailor’s life, enlisted with the armies of Emperor Columbus joined the fleet of Rene of An- Charles V, who was fighting the French in jou, a contestant for the throne of Naples, northern Italy. D’Avalos was taken pris- and then enlisted as a sailor for his native oner in Italy in 1512 and spent the next city of Genoa, at that time one of Europe’s dozen years campaigning throughout Italy, wealthiest merchant cities. He was while Colonna remained at his estate on wounded off the coast of Portugal in 1476; the island of . After the Battle of Pa- taking shelter in Lisbon, he joined his via in 1525, when D’Avalos was offered brother, who was a mapmaker, and began the throne of Naples for turning against conceiving the idea of a western expedi- Charles V, she persuaded him to turn tion to the East Indies. down the offer. D’Avalos died soon after- The conquest of Constantinople by the ward of wounds suffered in battle. Ottoman Turks in 1453, as well as the con- Grieving and determined to remain a trol of ports along the coast of North Af- single widow, Colonna devoted the rest of rica and the Red Sea by Arab princes, her life to the support of religious orders, made the land route to Asia hazardous to the reform of the Catholic Church, and the health and wealth of European mer- her poetry. Her verses in praise and chants. In the late fifteenth century, Portu- memory of Francesco D’Avalos would be guese navigators were exploring new collected in 1538 under the title Rime de routes to East Asia around the southern la Divina Vittoria Colonna Marchesa di Pes- limit of Africa. Some time during his cara. Her later poetry turned to religion training and experience as a sailor, Co- and her spiritual life; she was an outspo- lumbus hit on the idea of a westerly route ken advocate of reform in the Catholic through unknown seas that would, he Church but would not accept Protestant- hoped, provide a much quicker route to ism. She lived in Rome, Orvieto, and Fer- the spices, silks, and other valuables of rara, where she helped to establish a mon- China, India, and the Spice Islands (of astery, and became a patron and close what is now Indonesia). Using the calcula- friend of artists, including Michelangelo, tions of ancient navigators and geogra-

82 Greenhaven Encyclopedia of The Renaissance Columbus, Christopher

Christopher Columbus at the court of Ferdinand and Isabella, displaying some of the results of his voyage. THE LIBRARY OF CONGRESS. phers, however, Columbus underestimated then head due west and remain on that the circumference of the earth, a mistake course until reaching Japan. Columbus be- that led him to the false notion that the lieved he would enjoy clear sailing all the westerly route would be faster and easier. way to Asia. Historians generally credit Norwegian At the time the kingdom of Spain was Vikings as the first European navigators to struggling with debts and in dire need of reach North America. However, the Viking trade and gold; the relatively weak Spanish expedition of around 1000 A.D. that estab- fleets, however, had no hope of overcom- lished a small settlement in what is now ing the Portuguese, who were building and Newfoundland was unknown to the rest strengthening trading ports throughout of Europe and failed to establish a perma- Asia. Although the king and queen of nent settlement. In 1485, Columbus first Spain were advised to reject Columbus’s proposed a new voyage to the west to the voyage by navigators who claimed he was king of Portugal, John II. He asked for a misjudging the distance to Asia, they re- fleet of three ships and a reward of 10 per- warded him with a pension to prevent him cent of all income from new land he dis- from sailing for any rival nation and fi- covered. The offer was rejected, after which nally agreed to support his expedition in Columbus turned to Ferdinand and Isa- 1492. Columbus was named “Admiral of bella, the monarchs of a newly united the Ocean Sea” and was promised a gener- kingdom of Spain. He would sail from the ous portion of money earned from any port of Seville south to the Canary Islands, new Spanish ports or colonies.

Greenhaven Encyclopedia of The Renaissance 83 commedia dell’arte

The first expedition of three small This fleet set out in May 1502. On arriv- ships set out in August 1492, taking five ing at , he was defied by the weeks to sail from the Canary Islands to a Spanish governor of . His small island in the Bahamas Columbus fleet then sailed to the coast of called San Salvador, on October 12. The in Central America and then southward to expedition continued to and His- Panama, where it encountered a fierce paniola, where the flagship Santa Maria storm. Returning to , his fleet was ran aground. On Hispaniola Columbus wrecked in another storm, and Columbus founded a small settlement, La Navidad, was forced to remain on Jamaica for more where he left behind thirty-nine sailors. than a year awaiting rescue. The governor The success of his first expedition of Hispaniola, now the admiral’s sworn earned Columbus acclaim in Spain and an enemy, finally sent help and Columbus agreement by Ferdinand and Isabella to succeeded in returning to Spain in No- support a second, much larger expedition vember 1504. of seventeen ships, which left in Septem- Columbus has been hailed for more ber 1493. This time the admiral landed on than five centuries as an intrepid naviga- Dominica and Guadeloupe, then turned tor—and criticized for the harsh treatment north and sailed through the long chain of he meted out to his sailors as well as Na- small islands now known as the Lesser An- tive Americans, whom he considered sub- tilles. The fleet passed the Virgin Islands human barbarians in desperate need of and landed at Puerto Rico, but on encoun- conversion to the Christian religion. His tering a hostile Carib village Columbus voyages began the era of exploration and ordered his ships to Hispaniola, where he colonization of North and South America founded the settlement of Isabela. The ex- by Europeans, an undertaking that greatly pedition touched at Cuba and Jamaica be- enriched and transformed Europe. He fore returning to Spain in the early fall of grew bitter at the imprisonment he suf- 1494. fered at the hands of his patrons in Spain, however, and died still unaware of the A third expedition left Spain in May western hemisphere, and convinced he had 1498. Columbus reached Trinidad and the found a faster route to Asia. coasts of what is now . His harsh management of his own sailors and mis- SEE ALSO: da Gama, Vasco; exploration; treatment of natives, however, led to his Ferdinand II of Aragon; Isabella I of arrest by the governor of Hispaniola. Co- Castile lumbus was put in chains and returned to Spain a prisoner along with two of his commedia dell’arte brothers. He was summarily relieved of all A form of improvisational theater that duties as governor of the lands he had dis- originated in Renaissance Italy, and that covered, and denied any profit from the entertained outdoor audiences with a fa- income attained from the new Spanish miliar cast of colorful, dramatic and comic colonies. characters. Commedia dell’arte was per- Still determined to find a passage to formed by itinerate troupes of players, the Spice Islands, Columbus managed to each of whom specialized in a particular win his freedom and convince Ferdinand character. The plots were familiar to actors and Isabella to support a fourth voyage. as well as audiences and usually involved

84 Greenhaven Encyclopedia of The Renaissance confraternities the misadventures of two lovers who were ternational renown for their skill at por- continually frustrated in their desire for traying stock characters and improvising marriage and respectability. The plays, dialogue, and the most prestigious com- known as canovacci, were frequently inter- media troupes were invited to royal and rupted by music, dancing, magic acts, jug- aristocratic courts for command perfor- gling, and acrobatics. The characters and mances. The plays were not high drama or plot devices endured in many later forms serious theater, but rather popular enter- of art, from serious opera to pantomime tainment that drew laughs with bawdy rep- and Punch and Judy puppet shows. artee and noisy pratfalls. During the Re- naissance it spread to northern Europe, The characters and plot of commedia where the characters were adapted to local dell’art often revolve around the Innamo- tastes. Commedia dell’arte troupes roamed rati or Lovers, whose romance sparks until the tradition began to die out in the much of the plot. Arlecchino (Harlequin) eighteenth century. is a crafty and untrustworthy servant, who is constantly scheming to take advantage of the other characters. A pair of noisy confraternities sticks that he carries around the set gave The confraternity was an organization of rise to the expression “slapstick,” meaning the Christian faithful who did not belong rough physical comedy. Brighella, a ser- to the church, but who banded together in vant or innkeeper, is free with advice to order to live by Christian precepts and the lovers of the play, and is also skilled at doctrine. The confraternities met for wor- the arts of magic and fortunetelling. Il ship, for the instruction of the public and Capitano represents authority, a man with the young, for performing works of char- an impressive and courageous front who is ity and visiting the sick, for organizing in fact a cowardly incompetent. Il Dottore, public processions, for the patronage of the doctor, makes a show of his scientific writers and artists, and for the celebration knowledge, but like Il Capitano he always of weddings, funerals, and other impor- suffers a comeuppance at the end of the tant events. In some towns, a majority of play. The rich miser, Pantalone, acts the men and many women belonged to a con- aristocrat, and wears an impressive suit of fraternity. By some estimates as many as clothes as well as a prominent money belt. one out of every five city-dwellers during He lords it over the other characters but is the Renaissance belonged to such a group. quite fearful of losing his money as well as Confraternities were most popular in his position. Zanni, a slow and stupid ser- Catholic Europe; Protestantism rejected vant, is a buffoon who would rather sleep the practice of confraternities and their than work and who has few redeeming adherence to traditional Catholic doc- qualities. trines. Confraternities originated modern The characters of commedia dell’arte charities and the system of public welfare had particular clothing, gestures, speech, in Europe, on the basis of religious belief and movement. Their masks evoked their and worship, and also played a role in the inner characters as well, with Pantalone reforms of the church hierarchy. sporting the long hooked nose of a miser The confraternities originated in the and Zunni the simple unadorned white Middle Ages, when the religious orders al- robes of a servant. Some actors gained in- lowed lay people to join them as auxiliary

Greenhaven Encyclopedia of The Renaissance 85 Copernicus, Nicolaus members. Most confraternities were made of the established members. Strict codes of up of urbanites who belonged to a grow- behavior were set down for members, who ing middle class of merchants and arti- were expected to contribute regular dues sans. In city politics, they became a force as well as labor and time; dues in some to be reckoned with, often opposed to rul- confraternities helped fund an early form ing and the interests of the no- of insurance, for the payment of medical, bility. Some confraternities were small and funeral, and other costs that members secretive, and modeled themselves on the would have to bear in old age. apostles of the New Testament. Others The confraternities held regular reli- were larger and more public, welcoming gious services, Masses, confession, and anyone who qualified to enter their ranks. communion. Some penitential confraterni- They were a familiar presence in cities con- ties made their goal the expulsion of com- taining churches, meeting houses, and din- munity sin by selling indulgences on be- ing halls for the use of their members. A half of the church, through acts such as few, such as the Brotherhood of the Ro- flagellation in public, fasting and solemn sary, crossed national boundaries. This religious processions. Confraternities confraternity, founded in , Ger- staged mystery plays and musical works many, by Jacob Sprenger, reached a mem- such as hymns and Masses that were com- bership of 1 million, with members in missioned from local composers. Germany, Italy, France, Portugal, Spain, The Protestant Reformation put an and the Low Countries. end to the traditional Catholic confrater- Confraternities established hospitals nities in many parts of northern Europe. and homes for orphans, the destitute, and In the doctrine of Martin Luther—who the victims of epidemics. They collected initiated the Reformation—salvation was alms for the poor, and in times of plague secured by an individual’s faith alone, or natural disaster they organized relief which clashed with the Catholic emphasis for stricken families who had lost their on works and public piety. Many confra- breadwinners. A confraternity of Tuscany ternities evolved into secular organizations, founded an ambulance service to trans- or limited their activities to church func- port the sick and wounded, an institution tions, a fate that was followed in later cen- that has survived into the twenty-first cen- turies by Catholic confraternities of south- tury. Some confraternities had a more reli- ern Europe. gious purpose, organized to build or main- SEE ALSO: Catholicism; Reformation, Prot- tain a local parish church, a function more estant common in northern Europe. In Italy confraternities were organized Copernicus, Nicolaus in certain quarters of the cities and among (1473–1543) certain communities. The structure and Polish astronomer who proposed a helio- administration paralleled that of the mer- centric (sun-centered) universe, an impor- chant guilds by holding elections for their tant foundation of modern scientific leaders and appointing secretaries and thought. Born in the town of Thorn (or other functionaries. Members had to pass Torun), then ruled by Poland, Copernicus a review of their history and character, was a member of a well-to-do merchant and had to be approved by a majority vote family. After the death of his father, he

86 Greenhaven Encyclopedia of The Renaissance Copernicus, Nicolaus

When he returned to Poland, Coperni- cus was appointed as a canon of the ca- thedral at Frauenberg, where he earned a steady income as a church administrator. From his house, he observed the stars and planets and worked out a theory contrary to the notion of the ancient Greeks. Aris- totle and Ptolemy believed the earth was the center of the universe; Ptolemy pro- posed the idea that the stars and planets moveabouttheearthinaseriesofcon- centric shells. The Ptolemaic system be- came the accepted dogma of the Catholic Church, which during the Renaissance was still condemning new scientific ideas as impious heresies. In the Copernican system, the universe is heliocentric, with the earth, stars, moon, and planets all revolving around the sun. The Copernican system explained the mys- terious retrograde motion of the planets, A page from Nicolaus Copernicus’s 1543 vol- which occasionally seem to move back- ume “De Revolutionbus Orbium Coeles- ward in their nightly tracks through the tium” that displays the relative positions of sky. Astronomers of ancient and medieval the planets around the sun. HULTON ARCHIVE/ times had to explain retrograde motion GETTY IMAGES. with a series of complex schemes and mathematical calculations, while the helio- centric system solved it by pointing out joined the household of his uncle, a local that the position of planets in different or- bishop, who saw to Nicolaus’s upbringing bits about the sun can have irregular posi- and education. Nicolaus attended the uni- tions to an observer on earth. versity in Krakow, Poland, and then stud- Copernicus summarized these ideas in ied at Bologna and Padua in Italy, taking a treatise, Brief Commentary, that he up law and mathematics. At the insistence passed among friends and colleagues start- of his uncle, he also became a trained phy- ing in about 1512. He kept a more detailed sician. His true interest, however, lay in as- work that he entitled On the Revolutions, tronomy. While a student in Ferrara, Italy, in manuscript form. In the meantime, he he attended lectures given by the astrono- served in his professional capacities as a mer Domenico Maria de Ferrara, church canon, a doctor, and a tax collec- who accepted Copernicus for a time as his tor. He produced a useful essay on the assistant. Copernicus also traveled to problem of monetary inflation in which Rome,whereheheldlecturesonas- he astutely observed that money will lose tronomy and made observations of a lu- its value as more of it circulates. nar eclipse. Copernicus’s opinions and remedies on

Greenhaven Encyclopedia of The Renaissance 87 Correggio this subject, although effective, have been The Catholic Church, however, found the completely overlooked by his astronomy. Copernican system to be contrary to ac- Copernicus’s ideas were spreading cepted Christian doctrine, and placed On throughout Europe despite his desire to the Revolutions on its Index of prohibited keep them secret. He feared the harsh books in 1616. The Enlightenment, a opinions of scientists, who were sure to movement of natural philosophy that re- ridicule his notion, as well as the judg- jected religious doctrine as a basis for sci- ment of the church, which he believed entific observation altogether, accepted the might find him to be a heretic. He was heliocentric system in the eighteenth cen- roundly criticized by the Protestant re- tury. But it wasn’t until 1835 that the book formers at the same time Pope Clement of Copernicus detailing this system was VII and his cardinals were learning of the taken off the list of books banned by the heliocentric theory through reports and Vatican. lectures in Rome. In 1539 George Rheti- SEE ALSO: astronomy; Brahe, Tycho; Galilei, cus, a scholar attending the University of Galileo; Kepler, Johannes Wittenberg, met Copernicus, who agreed to tutor the younger man in mathematics Correggio and astronomy. Rheticus enthusiastically (1494–1534) accepted the heliocentric theory and wrote Italian artist, born Antonio Allegri in the his own treatise detailing it, entitled First town of Correggio in Lombardy. He was Account. This emboldened Copernicus to the son of a merchant and apprenticed as bring out his own book, On the Revolu- a painter in the city of Modena with tions, which was finally published in 1543, Francesco Ferrara. He returned to Correg- just a few weeks before its author died. gio in 1506 and began working on reli- The Copernican system began a scien- gious paintings for wealthy patrons and tific and philosophical revolution in Eu- on commission from the city fathers of rope. By moving the earth from its sym- Mantua. He was influenced by Leonardo bolic position at the center of the universe, da Vinci and Andrea Mantegna in his early it forced astronomers to consider the pos- works, including Madonna of St. Francis sibility that the known world was but a and Adoration of the Child with St. Eliza- small and insignificant part of all creation. beth and John. In about 1518 he went to It also suggested that human observation Rome, where he studied the works of and perception often led to false or mis- Michelangelo and Raphael, then returned leading conclusions about the true state of to Parma, where he was commissioned to the natural world. Scientific skepticism be- create frescoes for the convent of San gan with this questioning of a phenom- Paolo. These paintings were done on the enon obvious to everyone: that the sun walls and ceiling of the Camera di San moves through the sky every day. Paolo, the drawing room of Giovanna da The heliocentric theory was gradually Piacenza, the abbess of the convent. De- accepted and modified by the leading as- picted is the mythical figure of Diana, god- tronomers and scientists in Europe, includ- dess of the hunt, and a scene of cherubs ing Johannes Kepler and Galileo Galilei set in an arbor overgrown with fruits and (who was among the first to make astro- vines. Correggio also painted the apse, nomical observations with a telescope). nave, and interior dome of the church of

88 Greenhaven Encyclopedia of The Renaissance Cortes, Hernán

San Giovanni Evangelista. The dome SEE ALSO: Michelangelo Buonarroti; paint- painting—known as The Vision of St. John ing; Raphael the Evangelist on Patmos—shows Christ and other figures in perspective, looking Cortes, Hernán directly down on the view and worship- (1485–1547) pers. In the cathedral of Parma the painter created an even more elaborate cupola Spanish (conqueror), who subdued the Aztecs of and founded ceiling, depicting the assumption of the the colony of precursor to the Virgin Mary among a crowded scene of modern Republic of Mexico. Born in the saints and angels. In this work Correggio town of Medellin in the Estremadura re- drew on his study of Michelangelo’s Sis- gion of Castile, Cortes was the son of a tine Chapel ceiling, and his own great skill soldier and the cousin of , at perspective, to draw the viewer directly the conqueror of the Inca Empire of . into the complex action of the painting. Cortes attended the University of Sala- Correggio executed several majestic, manca but, in search of a more adventur- elaborate altarpieces, including the Ma- ous life, dropped his studies in law after donna of St. Sebastian, Adoration of the two years. By this time, the discovery of a Shepherds, and the Madonna of St. George. new continent was inspiring dreams of One of his most famous small paintings, riches and glory among many young Span- Christ on the Mount of Olives, shows the iards. figure of Christ kneeling and gesturing in Cortes first enlisted with the fleet of a setting of darkness illuminated by a holy Nicolas de Ovando, the newly appointed light from the heavens. Other renowned governor of Hispaniola, but an accident paintings of Correggio are the Madonna of while climbing out of his mistress’s win- the Baske and Madonna Adoring the Christ dow in Medellin prevented him from sail- Child. Federigo Gonzaga, the duke of ing. He finally reached the West Indies in Mantua, commissioned from Correggio a 1503, arriving with a Spanish expedition series of six paintings of mythological to Hispaniola and Cuba. He was granted scenes, inspired by the work of the ancient an (estate) on Hispaniola by Roman poet Ovid. These paintings broke the governor, Diego Velazquez de Curellar, new ground in their eroticism and depic- as well as a number of Indian slaves. In tion of the human form, such as in Leda 1511 he set out with Velazquez to conquer and the Swan, Ganymede Abducted by the the island of Cuba. For his service he was Eagle, and The Education of Cupid, which appointed treasurer of the new colony, re- shows a nude Venus looking directly at the sponsible for directing 20 percent of all viewer. Correggio remained in the town of income from it to the Spanish crown, and Parma for most of his life, far from the an appointment as mayor of the town of mainstreams of Renaissance art and Santiago, the island’s capital city. thought in Rome and Florence. But his In 1519 he was appointed to lead an work was admired by painters in the years expedition to the mainland of North to come, who adopted his depiction of fig- America. By this time, he was at odds with ures in motion, foreshortening, and lush Velazquez, who recalled him at the last scenery to create new traditions in the Ba- minute from the expedition. Cortes defied roque and Rococo periods. these orders and sailed with 508 men and

Greenhaven Encyclopedia of The Renaissance 89 Cortes, Hernán sixteen horses for the Mexican coast. On Cortes made the new emperor Cuauhté- reaching land, he promptly burned his moc a prisoner. ships to end any idea among his men of King Charles I of Spain appointed retreating from his intended conquest of Cortes governor of the colony of New establishing a new colony on the main- Spain. Under Cortes’s rule, the ancient Az- land. Cortes organized a ,ortown tec city was destroyed and a new colonial government, at Veracruz, then had the capital was raised. The Aztecs were con- town appoint him as captain of an expedi- verted to Catholicism and served their tion to the interior, in this way escaping conquerors as peasant laborers; Cortes also the authority of Velazquez. imported slaves from Africa to work on At this time a powerful Aztec empire the plantations of New Spain. But his defi- was ruling from a populous and wealthy ance of Velazquez’s orders in sailing to capital, Tenochtitlán, built on a series of Mexico also made the king of Spain suspi- lakes and islands in the highlands of what cious of Cortes’s motivations and loyalty, is now central Mexico. To defeat the Az- andobserversweresenttokeepaneyeon the colony and its governor. tecs, Cortez allied with their enemies, the Totonac and Nahua people, and gathered Ever defiant, Cortes suspected Diego more allies in Tlaxcala, where he rein- Velazquez of trying to undermine him, and forced his small force of Spanish infantry issued an order for Velazquez’s arrest. The and horsemen. On reaching Tenochtitlán, king of Spain then sent an investigator to Cortes and his men were received as guests uncover the facts of the case. When the investigator died under mysterious circum- at the palace of the Aztec king, Monte- stances, his successor appointed a replace- zuma, who believed Cortes to be a legend- ment for Cortes, who was exiled from New ary god Quetzalcoatl. Cortes soon took Spain by his replacement. Cortes returned the king prisoner, a hostage for the good to Spain to answer the charges against him behavior of the Aztecs. in 1528. He was received by Charles V, re- On hearing of a second expedition ar- warded for his success with a title, Mar- riving to relieve him of his command, quis of the Valley of Oaxaca, but stripped Cortes left Tenochtitlán in the hands of of his authority of governor. one of his captains, Pedro Arias de Avila, Cortes returned to Mexico in 1530 and and returned to the coast. There he de- disputed his right to explore northern feated his opponents and persuaded many Mexico with the new governors and ad- of their company to join his army. On re- ministrators of the colony. He set out in turning to Tenochtitlán, Cortes found the 1536 and reached Baja California and the city in revolt against de Avila, who was Pacific coast of Mexico. Returning to Spain ruling the Aztecs as a tyrant. In the fight- in 1541, he joined an expedition against ing Montezuma was killed and Cortes was the Barbary pirates of North Africa, then forced to flee in what became known as found himself back in Spain with heavy , or “The Unhappy Night.” debts and disregarded by the Spanish Cortes waited two years in the hills near court. Unable to make his case in the the city and finally gathered his men for a Spanish court, he felt himself the victim of siege. Eventually the Spanish horses and injustice and neglect. Without prospects in artillery overcame the city’s defenders; Spain, he decided to return to the colony

90 Greenhaven Encyclopedia of The Renaissance Council of Basele he had conquered, but came down with 1463, Frederick gave up his claim, accepted dysentery and died in Seville before his Matthias as the king of Hungary, and re- ship set sail. turned the crown. Matthias raised a pow- erful army of mercenaries to expand the SEE ALSO: Columbus, Christopher; explora- borders of Hungary to Moravia and Silesia tion in the north and Austria in the west. He Corvinus, Matthias campaigned against the Turks in the Bal- kan Peninsula, defeating them in several (1440–1490) battles in Serbia and Transylvania. King of Hungary, crusader against the At home he established a new judicial Muslim Turks, and celebrated Hungarian system, improved education, and patron- patron of the arts and humanities. The son of Janos Hunyadi, himself a widely re- ized several Italian artists, whom he in- nowned military leader, Matthias Corvinus vited to work at his court. He also built a was born in Cluj, Transylvania. The nick- prestigious library of books and manu- name “Corvinus,” comes from the Latin scripts, the second largest in Europe after corvusa,orcrow,abirddepictedonthe the papal library in Rome. Hunyadi coat of arms. Matthias was given a thorough education by an Italian scholar Council of Basele who fired him with enthusiasm for the A church council held in 1431 in the town classics of Latin literature. of Basele, Switzerland. Its members, in- He was betrothed to the daughter of cluding monks, bishops, and scholars, Count Ulrich Czilley, a rival of Janos Hu- sought to discuss pressing church matters nyadi, but this girl died before the mar- such as the challenge of the Hussites, the riage. On the death of Hunyadi, a bitter Czech reformers who defied the authority struggle over the crown of Hungary broke out, with Czilley denouncing Matthias and of the church. The council was officially his brother Laszlo as plotting the downfall convened by Pope Martin V, who died of King Ladislas V. In 1457 Laszlo and soon after it began meeting. Its members Matthias were captured; Laszlo was ex- asserted their authority in matters of doc- ecuted. A few months later Ladislas V died, trine, even presuming to give direction to while Matthias became a prisoner of the the pope himself in such concerns. They king of Bohemia, George Podebrady. In also guided the church in the matter of 1458 a faction of Hungarian nobles elected taxation, in the celebration of the Mass, Matthias as the next king, believing as a and in the pope’s authority over local young and educated man he would be easy church institutions. As the nations of Eu- to control. rope gradually emerged from medieval Opponents of Matthias proclaimed as feudalism, the Council of Basele and oth- king the Habsburg emperor Frederick III, ers served to express their growing sense who accepted his election and seized the of independence from the authority of the crownjewelsofHungaryassymbolofhis Vatican, the papal headquarters in Rome. authority. Matthias proved an able leader, Greatly weakened by the Great Schism that however, and crushed opposition, taking divided the church among several factions, as prisoners many of his rivals as well as Pope Eugene IV agreed to recognize the Vlad Dracula, the prince of Wallachia. In council as legitimate. By a papal decree of

Greenhaven Encyclopedia of The Renaissance 91 Council of Constance

1437 the council was moved to Ferrara, Gregory XII also gave up his title. Two Italy, where it began meeting again in 1438. years later, the council elected Cardinal Oddone Colonna, who took the name of SEE ALSO: Council of Constance Martin V. Although the council resolved Council of Constance the papal schism, it did not address im- portant issues that were driving a protest A church council that took place from movement led by such men as John Wyclif 1414 until 1418 in Constance (present-day of England and Jan Hus of Bohemia. In- Baden, Germany), called by the Holy Ro- stead, the council invited Jan Hus under a man Emperor Sigismund to resolve the promise of safe passage, then arrested him schism in the church. Since 1378, the and ordered him burned at the stake. The Catholic Church had been divided in two, protest movement would gather force with separate popes supported by different throughout the fifteenth century and bring factions of church leaders and the kings about the Protestant Reformation. and princes of Europe. When the Council of Constance began, an “antipope,” John SEE ALSO: Catholicism; Hus, Jan; Reforma- XXIII, was presiding over a rival court in tion, Protestant Avignon, France, while Pope Gregory XII Council of Ferrara/Florence was head of the church in Rome and a This council of bishops, scholars, monks, third pope, Benedict XIII, was also claim- and church officials began in Basel, Swit- ing authority over the church. zerland, and moved to Ferrara, Italy, in The Council of Constance took place 1438, and in the next year to Florence. The when the turmoil in the church was council sought to deal with a growing prompting an outcry for reform. With movement of protest and heresy against Sigismund presiding, the delegates asked the corruption of the church. It also had all three rival popes to resign their titles, to contend with the papal administration, so that a single pope could be elected. In which resisted its pronouncements and de- 1415, its delegates passed an important crees. In the end Pope Eugene IV was decree known as Haec Sancta. This docu- forced to recognize the authority of the ment stated that a general church council council, which limited many of the pope’s took its authority directly from Christ, and privileges and even set down rules guiding that all members of the church, including papal elections. In 1439, the council de- the pope, were bound to obey its decisions. posed Eugene IV from his throne and The Catholic Church has always consid- elected an “antipope,” Felix V, leading to a ered this decree invalid, as the council had schism in the church that lasted for ten not yet been officially convened by the years. The many bitter controversies over pope of Rome. doctrine and the struggle for power be- When Gregory XII made it known that tween the pope and the councils provided he would be willing to resign, the delegates further impetus for the Reformation at the Council of Constance agreed to re- movement, which would gain strength in ceive his representatives in Constance. Af- the early sixteenth century. ter their arrival, the pope’s representatives officially convened the council in Gregory’s Council of Trent name. They then read out his resignation. The Council of Trent was an important The council deposed Benedict XlI, while church council, attended by cardinals,

92 Greenhaven Encyclopedia of The Renaissance courtesan bishops, archbishops, and papal legates living conditions, and their ability to cir- (representatives), who convened to make culate in society. decisions on church doctrine and cer- Many women who became courtesans emony and to oppose the spread of the began as common streetwalkers or brothel Protestant Reformation. The council met workers, who welcomed members of the at the northern Italian city of Trent be- middle class, artisans, and travelers (some tween 1545 and 1563. It refuted Martin brothels were disguised as convents). Pros- Luther’s ideas on the importance of cer- titutes in most Italian cities were regis- tain books of the Bible, condemned the tered, taxed, and regulated by law. Through idea of grace by faith alone, and affirmed intelligence, manners, and a good appear- the traditional nature of the seven church ance, they gained a safer and more presti- sacraments. The council set down the lit- gious place in a court through the spon- urgy of a standard Catholic Mass, known sorship of a man of high rank. Such as the Tridentine Mass, and held that courtesans were valued for their ability to Christ was actually present in the bread converse with powerful and intelligent and wine of the ceremony. It affirmed the men and put them at ease. In some cases a rule of celibacy for priests, the need for highly valued courtesan was shared among infant baptism (which some Protestant a group of men, each of whom reserved sects considered optional), upheld the doc- her company on a certain night of the trine of purgatory and the veneration of week. The life of a courtesan was always relics, created an Index of forbidden tenuous, however, as her career depended books, and set down strict guidelines for on gaining the trust and support of pa- marriage and divorce. The decrees of the trons. The alliance between a nobleman council were ratified by Pope Pius IV in a and a courtesan could end suddenly on papal bull of 1564. The council con- the gentleman’s whim, leaving the courte- demned the ideas of the Reformation and san again with no place of business but reserved to the church the right to punish the streets. Protestant heresy as it saw fit; many of its There were two kinds of courtesans in proclamations and decrees have been af- Italy: the higher rank belonged to the firmed by the modern Catholic Church. “honest courtesan,” a partner for enter- tainment and intellectual discussion, who courtesan was educated and often talented as a A courtesan was a professional mistress, a writer, singer, or musician. The cortigiana prostitute of the highest rank who pro- di lume was a lower-class courtesan, one vided her services and companionship to who took on all manner of customers, wealthy nobles or rulers. Courtesans were showed no special talent or intellectual popular among Renaissance aristocrats and ability, and who were generally looked at royalty, whose marriages were often ar- as prostitutes. ranged for the political or financial gain of The honest courtesan was supported their families. With love an emotion that with gifts of money and other valuables, often remained outside of a legal marriage, and sometimes property. In the drive to the use of courtesans by husbands was of- improve their circumstances, some mar- ten accepted by their wives, who were ried women engaged in the profession with much more restricted in their actions, their the full knowledge and support of their

Greenhaven Encyclopedia of The Renaissance 93 Cranach, Lucas husbands. If they were single, their careers skilled in realistic still lifes and nature sometimes ended when their customers paintings, and his religious paintings often arranged their marriage—or took them as set his subjects in a gloomy and realistic wives themselves. The courtesan was an wilderness. While in Saxony, he won com- ornament, as well as a fashion trend setter missions from the Saxon nobility to deco- and status symbol. She reflected the good rate the walls of their homes with hunting taste and wealth of her patron. The most scenes; these same nobles also requested successful courtesans attained complete him to do pictures intended for private independence and lived out their lives in viewing that depict scantily clad or nude comfort and high regard. One such was mythological figures. One of the most fa- the famous Roman courtesan , mous of these erotic paintings is The Judg- who lived like a princess in a magnificent ment of Paris, which he completed in 1530. suite of rooms. In 1509 he journeyed to the Nether- Veronica Franco, one of the most fa- lands, where he painted portraits of the mous Renaissance courtesans, plied her Habsburg , including the boy trade in Venice, a city where the profes- who would later became Charles V. When sion of courtesan carried great prestige. he returned to Wittenberg, the capital of The daughter of a courtesan, she was Saxony, he mastered the arts of engraving trained in the profession by her mother and printing, and managed an apothecary from a young age (mothers of courtesans shop as well as a press that produced often acted as managers for their Bibles and tracts written by Luther. Cra- daughters). She took part in Venice’s vital nach and Luther became friends, with new printing industry and published sev- Luther sitting for several famous portraits eral books of her own poetry and letters. and Cranach printing woodcuts and tracts Under Franco’s patronage, a charity for meant to spread Luther’s message of re- courtesans and their children was estab- demption through faith. The elector Jo- lished in Venice. hann Frederick I appointed Cranach as SEE ALSO: Franco, Veronica; Venice the burgomaster (mayor) of Wittenberg in 1531 and again in 1540. Cranach returned Cranach, Lucas this favor by interceding with Charles V (1472–1553) on behalf of the elector when Johann Fre- A German painter and engraver, known derick was captured at the Battle of Mühl- for his expressive religious paintings, his berg. portraits of the German nobility, and his Cranach painted scenes of classical my- association with Martin Luther. His name thology as well as Christian religious sub- comes from the town of his birth, Kro- jects. He showed his greatest skill in por- nach, in central Germany. He may have traits, and depicted himself as well as trained with his father as a painter, and as Martin Luther in a famous Crucifixion.He a young man lived and worked in Vienna, was one of the first Renaissance painters the capital of the Habsburg dynasty. His to depict his subjects as they sat and posed reputation soon reached the elector of Sax- alone. In the eyes of many art historians ony, who hired him as a court painter in Cranach was a more original draftsman 1504, the date of his first known painting, than painter, with many seeing his engrav- Rest During the Flight into Egypt. He was ings, including St. Christopher and Elector

94 Greenhaven Encyclopedia of The Renaissance Cromwell, Thomas

Frederick Praying Before the Madonna,as authority and placed church property un- among his best work. He produced wood- der the control of the king, church courts cut engravings for the first German edi- answerable only to the pope were dissolved tion of the New Testament in 1522. He and replaced by royal courts, and the worked for both Catholic and Protestant Church of England was founded. Crom- patrons, however; and his workshop in well wrote an important law known as the Wittenberg became a productive center Act in Restraint of Appeals that denied that attracted artists and patrons from anyone convicted of the right of appeal to throughout northern Germany. the pope. He also guided important legis- lation known as the Act of Supremacy that SEE ALSO: Dürer, Albrecht; Luther, Martin recognized Henry as the head of the Church of England. The king appointed Cromwell, Thomas Cromwell as “viceregent in spirituals,” giv- (1485–1540) ing Cromwell the authority to investigate Chief minister to King Henry VIII of En- the religious orders and seize and distrib- gland and a key figure in the Protestant ute their property. For his role in directing Reformation that established the Church the English Reformation he was rewarded of England. Thomas Cromwell was born with the noble title of Earl of Essex. in Putney, the son of a humble artisan. He Cromwell ran afoul of many powerful traveled to the continent as a young man nobles in England, however, and was also and was employed by a merchant bank of despised by many commoners for his ruth- Italy as a broker in the Netherlands. He less methods in seizing church property. also served in Rome as an agent for an He incurred the anger of the king after the English cardinal, Reginald Bainbridge. In death of Jane Seymour, Henry’s third wife. about 1512 Cromwell returned to England, He advised the king to marry a German where his abilities as a lawyer brought him princess, Anne of Cleves, in order to tie to the attention of Cardinal Thomas Wol- England more closely to Protestant princes sey, who hired him as a secretary. Crom- of northern Germany in an alliance against well was elected a member of the English the Catholic emperor, Charles V. Unhappy Parliament in 1523; he was favored by with his German bride, however, Henry Henry for his support of the king’s efforts abandoned her and allowed Cromwell to to obtain a divorce from Catherine of Ara- be arrested and imprisoned in the Tower gon. He became a counselor to the king in of London at the instigation of Cromwell’s 1530 and was named chief minister in sworn enemy, the Duke of Norfolk. Soon 1532. afterward Cromwell was convicted of trea- Cromwell played a key role in the Ref- son and heresy and beheaded. ormation of England. Under his guidance, the English government threw off papal SEE ALSO: Henry VIII; More, Sir Thomas

Greenhaven Encyclopedia of The Renaissance 95 da Gama, Vasco fortune in trade goods, for which he was (ca. 1469–1524) rewarded with a noble title. His journey had established the Portuguese claim to A Portuguese explorer, da Gama lived at a important trading posts in Africa and In- time when this small kingdom at the dia. Da Gama returned to India on a sec- southwestern edge of Europe was building ond voyage in 1502, conquering the now- one of the largest colonial realms in his- hostile port of Calicut and forcing further tory. Trained in the school of Henry the trade concessions. A third voyage in 1524 Navigator, Portuguese ship captains were ended with da Gama’s death from malaria braving unknown seas and building small in the small Indian realm of Cochin. trading stations along the west African coast. A sea route between Africa and Asia would, in theory, allow merchants to easily da Sangallo, Antonio (the reach the Spice Islands, in what is now In- Younger) donesia, and the markets of South Asia. (1484–1546) Da Gama first served his king as an officer This renowned architect was the nephew in west Africa, where the Portuguese ports of two well-known men, Giuliano da San- were under frequent assault by rival Euro- gallo and Antonio da Sangallo the Elder, pean nations. After proving his ability as a also an architect. He was born in Florence sailor as well as a soldier, he won a com- and studied as a young man in Rome un- mission from Manuel I to discover a route der Donato Bramante, the architect of to India, which could only be reached at Saint Peter’s Basilica. One of his early com- that time by a long and dangerous land missions was a palace for Cardinal Alessan- route through countries held by hostile dro Farnese (later Pope Paul III). This im- Turks and Arabs. In the late fourteenth posing structure, now known as the century, the more northerly Silk Route to Farnese Palace, would be completed by Asia was also disrupted by unrest and war Michelangelo Buonarroti and become one after the fall of the Mongol Empire. of the great Renaissance monuments of In 1497 da Gama set out with four Rome. After 1520 Sangallo succeeded Bra- ships from Lisbon, Portugal, reaching the mante as the chief architect of Saint of Good Hope and then continuing Peter’s. His busy workshop in Rome pro- up the eastern coast of Africa. The fleet duced designs for churches, monuments, called at Madagascar, Mombasa (in and villas throughout Italy, and influenced present-day Kenya), and Malindi, and then Italian architecture for the next two centu- crossed the Indian Ocean to Calicut, on ries. Sangallo’s most notable works are the the southwestern coast of India, reached church of Santa Maria di Loreto; the in May 1498. Da Gama returned to Lisbon church of San Giovanni dei Fiorentini, in September 1949 in triumph and with a built along the Tiber River; and the Pa-

Greenhaven Encyclopedia of The Renaissance 97 de Gournay, Marie le Jars olina Chapel in the Vatican. After Rome gence and judgment on their part. She was occupied and sacked by the forces of criticizes men who lack the ability to take the Holy Roman Emperor in 1527, San- women seriously, and believes their atti- gallo left the city and was hired as a mili- tude arises from their own fears and inse- tary architect. He designed fortifications curity. for Florence, , Rome, and the city of Ancona, on the Adriatic coast, and Saint de Pisan, Christine Patrick’s well at Orvieto. He also helped to (1364–1430) complete the Villa Madama, commissioned Writer and social critic, and one of the by Giulio de’ Medici in Rome from the first women to make a profession from artist Raphael. In 1539 he began work on her literary pursuits, Christine de Pisan a large and detailed wooden model of was born in Venice, the daughter of a phy- Saint Peter’s Basilica, a work that survived sician and Venetian official. She moved to as one of the most famous possessions of France when her father was appointed the Vatican Museum. physician and astrologer to King Charles V. With her father’s encouragement, she de Gournay, Marie le Jars made an extensive study of the scientific, (1565–1645) philosophical, and literary books available A writer and social critic, Marie de Gour- at the French court. She emerged as a nay is also known as the lifelong friend writer after the death of her husband Eti- and editor of the French essayist Michel enne du Castel in 1390, an event that en- de Montaigne. She was born in Paris and tangled her in a series of lawsuits over her raised in the Picardy region north of the husband’s estate and forced her to seek city. She developed a literary career of her out aristocratic patrons in order to sup- own upon editing Montaigne’s works for port her family. She began writing lyric publication after his death in 1592. She poetry on commission for nobles at court. gained a reputation in literary circles for In her work Letters to the God of Love, she her combative stance in favor of the intel- objected to the chivalric ideals of knight- lectual equality of women. To underline hood and its attitude toward women and her point, she produced a wide range of their role in society. This work brought works and managed to earn an indepen- her into a famous public debate over the dent living from her poems, a novel (Le depiction of women in the Roman de la Proumenoir de Monsieur de Montaigne), Rose of Jean de Meun, one of the well- stories, political tracts, and essays on edu- known chivalric ballads. An intense study cation, poetry, and language. Her works of the classical techniques of rhetoric and The Equality of Men and Women and The debate allowed her to give a good account Ladies’ Grievance treated the moral of herself in a male-dominated world of strength and intelligence of women, as ex- literary debate. She followed her early suc- pounded by ancient and contemporary au- cesses with The Book of the City of Ladies, thors as well as the earliest leaders of the an allegory that considers the world and church. In her essays de Gournay explains social conventions from a woman’s per- that physical differences between the gen- spective. She also wrote Song in Honor of ders are irrelevant, and that a lack of edu- Joan of Arc, The Book of Three Virtues,as cation and society’s restrictions on women well as books of history, biography, reli- lead to the impression of inferior intelli- gion, and politics.

98 Greenhaven Encyclopedia of The Renaissance de Soto, Hernando de Poitiers, Diane jewels and permanently banished Diane (1499–1566) from Chenonceau. A famous consort of the French king Henri II, Diane de Poitiers was born of de Soto, Hernando aristocratic parents in the castle of Saint- (1496–1542) Vallier, in the French Alps. She married A Spanish explorer who led the first Euro- Louis de Breze, a courtier and grandson of pean expedition into the southeastern King Charles VII, at the age of fifteen. On United States. De Soto was born into a the death of her husband in 1531, she ar- poor family in the Estremadura region of ranged to have his titles of seneschal western Spain. He joined the expedition of (king’s representative) of Normandy pass Pedro Arias de Avila to Panama in 1514, into her own hands, instead of allowing and successfully fought for de Avila against that office to return to the king, which his rival Gil Gonzales. De Soto ac- was the traditional practice. After Francis I companied Francisco Pizarro to Peru in took the throne, Diane became a compan- 1528 but had a falling out with Pizarro af- ion to his sons. When Francis was cap- ter the Spanish defeated the Incas under tured at the Battle of Pavia in 1525, he of- their emperor Atahualpa. The Peru expe- fered his sons Francois and Henri as dition had greatly enriched him, however, hostages in exchange for his freedom. and de Soto returned to Spain in 1536 a When Henri returned to France, at the age hero for his part in the conquest of the of twelve, Diane became his tutor and Incas. guide. The two grew close and as he ma- De Soto married and settled down in tured Henri fell in love with his mentor. Spain. But when King Charles V honored Well before Henri became king of him with the title of adelantado (colonial France in 1547, Diane became his favorite governor) of Florida, a place the Spanish mistress, adviser, and companion. As king, still had not fully explored, his ambitions Henri entrusted important correspondence in the New World returned. He set out in and documents to her, and relied on her 1539 with six hundred men and nine advice in important matters of state. Di- ships, landing at a bay he called Espiritu ane came to wield more authority in the Santu (Holy Spirit), on the western coast French court than Henri’s queen, Cathe- of Florida. De Soto’s mission was to estab- rine de Médicis, and despite the fact that lish a permanent settlement, make a claim Catherine was a distant cousin of Diane, for Florida in the name of the king of their rivalry for Henri’s affections made Spain, and to find legendary cities of gold. them bitter enemies. Henri favored Diane The expedition, however, spent three fruit- by ordering the castle of Anet built for less years in Florida, suffering hunger, dis- her, bestowing on her the title of Duchess ease, and the attacks of hostile Native of Etampes, and allowing her the custody American tribes. With his men dying at an of the and the castle of alarming rate, de Soto attempted to return Chenonceau, one of the most magnificent overland to New Spain (Mexico), and led royal residences in Europe. In 1559, how- the expedition across the southeastern ever, Henri died of injuries suffered in a United States, passing through Mississippi, duel, and soon afterward his jealous queen, Arkansas, Oklahoma, and Texas. Running Catherine, took possession of the crown out of provisions in the dry plains of

Greenhaven Encyclopedia of The Renaissance 99 de Vega, Lope

Texas, the expedition returned to the Mis- the rivalries and adventures of Spain’s sissippi River valley, where de Soto died of kings and nobles. He turned out plays in a a fever in 1542. His body was wrapped in few days or a week, making them to order a blanket, weighted with stones, and sunk for certain actors and theaters that com- in the river by his men in order to avoid a missioned his work. Although none of his clash with Native Americans, to whom he plays was printed during his lifetime, had claimed to be an immortal god. about 450 of them, about one-quarter of all those he wrote, have survived to this SEE ALSO: Cortes, Hernán; exploration; day. Pizarro, Francisco SEE ALSO: Cervantes, Miguel de de Vega, Lope (1562–1635) del Sartro, Andrea A prolific Spanish playwright, Félix Lope (1486–1531) de Vega y Carpi was born and raised in Painter of Florence, Italy, born in the vil- Madrid, the son of a common tailor. He lage of Gualfonda. His name “del Sartro” wrote poetry and learned Latin at a young means the “son of a tailor;” his real name age, and began writing plays at the age of was Andrea d’Agnolo. He apprenticed to a twelve. He joined the Spanish Armada dur- goldsmith before taking up painting in the ing a campaign against the Portuguese in studio of Piero di Cosimo. After finishing the Azores. After returning to civilian life, his training he opened his own studio in he became a professional playwright. His Florence. His works were influenced by sharp tongue and hot temper, however, Leonardo da Vinci, Raphael, and Fra Bar- got him banished from the capital for slan- tolommeo. He had great skill in drawing dering his former mistress, Elena Osorio. and in imitating the works of his better- In 1588 he volunteered for the Spanish known rivals, and his art was in high de- naval expedition against England; while mand in Florence after Leonardo, Raphael, the powerful Armada was wrecked in the and Michelangelo Buonarroti left the city turbulent seas of the English Channel, de in the early sixteenth century. Del Sartro’s Vega survived and returned home. Penni- first major work was a series of five fres- less, he became a secretary to the Duke of coes for the brotherhood of the Servites, Alba. In 1595 he left the duke’s estate near who sought him out to decorate their Ba- Toledo to return to Madrid. After a series silica della Santissimia Annunziata. The of misfortunes, including the loss of his frescoes, depicting the life of a thirteenth- wife and son, he became a priest in 1614, century saint named Filippo Benizzi, were and was soon appointed an officer of the so carefully drawn and executed that they . In the meantime, he earned del Sartro the nickname of “Andrea wrote an astonishing number of stage the Perfect.” He later completed the Birth works: histories, romances, dramas, and of the Virgin, his best-known fresco, influ- comedies, as well as ballads, sonnets, verse enced by the works of Leonardo da Vinci. histories and biographies, and other poetic For the convent of San Francesco he works. He drew on material from ancient painted an altarpiece, the Madonna of the myths to current history, as well as his own Harpies. turbulent personal life, creating quick- When two of his paintings were sent moving, cloak-and-dagger plots based on to the royal court of the king of France at

100 Greenhaven Encyclopedia of The Renaissance d’Este, House of

Fontainebleu, del Sartro was invited by came from the northern region of Lom- Francis I to reside there permanently as bardy and originally were lords of Este, a court painter. He left in 1518 but soon domain near Padua. In the Middle Ages was feeling homesick and missing his wife the Este dynasty supported the popes and Lucrezia. In the next year he returned to the Guelph faction in the struggles be- Florence, where he remained for the rest tween the papacy and the Holy Roman of his life. Although Francis had lent del emperors. Azzo VI d’Este reigned as the Sartro money in order to purchase works podesta, or magistrate, of Mantua and Ve- of art, del Sartro instead used it to build a rona; his son Azzo VII succeeded to that house. He completed a series of mono- title in Ferrara. In 1264, Obizzo d’Este be- chromatic (single-color) frescoes for the came the lord of Ferrara. The Este family cloister of the Scalzo in Florence. His ma- held Ferrara as a fief granted by the pope, jor works from this period are Dance of and served as the pope’s vicars the Daughter of Herodias, Beheading of the (representatives) from 1332. Baptist, Apparition of the to Zachar- ias, and Visitation.HisMadonna del Sacco, Ferrara became a flourishing cultural or “Madonna of the Sacks,” was painted center under Niccolo d’Este, who ruled for the cloister of Santissima Annunziata from 1384 until his death in 1441. The and is considered by many art historians court of the d’Este patronized artists, mu- his best work. sicians, and writers. Niccolo’s son Borso One of del Sartro’s most famous works increased the family’s lands and power isacopyofaportraitofPopeLeoX,done through winning the title of duke of by Raphael. The painting was much ad- Modena and Reggio d’Emilia from Freder- mired by Duke Federigo Gonzaga of Mi- ick III, the Holy Roman Emperor, and lan, who requested it from the Florentine duke of Ferrara from Pope Paul II. Ercole aristocrat Ottaviano de’ Medici. As Medici d’Este, another son, married his daughter did not want to give up the painting, he Beatrice to Ludovico Sforza, the duke of asked del Sartro to make the copy, which Milan; his daughter Isabella married he then sent to Gonzaga as the original. Francesco Gonzaga, the marquis of Man- The painting was so well done that it tua, and through her lavish patronage of fooled art experts for many years after- the leading artists and writers of the day, ward. Del Sartro was also an excellent por- including Leonardo da Vinci, Titian, and traitist. In 1527 he painted a Last Supper Ludovico Ariosto, won the title of “Queen in the refectory (dining hall) of the San of the Renaissance.” Salvi convent. This was his last major work before del Sartro contracted the plague Alfonso d’Este, who ruled the d’Este during a siege of Florence in 1529; his wife domain until his death in 1534, took an Lucrezia, terrified of the illness, fled the active part in the wars and diplomacy of house. Del Sartro died two years later. northern Italy. He joined with Milan, the , and the pope in the d’Este, House of League of Cambrai against Venice. The An aristocratic family that ruled the cities pope and Alfonso fell out of favor, how- of Ferrara and Modena and who were ever, and in 1510 the duke was excommu- leading patrons of Renaissance writers, nicated from the church and forfeited his musicians, and artists in Italy. The family titles in Modena and Reggio. In 1526 Al-

Greenhaven Encyclopedia of The Renaissance 101 Diet of Augsburg fonso joined the campaign of Emperor ognized the rights demanded by the Charles V against Pope Clement VII, and princes. won back the lost duchies in 1530. Ercole d’Este, the son of Alfonso, married the Diet of Worms daughter of King Louis XII, and allied with A gathering of princes and officials of the France against the kingdom of Spain. His Holy Roman Empire, who met in the town brother Ippolito, a cardinal of the church, of Worms, Germany, to deal with the revo- built the lavish Villa d’Este at Tivoli, the lutionary religious doctrines espoused by a finest example of a Renaissance palace to monk and university scholar, Martin survive to the present day. Luther, the Diet was convened in early The last of the d’Este line was Alfonso 1521 by Emperor Charles V, who com- II, who died in 1597. Although he sought manded Luther himself to appear in order to pass the duchy to his cousin Cesare, to debate and defend his ideas. Elector Fre- Pope Clement VIII did not recognize the derick of Saxony, who was sympathetic to inheritance and declared Ferrara a part of Luther’s writings, demanded and received the papal territories. a guarantee of safe passage.

SEE ALSO: Ariosto, Ludovico; d’Este, Isa- Luther’s teachings—including the doc- bella; Ferrara trine of justification by faith alone—had been disputed by Pope Leo X in his bull Diet of Augsburg (decree) Exsurge Domine. The pope de- The Diet of the Holy Roman Empire was manded that Luther retract forty-one as- an assembly of princes and nobles who sertions he had made in his writings and convened to decide important matters of in the Ninety-five Theses, a pronounce- state and religion. In 1530, as the Protes- ment he had composed in the town of tant Reformation gathered force in Ger- Wittenberg. But when Johann Eck, speak- many, Emperor Charles V, a determined ing for the archbishop of Trier, challenged defender of the Catholic Church, sum- Luther, the monk refused to recant. He moned the Diet to meet at Augsburg and then left the Diet under a safe-conduct invited Protestants to present a summary pass before its members could take any ac- of their beliefs. The members of the Diet tion against him. As the Diet concluded, promulgated the twenty-eight articles of the emperor issued the Edict of Worms, the Augsburg Confession, written by the which banned Luther’s writings and com- reformer Philipp Melanchthon, who based manded his arrest. Returning to Saxony, his work on the teachings of Martin Luther assumed a disguise and managed Luther. The Augsburg Confession remains to survive the edict while his revolutionary a central creed of . In 1547 teachings set off the Protestant Reforma- the Diet met again after the defeat of Prot- tion in Germany. estant forces by the emperor. Charles at- tempted to establish Catholicism as the Donatello supreme church, but many German princes ruled independently of the emperor and (1386–1466) claimed the right to establish the church A sculptor who revolutionized the art in of their choice in their own territories. In Florence during the early Renaissance. 1555 the emperor and the Protestants ar- Born as Donato di Niccolo Bardi, he was rived at the Peace of Augsburg, which rec- an apprentice in the workshop of Lorenzo

102 Greenhaven Encyclopedia of The Renaissance Donne, John

Ghiberti, and assisted Ghiberti in creating and mentor Filippo Brunelleschi. In 1443 the famous bronze doors of the Baptistry Donatello moved to Padua, a city near of Florence. Donatello’s first known work Venice, where he was commissioned to is a marble sculpture of the biblical figure raise an equestrian statue of Erasmo da of David that was intended for display on Narni, a famous condottiere (mercenary the exterior of the cathedral of Florence. soldier) known better by his nickname Impressed by the work, and seeing in it a Gattamelata. This was an imitation of a symbol of the entire city, the leaders of well-known statue of the emperor Marcus the city ordered it to be placed in the front Aurelius. It was placed in a central square of the Palazzo Vecchio, the seat of govern- of Padua and began a craze for equestrian ment. His reputation secured by this work, statues that continued throughout Europe Donatello was given commissions to com- well after the time of the Renaissance. Also plete a marble Saint Mark for the church in Padua he decorated the high altar of of Orsanmichele and statue of Saint John the church of San Antonio with an im- for the cathedral. Both of these were large, pressive series of reliefs representing the realistic works that broke with medieval life of Saint Anthony. sculptural tradition, which elongated and In 1432 Donatello created his most fa- idealized the human face and figure. A mous work, a bronze statue of David, the statue of Saint George completed in 1417 first freestanding nude statue created since was raised over a smaller relief of Saint the time of ancient Rome. The statue, a George slaying the dragon, the first sculp- symbol of Renaissance virtue triumphing ture to use perspective to create a realistic over the superstition and violence of the illusion of space. past, was meant to stand independently Donatello gave his figures lifelike and and be seen from all sides. Later in life he vigorous poses. His sculpture surprised continued experimenting in the form and and impressed viewers with its mastery of expression of his subjects. He completed a small details, such as facial expression and dramatic series of bronze pulpits for the drapery, and the way it used and com- church of San Lorenzo. For the Baptistery manded the surrounding space. He of Florence he carved a striking portrait of brought out the inner emotions and char- Mary Magdalene in wood that represents acter of his subjects, subtly distorting fig- her as thin, ugly, and a pathetic woman ures for dramatic effect, and mastered sev- lost in the wilderness. A group of figures eral different sculptural media, including in bronze illustrates the biblical tale of Ju- wood, bronze, and marble. His reputation dith slaying Holofernes, a work originally spread throughout Italy and he traveled intended for a courtyard in the palace of often at the invitation of wealthy patrons. the Medici rulers. In the 1420s he completed a bronze Feast SEE ALSO: Florence; Ghiberti, Lorenzo; of St. Herod for the Baptistery of Siena. In sculpture this work he created a new sculptural tech- nique, schiacciato, or shallow relief, which creates an illusion of depth through dis- Donne, John tortion of the figures. (1572–1631) Donatello spent several years in Rome, English poet, essayist, and Anglican priest, investigating ancient ruins with his friend Donne was born in London to a well-

Greenhaven Encyclopedia of The Renaissance 103 Donne, John to-do ironmonger. His mother was the patron in Sir Robert Drury, for whom he daughter of playwright John Heywood and wrote Anniversaries, An Anatomy of the a great niece of Sir Thomas More. Donne World, a work that memorialized Sir was educated by members of the Catholic Drury’s daughter, Elizabeth, and Of the Jesuit order and began attending the Uni- Progress of the Soul in 1612. Another satire versity of Oxford in England at the age of of Catholicism, Ignatius His Conclave,re- eleven. After three years, he entered the flected the new astronomy of Galileo Ga- University of Cambridge. He failed to at- lilei and proposed sending a colony of set- tain a university degree, as he refused to tlers to the moon. Although he petitioned take the required Oath of Supremacy that the king to return to public service, he recognized the monarch of England as su- was refused. On the king’s recommenda- preme head of the Anglican church. After tion, however, he was ordained a priest in his university career, Donne entered the Church of England in 1615. By this Lincoln’s Inn in London to train as a law- time Donne had become a deeply religious yer. He was often tormented by questions man, attaining the post of reader in divin- of religious faith and dogma, and his reli- ity at Lincoln’s Inn, and was changing his gious doubt intensified when his brother focus to religion. Donne became the royal Henry died in 1593 while in prison, where he had been sent for harboring a priest. In chaplain in 1615, and finally earned a doc- this period he was also writing poetry that tor of divinity degree from Cambridge in explored the physical and emotional in- 1618. His rising status in the Church of tensity of love. England did not relieve a deep grief felt at the death of his wife in childbirth Donne took part in an expedition led in 1617. In 1621 he was appointed the by the Earl of Essex in 1596 against the dean of Saint Paul’s, where his eloquent Spanish at Cadiz and the Azores. After this adventure he was appointed secretary to sermons drew large audiences to the Sir Thomas Egerton, the Queen’s Lord cathedral. After falling ill in 1623, he wrote Keeper of the Seal. However, Donne’s pub- the Devotions, essays on death and lic career was ended by his secret marriage salvation. His most famous speech, the in 1601 to Ann More, the niece of Egerton’s “Death’s Duel” sermon, was delivered be- wife. For this Donne was sacked from his fore King Charles I in 1631, at a time position, arrested, and briefly imprisoned. when Donne was already on his own After his release he moved to Surrey, where deathbed. he eked out a bare living as a lawyer and Donne’s poetry is inventive, eloquent, depended on friends and family to sup- often paradoxical, and filled with surpris- port his growing family. ing, vivid metaphors and “conceits,” which Donne wrote satires of English man- combine radically different ideas and im- ners and also meditations on suicide agery. His poetic rhythms discarded the (Biathanatos) and religion, including measured, traditional style in favor of Pseudo-Martyr, a criticism of the Catholic abrupt and jarring rhythms that were tradition of martyrdom. A series of “Holy meant to remind the reader of everyday Sonnets” expressed his views on death and speech. His elegies, epigrams, and letters sin. In 1601 Donne was elected a member in verse were published after his death in of parliament. He had gained a wealthy Songs and Sonnets.

104 Greenhaven Encyclopedia of The Renaissance Drake, Sir Francis

Dowland, John Drake, Sir Francis (1563–1626) (1540–1596) English composer and lutenist known for English navigator and privateer. The son the expressively , downcast style of of a yeoman farmer and devout Protes- his music. Dowland was born in London tant, Drake was born near the town of Tavistock in Devonshire. He was a relation and studied musical composition at the of the well-to-do Hawkins clan, a family University of Oxford. He became a lute of local shipowners, and through his con- player for the English ambassador to nection to John Hawkins Drake was taken France, where Dowland converted to the on as captain of the Judith in 1567 during Catholic faith. Later he performed at the one of Hawkins’s profitable slaving expe- court of Queen Elizabeth I but failed to ditions. Although the fleet managed to win an appointment from the queen be- capture and sell its human cargo, the voy- cause of his loyalty to Catholicism, a snub age ended in disaster when it was attacked that in the opinion of some historians by hostile Spanish ships in the harbor of brought about his embittered and melan- San Juan de Ulua. Only two vessels made choly musical style. He journeyed later to it back to England, including Drake’s own Denmark, where he became court lutenist Judith. After this encounter, Drake made it to the Danish king Christian IV. He won his life’s work to exact revenge on Spanish an appointment as official court lutenist men, treasure, and ships, wherever he by King James I. He began publishing col- might find them. lections of pieces for voice and lute in Queen Elizabeth, unwilling to allow 1597, eventually publishing four books of Hawkins to counterattack yet still in favor more than eighty songs. His most famous of naval operations against Spain, allowed works are melancholy songs that set the Drake to return to the in subjects of death and loss to beautifully 1570. Aboard the Susan, Drake explored flowing and balanced melodies, and ac- the coasts of Panama and discovered the centing these melodies with strikingly dis- route followed by the Spanish treasure sonant notes and chords. Dowland’s per- caravans from Peru, across the isthmus of sonal motto was “Dowland, Semper Panama, to the Caribbean Sea. He inter- Dolens,” a pun in Latin that means “Dow- cepted and captured a large train of silver land, Always Doleful,” taken from the and brought the treasure safely back to name of one of his songs. Flow My Tears, England, making him a wealthy man. Not his best-known piece, became one of the happy with this act of open warfare against most commonly performed works of Re- Spain, Elizabeth banished him to Ireland naissance music in modern times. He also for a time, where Drake served under the wrote complex polyphonic suites, dance Earl of Essex to put down one in a long music, and sets of variations for the solo series of rebellions against English rule. lute,aswellasSeaven Teares Figured in In 1577, Drake was commissioned by Seaven Passionate Pavans, a piece based on Elizabeth to lead a raiding fleet against Flow My Tears written for lute and five vi- Spanish ports on the Pacific coasts of the ols. Americas. The navigator set sail with a fleet of five ships, but mutiny and poor SEE ALSO: Byrd, William; music weather hampered the voyage and only his

Greenhaven Encyclopedia of The Renaissance 105 d’Aragona, Tullia

flagship, the Golden Hind, made it through In 1588, as the Spanish Armada was the Straits of Magellan and as far as the gathering, Drake was appointed a vice ad- Pacific Ocean. Searching for a northerly miral of the English fleet. Drake disrupted passage back to the Atlantic Ocean, Drake’s the expedition by raiding supply ships, de- vessel landed somewhere near Drake’s Bay, laying and weakening the Spanish fleet. now in the state of California, and named The Armada then set out for the English the surroundings “New Albion” in the Channel, but turned back after losing sev- name of the queen and England. Instead eral skirmishes with Drake and other En- of retracing his route, Drake then sailed glish commanders as well as very poor west, across the vast Pacific to the Philip- weather. In 1595 Drake was again in com- pines, the East Indies, and the Indian mand, along with John Hawkins, of an ex- pedition to Panama ordered by the queen. Ocean and then around the Cape of Good This time, the Spanish were warned ahead Hope. Having collected a considerable for- of time and were waiting for the English tune from Spanish treasure ships, he re- privateers. Off the port of San Juan, Pu- turned to England in September 1580. The erto Rico, Hawkins died and Drake was voyage had made him the second Euro- beaten back from the harbor. On reaching pean to circumnavigate the globe after Fer- Panama, Drake was ambushed by Spanish dinand Magellan had died accomplishing troops and forced out to sea, where he the same feat in 1519. On his return Drake soon died of a fever. was rewarded with a knighthood by the queen on the decks of the Golden Hind. SEE ALSO: Elizabeth I; Magellan, Ferdinand; In 1581 Drake settled in Plymouth, Spanish Armada where his renown as an adventurer and privateer earned him election as the town’s d’Aragona, Tullia mayor. Still yearning for the sea, in 1585 (ca. 1510–1556) Drake accepted orders to disrupt Spanish A celebrated courtesan, musician, and au- preparations for an expedition against En- thor, Tullia d’Aragona was known to gland. Drake and his crew attacked the nobles, artists, philosophers, and princes Spaniards on the coast of Spain as well as as one of Renaissance Italy’s most fascinat- at the Islands. The fleet then ing women. She was the daughter of Giulia crossed the Atlantic Ocean, captured Span- Ferrarese, herself a courtesan of great ish towns in South America, plundered beauty, and was educated by Cardinal the Spanish colony of Saint Augustine in Luigid’Aragona,whomayhavebeenher what is now northeastern Florida, and father. She left her birthplace of Rome for reached the English colony at Roanoke, Siena in 1519, and returned to Rome in wherehetookonsurvivorsandreturned 1526 to enlist as a professional courtesan, them to England. This voyage provoked a woman engaged by wealthy men for en- open warfare between England and Spain, tertainment, witty conversation, and physi- and King Philip II was soon ordering cal pleasure. Among her clients were the preparations for a naval assault. Elizabeth banker Filippo Strozzi of Florence; Emilio allowed Drake to strike the first blow, and Orsini, scion of a powerful Roman family; in 1587 he reappeared in the port of Cadiz, and the poet Bernardo Tasso. She married where he destroyed about thirty Spanish Silvestro Guiccardi in 1543 and several vessels. years later joined the Florentine court of

106 Greenhaven Encyclopedia of The Renaissance d’Este, Isabella

Duke Cosimo de’ Medici. She was de- poem Orlando Furioso while residing there. nounced for defying the dress code for Baldassare Castiglione, who wrote The courtesans in Siena, and in Florence, but Courtier, an important book of courtly escaped trial both times through her con- manners, also lived in Mantua and was nections to influential men. Forty-nine of given free reign by Isabella d’Este to make her poems were collected in the book Rime her court a model of good taste and della Signora Tullia d’ Aragona. She wrote proper decorum. The d’Este court served Dialogues on the Infinity of Love in 1547 as a model for Renaissance princes all over and found a publisher for the book almost Europe, who were leaving behind the rus- immediately in Venice. This work boldly tic medieval manners of their forebears gave a woman’s perspective on love, and and striving to match each other in their relations between the sexes, a viewpoint patronage of men—and women—of learn- extremely rare in the literature of Europe ing and talent. Isabella boasted the pres- before the modern age. She also composed ence of the painters Titian (who painted sonnets and an epic poem, Il Meschino, her portrait twice), Andrea Mantegna, Detto Il Guerrino. Gathered poets and phi- Raphael, and Leonardo da Vinci, who drew losophers to her side at the Medici court, a famous portrait of her. A musician and she prevailed over the intellectual life of devoted patroness of composers, she also Florence at a time when women were held organized a court orchestra and had her as morally and intellectually inferior to palace composers set poetry she favored to men. music—an important first step on the path to the full flowering of Italian opera in the d’Este, Isabella centuries to come. (1474–1539) As captain-general of the forces of A patron of the arts and writers during Venice, Francesco Gonzaga was frequently the Renaissance, whose brilliant court in away from the court in Mantua. While Ferrara became a leading city of the new campaigning against the French he was humanistic outlook, and who is known by taken prisoner in 1509. Isabella d’Este then historians as the “Queen of the Renais- ruled Mantua as Francesco’s regent. She sance.” The daughter of Duke Ercole I of skillfully directed the defense of Mantua Ferrara and of Duchess Leonora, the against its enemies until Francesco was re- daughter of King Ferdinand I of Naples, leased in 1512. The couple found them- Isabelle d’Este traveled extensively with selves at odds afterward, however, and Isa- her mother, visiting the various courts of bella retreated to the court of Pope Leo X Italy and educating herself in the language in Rome. She soon became one of the and literature of the ancient Greeks and most popular figures in Rome and partici- Romans. In her travels and studies she pated in the spirited defense of the city gained a deep appreciation for the achieve- against the forces of the Holy Roman Em- ments of the ancient Romans in literature, peror in the . After the death of sculpture, and architecture. She was en- Francesco Gonzaga, Isabella served as the gaged as a young girl to Francesco regent for their son Frederico, the heir to Gonzaga, finally marrying him at the age the city who had been born in 1500. of sixteen. In Mantua the couple led a bril- liant court that boasted the presence of SEE ALSO: Ferdinand I of Naples; Ferrara; Ludovico Ariosto, who wrote his epic Gonzaga, House of; Mantua

Greenhaven Encyclopedia of The Renaissance 107 Dürer, Albrecht

Nuremberg, which became his permanent home, but after his marriage there he was soon voyaging again, this time to Italy. The ruins and literature of ancient Rome impressed him, as did the works of Italian painters of Venice, Milan, and Padua—foremost among them Giovanni Bellini and Andrea Mantegna. Their paint- ings in a new style had a strong influence on Dürer, who would synthesize in his works the Italian ideas of classicism, hu- man proportion, and compositional bal- ance with the northern European taste for detailed and naturalistic draftsmanship. After returning to Nuremberg, Dürer published The Apocalypse, a series of woodcuts that illustrate events in the Bible’s book of Revelation. Dürer also used In “,” from Albrecht Dürer’s biblical themes in later series known as “Great Passion” series of woodcuts, Christ is The Great Passion, The Small Passion, and presented to the mob by Pontius Pilate and The Life of the Virgin. His famous Self- sentenced to death. ’s monogram can Portrait of 1498 is one of the renowned be seen in the center bottom. images of the Renaissance, showing Dürer as an idealistic humanist scholar, a type of Dürer, Albrecht person he had encountered often during his journey to Italy. (1471–1528) The Italian Renaissance had taught A German painter and draftsman, a lead- Dürer that certain principles of arranging ing figure of the Renaissance in northern scenes and rendering figures allowed the Europe, Albrecht Dürer was born in skilled artist to convey a sense of spiritual- Nuremberg as the son and grandson of ity and reverence for religious subject mat- goldsmiths. His early training took place ter. He put this principle to use in his al- in the metalworking shop of his father, tarpieces, paintings done for prominent where he showed great talent in drawing. display inside a church. One of the most In 1486 he joined the workshop of Michael famous of these works is the Paumgartner Wolgemut, a painter and illustrator. Dürer Altarpiece, which was completed by 1504. traveled as a young man to the Low Coun- Dürer also adopted myth and allegory in tries, the Rhine River valley, and Basel, his engravings, such as Nemesis and The Switzerland, where he worked as an illus- Prodigal Son. Along with his watercolor trator for books and studied the work of painting of The Wild Hare, still one of the masters of silverpoint engraving and most common art reproductions, these woodcut block prints. His earliest known works were reproduced as prints by the painting was a portrait of his father, com- thousands and circulated throughout Eu- pleted in 1490. In 1494, he returned to rope.

108 Greenhaven Encyclopedia of The Renaissance Dürer, Albrecht

Dürer returned to Italy in 1505; he vis- milian had extended to Dürer, recognizing ited Venice and Bologna and may have the artist’s talent and importance. But the traveled as far as Rome. During this trip Catholic emperor was a powerful oppo- he wrote a series of engaging and obser- nent of the Protestant Reformation of vant letters to his friend, Willibald Pirck- Martin Luther, a movement that Dürer heimer, one of the leading humanist schol- wholeheartedly supported and celebrated ars of Germany. In Venice, where he lived in engravings such as The Last Supper and for two years, Dürer struck up a friend- Praying Hands. One of his last works was ship with Giovanni Bellini and other art- The Four Apostles, a painting of the four ists, and was hired to create a painting for apostles of the New Testament: John, Pe- the church of San Bartolomeo. He devel- ter, Mark, and Paul. In his last years he oped great skill at rendering the natural wrote extensively on art theory and his- world of landscapes, plants and animals in tory. He published a work on fortifications his engravings, a skill he refined during and another on the science of perspective, his crossing of the Alps from Germany to Instruction in Measurement, and wrote The Italy. Four Books on Proportions, which was pub- After his return to Germany, he com- lished a few months after his death. pleted two major altarpieces, The Adora- Dürer’s reputation spread throughout tion of the Trinity and Martyrdom of the Europe, and particularly in Germany, in Ten Thousand, and created a series of mas- the years after his death. He ushered an terful engravings reflecting ideals of hu- entire nation of German artists from the manistic thought Dürer had encountered medieval period into the Renaissance, and in Italy. These works include Knight, brought graphic art of printmaking and Death, and the Devil; St. Jerome in His woodcuts to a higher level, where they be- Study; and Melancolia. They represented gan competing with painting and sculp- the new ideal of philosophy: the contem- ture for the attention of art historians and plative life of study in Neoplatonism and patrons. His detailed, well-crafted allegori- observations in science that countered me- cal works fit well with notions of the Ro- dieval religious doctrines. On commission mantic movement that emerged in north- from the emperor Maximilian I, Dürer also ern Europe in the eighteenth century, and completed two monumental engravings, which adopted Dürer as an artistic forefa- The Triumphal Arch of Maximilian I and ther. The Triumphal Procession of Maximilian I. In 1520 the new emperor, Charles V, con- SEE ALSO: Maximilian I; Pirckheimer, Willi- tinued the salary and privileges that Maxi- bald; printing

Greenhaven Encyclopedia of The Renaissance 109

Edict of Nantes ing took place in monastic and cathedral A decree passed by King Henri IV in 1598 schools, or at the desk of a private tutor. that granted full religious liberty to the In the fourteenth century, education be- Huguenots (Protestants) of France. The came more widely available to an expand- decree allowed the Huguenots freedom to ing urban middle class. Literacy increased, worship in private and public as they a few years of schooling were available to chose; it also granted them control of cer- the young, and new universities were es- tain towns in France and set up courts of tablished to train scholars for religious, le- Catholic and Protestant judges that would gal, or teaching professions. By the fif- hear cases involving Protestants. The edict teenth century, a thorough education in was an attempt to end the decades of reli- grammar, rhetoric, history, and philosophy gious conflict in France that had resulted was considered essential for the well- in thousands of deaths and decline in or- rounded individual. der throughout the kingdom. After the The Institutio Oratoria of the ancient death of Henri IV, however, his successor Roman author Quintilian, discovered in King Louis XIV sought to consolidate royal the fourteenth century by the Italian poet control over the Protestant towns, includ- Petrarch, was a guide to the training of a ing the strategic port of La Rochelle on Roman orator. This book inspired a new, the western coast. The armies of the king humanistic outlook on education. In his attacked and defeated La Rochelle in 1628, book Quintilian advocates a broad educa- and by the Peace of Alais the Protestant tional training suited to the abilities of the towns lost their independence. In later de- individual student. It encourages students cades Louis gradually ended the privileges to analyze the function and components granted to the Huguenots and in 1685 re- of rhetoric in order to provide a sound voked the Edict of Nantes. This action re- basis for one’s skill as a speaker and writer. sulted in the flight of thousands of Hu- This guidebook for the education of the guenot families to the Low Countries and young was a foundation of Renaissance to French colonies in North America, learning. which drained France of a population vital Cicero’s speeches, uncovered by Pe- to its growing manufacturing economy. trarch and others, also provided an impor- The revocation also increased political ten- tant text for Renaissance-era students. Pi- sions with France’s Protestant neighbors. etro Paolo Vergerio wrote On Noble Customs, a book that advocates training in education the seven liberal arts of grammar, dialec- Education in the medieval era was gener- tic, rhetoric, music, arithmetic, geometry, ally reserved for the wealthy and young and astronomy. Vergerio presents a de- members of ruling families. Most school- tailed program for the teacher, emphasiz-

Greenhaven Encyclopedia of The Renaissance 111 Edward VI ing a method in which students take books was the Institutiones Grammaticae gradual steps in their lessons, and are also Latinae, or Principles of Latin Grammar, given rigorous physical training to achieve published by Aldus Manutius. In the a balance of mind and body. 1520s, a Dutch printer, Johannes Despau- Humanism emphasized the study of terius, began printing the Grammatica, the classic Latin and Greek writers in which was more popular in northern Eu- forming a valuable citizen, one who could rope and the British Isles. Those opposed read, write, and speak effectively and make to rote study of grammatical rules had stu- a contribution to civic life. The most dents compose their own works in imita- popular Latin authors for teaching pur- tion of worthy authors such as Cicero, poses were Virgil, Ovid, Cicero, Terence, Tacitus, and Livy. Desiderius Erasmus, the Livy, Sallust, and . Students studied Dutch humanist and scholar, collected sev- Latin spelling, grammar, and syntax, and eral of these ancient authors in his book translated classical authors. One common De Copia Verborum, which became the exercise was to write in the style of a cer- most popular schoolbook throughout tain author, or to translate a passage of northern Europe in the sixteenth century. Latin into everyday language, and then He was also the author of the Colloquia,a back into Latin. Students memorized im- collection of fictional dialogues used as portant passages from the speeches of Ci- models for conversation in Latin. cero and others, and were encouraged to SEE ALSO: humanism use Latin in the classroom and in their ev- eryday conversation. Edward VI Humanist teaching first took place at (1537–1553) private academies established in noble King of England from 1547 until his death courts, where children of the aristocracy of pneumonia at the age fifteen in 1553. trained for careers as public servants and Edward was the son of King Henry VIII leaders. There were notable academies at and Jane Seymour, but at the time the the courts of Ferrara and Mantua, where throne passed to him he was only nine the classical virtues of endurance, stoicism, years old. England was ruled by regents, at morality, and valor were stressed, and the first the Duke of Somerset and then, from student was required to take part in physi- 1549, the Duke of Northumberland. Dur- cal activity as well as regular Mass and ing his brief reign, the Protestant Church confession. Many of the Italian city-states, of England prevailed over the Catholic notably Florence, Verona, Venice, and Mi- Church, expelled from England by Henry lan, adopted this program in their public VIII. At the time of his death, the Duke of schools in the middle of the fifteenth cen- Northumberland promoted the accession tury. By the sixteenth century, humanist of Lady Jane Grey, who was soon deposed education was spreading from Italy to the from the throne and replaced by the rest of Europe. Catholic queen Mary. Printed grammar books became com- monplace after the printing press was in- Elizabeth I vented in the . The use of paper, (1533–1603) pens, and notebooks expanded at the same Tudor dynasty queen of England from time. One of the most important school- 1558 until her death in 1603. The daugh-

112 Greenhaven Encyclopedia of The Renaissance Elizabeth I

In 1558, on the death of Mary, Eliza- beth became the queen of England. The nation was militarily weak, struggling with debt, and the scene of violent conflict be- tween Catholics and the supporters of the Church of England, the Protestant sect es- tablished by Henry VIII. Elizabeth also faced a threat from her cousin Mary, a Catholic grand-niece of Henry VIII and the queen of Scotland. The wife of King Francis II (Francois) of France, Mary was supported in her claims to the English throne by several wealthy English nobles and a French army stationed in Scotland. Her claims were supported by the fact that Elizabeth refused all offers of marriage, throwing the succession into doubt. In 1568 Mary abdicated her throne during a Queen Elizabeth I of England, in full court rebellion and fled to England. Elizabeth regalia, from an engraving by Crispin van held her prisoner for the next nineteen da Passe. years, and finally in 1587, fearing Mary’s plots against her, allowed her execution. ter of King Henry VIII and his second wife Elizabeth’s enforcement of laws against Anne Boleyn, she was educated at court Catholics inspired several plots against her and showed a talent for languages, learn- life; in 1570 the pope officially declared ing several as a young girl. She lost her her deposed from the English throne by a place in the succession when the king had bull (proclamation) that sanctioned open Anne Boleyn executed on false charges in rebellion among Catholics in England. The 1536. In 1544, however, she was restored queen responded by enforcing harsh laws to the succession by an act of the English against Catholics and having several Parliament. Her half brother Edward be- prominent clergy executed. In 1588, the came king after Henry’s death in 1547; the Catholic king Philip II sought to bring En- sickly Edward’s reign was short-lived, how- gland to heel and counter English support ever, and in 1553 Mary Tudor became the of Protestant rebels in the Spanish-held first reigning queen of England. A devout Low Countries. Philip sent a massive naval Catholic, Mary suspected the Protestant fleet, known as the Spanish Armada, Elizabeth of harboring ill intentions to- against England. The fleet arrived in the ward her. In 1554, when a revolt led by Sir English Channel but was soon at the mercy Thomas Wyatt challenged the queen, Mary of stormy weather and the skillful assaults had her sister thrown into the Tower of of the English captains. As the Armada London, then held under house arrest at fled, Elizabeth’s prestige in Europe soared. the royal palace of Hatfield, where Eliza- With Elizabeth’s encouragement, the beth continued her study with the scholar English settled new colonies in the Carib- Roger Ascham. bean and North America and English cap-

Greenhaven Encyclopedia of The Renaissance 113 England tains, including Sir Francis Drake and Sir grammar in the 1520s and Thomas Elyot a John Hawkins, carried out raids and pi- dictionary of Latin and English words. racy against Spanish ports and ships. At The pivotal year in English Renaissance home, Elizabeth held a lively court, engag- history was 1536, when Henry established ing musicians and playwrights to entertain the Church of England. The king became her and holding processions in towns the supreme head of the church, which throughout the realm. Elizabethan poetry adopted many of the doctrines of Martin and drama brought the English language Luther and Protestant Reformation. Catho- to a peak of its expressive intensity. The lic property was seized and members of end of Elizabeth’s reign in 1603 also the church were arrested or driven into brought about the end of the Tudor dy- exile. Monasteries were closed and nuns nasty, as Elizabeth had remained unmar- and monks forced to renounce their vows. ried throughout her life and left no heirs. As monastic property was confiscated, James I, the first of the Stuart dynasty, as- large collections of books, including cended the throne. manuscripts of ancient Greek and Latin SEE ALSO: Henry VIII; Spanish Armada; authors, spread to the universities. During Tudor dynasty the Tudor dynasty, religion played an im- portant role in English foreign policy. England Henry’s reign was followed by those of While new scholarship and art were flow- his son Edward and daughter Mary. Ed- ering in fifteenth-century Italy, England ward supported the cause of reform. Dur- was recovering from defeat in the Hun- ing his reign the English Book of Common dred Years’ War, and English claimants to Prayer was published, advancing Protes- the throne from the houses of York and tant doctrine. Mary, however, was a fer- Lancaster were fighting a long and bloody vently devout Catholic. She restored the civil war. In 1485, when Henry Tudor de- traditional faith and had many Protestant feated his rival Richard III at the Battle of leaders and nobles executed. After a short Bosworth Field, the Tudor dynasty was es- reign, she died without an heir, passing tablished. Returning to political and social the throne to her Protestant half sister stability, England began absorbing human- ist ideas from the continent. English Elizabeth. Tutored by Roger Ascham, one schools followed the new humanism, in- of the foremost scholars of Latin and an- structing their students in Latin, Greek, cient literature, Elizabeth had an open and the classical authors. The first printed mind to new ideas and encouraged hu- books spread literacy, while scholars from manist education. The queen was a lively the continent, notably Desiderius Erasmus, and intelligent leader who enthusiastically arrived seeking patronage. In 1509, with patronized scholars and artists. English lit- the start of the reign of Henry VIII, erature, art, architecture, and music flour- England’s Renaissance took its first steps ished in the Elizabethan age of the late at the king’s royal court, where the painter sixteenth century. Hans Holbein worked and the renowned Music, drama, and pageantry were scholar Sir Thomas More served the king hallmarks of Elizabeth’s royal court. Italian as lord chancellor. The classical languages forms, such as the sonnet and the madri- were taught at Saint Paul’s school, founded gal, were taken up in English poetry and by John Colet; William Lily wrote a Latin music. The composer Thomas Morley set

114 Greenhaven Encyclopedia of The Renaissance Erasmus, Desiderius

Shakespeare’s poetry to music in the Ital- the Catholic Church attempted to recon- ian style; Thomas Tallis and William Byrd cile the skepticism of humanists, the rebel- also experimented in musical form and lion of Protestants, and the doctrines of style. Edmund Spenser glorified the Tudor the Catholic Church. Born in Rotterdam, dynasty in his epic poem The Faerie he was the illegitimate son of Roger Ger- Queene. The theater was brought to new ard, a priest, and the daughter of a physi- heights by William Shakespeare, Christo- cian. He was educated in a religious com- pher Marlowe, Ben Jonson, and many oth- munity known as the Brethren of the ers. The thorough knowledge of history Common Life. After the death of his par- and classical literature reflected in their ents during a plague epidemic in 1483 he plays demonstrated the broad humanistic entered a monastery, but found the strict education that was now widely available to vows and poverty of a monk’s life not to English students. In the field of natural his liking. His ability as a scholar and lin- philosophy, Sir Francis Bacon made an im- guist spread his name in the Low Coun- portant contribution with his concepts of tries, and he won an appointment as a sec- the scientific method. retary to the bishop of Cambrai, who sent England still faced serious threats from Erasmus to study at the College de Mon- the continent. England’s support of Prot- tague in Paris. Erasmus was ordained as a estant rebels in the Netherlands prompted priest in 1492 but spent the rest of his life the Spanish king, Philip II, to send a pow- writing, publishing, and in intellectual de- erful armada of warships to invade and bate with hundreds of scholars, humanists, conquer England. The Spanish Armada and princes throughout Europe. was turned away in 1588 by storms and outmaneuvered by skilled English naviga- After completing his studies, Erasmus tors. In the meantime, England was join- traveled to England in 1499 to gain the ing the era of exploration, sending ships friendship of scholars such as Sir Thomas to North America to search for a north- More and churchmen such as the arch- west passage to Asia and establishing bishop of Canterbury. His book Adages, American colonies after the turn of the published in 1500, collected classical writ- seventeenth century. These voyages ex- ings and proverbs, while he also published panded the kingdom’s trade and stimu- translations from ancient Greek sources lated its economy, as chartered companies including the plays of Euripides and the such as the East India Company, the Hud- short biographies of Plutarch. Under the son Bay Company, and the Muscovy Com- influence of English humanists, Erasmus wrote Handbook of the Militant Christian pany set up operations in Asia, North in 1503, calling for Christian believers to America, and Russia. return to the simple piety of the apostles SEE ALSO: Bacon, Francis; Elizabeth I; and followers of Christ. Henry VIII; Marlowe, Christopher; Mil- As a young man Erasmus also made ton, John; Shakespeare, William several voyages to Italy, where he was awarded an honorary doctorate from the Erasmus, Desiderius University of and where he worked (ca. 1466–1536) as an editor for a Venetian printing house. A scholar, theologian, and linguist of the Dismayed by the wars Pope Julius II was Netherlands, whose ideas on the Bible and carrying out to conquer cities for the Pa-

Greenhaven Encyclopedia of The Renaissance 115 Erasmus, Desiderius pacy in northern Italy, Erasmus also wrote Saint Jerome. In his translations he at- (anonymously) Julius Exclusus, in which tempted to convey the original meaning of the pope, greedy for treasure and worldly the texts, but in doing so offended church renown, is barred from the gates of heaven. leaders who held his scholarship to be Erasmus returned to England in 1509, blasphemous and heretical. Undeterred, he taking a position as a lecturer in divinity brought out an edition of the New Testa- at the University of Cambridge. Hoping ment, in which Greek text and Latin trans- for an invitation to the court of King lation was printed side by side. First pub- Henry VIII, who had just come to power, lished in 1516, this Novum Instrumentum he was to be disappointed in his ambition contained annotations, or explanations of and soon returned to the continent. In the original meaning of the text. He 1511 Erasmus published In Praise of Folly, changed and expanded his work in five a book that soon had an audience through- more editions, one of which would later out Europe. In this work, which he dedi- be used as the basis for the King James cated to Sir Thomas More, Erasmus uses version of the Bible. In his preface to the satire to hold the Catholic Church at fault work, Erasmus urged Pope Leo X to un- for its worldliness and corruption, and of- dertake a sweeping reform of the church fered his support to the gathering move- and to disseminate the Bible among the ment for reform of the church and a re- common people. His work, however, ran turn to its roots. Instead of a hierarchy of counter to the idea that a single, funda- bishops, cardinals, popes, and other privi- mental meaning must be given to the leged officials, Erasmus saw true Chris- words of the Bible, which as the original tianity as lying in the simple faith of the word of God could not be amended or believer. annotated by scholars or other ordinary His fame as a writer assured, Erasmus believers. In effect, Erasmus was proposing was appointed as an adviser for Prince an alternative view of Christianity, and the Charles, heir to the Holy Roman Empire, wide popularity of his works and transla- and for the prince wrote The Education of tions reflected the flowering of new doc- a Christian Prince in 1516, advising Charles trines brought about by the Protestant Ref- that the best way to rule was to win the ormation. trust and respect of his subjects. Erasmus Erasmus favored reform of the church, counseled the prince to find peaceful solu- however, not the establishment of an en- tions to the religious and civil conflicts tirely new one, and accepted the final au- then brewing in Europe, and repeated thority of the pope on matters of doctrine. these opinions in two works, WarIsSweet He fled the city of Basel after it joined the to Inexperienced Men and The Complaint ranks of the Protestants, and he debated of Peace. with Martin Luther in his essay On the In his study of the Bible and of the Freedom of the Will, which countered classical authors, Erasmus strove to recon- Luther’s ideas on salvation and justifica- cile the humanist movement with the tra- tion by personal faith. The church, how- ditional doctrines of the church. He trans- ever, saw him as an opponent, and after lated long sections of the Bible as well as his death placed his books on its Index, a the writings of the early church fathers, list of books that were prohibited to its including Saint Augustine, Origen, and members.

116 Greenhaven Encyclopedia of The Renaissance exploration

SEE ALSO: humanism; Luther, Martin; nication on the authorities meeting at More, Sir Thomas; Reformation, Protes- Basel. They then accused the pope of her- tant esy, announced him deposed from his throne, and elected the antipope Felix V. Eugenius IV The rival popes made peace in 1442, after (1383–1447) which Eugenius returned to Rome and Pope from 1431 until his death in 1447, persuaded the princes of Germany to sup- Eugenius was born Gabriele Condulmer, port him. After many years of bitter the son of a Venetian merchant. At the age struggle, he had prevailed over the con- of twenty-four, Pope Gregory XII, his ciliar movement that presumed to be the uncle, appointed him as bishop of Siena. final authority in church matters. When the people of Siena opposed him as an outsider, Condulmer resigned to be- come the Vatican treasurer. He won elec- exploration tion as pope after the death of Martin V The people of medieval times knew little in 1431. This event took place soon after of the world outside their towns and vil- the opening of the Council of Basel, a lages. The most knowledgeable people meeting of bishops, monks, and religious were unaware of distant continents and scholars who sought to reform the church had no idea of the true size of the earth. and represented a serious challenge to the Sailors had no maps to guide them be- pope’s authority. Eugenius issued a papal yond the familiar coasts. Navigational tools bull (decree) dissolving the council in De- were of very limited use in long-distance cember 1431, but the council members re- voyages, especially in uncharted waters. sponded by demanding that he appear be- Only a few merchants traveled any dis- fore the council and recognize its authority tance. Their reports from the coasts of Af- over him. In 1433, faced with rising oppo- rica and Arabia, and the overland caravan sition in northern Europe and a budding route known as the Silk Road, made up Protestant movement in Bohemia, the the limits of exploration. pope withdrew his bull and acknowledged the council as valid. In the fifteenth century, Portugal be- Eugenius took an active role in the gan an important era of long-distance ex- wars and rivalries of northern Italy. He ploration. Portuguese navigators began supported Florence and Venice in their maneuvering a lighter, more nimble craft struggle with Milan; to counter this, Mi- known as the caravel down the western lanese troops attacked papal territory in coasts of Africa. They sailed beyond the central Italy. The defeat of the pope’s army capes, which experienced mariners be- set off a violent uprising in Rome, which lieved lay at the edge of the world. The Eugenius escaped by disguising himself as craft of shipbuilding improved the carav- a monk and having himself rowed to safety els, making them larger and rigging them down the Tiber River to the port of Ostia. to handle the varying wind conditions of The pope settled in the town of Bologna long sea voyages. With their larger holds while, over the next few years, his armies and ability to support crews for months at reconquered the Papal States. In 1438 Eu- a time, carracks came into use around the genius convened another council at Fer- turn of the sixteenth century and allowed rara, where he placed a ban of excommu- even longer voyages.

Greenhaven Encyclopedia of The Renaissance 117 exploration

Henry the Navigator, a prince of Por- age that Columbus believed would reveal a tugal, began sponsoring voyages of explo- faster route to the East Indies. Despite ration after the conquest of Ceuta in North skepticism on the part of court scientists Africa. Henry sought to expand Portugal’s and astronomers, Ferdinand and Isabella trade with Africa and to convert that agreed to back him in 1492. After Colum- continent’s pagan souls to Christianity. His bus returned with reports of unknown is- officers touched at the island of Madeira, lands to the west, Spain claimed the new the Canary Islands, and the Azores. Gil lands with the support of the Spanish pope Eanes passed Cape Bojador, the traditional Alexander VI. Columbus returned to the limit of southern navigation, in 1434. Di- Caribbean three times, each time bringing ogo Gomes reached the Cape Verde Islands home further knowledge of what Euro- in 1455. The Portuguese built fortified pean geographers now realized was an en- trading posts at the river mouths and ob- tirely new hemisphere. tained gold, slaves, and ivory. After figur- Spain and Portugal were building rival ing a method for determining latitude in commercial empires, and racing to estab- the southern hemisphere, Portuguese sail- lish hegemony over previously unknown orswereabletonavigatetotheCapeof parts of the world. The Portuguese estab- Good Hope, at the southern tip of Africa. lished forts in India, Malaysia, and the After the death of Henry the Navigator, Moluccas and prevented Spain from ex- King Joao II continued royal patronage of ploiting the rich trade in spices. By the exploration. The superior navy of the Por- in 1494, a line drawn tuguese limited the expeditions of their in the western hemisphere granted Africa, main rival, Castile. By a treaty signed in India, and Brazil trade to Portugal and all 1479, Castilian ships were barred from sail- lands to the west to Spain. ing past Cape Bojador. In 1487, Barto- At the same time, the English were lomeo Dias became the first to round the sending expeditions across the North At- Cape and explore the Indian Ocean coasts lantic. In 1497 Giovanni Caboto, known of Africa. in English as John Cabot, reached New- Vasco da Gama followed Dias in 1497, foundland. Cabot was lost on a second sailing up the east African coast and then voyage with four of his ships, but the En- across the Indian Ocean to India. This im- glish did not give up their search for a portant voyage opened up trade in the northwest passage to Asia. valuable spices of the Moluccas and the The Spanish explored the New World, East Indies. After da Gama returned, King the coast of Venezuela and the mouth of Manuel I commissioned a second journey the Orinoco River. Goncalo Coelho led an to the Indian Ocean in 1500 by Pedro Al- expedition of 1501 that roamed the north- vares de Cabral. Blown off course, Cabral ern coasts of Brazil. A member of his com- was brought by wind and current to the pany, , coined the term coast of Brazil. New World in his account of this voyage, In the meantime, Spain was exploring which was the first to speculate that Euro- west to the Americas, beginning with the peans had found an entirely new conti- first voyage of Christopher Columbus in nent. To honor Vespucci, the German 1492. Columbus had failed to interest the mapmaker Martin Waldseemüller named Portuguese king Joao II in a westward voy- this part of the world America.

118 Greenhaven Encyclopedia of The Renaissance exploration

In 1519, set out to crew, but his discovery of Hudson Bay led reach the Spice Islands by a westerly route. to England’s control of a new and lucra- Magellan navigated the straits at the south- tive fur trade. ern tip of South America. After his death Exploration in the Spanish Americas in battle in the Philippines, Sebastian del led to conquest and colonization. Spanish Cano led one ship back to Spain, becom- explorer navigated ing the first navigator to make a circum- the entire Amazon River in 1541–1542. navigation of the earth. The voyage Francisco Pizarro conquered the Incas of brought the Philippines into Spain’s pos- Peru and Hernán Cortes, the Aztecs. Fran- session and gave navigators a clear idea of cisco Coronado explored the American the distances involved in transoceanic southwest in 1540. Spain now had claim travel. to the largest colonial empire on earth. In the sixteenth century geographical Spain also established a cross-Pacific trade knowledge of the Americas expanded as route between Mexico and China. Euro- new voyages of exploration returned to pean exploration had led to the coloniza- Europe. Giovanni da Verrazano explored tion of much of the world and control of the Atlantic Coast of North America, from trade. In turn this expanding trade brought Maine to Florida, in 1524. Jacques Cartier about Europe’s economic expansion and made two voyages to Canada in the 1530s, industrialization, allowing Europeans to attempting to colonize the banks of the dominate the global economy for centu- Saint Lawrence River. Martin Frobisher ries to come. and John Davis explored Greenland, Baffin Island, and the Arctic Ocean straits. Henry SEE ALSO: Cartier, Jacques; Columbus, Hudson reached a great arctic bay in 1610, Christopher; Cortes, Hernán; da Gama, believing he had reached the Pacific Ocean. Vasco; Henry the Navigator; Magellan, Hudson was cast adrift by his mutinous Ferdinand

Greenhaven Encyclopedia of The Renaissance 119

Fall of Constantinople but its defenders numbered only about ten Taking place on May 29, 1453, this turning thousand in the face of an enemy that, by point in European history marked the fi- some accounts, had as many as three hun- nal conquest of the Eastern Roman or Byz- dred thousand men as well as a fleet of antine Empire by the Ottoman Turkish several hundred ships attacking from the Empire, a domain that covered territory in waters of the Bosporus. Mehmed drew up southeastern Europe, Asia Minor, the his forces in early April and began a heavy Middle East, and North Africa. Since the cannonade of the walls on the western side capture of Constantinople, the ancient of the city. A large boom placed by the capital of the , by mem- Byzantines across the entrance to the bers of the Fourth Crusade in 1204, the Golden Horn, a waterway on the northern city and the realm had suffered a slow de- side of Constantinople, prevented Turkish cline as the Ottoman Turks stepped up ships from attacking on this front; to their attacks on Byzantine cities and ports counter this Mehmed ordered a row of in the Levant and Asia Minor. By the turn logs set down on which his ships could be of the fifteenth century the Turks had built rolled forward to block resupply of the a stronghold on the southern side of the city from the north. Meanwhile, Turkish Bosporus, the strait dividing Constanti- sappers dug tunnels underneath the walls nople from Asia Minor proper. The Otto- in order to penetrate and sabotage the city man sultan, Mehmed II, established an- defenses; the Greeks counterattacked by other fortress on the European side of the digging their own tunnels and sending Bosporus to prevent reinforcements from troops into them to fight hand to hand. reaching the city from allied Black Sea The final assault took place on May 29 ports. in several waves of troops that attacked As the Turkish siege began, Constan- the western wall at its weakest points. The tine sent for help to the nations of western Turks found an unlocked gate and rushed Europe. But the division between the Latin into the city, and in the melee that fol- and Greek (eastern) Christian churches, lowed Constantine XI died. The Turks re- dating to the Eastern Schism of 1054, per- named the city Istanbul and converted the suaded the pope and many Christian kings Hagia Sophia, the great cathedral built un- to ignore the urgent pleas. Europe had also der the Byantine emperor Justinian, into been weakened by centuries of fighting the mosque. The last Byzantine strong- and civil war, with the Hundred Years’ War holds in Greece were conquered in 1460. between England and France still burning Istanbul remained the capital of the Otto- in its final years. man Empire until this state was dissolved after World War I. Constantinople was protected by a ring of walls on both the land and the seacoast, SEE ALSO: Mehmed II

Greenhaven Encyclopedia of The Renaissance 121 Farnese, Alessandro

Farnese, Alessandro through the machinations of his rivals in (1545–1592) Spain. Alessandro Farnese was the son of the Fedele, Cassandra Duke of Parma and grandson of Emperor Charles V of the Holy Roman Empire. He (1465–1558) was a soldier and diplomat who fought A renowned scholar, born in Venice and ably in the service of Philip II, the king of educated in classical literature, rhetoric, Spain. In 1571, serving under his uncle, science, philosophy, and the new humanis- , he fought the Ottoman tic tradition. While still a young girl, she Turks at the naval Battle of Lepanto. A few learned to speak Greek and Latin and started to gain a reputation as a skilled, years later he accompanied his uncle to persuasive public speaker. She won notice the Netherlands, at this time a possession throughout Italy with a stirring speech she of Spain that was in full-scale rebellion. gave at the University of Padua, on the Farnese defeated the Protestant opponents graduation of her cousin, praising the of Catholic Spain at Tournai, , Gh- study of the arts and sciences. This speech, ent, and other important cities. After win- the Oratio pro Bertucio Lambert, was ning a crucial victory at the Battle printed in Italy and Germany. She corre- of Gembloux, he was appointed governor sponded with the leading scholars of Eu- of the territory. In 1579 he persuaded rope as well as the nobility. In 1488, she the Catholic nobles of the southern prov- was invited by Isabella, the future queen inces to form the Union of Arras, which of Spain, to join her court. She refused banished all non-Catholic sects and this invitation—some historians believe supported Philip and his local ruler, Don the Doge of Venice deliberately wished to Juan of Austria. This agreement inspired keep her as an ornament of his city and the formation of the Union of Utrecht, prevented her from moving to Spain. After a union of seven northern provinces that her marriage to Giammaria Mapelli in renounced their allegiance to Spain. 1499 she traveled to Crete—then a posses- Farnese set out with his army to recon- sion of Venice—with her husband, a phy- quer the rebellious provinces, finally be- sician. On returning to Venice in 1520, the sieging the wealthy port of Antwerp couple lost their possessions in a storm. and starving the citizens into submission Soon afterward, her husband died and she in 1585. Farnese was unable to conquer was thrown on hard times. She had ceased the rest of the rebellious territory, how- giving public orations and she gradually ever, and eventually Spain was compelled fell away from her studies and her corre- to recognize their independence. spondence. After writing to Pope Paul III Farnese invaded France at the head of for help, he appointed her as the prioress a Catholic army in 1589, after the assassi- of an orphanage in the church of San Do- nation of King Henry III. His army menico di Castello. In 1556 she delivered fought in support of Catholic opponents her last public speech, to honor a distin- to Henry IV, and in 1590 lifted a Protes- guished visitor, , the queen of tant siege of Paris. Wounded at a siege Poland. Eighty years after her death, three of Rouen in 1592, he died a few months of her speeches and 123 letters were pub- later, having lost his title of governor lished.

122 Greenhaven Encyclopedia of The Renaissance Ferdinand II of Aragon (Ferdinand V of Castile)

Ferdinand I of Naples the Angevin dynasty and make himself (1423–1494) master of one of the wealthiest merchant cities in Europe. By the time the French King of Naples. Also known as Ferrante, forces arrived at the walls of Naples in Ferdinand was born in Valencia, Spain, as early 1495, however, Ferdinand was dead; the illegitimate son of Alfonso V the Mag- although his son Alfonso II capitulated, nanimous, the king of Aragon who also the French were eventually driven out of ruled in Naples. As a youth Ferdinand was Italy and the Aragonese dynasty survived. recognized as the Duke of , the customary title for the successor to the SEE ALSO: Charles VIII; Ferdinand II of throne of Naples. On the death of Alfonso Aragon; Naples in 1458, Ferdinand succeeded his father, despite the determined opposition of Pope Ferdinand II of Aragon Calixtus III, who sought to place a mem- (Ferdinand V of Castile) ber of his own family on the throne of Naples. The opposition ended when Calix- (1452–1516) tus III died and was succeeded by Pope King of Aragon who, by marriage to Pius II, who supported Ferdinand’s rights Queen Isabella of Castile, established the as king. Ferdinand was challenged by kingdom of Spain. Ferdinand was also the nobles who chafed under his strict limita- king of Sicily and Naples. The son of John tion of their rights in his kingdom. To op- II of Aragon, he was born in Sos. John pose him, these nobles allied with the An- granted Ferdinand the gevins, a French dynasty that had an in 1468 and the kingdom of Naples in ancient claim to the throne of Naples. Jean 1503. Following his marriage to Isabella in of Anjou, heir to the Angevin dynasty, rode 1469, the couple agreed to consolidate into Italy to press his claim, but his army their authority in Castile in 1474, an act was defeated in 1462 at the Battle of Troja, that brought all of Spain outside of the an event that confirmed Ferdinand’s au- Moorish kingdom of Granada under a thority and legitimacy. single monarchy. Ferdinand and Isabella Ferdinand had a reputation as a treach- sought to establish Catholicism as a domi- erous and utterly ruthless intriguer. Con- nating force in the new kingdom, estab- trary to custom, he took vengeance on Ja- lishing the Spanish Inquisition to root out copo Piccinino, a mercenary captain who heresy and false conversion on the part of had served against him; after promising the Jews and Moors. In 1492, Spain ex- him safe conduct to his court, Ferdinand pelled all Jews who would not convert. In had Piccinino thrown out of a high win- the same year, Granada was conquered, dow to his death. Ferdinand ordered many bringing the Reconquista, or Christian re- of his other opponents imprisoned; after conquest of Moorish Spain, to a successful their deaths, it was whispered, he had their conclusion. bodies embalmed and collected into a The conquest of Granada allowed Fer- dungeon for his personal viewing. In the dinand and Isabella to support the voyage early , the newly enthroned King of Christopher Columbus in the fall of Charles VIII of France used this reputa- 1492. Seeking a westerly route to the East tion for evil as an excuse to begin plan- Indies, Columbus instead discovered an ning a campaign to conquer Naples for entirely new hemisphere, where Spain was

Greenhaven Encyclopedia of The Renaissance 123 Fernando Alvarez de Toledo soon sending voyages of conquest and than any European ruler since the time of colonization. In 1494, Spain and Portugal Charlemagne. agreed to the Treaty of Tordesillas, which SEE ALSO: Charles V; Columbus, Christo- set a boundary to their respective spheres pher; Isabella of Castile; Spain of colonization. In the following years, Spanish explorers and conquistadores Fernando Alvarez de Toledo would establish colonies in the Caribbean, (1507–1582) Mexico, Central America, and Peru; im- The hereditary Duke of Alba, a skilled mense sums of silver and gold were military commander and a Spanish gover- brought to Spain from these colonies and nor of the Low Countries, whose reign much of the western hemisphere became a over the Dutch was known for its cruelty. Spanish-speaking dominion. In 1525, he took part in the Battle of Pa- Ferdinand disputed control of north- via, a key event in the in ern Italy with France, after coming to the which the king of France was taken pris- defense of his cousin Alfonso II, the king oner. Showing skill and daring in the field, of Naples who was expelled by the French he was appointed by Emperor Charles V in 1494. Spain allied with the emperor to lead the siege of Tunis, a city on the Maximilian I and ejected the French from North African coast, in 1535. In 1547, he Italy in 1496, after which Alfonso’s son, also took part in the Battle of Mühlberg, Ferdinand, became the king of Naples. Af- where the emperor defeated an alliance of ter this king’s death in 1501, Ferdinand of German Protestant princes. When Charles Spain agreed with King Louis XII of V abdicated the throne, his successor France to divide Italy between them. The Philip II kept Alvarez in his service, giving treaty failed, however, and gradually the Alba appointments as military commander powerful Spanish armies took control of and sending the duke abroad at the head Naples and ended French claims to that of an important embassy to the king of kingdom. Ferdinand later signed the Treaty France. of Westminster with King Henry VIII of Pleased with Alvarez’s service, Philip England, allying the two countries against sent Alba to the Netherlands in 1567, with the rising power of France. In the same his mission being to put down Dutch year, Ferdinand added the kingdom of Na- rebels who were fighting for their Protes- varre, a frontier territory between Spain tant faith and for independence from and France, to the kingdom of Spain. Spain. Alba marched an army of ten thou- After the death of Isabella in 1504, Fer- sand Spanish troops into the city of Brus- dinand kept control of Castile by acting as sels and set up a court, commonly known regent for their daughter Joanna. Also as the Council of Blood, that tried and ex- known as la loca (the insane) or Joan the ecuted thousands of Philip’s opponents, Mad, Joanna proved herself incapable of including members of the nobility who ruling, which left Castile under Ferdinand’s had supported the rebellion. His most un- control until his death in 1516. On this popular measure, however, was the impo- event, his grandson Charles became king sition of a heavy tax, known as the al- of Spain, Naples, Sicily, and Sardinia, and cabala, on the sale of any and all goods. later the Holy Roman Emperor as Charles Alba’s enemies organized a large fleet, V, concentrating more power in his hands known as the Sea Beggars, to oppose the

124 Greenhaven Encyclopedia of The Renaissance Ferrara

Spanish at sea, where the skill of the Dutch several of Italy’s most notable poets, in- and the environment favored the rebels. cluding Ludovico Ariosto and Torquato The Sea Beggars harassed Spanish coastal Tasso, found a home with the d’Este fam- forts and shipping. In the meantime, a par- ily, and scholarship flourished in the liament, known as the States-General, then city in the work of men such as Gio- gathered at the town of Dordrecht and de- vanni Aurispa, who journeyed to eastern clared war on the Spanish. The effort was Europe and returned with many ancient taken up by the Prince of Orange, while manuscripts that were still unknown in Alba organized a powerful army to crush Italy. this revolt. The Spanish laid siege to sev- eral Dutch cities, eventually breaching Ercole’s daughter, Isabella d’Este, their defenses and committing atrocities reigned over a court that became a model against their civilian populations. In 1573, for the Renaissance princes and nobility Alba resigned from Philip’s service and re- for its splendor, patronage, and courtly turned to Spain. In 1580, he was appointed manners. The best artists of Italy, includ- as commander in Portugal, which he sub- ing Titian, Raphael, Leonardo da Vinci, dued in Philip’s name and brought under and Andrea Mategna, visited her court or the Spanish crown. Spanish troops pillaged lived within her palace as official painters. the Portuguese capital of Lisbon, where Alfonso d’Este, who succeeded his father Alba died in 1582. in 1505, made Ferrara a pivotal city in the Italian Wars that had been touched off by Ferrara an invasion of the French in the 1490s. Caught between the more powerful states City of northern Italy that was an impor- of Venice, Milan, and the papacy, Alfonso tant center of art patronage under the carried on the war with Venice and a cam- d’Este family during the Renaissance. The d’Este dynasty began in the thirteenth cen- paign against the ambitious popes, who tury with the victory of Azzo VII, who was sought to extend their authority in north- named podesta of the city in 1242. The ern Italy. This resulted in Alfonso’s excom- d’Este court was renowned for its opu- munication by Pope Julius II in 1509. Al- lence, and in 1402 with the opening of the fonso patronized leading writers and University of Ferrara the city became a artists, including Titian and Giovanni center of learning and scholarship. The Bellini, who completed his final painting, dynasty grew even more powerful when The Feast of the Gods, while at Ferrara. Boros d’Este was granted the cities of Reg- Alfonso’s son Ercole II, who reigned from gio and Modena from Emperor Frederick 1534 to 1559, carried on the family tradi- III in 1452, and was named Duke of Fer- tion of patronage of artists and writers; rara by the pope in 1471. Under Ercole I, Alfonso II, the next duke of Ferrara, died Ferrara began a long rivalry with the much without a male heir in 1597, after which larger and wealthier city of Venice, and the d’Este court passed into history and became an important center of music, no- Pope Clement VIII declared Ferrara to be tably with the presence of the Flemish a fief of the papacy. composer Josquin des Prez and several Italian composers who pioneered new SEE ALSO: Ariosto, Ludovico; d’Este, House styles of composition. Under later of; d’Este, Isabella

Greenhaven Encyclopedia of The Renaissance 125 Ficino, Marsilio

Ficino, Marsilio took the concept of pilgrimage to an ex- (1433–1499) treme, demonstrating not only their ability to withstand wearying journeys but also A philosopher, astrologer, and translator of physical pain, inflicted in memory of the the works of Plato, Ficino was best known pain suffered by Christ himself during his for advancing the cause of classical educa- trial and crucifixion in ancient Jerusalem. tion and humanism in Florence. The son The first flagellants were monks, who ap- of a physician, he showed great ability and peared in market squares and city streets was taken under the guidance of Cosimo to do public penance for their sins. Gradu- de’ Medici. He studied the classics and was ally the processions of flagellants grew in appointed by Cosimo to tutor his grand- size, reaching several thousands in Italy son Lorenzo de’ Medici, to translate the and Germany. The movement reached a works of Plato into Latin, and to found a peak around the time of the Black Death— new Florentine academy, modeled on the the bubonic plague that killed some one- famous academy of ancient Greece. His third of Europe’s population and which to translation of unknown Greek works into many represented the wrath of God for Latin played a major role in spreading clas- the common people’s immoral and unholy sical learning and philosophy throughout way of life. In some places, flagellants Renaissance Italy. Ficino was a leading sparked violent public demonstrations that thinker of the Neoplatonic school, and be- threatened disobedience toward civil and lieved in reconciling the ideas of Plato and religious authorities. For this reason, the the classical pagan world’s concept of the church condemned the flagellants and on soul with the teachings of Christianity. He many occasions they were tried and ex- outlined his beliefs in his best-known ecuted for heresy. The Inquisition—a work, Plato’s Theology of the Immortal Catholic tribunal that punished heresy— Spirit. Seeing no contradiction in classical conducted several mass trials of flagellants science and Christian doctrine, he also ad- in the fifteenth century, although it did ac- vanced the cause of talismans and astrol- cept flagellation as a form of penance un- ogy, which he describes in Three Books on der guidance. The movement survived Life. For these ideas he was condemned by among small and secret brotherhoods such the church, which accused him of magic as the Penitential Brothers of Spain, who and nearly brought him to trial on a brought their practices to the New World. charge of heresy. Florence SEE ALSO: academies; Medici, Cosimo de’; Neoplatonism Florence emerged in the medieval era as an important banking center and the home of a bustling textile industry. Flo- flagellants rentine banks established branches in Lon- The flagellants were a sect of devout Chris- don, Geneva, and other European cities, tians who whipped and otherwise abused and the city’s gold coin, the florin, circu- themselves as a public demonstration of lated widely throughout the continent. By their faith. Their practice was common in the fifteenth century, the city had a popu- the medieval era, when pilgrimages to holy lation of more than fifty thousand and was shrines and sites were undertaken by all an independent city-state, governing itself Christians who were able. The flagellants through councils of the wealthiest citizens.

126 Greenhaven Encyclopedia of The Renaissance Florence

A print that shows the city of Florence, its major landmarks, and the surrounding country- side in the year 1580. HULTON/ARCHIVE.REPRODUCED BY PERMISSION.

This oligarchy based its power on control naissance art and scholarship. The Medici of the city’s guilds, which were associa- ruled the city from their fortified palace in tions of civic leaders, merchants, industrial the center of Florence, controlling affairs workers, artists, and artisans. Members of and dispensing favors through ownership the guilds had the vote, making the rulers of one of the largest banks in Europe. They somewhat answerable to the public will; sponsored artists and writers, commission- the oligarchy in turn ruled the city with a ing works of art for their private homes view to protecting trade, and increasing and for display in the city’s churches, to the city’s prosperity and influence. Flo- serve as an example of their power and rence had a keen spirit of competition benevolence. Despite the wealth and the among its leaders and industries that ex- sure hand of the Medici at governance, the tended to the commissions of public art- city remained turbulent, always riven by work. In 1401, a contest decided the best social and political factions and contend- design for the doors of the Baptistery ing with the other powerful city-states of among Lorenzo Ghiberti, Filippo Brunelle- Italy, such as Milan and Venice, for terri- schi, and Donatello. Spurred on by the de- tory in northern Italy. The Medici were sire to provide the most striking and in- expelled during a revolt in 1494, after novative design, these artists made which a Dominican monk, Girolamo important innovations in the presentation Savonarola, ruled the city in a fanatical re- of traditional biblical scenes. action to what he saw as the city’s vain The patronage of the leading Floren- luxuries. Books and art work were publicly tine family, the Medici, was a spur to Re- burned, and the city lived in fear of Savon-

Greenhaven Encyclopedia of The Renaissance 127 Fontana, Lavinia arola until he was overthrown and pub- The Medici returned to Florence in licly executed in 1498. 1512, were exiled again in 1527, and fi- At the prompting of brilliant writers, nally returned in 1530 after a long siege of including Petrarch and Giovanni Boccac- the city. In 1532 they named themselves as the dukes of the city. Under the rule of cio, Florentine scholars were rediscovering Cosimo de’ Medici Florence regained its classical authors and adopted the prin- position as the wealthiest and most influ- ciples of humanism, a view of the world ential city-state of northern Italy. In 1557 that ignored religious doctrines and medi- the Florentine army conquered the rival eval metaphysics, and advocated a scien- town of Siena and in 1569, Cosimo de’ tific and realistic investigation of the Medici named himself the Grand Duke of world. Cosimo de’ Medici provided a gath- Tuscany. By the late sixteenth century, pa- ering place for humanists who held dis- tronage of major artists had passed to cussions and debate in the Medici palaces Rome and the popes, who engaged Mich- and country villas, often subjecting their elangelo and other former Florentines to patron to criticism of his antidemocratic work in their city and create works of art methods of rule. Florence was home to that would reinforce the ongoing Catholic Poggio Bracciolini, Marsilio Ficino, Angelo Counter-Reformation. Poliziano, and Giovanni Pico della Miran- dola, the leading humanist scholars of the SEE ALSO: Brunelleschi, Filippo; Ghiberti, fifteenth century. The city also established Lorenzo; Masaccio; Medici, Cosimo de’; itself as a leader in public education, Michelangelo Buonarroti; Pazzi Con- with schooling available to most of the spiracy city’s families and literacy reaching a high rate. Fontana, Lavinia (1552–1614) Florentine painters and sculptors, in- cluding Fra Angelico, Donatello, Lorenzo Italian painter of the late Renaissance. Ghiberti, Alessandro Botticelli, Fra Filippo Born in Bologna, Lavinia was the daughter Lippi, and Masaccio, developed a new style of Prospero Fontana, a Bolognese artist that more realistically depicted human who trained her in the Mannerist style. form and emotion, while its architects She was renowned in Italy as a portrait adapted classical motifs in the design of painter, with her famous works being a churches, palaces, and civic buildings. The Portrait of a Woman and The Gozzadini most important monument to this new Family. She is also known for a famous era was the Duomo, the city’s cathedral, Self-Portrait at the Harpsichord. She was which was surmounted by the largest skilled at depicting clothing, jewelry, and dome raised since antiquity. The dome was interiors in fine detail and vivid colors. designed by Brunelleschi and endures to Her largest and most famous work was an this day as a symbol of the capabilities of altarpiece, The Martyrdom of St. Stephen, Renaissance science and art. Other impor- which she painted in 1604 for the Church tant architectural landmarks, including the of Saint Paul Outside the Walls in Rome. Medici palace, the Pitti palace, the church This work was destroyed in a fire in 1823. of San Lorenzo, the Strozzi palace, and the Fontana was one of a very few female art- baptistry, were raised as monuments to ists to be elected to the Academy of Rome. the city’s wealth and culture. SEE ALSO: Anguissola, Sofonisba

128 Greenhaven Encyclopedia of The Renaissance Foscari, Francesco

Fonte, Moderata To absorb cannon fire, military engi- (1555–1592) neers of the Renaissance tore down the medieval fortifications and rebuilt them Born Modesta Pozzo, Moderata Fonte was with lower walls, protected behind high an author whose work The Worth of ramparts of earth. They redesigned forts Women posed an early feminist challenge in a star-shaped pattern, with triangular to the male domination of society, educa- bastions and ravelins allowing defenders tion, and the sciences. She was raised in to rake attacking positions from several Venice by relatives after the death of her points at once. Batteries were some dis- parents; her first work was a chivalric ro- tance from the main citadel, in order for mance entitled Thirteen Cantos of the Flori- cannon within the fort to fire from a for- doro. Her most famous work is The Worth ward position and make it more difficult of Women: Wherein Is Clearly Revealed for an attacker to reach the main walls. Their Nobility and Their Superiority to Men. This book in a popular literary form, Smaller cities surrounded themselves the dialogue/debate, presents the view of with walls and bastions, and allowed lim- seven women who discuss the worth of ited access to their streets through heavily men and marriage and who demonstrate defended gates. Larger cities had a series that women can hold their own in intel- of defensive works, sometimes ranged as lectual argument. The characters include far as neighboring towns in the country- women of different classes and ages, who side that served as a first line of defense. are divided into two main groups: those in In the Renaissance, fortifications became support of marriage, and those resolutely so effective that outright military conquest opposed. The group sets up for itself the was made nearly impossible for all but the difficult challenge of explaining the many largest armies. Especially in Italy, the Neth- defects in men’s characters and their un- erlands, and Spain, where heavy fortifica- dying hostility toward women. Fonte com- tion was commonplace, war became a tool pleted her work shortly before dying in of last resort, employed only after the fail- childbirth at the age of thirty-seven. ure of negotiation and diplomacy. fortifications Foscari, Francesco Medieval fortifications made siege warfare (1373–1457) a costly business during the Middle Ages. A famous Doge of Venice, who led the re- Thick vertical walls of stone, raised on public in its expensive and futile wars high ground and defended by armies of against Milan. Foscari held many impor- archers and infantry, could protect a city tant positions in the Venetian Republic, indefinitely while an army had to forage in including ambassador, procurator of the the surrounding countryside. The innova- Cathedral of Saint Mark, and member of tion of gunpowder and cannon in the the Council of Ten. Foscari was elected fourteenth century turned the tide, how- doge in 1423 after the death of Tommaso ever. Although defenders could return fire Mocenigo. He allied Venice with the city through gun ports, in time heavy artillery of Florence, a rival of Milan. The war would always crumble high stone walls. A dragged on for several years, draining the new strategy and design was needed. treasury of Venice and, at one point, in-

Greenhaven Encyclopedia of The Renaissance 129 Fouquet, Jean spiring Foscari to ask permission to resign French paintings of the Renaissance. His his office. The Council refused. patron Etienne de Chevalier, a secretary to Foscari’s reign was tainted by the trial the king, commissioned Fouquet to paint of his son Jacopo Foscari on charges of a series of miniatures for The Book of corruption by the Council of Ten, the gov- Hours. These famous illustrations exhibit erning council of Venice. The charges were precise lines and astonishing detail. Fou- first made in 1444; Jacopo was finally ban- quet rewarded his patron’s support by ished to the island of Crete, a Venetian painting him in the company of Saint possession. There he negotiated with Mi- Stephen, one half of the Melun Diptych, lan and the sultan of the Ottoman Em- in which the other panel depicts Agnes pire; accused of treason, he was brought Sorel, a mistress of the king, as the Virgin back to Venice and made to face another Mary. His illustrations for a French trans- trial. Foscari refused to pardon his son, lation of the ancient Roman writer Jose- and Jacopo was shipped back to Crete, phus made ingenious use of perspective to where he died in 1457. The Council of Ten unify the figures and structures in a clearly forced Foscari out of office, soon after defined space. In 1475 Fouquet was ap- which he died. The story of Francesco and pointed as the royal painter to King Louis Jacopo Foscari inspired poetry, plays, and XI. In this influential position, he had a an opera by the nineteenth-century Italian lasting effect on French painting of the composer Giuseppe . Renaissance.

Fouquet, Jean Fra Angelico (1420–1481) (1395–1455) French painter born in Tours, known best Painter of Florence whose works depict a for his miniatures and his manuscript illu- simple, fervent religious devotion. Born as minations (illustrations). As a young man Guido di Pietro in the town of Vicchio, Fouquet trained in Paris and traveled in near Florence, he lived in monasteries all Italy, where he studied the works of his life and devoted himself to the decora- Masaccio and Fra Angelico and completed tion of churches, monastic chapels, clois- a portrait of Pope Eugenius IV in 1437. ters, and the simple cells inhabited by his The new science of perspective in Italian brother monks. After his death, he was art influenced his work. On his return he given the nickname of Fra Angelico created a new painting style that combined (“Angelic Brother”). elements of monumental Italian and ex- Early in his life Fra Angelico lived in tremely detailed and precise Flemish paint- San Domenico, a monastery in the town ing. Fouquet left the idealized poses and of Fiesole, where he took the monastic stock expressions of medieval painting be- name of Fra Giovanni da Fiesole. At the hind; he depicted his subjects in bold age of thirty, in 1425, he took his vows as poses and with very individualistic fea- a full member of the Dominican order. tures that remind the viewer of monumen- His earliest works were illuminated manu- tal, three-dimensional sculpture. About scripts and altarpieces, in which his paint- 1447 Fouquet completed a magnificent ing style was influenced by Masaccio and portrait of King Charles VII, a work that the new science of visual perspective. As has become one of the most famous his fame spread outside the walls of the

130 Greenhaven Encyclopedia of The Renaissance France monastery, he won commissions to paint the artist worked in the last years of his church interiors and altarpieces. The An- life. In the private chapel of Pope Nicholas nunciation and the Linaiuoli Altarpiece, V, he completed a famous series of fres- painted between 1433 and 1436, were done coes of the lives of Saint Lawrence and for the guild of linen merchants in Flo- Saint Stephen. rence. In these works, Fra Angelico made a In 1447 Fra Angelico completed paint- startling advance over traditional Gothic ings in the cathedral of Orvieto, including painting by accurately depicting interior Christ as Judge and The Prophets, assisted space, by using bright, vivid colors, and by by his student Benozzo Gozzoli. He re- a more sculptural and realistic treatment turned to Fiesole in 1449, when he was of human figures. elected prior (head) of San Domenico. A At this time he was operating a work- master of fresco painting, Fra Angelico had shop that produced altarpieces and taber- a long-lasting influence on the painters of nacles for wealthy Florentine patrons. He the Renaissance. also worked as a manuscript illuminator, whose paintings decorated the pages of SEE ALSO: Masaccio; Medici, Cosimo de’; Bibles created by monastic scribes. From painting 1438 to 1445 Fra Angelico completed a se- ries of frescoes and an altarpiece for the monastery of San Marco in Florence. Co- France simo de’ Medici, the ruler of Florence, had The kingdom of France emerged from the ordered the reconstruction of the monas- medieval era weakened from the Hundred tery and may have personally engaged Fra Years’ War and many years of poverty, stag- Angelico for its decoration. The painter nation, and plague in its cities and coun- and his assistants completed frescoes in tryside. Economically weak and splintered the cloister (including the Crucifixion with into several semi-independent principali- St. Dominic), corridors, and chapter house. ties, the realm managed under the Valois He also completed forty-five small frescoes kings to slowly consolidate its authority in in the cells of the convent. These simple the capital of Paris. By the last decade of but skillfully rendered devotional paint- the fifteenth century, France was taking an ings were meant for a lifetime of study aggressive role in the civil wars that were and contemplation by the monks who then occurring in northern Italy. King lived in the cells. The painter included some architectural details of the monas- Charles VIII invaded Italy in 1494, captur- tery in the paintings, giving them a star- ing for a time the powerful duchy of Mi- tling immediacy to their surroundings. lan and threatening Rome and Naples. Al- His work in the convent gained wide- though this campaign turned out badly spread renown, The Strozzi family, rivals for the king, it did expose France to the of the Medici, commissioned an altarpiece new ideas originating among Italian schol- for the church of Santa Trinita. In this fa- ars and artists. mous work, the landscape of Tuscany Gothic traditions dominated French serves as a backdrop for scenes of the cru- art and architecture through the fifteenth cifixion. Pope Eugenius IV later brought century. Soaring cathedrals built in the Fra Angelico to Rome to paint frescoes in Gothic style were the work of generations a chapel of Saint Peter’s cathedral, where of skilled masons and carpenters. Artists,

Greenhaven Encyclopedia of The Renaissance 131 France

The Chateau de Chambord in central France melds the traditional French castles of the me- deival period with the new styles emerging during the Renaissance. FRANS LEMMENS/ICONICA/ GETTY IMAGES. including Jean Fouquet, illustrated biblical south to collect antique and contemporary scenes and created portraits and illumi- art, sculpture, and books. nated books. By the turn of the sixteenth King Henry II ruled from 1547 until century, France had become a unified his death in a contest of swords in 1559. kingdom, and its increasing wealth allowed He was followed in power by his widow, royal patronage of writers and scholars. Catherine de Médicis, and by her sons The reign of Francis I, from 1515 to 1547, Francis II, Charles IX, and Henry III. At marks the high point of the French Re- this time, France was torn by religious naissance in art, music, and literature. strife. The Protestant movement had taken Francis took a keen interest in Italian hold in northern France, where the painting and architecture, and brought to kingdom’s prospering industries were lo- his court several prominent artists, includ- cated. The realm remained tied to the ing Leonardo da Vinci. His attempt to con- Catholic Church, however, and open war- quer Italy, however, led to his defeat in the Battle of Pavia in 1525 and his capture. fare between Catholics and Protestants dis- Although he eventually won his freedom, rupted French society for much of the late Francis did not forget the many examples sixteenth century. of Italian art and craftsmanship he had The Bourbon dynasty that rose to discovered while on campaign. He brought power adopted the trappings of imperial Italian artists to France and sent men power. Magnificent palaces and chateaus,

132 Greenhaven Encyclopedia of The Renaissance Francis I (Francois) including Chambord, Chenonceau, Am- the heavy traditions of Italian painting and boise, and the Louvre, were raised by the sculpture; Jean Clouet and his son Fran- country’s best architects, who married clas- cois Clouet mastered the genre of portrait sical style to the decorative Gothic manner painting, giving it a particular elegance of the Middle Ages. The palace of the Tu- and intimacy that would become a hall- ileries, built just west of the Louvre in the mark of French art style in the centuries center of Paris, held gardens, grottoes, and to come. other trappings of Italian architecture that was directly influenced by the villas of the SEE ALSO: Charles VIII; Clouet, Jean; de Roman emperors. These monuments sym- Poitiers, Diane; Fouquet, Jean; Francis I; bolized France as an imperial power, the Henry IV strongest unified kingdom in Europe. To reinforce this ambition, which began in Francis I (Francois) the time of Francis I, explorers were sent (1494–1547) across the oceans to compete with colo- Valois dynasty king of France from 1515 nizers from Spain, England, and Portugal. until his death in 1547. Francis (Francois While the Spanish and Portuguese claimed in French) was born in the chateau of Co- the Caribbean and South America, France gnac. He was the son of Charles, Count of sent its navigators on a more northerly Angouleme and . He be- route. Jacques Cartier sailed up the Saint came the heir and favorite of King Louis Lawrence River, establishing France’s claim XII, who had failed to produce male heirs to Canada, and Giovanni Verrazano, serv- of his own and arranged Francois’s mar- ing the French king, explored the Atlantic riage to his own daughter Claudia. In the coast of North America. first year of his reign, Francois scored an Henry IV, who reigned in the late six- important victory against an army of Swiss teenth century, helped to transform Paris mercenaries at the , from an overgrown medieval village to a after which France took control of the Renaissance capital, decorating the city northern Italian city of Milan. To secure with the Pont Neuf and the Place des Vos- his authority in northern Italy, Francois ges, a central square of uniform facades signed pacts with the pope, the Swiss Con- and balanced proportions. Architects who federation, Emperor Maximilian I, and designed the Chateau of Fontainebleau, Archduke Charles, the heir to the Holy including Toussaint Dubreuil, Martin Roman Empire. Freminet, and Ambroise Dubois, estab- lished the School of Fontainebleau, which After Maximilian died, Francois de- imported Italian Renaissance style and clared his candidacy for the title of em- served as an example for French architects peror. He was thwarted when the electors for the next two centuries. French com- chose instead Archduke Charles, now Em- posers, including Josquin des Prez, made peror Charles V. This defeat resulted in France a musical rival of Italy; the French France being surrounded by a string of chansons were a popular form of music territories, including the Low Countries, that was widely imitated all over Europe. Spain, and Burgundy, which were ruled by Artists of the late Renaissance in Italy cre- the emperor, his rival. To achieve a bal- ated a new style that was meant to break ance of power in Europe, Francois allied

Greenhaven Encyclopedia of The Renaissance 133 Franco, Veronica himself with German Protestant princes to his courts Leonardo da Vinci, Andrea who opposed the rule of the Catholic em- del Sartro, and Benvenuto Cellini, who peror in their domains. At a famous meet- brought with them the ideas and artistic ing known as the Field of the Cloth of styles of the Italian Renaissance. Under the Gold, Francois also tried to create an alli- king’s patronage, a library of all French ance with King Henry VIII of England. and Italian books was gathered and the Francois declared war against Charles College de France was founded. The king in 1521. At the battle of Pavia, in 1525, he also decorated his realm with splendid suffered a crushing defeat and was taken royal chateaus at Chambord, Amboise, and prisoner. In exchange for his freedom he Fontainebleau, hiring Italian architects to agreed to the Treaty of Madrid in 1526, in renovate and decorate many medieval cha- which France gave up its claims to Italy as teaus that had fallen into disrepair. An avid well as Burgundy, which became a terri- buyer of art, he began gathering the Ital- tory of the Holy Roman Empire. After re- ian Renaissance paintings, including the turning to France, the king renounced the Mona Lisa of Leonardo da Vinci, that treaty and formed the League of Cognac, would form the heart of the collections of which included France, England, Venice, the Louvre, a medieval fortress that he Florence, and the pope. A second war transformed into a Renaissance palace and against Charles V ended in the Treaty of the national museum of France. The over- Cambrai, which returned Burgundy to burdening expenses of this patronage and France. In the meantime, Francois sup- other building projects, as well as the costs ported several expeditions to the New of the many wars he had declared, how- World, including that of Jacques Cartier, ever, emptied the royal treasury and nearly which established French claims to bankrupted the kingdom. Canada. SEE ALSO: Charles V; France; Henry VIII; In 1535, when Duke Francesco Sforza Leonardo da Vinci of Milan died without an heir, Francois invaded Italy again. Charles responded by Franco, Veronica attacking Provence, the southeastern re- (1546–1591) gion of France. A truce was made in 1538 A famous courtesan and poet of Venice. and then broken in 1542 when Francois Trained in her profession by her mother, allied with Sultan Suleiman I of the Otto- she married a physician while still a teen- man Empire. Charles then allied with ager, but on the breakup of her marriage Henry VIII of England and attacked she became a courtesan, highly regarded France, a war that, in the Treaty of Crepy, among the nobility of Venice and re- ended French claims to Naples as well as nowned throughout Europe for her intelli- Flanders and Artois, but allowed France to gence, witty conversation, and gift as a keep mountains in Savoy and the Pied- writer. She walked in the city’s literary mont region of northern Italy. circles and wrote Terza Rime and Lettere Francois presided over military set- Familiari a Diversi, two books of poetry, backs but one of the most brilliant Renais- as well as anthologies of the works of other sance courts of Europe. Leading scholars, writers and poets. She also founded a char- authors, and poets were given the king’s ity for courtesans. Franco survived an out- patronage and protection. Francois invited break of plague that struck Venice in 1575,

134 Greenhaven Encyclopedia of The Renaissance Fugger, Jakob although her house was ransacked and she ing money to kings, to hard-pressed mem- lost nearly all of her possessions. In 1577 bers of the nobility, and to the church. Al- she was accused and tried for witchcraft, though was banned by law in many but won an acquittal through an impas- places and condemned by the church, au- sioned defense. Her books have survived thorities in need of money to finance mili- as eloquent witness to the social life of tary campaigns and grandiose construc- Venice and her personal battles in support tion projects managed to overlook Fugger’s of women and the poor. high rates of interest. He built a conglom- eration of banks, mines, factories, and trading companies, earning enormous Fugger, Jakob profits through the consolidation of his (1459–1525) far-flung ventures. His true cash cow, how- Born in Augsburg, Germany, the son of ever, was the banking business. In 1519, he Jakob Fugger the Elder, Jakob Fugger the raised nearly a million florins (more than Younger was an investor, speculator and five hundred thousand florins from his banker who built the most profitable com- own bank) to help Charles V bribe the mercial enterprise in Europe. His elder electors of the Holy Roman Empire and brother Ulrich had provided money and defeat his rival for the imperial title, Fran- goods to members of the Habsburg dy- cis I of France. In 1514 he funded a com- nasty, who came to rely on the House of plex of houses for the poor of Augsburg. Fugger for substantial loans in times of These “Fuggerei” are still in existence and need. As a young man Jakob traded in run by the Fugger family, who still collect valuable spices, which arrived from Asia at from tenants the original Renaissance-era great cost and were readily sold at a large sum of one gulden (translated into .88 markup to Europe’s wealthy families. He euros) a year for rent. Historians estimate also took advantage of his family’s control that on his death Jakob Fugger was worth of mines in central Europe to monopolize several million gold florins, making him the copper market. With the profits from by far the richest man in Europe, and one these and other operations he began loan- of the richest in history.

Greenhaven Encyclopedia of The Renaissance 135

Galilei, Galileo listo, three of the moons of Jupiter; four (1564–1642) days later he discovered the moon of Ganymede. As these moons occasionally Italian physicist and astronomer, the first disappeared, Galileo surmised that they scientist to rigorously apply mathematical were regularly orbiting and disappearing calculation to observation of the physical behind Jupiter; from this he concluded world, thus inventing a revolutionary sci- that the traditional Ptolemaic, earth- entific method that is still in use. Born in centered view of the universe was incor- Pisa, Galileo was the son of Vincenzo Ga- rect, as not all heavenly bodies revolved lilei, a musician and amateur mathemati- around the earth. These observations made cian. His father’s calculations of musical Galileo a committed believer in the theory intervals and tonality inspired Galileo’s in- of Nicolaus Copernicus, who placed the terest in mathematics. Although he entered sun at the center of the universe. To prove a medical school at the University of Pisa, his point, Galileo traveled to Rome, where Galileo did not complete the course of he demonstrated the telescope and allowed study, turning instead to the field of math- church leaders and distinguished scholars ematics and becoming head of the to view the satellites of Jupiter for them- university’s mathematics faculty at the age selves. of twenty-five, a reward for a paper he wrote on the center of gravity in solid ob- jects. While at Pisa he studied magnetism, optics, and the phenomenon of the tides. His invention of the hydrostatic balance won him even wider renown in 1586, but his innovative idea that the velocity of a falling body was independent of its weight—contradicting the classical teach- ings of Aristotle—aroused a storm of op- position. In 1592 he joined the faculty of the University of Padua, where he taught mathematics, astronomy, and physics; he remained in this post until 1610. In 1608, news of the invention of the telescope in the Netherlands reached Italy. Galileo soon fashioned one of his own that allowed him to make important observa- tions of the moon and the solar system. In 1610, he discovered Io, Europa, and Cal- Galileo Galilei. AP IMAGES.

Greenhaven Encyclopedia of The Renaissance 137 Galindo, Beatriz

With the telescope Galileo also ob- guilty. The Inquisition banned the Dia- served the phases of Venus, the mountains logue, required Galileo to give up his he- and craters of the moon, the individual liocentric teachings, sentenced him to stars that make up the Milky Way galaxy, house arrest, and banned him from any and the rings of Saturn (although the lim- future publication. ited power of his telescope prevented him While living in a country villa near from recognizing their true nature). He Florence, he wrote Two New Sciences,a was regarded throughout Italy as a leading work about basic physical properties of scientist and philosopher of astronomy, various materials and the nature of mo- and was appointed as official mathemati- tion. Galileo’s other important works are cian and philosopher to Cosimo de’ Dialogues Concerning Two New Sciences, Medici, the Duke of Tuscany. His support written toward the end of his life; Starry of the Copernican system, however, Messenger, a book written in 1610 that de- aroused strong opposition within the scribes his many discoveries made through church. Although Copernican astronomy the telescope; and The Assayer, in which was widely accepted in Protestant north- he grapples with the strange phenomenon ern Europe, in Catholic Italy a different of comets. philosophy still held sway, one that did Galileo’s innovations include the use not allow for alternate systems that con- of the microscope and the refracting tele- tradicted the accepted wisdom of the Bible scope, the invention of the thermometer, or of the ancient thinkers Aristotle and an early attempt to calculate the speed of Ptolemy. light, and studies on the phenomenon of mass, inertia, and the properties of falling From their pulpits, Catholic clergymen objects, which three centuries later formed denounced Galileo’s opinions as heresy, a basis for Einstein’s theory of relativity. and in 1616 Galileo was officially admon- Many of his theories, reached through ex- ished to cease and desist from advocating tensive and ingenious experimentation, the Copernican system. He held to his be- were later proven by scientists such as Isaac liefs, however, and found himself unable Newton. Galileo disagreed, however, with to deny the plain fact of observation and the astronomer Johannes Kepler, who the confirmation of the Copernican sys- maintained that the planets moved in el- tem through the use of mathematics. In liptical orbits and that the gravitational 1632 he published Dialogue Concerning the pull of the moon caused the tides. Two Chief World Systems. In this book, he disguised the opinions of an ally, Pope Ur- SEE ALSO: astronomy; Copernicus, Nico- ban VIII, in support of geocentrism, an laus; Kepler, Johannes idea that he then discredits with his own heliocentric views. Although Galileo was Galindo, Beatriz given formal permission to publish the book, his instructions were not to advo- (1465–1534) cate heliocentrism; worse, the pope was A Renaissance humanist and professor at offended by his thinly disguised portrayal the University of Salamanca, by many ac- in the Dialogue as a simplistic fool. Galileo counts the first woman in history to attain was summoned before the Roman Inquisi- a university chair. She was born in Sala- tion, tried for heresy in 1633, and found manca, Spain, and, under the guidance of

138 Greenhaven Encyclopedia of The Renaissance Gentileschi, Artemisia a tutor, showed a talent for writing and Artemisia was forced to recount her as- reading in Latin. Formal education was re- sault while under torture. served for boys, however, and her parents In 1612 Gentileschi moved to Florence, intended for her to enter a convent. As her where she became the first woman ac- fame spread beyond her home town, and cepted into the prestigious Florentine all the way to the royal court of Spain, Academy of Design. She had married the Queen Isabella summoned her for Latin Florentine artist Antonio di Vicenzo Stiat- lessons and to tutor Princess Juana. Histo- tesi in 1612 but separated from her hus- rians believe Galindo may have served the band after a short time and lived the rest queen as an adviser. She founded a hospi- of her life as an independent woman and tal for the poor in the capital of Madrid, painter. In Florence she enjoyed the pa- whose leaders commemorated her by nam- tronage of Duke Cosimo II and gained a ing a district of the city La Latina. Her ap- reputation as a woman artist unafraid of pointment as tutor to the queen led to an- rendering powerful and violent scenes other as a professor at Salamanca, where from biblical and classical traditions, sub- for many years she suffered the jibes and jects that many believed were beyond the condescension of scholars and fellow lec- abilities of a female artist. Michelangelo turers at the all-male institution. She au- Buonarroti, the nephew of the Renaissance thored volumes of Latin poetry and also artist, commissioned her to paint the ceil- wrote commentaries on the works of Aris- ing of a picture gallery in the Casa Buonar- totle; at the university she lectured in roti, his uncle’s home. rhetoric, philosophy, and medicine, while advocating equal educational opportunity Despite her growing fame in Florence, for girls and women. well-paying commissions were given to other artists, and with poverty threatening Gentileschi settled again in Rome in 1620. Gentileschi, Artemisia She received few commissions for major (1593–1652) works, but found herself in greater de- Painter of the Italian Baroque period mand as a portraitist, a genre thought whose masterful religious works reflected more suitable for a woman. In about 1627 a turbulent life. Born in Rome as the she moved to Venice, where she absorbed daughter of Orazio Gentileschi, a leading the Venetian painters’ taste for subtle ef- artist of Rome, she may have collaborated fects of light, shown in her paintings The with her father on his works from a young Sleeping Venus and Esther and Ahasuerus. age. Her first picture to be signed is Sus- In about 1630 she moved to Naples, where anna and the Elders, which she completed she spent the rest of her life. In the late in 1610. About the time she was working 1630s she also spent time in England, on this painting, at age seventeen, she was where she worked as a painter at the court raped by Agostino Tassi, a landscape of King Charles I and helped her father painter and colleague of her father, who create ceiling paintings for the queen’s had hired Tassi to tutor her. When Tassi royal palace in Greenwich. refused to marry her despite his promises, Gentileschi’s pictures express her fasci- Orazio Gentileschi brought him to court. nation with the theme of women strug- During the trial, in which Tassi was found gling and eventually triumphing over ad- guilty and sentenced to a year in prison, versity. An early work, Judith and Her

Greenhaven Encyclopedia of The Renaissance 139 Gesualdo, Carlo

Maidservant with the Head of Holfernes, books of madrigals Gesualdo began com- also shows the influence of Michelangelo posing in Ferrara are his most famous da Caravaggio, who brought a stark real- works, in which he experimented with new ism and drama to religious paintings with techniques of composition that are star- his use of chiaroscuro, or contrasting light tling precursors of the impressionistic mu- and shadow. Gentileschi transferred this sic of the early twentieth century. He sense of drama and her keen perception of moved back to his family estate in 1595 human emotion to her other major works: and assembled a company of musicians Judith Slaying Holofernes, The Penitent and performers, but his solitary nature Magdalen, and Lucretia. After moving to prevented him from developing a musical Naples, Gentileschi completed several late school of his own. Gesualdo suffered from masterpieces, including Bathsheba, The depression and remorse over the murders Discovery of Moses, and The Annunciation. he committed in Naples; his troubled na- She had a strong influence on painters of ture is expressed in the strange and jarring Naples in the Baroque period, while in dissonances, chromatic melodies, and sur- later centuries her life inspired plays, nov- prising chord combinations of his madri- els, and several historical works that gals and other vocal works. painted her as one of the original feminist artists. ghetto SEE ALSO: Caravaggio, Michelangelo da; Originally a district in Venice reserved for Naples Jewish inhabitants of the city, and a name applied to any neighborhood that, either Gesualdo, Carlo by law or custom, holds a majority of any (ca. 1560–1613) single national, ethnic, or religious group. A musician and composer, Gesualdo was There were Jewish inhabitants of Venice born into a noble, wealthy family and in early in its history, with most earning their 1584 inherited the title of Prince of Venosa, livings from certain trades permitted to a small domain in southern Italy. He stud- them: moneylending, tailoring, and medi- ied composition from an early age and de- cine. After Jews were expelled from Spain voted himself to music for the rest of his in 1492, however, the arrival of several life. His work and life were strongly af- thousand foreign Jews prompted the Vene- fected by a sensational crime he commit- tian Republic to take action restricting ted on October 16, 1590, when on discov- their movements in the city. One law al- ering his wife Donna Maria d’Avalos with lowed them to live in the city for no more her lover, the Duke of Andria, Gesualdo than fifteen days every year. In 1516 Ven- brutally stabbed the pair in the Palazzo ice designated the ghetto as the restricted San Severo in Naples and dragged the bod- area where Jews could live. The city also ies into the street for public viewing. As a had designated areas of residence for other nobleman, he was safe from prosecution; groups, including German merchants, who he also managed to escape informal justice were limited to a single building known as from the family of his wife and her lover. the Fondaco dei Tedeschi, and the Turks, In 1594 Gesualdo moved to Ferrara, a cul- in the Fondaco dei Turchi. tural capital of Italy under the rule and The Venetian ghetto was linked to the patronage of the d’Este family. The six rest of the city by two small bridges that

140 Greenhaven Encyclopedia of The Renaissance Ghirlandaio, Domenico were patrolled after sundown in order to Amerigo Vespucci to paint the Madonna of prevent any of the inhabitants from min- Mercy and the Lamentation over Christ in gling with Gentiles (non-Jews) in the rest the Church of Ognissanti. Vespucci himself of the city. As the Jewish population in- appears in this work in a small portrait. In creased, and the neighborhood grew dan- the same church the artist painted a Last gerously overcrowded, the ghetto was ex- Supper, which some historians believed in- panded into neighboring quarters. The fluenced Leonardo da Vinci in his fresco ghetto came to an end with the Republic of the same scene in Milan. In the town of of Venice, which was overthrown in 1797 San Gimignano, Ghirlandaio completed a by the armies of Napoléon Bonaparte. The series of frescoes in the chapel of Santa neighborhood has remained a center of Fina, ingeniously incorporating elements the Jewish religion and culture up to the of the building into his picture. He was present day. also hired to paint fresco scenes in the The idea of a ghetto for Jewish resi- Palazzo Vecchio, the city hall of Florence. dents spread to other cities in Italy and In 1483 Ghirlandaio traveled to Rome, Europe. In Rome, Pope Paul IV established where he painted the Calling of Peter and a small Jewish ghetto of four city blocks in Andrew on a commission of Pope Sixtus 1555. As in Venice, the neighborhood was IV for the Sistine Chapel. He returned to surrounded by a wall and not allowed to Florence and in 1486 completed frescoes expand even as its population grew. The in the Sassetti Chapel of the church of pope enforced the requirement that Jews Santa Trinita, showing the life of Saint live there by a papal bull (decree), Cum Francis. The frescoes were set in Florence Nimis Absurdum. The ghetto of Rome was opened in 1870 and its walls torn down in and contain many portraits of the artists’ 1888. acquaintances, including Lorenzo de’ Medici and the writer Angelo Poliziano. SEE ALSO: Jews; Venice After this work Ghirlandaio completed his most famous fresco cycle in the church of Ghirlandaio, Domenico Santa Maria Novella, describing the life of (1449–1494) Saint John the Baptist and Mary, in four- A painter and renowned fresco artist of teen separate pictures along the side walls Florence, Domenico Ghirlandaio was born of the church choir. In this work, he had in the city as the son of a goldsmith, To- the help of a young apprentice, Michelan- masso Bigordi. At a young age he helped gelo Buonarroti. The details and the many in the workshop of his father, who earned portraits of this cycle have provided histo- the nickname “Ghirlandaio” from the rians with a rich source of information on golden garlands he created for wealthy the clothing, interior architecture, and per- young women of the city. Domenico later sonalities of Renaissance Florence. studied painting and mosaic with the art- Ghirlandaio’s most famous panel ist Alesso Baldovinetti, in whose workshop paintings include the Adoration of the he developed great skill at the art of fresco Shepherds, the Adoration of the Magi, and painting, in which paint is applied to wet several famous portraits, including plaster and allowed to combine and dry Francesco Sassetti and His Son and Grand- with the plaster on a wall. About 1475, he father with His Grandson, the artist’s most was commissioned by the family of familiar single work. The tender moment

Greenhaven Encyclopedia of The Renaissance 141 Giorgione between an old man and a young boy cap- Concert, and Sleeping Venus,inwhicha tures the essential humanist element of nude figure is placed in a natural back- the Renaissance, when heartfelt and famil- ground, and which directly inspired the iar emotions became a worthy subject for Venus of Urbino of Titian. The most fa- painters besides the loftier sentiments of mous Giorgione painting, The Tempest,is biblical scenes and stories. Still in the a startling landscape that shows a seated prime of his creative powers, Ghirlandaio woman, who is breast-feeding an infant, died as an epidemic of plague swept the near the figure of a standing soldier. In the city of Florence in 1494. background a storm approaches over the ruins of a city. The Tempest challenges the SEE ALSO: Florence; painting viewer to decipher the meaning of the fig- Giorgione ures, the storm, and other symbols, which originate completely in the artist’s imagi- (1477–1510) nation. Venetian painter of the High Renaissance, In this and other works Giorgione was known as a master for the handful of his the first to place figures in a landscape set- paintings that have survived. Born as Gior- ting. Possibly under the influence of Le- gio Barbarelli da Castelfranco in the small onardo da Vinci, Giorgione also adopted town of Castelfranco , he appren- the sfumato technique of soft, shaded con- ticed in the workshop of Giovanni Bellini, tours, a sharp break from the clear lines who was at that time one of the most re- and brighter colors of early Renaissance spected painters in Venice. His talent was paintings. In several of his works, he ig- recognized from an early age; he was com- nored traditional subjects of the Christian missioned to paint a portrait of Doge Ago- religion or classical mythology, and cre- stino Barberigo and, in 1504, an altarpiece ated personal allegories, set in symbol-rich commemorating Matteo Constanzo for a landscapes that give his works an air of church in Castelfranco. He also worked on mystery and poetic charm. By the time of frescoes for the walls of the Fondaco dei his death of the plague at the age of thirty- Tedeschi, the Hall of German Merchants three, his works had a strong influence on that served as a warehouse. These frescoes many Venetian painters, including Bellini were painted in collaboration with Titian, and Titian, and Venetian painting of the another major Venetian painter, but were next two centuries, notably in the Baroque later destroyed. Giorgione specialized in works of Palma Vecchio and Dosso Dossi, paintings commissioned from private in- who borrowed many of the techniques that dividuals, with whom he had a much Giorgione pioneered. greater range of possible subject matter and style than he would have in works SEE ALSO: painting; Titian; Venice commissioned by the church or public of- ficials. Giotto di Bondone Historians have disagreed on works at- (1267–1337) tributed to Giorgione, with only about six Painter of Florence who made an impor- definitely by his hand. Only one of his tant break with the medieval Byzantine paintings, a portrait entitled Laura, was style of painting, and whose works helped signed. Others include the Three Philoso- bring about the more intensely personal phers, Portrait of a Young Man, the Pastoral and humanistic outlook of Renaissance

142 Greenhaven Encyclopedia of The Renaissance Giotto di Bondone artists. Historians are unsure of his birth- the chapel and include the Life of Christ, place, although by some accounts he was Flight into Egypt, The Betrayal of Judas, born in Colle di Vespignano, in rural Tus- Adoration of the Magi, Lamentation and cany. The son of a peasant, he spent his many other scenes. The frescoes are star- youth as a shepherd. By one tradition, tlingly lifelike; the figures convey emotion while walking in the countryside the through simple gestures and expression, painter Cimabue came across one of while the painter guides the viewer’s eye Giotto’s drawings, rendered in chalk on through the stories by the use of architec- the rough surface of a stone, and was so tural elements and the deep perspective impressed by the simple power of the work provided by the background of a dark blue that he invited the boy to join his work- sky. The Arena Chapel had a major influ- shop. ence on Masaccio, a later master of per- In the late thirteenth century, the Byz- spective, as well as Michelangelo, who imi- antine style of painting had reached the tated Giotto’s painted architectural height of its expressive power but was in framework for his frescoes on the ceiling the process of being replaced by new tech- of the Sistine Chapel. niques of the more realistic Gothic style. Giotto is also credited as the painter of As a pupil of Cimabue, Giotto became a the Madonna Enthroned, a painting of the leading figure of this transition. Early in Virgin Mary and Jesus seated on a throne, his career he was commissioned to direct surrounded by angels and gazing at the the painting of a series of frescoes for the viewer with simple, direct expressions. For church of San Francesco in Assisi, a church the Peruzzi Chapel of the church of Santa dedicated to the founder of the Franciscan Croce, in Florence, he painted a fresco se- order. The series illustrates the life of Saint ries of the lives of Saint John the Baptist Francis and dozens of stories from the and Saint John the Evangelist. An adjacent Bible, including the Resurrection, the Lam- chapel, known as the Bardi Chapel, con- entation of Christ, and the stories of Isaac tains the story of Saint Francis in a series and Joseph. The humble life and heartfelt of six scenes. The complex design and use devotion of Saint Francis called for a new of perspective in Santa Croce took Giotto style, in which the severe, ethereal figures even further beyond his work in the Arena of Byzantine paintings were replaced by Chapel. figures with earthy, simple emotions that In 1328 Giotto began working as a ordinary Christians could understand. court painter for Duke Robert of Anjou, In 1302 Giotto traveled to Padua, the ruler of Naples. None of his work from where over the next four years he painted this period survived, however, and he re- a series of frescoes in the Arena Chapel for turned to Florence in 1334; his wide ac- a local nobleman, Enrico Scrovegni. Raised claim as a painter had convinced the town on the site of an ancient Roman arena, the fathers to appoint him as chief architect chapel was meant to atone for the sins of and engineer of the city and its cathedral. Scrovegni’s father, a usurer made famous Giotto executed designs for the campanile by his appearance in the works of Dante. (bell tower) of the cathedral, which still Considered to be among the finest works stands and is commonly known as Giotto’s of Italian art of any period, the Arena Tower. The two lower stories carry sculp- Chapel frescoes cover the interior walls of tural reliefs designed by Giotto and later

Greenhaven Encyclopedia of The Renaissance 143 Gonzaga, Gianfrancesco carved by Andrea Pisano. The rest of the came a center of art, literature, and Re- structure was completed well after Giotto’s naissance humanism. The Gonzaga reign death and its design was altered by the ar- began with Ludovico I Gonzaga, who chitects who succeeded him. warred his way to control of Mantua in Inspired by Saint Francis and the Fran- 1328, and his son Guido, who defeated a sican order, which was relatively new in rival clan in the nearby town of Reggio. Giotto’s lifetime, the artist made of tradi- Under Gianfrancesco II, who ruled in the tional Christian parables a powerful early fifteenth century, the Gonzaga allied drama, and related the fear, hope, desire, themselves with Holy Roman Emperor betrayal, and inspiration contained in the Sigismund. In gratitude the emperor be- biblical passages that were familiar as their stowed the title of marquess on Gian- own names to the original viewers of his francesco and his heirs in 1432. This ruler works. He had a major impact on several invited the scholar Vittorino de to generations of artists who followed him establish a school of learning in one of the and was also renowned among the greatest Gonzaga castles, and invited some of the writers of his day, including Dante, Pe- finest artists of the time, including Andrea trarch, and Boccaccio. Mantegna and Leon Battista Alberti, to

SEE ALSO: Florence; Masaccio; Michelan- Mantua. His heirs Federigo I and then Gi- gelo Buonarroti; painting anfrancesco III brought Mantua to the height of its prestige in the arts as well as Gonzaga, Gianfrancesco its military power. The city allied with Em- (1394–1444) peror Charles V against the French and sent a powerful detachment to fight the Ruler of Mantua from the year 1407, when French king Charles VIII at the Battle of he inherited the title at the age of twelve. Fornovo. Gianfrancesco served Naples as a Gianfrancesco ruled through his uncle captain of mercenaries but was captured Carlo Malatesta. Two years after attaining by Venice in 1509. After he won his free- his title, he married Paola Malatesta, dom he returned to Mantua, and with his daughter of the ruler of Pesaro. In alliance wife Isabella d’Este presided over a court with the Malatesta family, he led Mantua renowned throughout Europe for its pro- into a military alliance. In 1433 the Holy motion of Renaissance ideals. Federigo II, Roman Emperor Sigismund bestowed the who succeeded Gianfrancesco in 1519, title of Marquis on him. In 1432 he be- fought with the armies of the pope and came the commander of the Venetian was named Duke of Mantua by Charles V army. Afterward he allied with the Visconti in 1530. Federigo commissioned new pal- family of Milan, rivals of the pope. Under aces and public buildings in Mantua and his patronage, several important Renais- invited Raphael, Titian, Leonardo da Vinci, sance artists flourished at the Mantuan , and Ludovico Ari- court. osto to his court. After Federigo the Gonzaga dynasty went into decline under Gonzaga, House of the rule of greedy and incompetent dukes; Ruling dynasty of the northern Italian city the city was invaded in the seventeenth of Mantua from the early fourteenth cen- century and the dynasty was overthrown tury until 1708, under which the city be- by the Habsburg rulers of Austria in 1708,

144 Greenhaven Encyclopedia of The Renaissance Granada (Sultanate) the year of death of Ferdinand Charles, al-Ahmar established a new dynasty, the last of the line. known as the Nasrids, that later began pay- ing tribute to the Christian kingdom of SEE ALSO: d’Este, Isabella; Gonzaga, Gian- Castile and helped the Castilian kings put francesco; Gonzaga, Ludovico down Moorish revolts in their own realm. In Granada, the sultan Muhammed V built Gonzaga, Ludovico an elaborate palace, the Alhambra, that (1412–1478) still stands as the most important work of Duke of Mantua, the son of Gianfrancesco Moorish architecture in Europe. Gonzaga. He inherited the throne of Man- Granada became a center of Moorish tua in 1444 and allied his forces with that scholarship and learning with the estab- of Milan in 1446. In the next year he lishment of a university, known as the joined an alliance with Florence and Ven- Madraza, under the sultan Yusuf I in 1349. ice against Milan. In 1450 he fought for The city also provided Spain and the rest King Alfonso of Naples in northern Italy, of Europe with an important link to mar- but was bribed by Francesco Sforza of Mi- kets in North Africa. Through Granada, lan with territories belonging to Venice. European goods were traded for gold, Ludovico scored an important victory ivory, and other items brought north against his brother Carlo, who was fight- across the Sahara Desert in long caravans. ing for Venice, at the Battle of in The kingdom’s economic importance de- 1453. In 1454 the Peace of Lodi returned clined, however, as the Portuguese opened cities Gonzaga had conquered to Venice. up new sea routes to western and south- When Carlo died without an heir in 1487, ern Africa. In the fifteenth century, with Ludovico inherited his lands. In 1459 Lu- the unification of Castile and Aragon, the dovico presided at an important council Catholic monarchs Ferdinand and Isabella convened by Pope Pius II, who was intent resolved to conquest the remaining Moor- on turning back the Ottoman Turks from ish states in the Iberian peninsula, and the Europe after their conquest of Constanti- territory of Granada gradually shrank un- nople. der repeated assaults by the Christian Ludovico was a patron of the arts and armies. In 1492, Muhammad XII, also appointed Andrea Mantegna as his court known to the Christians as Boabdil, sur- painter. He died of the plague in 1478. rendered Granada after a siege, and the Reconquista was complete. By the Alham- bra Decree, the rulers of Spain demanded Granada (Sultanate) the sincere conversion of the Moors from A Moorish realm established in what is Islam (as well as Jews) to Christianity. now southern Spain, the Granada Sultan- Those who resisted or falsely converted ate was the last remnant of the Moorish were tried by the Inquisition and executed, invasion of Europe from northern Africa while others fled to Africa. The city’s in the early eighth century. Granada origi- mosques were converted to Christian nated as a provincial capital of the caliph- churches, and the Madraza was rededicated ate of Cordoba. In the eleventh century, as the University of Granada by Emperor the Zirid dynasty was founded and Charles V in 1526. Granada became an independent sultan- Granada’s art and architecture had a ate. In 1228, the leader Mohammad Ibn lasting effect in Spain. The Moorish artists

Greenhaven Encyclopedia of The Renaissance 145 Great Schism and builders, known as the Mudejars, had elected a third pope, Alexander V, who was developed an intricate geometrical style, not recognized by either of the popes in inspired by the Islamic strictures against Rome and Avignon. The Holy Roman Em- depicting the human form. Skilled Mude- peror summoned church officials to the jars worked in stone, brick, wood, and tile, Council of Constance in 1414. The council and their motifs and designs were later in- declared the two rival popes deposed and corporated into many public buildings in elected Martin V. This pope managed to Granada and the surrounding region. return the Papacy permanently to Rome, but not before the church suffered a seri- SEE ALSO: Ferdinand II of Aragon; Isabella ous loss in its reputation as the supreme of Castile; Spain religious authority, paving the way for the dissidents and Protestants whose move- Great Schism ment would sweep northern Europe in the A divide in the Catholic Church that sixteenth century. brought an institution that dominated me- dieval Europe to the lowest point of its SEE ALSO: Hus, Jan; Luther, Martin; Refor- reputation, and became a key impetus for mation, Protestant the Protestant Reformation. In 1377, the papal court, which had resided in the Greco, El southern French town of Avignon, was re- (1541–1614) turned to Rome on the orders of Pope A painter born as Domenikos Theotoco- Gregory XI. In the next year, Gregory’s poulos on the island of Crete, and who death was followed by the election of Ur- made his home and career in Spain (thus ban VI who, much to the chagrin of the the Spanish nickname El Greco, “the cardinals who had elected him, soon took Greek”). At a young age he painted icons steps to reform the corrupt bureaucracy of in the Byzantine style, and much of his the church. A faction of French cardinals later work reflects this training. He left met in the town of Agnani and declared Crete for Venice (of which Crete was then the election of Urban as null. They elected a colony), and after a few years moved to Robert of Geneva as Clement VII, a Rome, where he was influenced by the French-speaking rival pope who returned works of Titian, with whom he studied, as to Avignon. Urban’s papal court in Rome well as Tintoretto and Michelangelo survived, and Christians throughout Eu- Buonarroti. Some time in the 1570s he rope found their loyalties demanded by moved to the city of Toledo, Spain, where two separate and hostile factions of Italian he had won a commission to paint an al- and French prelates. Urban VI was fol- tarpiece for the church of Santo Domingo. lowed in Rome by Boniface IX (1389– The Assumption of the Virgin, a canvas 4 1404), Innocent VII (1404–1406), and Gre- meters (13 feet) high, formed the central gory XII (1406–1415). Clement was part of this work. This work gained him succeeded in Avignon by Benedict XIII renown throughout Spain, and he was (1394–1417). To resolve the schism, the commissioned to create altarpieces for the cardinals gathered in the Tuscan city of Toledo cathedral and the church of San Pisa, on the advice of religious scholars Tome. He created sculpture for church al- that the pope was subject to the decisions tars and painted portraits of nobles and of a holy council. The Council of Pisa then church officials as well as a famous land-

146 Greenhaven Encyclopedia of The Renaissance Grotius, Hugo scape, known as View of Toledo, that re- in Istanbul, the capital of the Ottoman mains one of the best known paintings of Empire, where he made his living as a mer- his time. His elongated and rapturous fig- chant and served as a representative of the ures are cast in a pale, luminous light. This merchants and traders from western Eu- unique and personal style was startlingly rope who were doing business with the advanced for its day and had few imitators Turks. He first served the Venetian Repub- until the Expressionist school of painting lic as an envoy to Sultan Beyezid. At this developed in the twentieth century. time the Ottoman Empire and Venice were vying for control of ports and trade in the Grey, Lady Jane eastern Mediterranean. The conflict wors- (1537–1554) ened in 1499, when Gritti was arrested on The reigning queen of England for nine charges of spying. He was imprisoned for days, Lady Jane Grey was the great- several years and, thanks to his acquain- granddaughter of King Henry VII and the tance with the sultan, narrowly escaped grandniece of King Henry VIII. She was execution. After returning to Italy, he be- born in Leicester, the daughter of the Mar- came the podesta (mayor and governor) quess of Dorset, who sent her to the royal of the city of Padua. In 1509, shortly after court when she was nine to tend to Cathe- Venice lost the Battle of Agnadello against rine Parr, the sixth wife of Henry VIII. In the armies of the pope and the League of July 1553, she was proclaimed as queen— Cambrai, Gritti was given command of the although never officially crowned—after Venetian army. the death of Edward VI, the young Protes- Gritti’s great skill both as diplomat and tant son of Henry who had passed the military strategist earned him election to monarchy to Jane in his will. Under the the post of doge in 1523. A forceful per- protection of the Duke of Northumber- sonality, who ruled Venice much as a feu- land, she was supported by English Protes- dal lord rules his private domains, he was tants who opposed the Catholic princess determined to make the republic influen- Mary, a daughter of Henry who was tial and indispensable in the political af- threatening to return property seized by fairs of Europe. He also embellished Ven- the Church of England to the Catholics. ice with skilled musicians, artists, and When her accession was found unlawful, architects, and hired renowned scholars Grey was deposed from the throne. In and humanists, including Pietro Bembo, 1554, a rebellion against Queen Mary to serve the city. Venice and Emperor broke out. Suspecting Grey of taking part Charles V concluded an important peace in the plot against her, Mary had her agreement during Gritti’s term, but Gritti young cousin arrested, imprisoned, and failed in his efforts to unite Charles, the beheaded. king of France, and Venice against the Ot- toman Empire, which would soon eclipse Gritti, Andrea Venice in Greece and the Mediterranean. (1455–1538) Grotius, Hugo The Doge of Venice from 1523 to 1538, Gritti was born in Bardolino, a town near (1583–1645) Verona, and traveled widely in Europe as A Dutch jurist and historian, Hugo Gro- part of his education. He lived for a time tius (born Huig de Groot) was the first to

Greenhaven Encyclopedia of The Renaissance 147 Grotius, Hugo set out important concepts of international seize their property at will, and that no law. He was born in the town of Delft and court could claim jurisdiction over the was a precocious student of Latin, writing claims of a wronged party. Grotius was his first poems in that language at the age called on to defend the Dutch East India of eight. Schooled by his father and his tu- Company in its disputes with the East In- tors in classical humanism, he entered the dia Company of England; much later En- University of Leiden at the age of eleven. gland would pioneer the concept of terri- He graduated four years later, his reputa- torial seas by declaring its sovereignty to tion as a brilliant scholar rapidly spread- extend 3 miles (4.8km) from its shoreline. ing after an appearance at the court of Grotius attained the post of pension- King Henry IV of France. In 1599 he ary, or representative, of the city of Rotter- earned his doctorate in law at the Univer- dam in 1613. He was soon involved in a sity of Orléans. Under the patronage of religious dispute involving Jacobus Armin- Johan van Oldenbarnevelt, Land’s Advo- ius, a professor at the University of Leiden, cate of Holland, he advanced in the ranks and those following a strict interpretation of public officials, and was named by the of the teachings of John Calvin. Grotius Dutch government as an official historian was asked by the States of Holland to sup- in 1601. port Arminius’s position that Calvinist At this time Holland was at war with doctrine was incorrect, and that religious Portugal; the battle was taking place far belief should be left up to the conscience from the European continent, in the dis- of the individual. The dispute flared into tant seas of East Asia and the Spice Is- outright rebellion, with Grotius and his lands. In 1603, when a ship of the Dutch patron Oldenbarnevelt defying the author- East India Company seized a Portuguese ity of the Prince of Orange, Holland’s head merchant ship, the Santa Catarina, in the of state. Straits of Singapore, the arrival of the For his part in inspiring these events, seized goods in Holland touched off a le- Grotius was arrested in 1618 and sen- gal controversy. Grotius was called on by tenced to life in prison (Oldenbarnevelt the Dutch East India Company to defend was executed). Hiding himself in a chest their actions and the seizure of foreign of books, he escaped in 1621 and fled to property at sea. Grotius wrote De Indus, Paris, where King Louis XIII rewarded him also known as The Law of Prizes, a treatise with a pension that allowed him to re- that set out first principles of natural law. search and write his most famous works, A single chapter, “The Free Seas,” was pub- including On the Truth of the Christian lished in book form in 1609. Because the Religion (1627), which was translated into trading company won its case, the full trea- many languages and brought to Asia by tise was never published and remained un- missionaries. Grotius also addressed the known until 1864, when it was rediscov- issue of a common law among nations in ered and appeared as On the Right of On the Laws of War and Peace, published Capture. in 1625. This treatise explains a just war as Grotius defended the rights of free based on universal principles of “natural movement and trade in The Free Seas.The law,” which follow from the natural order concept of “freedom of the sea” in effect of the world and which should be binding meant that nations could harass rivals and on all nations. On the Laws of War and

148 Greenhaven Encyclopedia of The Renaissance Guicciardini, Francesco

Peace also deals with legal conduct during In the cardinal’s service he painted altar- war time, the “rules of warfare,” a revolu- pieces for the Church of Saint Moritz at tionary concept in a Europe torn apart by Halle and Meeting of the Saints Erasmus endless wars undertaken by princes and and Maurice, in which his patron is shown kings for purely personal gain. as Saint Erasmus. He earned the cardinal’s Grotius’s legal and religious opinions enmity, however, for his interest in Martin made the powerful Cardinal Richelieu of Luther and the Protestant movement. Af- France one of his most dangerous enemies. ter the Peasants’ War of 1525 he was dis- Fearing trouble in Catholic France, he re- missed from service. A solitary figure, he turned to Holland in 1631, but his refusal had no following outside of his homeland to admit his guilt and the error of his and was little known even to art historians opinions forced him again into exile. He and experts until the twentieth century, moved to Germany and then to Sweden, when the Expressionist movement found where in 1634 he won an appointment as inspiration in his somber and atmospheric the ambassador to France. In 1645, while religious scenes. sailing from Sweden, he was shipwrecked and forced to swim to shore, dying two SEE ALSO: Dürer, Albrecht days later of exhaustion. Grünewald, Matthias Guicciardini, Francesco (ca. 1475–1528) (1483–1540) A German painter of expressive religious Italian writer of Florence whose methods works, Grünewald is a mysterious figure in research have given him the title of the whose real name—Matthias Gothart “first modern historian.” He studied at the Neithart—wasn’t generally known until universities of Ferrara and Padua and at the seventeenth century. Very little is first sought a career in the church. His fa- known about his life, and only about ten ther disapproved of his choice and he of his paintings have been identified. He turned to the law and a political career in was born in Würzburg and spent his life Florence. The government of Florence ap- in the upper Rhine River region of Ger- pointed him as an ambassador to King many. He worked as a painter and as a hy- Ferdinand of Spain. In 1515, he entered draulic engineer; his patrons included two the service of Leo X, the son of Lorenzo archbishops of . His first known the Magnificent of Florence. Guicciardini painting, Mocking of Christ, dates to about became the papal governor of Reggio and 1503. He began his masterpiece, the Isen- Modena, towns of northern Italy then un- heim Altarpiece, in 1510 on commission der the control of the pope. As governor from the Church of the Anthonites in Isen- of Parma, he defended the town against an heim. The altarpiece is an elaborate con- assault by the French, an action that was struction of movable panels that can be rewarded by Pope Clement VII with an revealed and concealed according to the appointment as vice regent of Romagna proper religious observance. Grünewald is known for his expressive use of color and and then as lieutenant-general of the army his skillful placement of figures in per- of the pope. spective. He served as court painter to Car- In 1531 Guicciardini became the gov- dinal Albrecht of Brandenburg from 1516. ernor of Bologna, but in 1534 resigned his

Greenhaven Encyclopedia of The Renaissance 149 Gutenberg, Johannes post. By this time he was disillusioned with the ambition and greed of the popes and decided to seek his fortune by allying with the Medici clan. For this the city of Flo- rence, which had expelled the Medici, de- clared him an outlaw. After Alessandro de’ Medici, his patron and protector, was mur- dered in 1573, Guicciardini allied himself with Cosimo de’ Medici, a boy whom Guicciardini believed he could manipulate and through whom he hoped to rule Flo- rence as a regent. Seeing through his machinations, however, Medici dismissed Guicciardini and exiled him to his country home. With his hopes of power and influence in Florence ended, Guicciardini began to write The , the work for which he is best known. In great detail, this work describes events in Italy in the late fifteenth and early sixteenth centuries. Johannes Gutenberg. THE LIBRARY OF CON- He also set down his thoughts on politics GRESS. and religion in the Ricordi Politici,acom- mentary on the works of Machiavelli, and essays collected under the title of Political Although wood-block printing had ex- Discourses. isted for centuries in China, the medieval manuscripts of Europe were painstakingly SEE ALSO: Machiavelli, Niccolo; Medici, Cosimo de’ created by hand, with scribes carefully drawing letters and illustration into sheets Gutenberg, Johannes of vellum that were then bound together. (ca. 1398–1468) Gutenberg mechanized this process by cre- German inventor whose new system of ating a system of movable type—small movable type pioneered the craft of book pieces of metal with matrices punched into printing in Europe. Gutenberg was born the face in the form of individual letters. in Mainz into a successful merchant fam- The type, for which Gutenberg invented a ily that fled the city during an uprising method of mass production, could then against its patricians in 1411. His where- be set into a large wooden matrix, or abouts after this event are unknown until frame. Paper or vellum could then be he moved to Strasbourg, now in France, in placed over the frame, where the inked the early 1430s. A skilled goldsmith and type created the image of a letter by craftsman, Gutenberg was inspired by the being pressed against it. Gutenberg adapted idea of a system of cast-metal type that the wine press to serve as a printing would allow an easier and more efficient press, and also developed new varieties of production of manuscripts. paper and printing inks that were more

150 Greenhaven Encyclopedia of The Renaissance Gutenberg, Johannes useful for his process than the traditional helped Gutenberg design his type. In materials used by scribes. Mainz, Fust and Schoeffer produced the Not a wealthy man, Gutenberg was first European book to carry the name of forced to borrow money and accept part- its printers, a Psalter, in 1457. Historians ners in order to purchase materials neces- believe that the multicolored letters and sary for his enterprise. While he refined intricate decorations of the book were his system he made every effort to keep it Gutenberg’s work. a secret from his partners and the world at In the meantime, Gutenberg estab- large. Through the 1440s he improved his lished another workshop and created an- invention, borrowing money from a rela- other Bible in around 1460. In 1462 he left tive in order to buy needed materials and Mainz and moved to Eltville, where he signing another partnership with the built a new press. During the next genera- wealthy Johann Fust, who advanced Guten- tion, civic violence in Mainz drove many berg the hefty sum of eight hundred guil- printers out of the city; the capital of the ders. Impatient to see a return on his in- industry moved to Italy and the city of vestment, Fust sued Gutenberg after Venice, which became an important book- making another investment of eight hun- dred guilders, accusing Gutenberg of em- publishing center during the Renaissance. bezzling the money, and won his case in In 1465 Gutenberg was granted a pen- the court of the archbishop. The court sion of grain, wine, and clothing from the proceedings refer to works already printed archbishop of Mainz. By the time of his by Gutenberg, which included a “42-line death, his printing technology was spread- Bible,” today known as the Gutenberg ing throughout Europe. The use of the Bible, which was created sometime before printing press allowed publishers to create 1455, as well as a Psalter (a volume of the large numbers of identical books, which Book of Psalms), books of Latin grammar, effectively spread classical literature, reli- and printed indulgences issued by the gious tracts, political pamphlets, and other church. The Gutenberg Bibles were printed works to the general population. With this on paper and vellum; while the letters were knowledge and information becoming printed by the type, the book was illus- more widespread, a rebirth of learning and trated by hand. About sixty Gutenberg debate was kindled throughout Europe, Bibles are known, with eleven of them ending the monopoly on intellectual pur- printed on vellum (calf skin) and the rest suits by the nobility and a privileged class on paper. of scholars, monks, and scribes. Historians With Gutenberg’s type and printing credit printing as an impetus to the Prot- press in his possession, Fust began print- estant Reformation; Martin Luther’s writ- ing his own versions of these works, em- ings and important Protestant treatises ploying Gutenberg’s assistant Peter Schoef- were printed in the form of broadsheets in fer, a skilled manuscript scribe who had the early sixteenth century.

Greenhaven Encyclopedia of The Renaissance 151

Habsburg dynasty tempted French conquest of Italy. He ex- A royal dynasty whose members became pelled a Hungarian army from Vienna and the hereditary rulers of the Holy Roman brought Bohemia within the Habsburg Empire, and held authority over the larg- lands through marriage arrangements. est realm in Europe during the Renais- Maximilian’s grandson Charles inher- sance. The Habsburgs originated in Swa- ited the throne of Spain as well as the title bia, a duchy of southwestern Germany. In of Holy Roman Emperor. A devout Catho- 1246 they took control of the duchy of lic, Charles fought against the Protestant Austria. In the late thirteenth century, Ru- Reformation, which was supported by Ger- dolf I became the first of the line to be man princes who sought independence elected as Holy Roman Emperor; he passed from Habsburg control. In 1527, when re- this title on to his son Albert I. In 1438, bellious troops sacked Rome and took Albert II succeeded to the title, followed Pope Clement VII as a prisoner, Charles by Frederick III. A capable ruler with a soon restored the pope to his throne. wide education, Frederick consolidated Charles defeated a French army and King Habsburg rule in Germany, expanded the Francis I at the Battle of Pavia in 1525, domain to the east, and signed the Con- and fought off an assault by the Ottoman cordat of Vienna with Pope Nicholas V, an Turks on Vienna in 1529. In 1549, he de- agreement that allowed the Habsburgs feated the Protestant Schmalkaldic League some independence from the control of at the Battle of Mühlberg. Unable to re- the church. At this time, the ideas of the turn the German territories to Catholi- Italian humanists were starting to arrive in cism, however, he agreed to the Peace of northern Europe. Frederick named an Ital- Augsburg in 1555, allowing the German ian scholar, Enea Silvio Piccolomini, as his princes to establish the religion of their secretary and then as official poet laureate. choice in their own domains. The Habsburg rulers were skilled in The immense empire ruled by Charles enlarging their domains through marriage V—the largest since the time of Charle- agreements. Frederick engaged his son magne—posed a serious problem regard- Maximilian to , heir to ing succession. Rivalries for land and au- the prospering duchy of Burgundy. A well- thority within the Habsburg family were educated man and skillful diplomat, Maxi- intense. Charles finally arranged for his milian was a patron of the arts, literature, brother Ferdinand to inherit the imperial and scholarship at his court in Vienna. He throne, which would then pass to Philip, defended Burgundy against the French and Charles’s son. Weary of his heavy respon- founded the Holy League, an alliance of sibilities, Charles abdicated in 1555; three the Holy Roman Empire with the pope, years later Ferdinand was crowned em- Venice, Milan, and Spain to fight the at- peror. Philip inherited the Netherlands,

Greenhaven Encyclopedia of The Renaissance 153 Hakluyt, Richard

Spain (as King Philip II), the Habsburg Hakluyt, Richard territories in Italy, and the Spanish colo- (1552–1616) nies in the Americas. On the death of Fer- dinand I in 1564, the Habsburg domains English explorer and author of two famous were divided among his three sons: Maxi- volumes on the voyages of English naviga- milian II became Holy Roman Emperor, tors. Born in Hereford, Hakluyt was the and also ruled Bohemia and Austria. son of a skinner who showed promise as a Charles and Ferdinand shared Austria. scholar and was admitted to Oxford Uni- versity, where he took a deep interest in With an enormous sum in silver and geography and the history of exploration. gold arriving from the Spanish colonies, He became a lecturer on the subject and Philip set out on an ambitious campaign in 1582 printed Divers Voyages Touching to expand and defend his empire. He de- the Discovery of America that inspired sev- feated the Ottoman navy at the Battle of eral English voyages to the New World. Lepanto in 1571, and mounted assaults on His work brought him to the attention of the lairs of Mediterranean corsairs in Sir Edward Stafford, Queen Elizabeth’s am- North Africa. Seeking to end English sup- bassador to France, who asked Hakluyt to port for a revolt in the Netherlands, and accompany him to Paris as his chaplain return England to the Catholic fold, he and secretary; in France Hakluyt also sent a huge armada north in 1588. The ar- worked as well as a spy whose task was to mada was turned away, however, and this discover the efforts of French companies defeat dealt a severe blow to Philip’s power and explorers to claim land and resources and prestige as a defender of the faith in in Canada. Hakluyt’s pamphlet known as Europe. A Particular Discourse Concerning Western Philip established new academies in Discoveries was read by the queen and her Spain, patronized leading artists, and built ministers, who took to heart Hakluyt’s rec- the Escorial palace, the finest example of ommendation of setting English farmers Renaissance architecture in Spain. From and artisans in new colonies along the the time of his reign, the Habsburg dy- coasts of North America. nasty remained divided between an Aus- Hakluyt secured appointments as a trian and a Spanish branch, with each hav- clergyman in the Church of England, while ing its own lines of succession. Philip was he continued his work as a geographer and succeeded by his son Philip III, and Ferdi- historian. He met and interviewed naviga- nand by his son Maximilian II. Rudolf II, tors and sailors, and compiled hundreds of Maximilian’s successor as Holy Roman diaries, letters, histories, and eyewitness Emperor, made Prague a center of the new accounts. In 1589, he published this mas- astronomy, bringing Tycho Brahe and Jo- sive collection as The Principal Naviga- hannes Kepler to his court in the capital tions, Voyages and Discoveries of the English of Bohemia. His cousin Ferdinand II, who Nation. He translated works of French and succeeded him, was a staunch Catholic Spanish historians of exploration in North whose attempts to enforce Habsburg au- America and, after the turn of the seven- thority in Bohemia touched off the Thirty teenth century, took part in organizing the Years’ War. colony of Virginia, which he promoted SEE ALSO: Charles V; Holy Roman Empire; with an account of the voyages of Her- Philip II; Reformation, Protestant nando de Soto in Virginia Richly Valued,

154 Greenhaven Encyclopedia of The Renaissance Henri IV which appeared in 1609. He was a mem- Navarre’s rights. The Duke of Guise in- ber of the East India Company and also vaded Paris in 1588, driving Henri from joined the Northwest Passage Company, the city. Determined to rid himself of meant to discover a northern route to Asia Guise, Henri invited the duke to a council that would avoid the seas controlled by at the chateau of . The duke was Spain. seized and murdered by three of Henri’s guards, after which the duke’s son was SEE ALSO: exploration; Raleigh, Sir Walter thrown in prison. The murder caused an uproar in France. Citizens mobbed the Henri III streets while the king was charged with crimes by the Parlement, which forced him (1551–1589) to again flee Paris. While in camp with his The last king of the Valois dynasty of army at Saint-Cloud, Henry was stabbed France was born in the chateau of Fon- by a Dominican friar, who had entered the tainebleau, the son of King Henri II and camp claiming to have a secret message Catherine de Médicis, and the grandson of for the king. Henri soon died of his Francis I. At the age of nine he was named wounds. He was succeeded by Henri of as the duke of Angouleme and Orléans, Navarre, who reigned as Henri IV, the first and six years later became the Duke of ruler of the Bourbon dynasty. Anjou. A dedicated Catholic, Henri led the SEE ALSO: Médicis, Catherine de; Henri IV French army against the kingdom’s Protes- tants (known as Huguenots) and scored important victories at the battles of Jarnac Henri IV and Moncontou. He presided over the (1553–1610) bloody event known as the Saint The first monarch of the Bourbon dynasty Bartholomew’s Day Massacre, when Catho- of France, Henri IV was king from 1589 lics murdered Protestants throughout the until his assassination in 1610. He was kingdom by the thousands. He ascended born in the town of Pau, the son of Anto- to the throne in 1575; in the same year he ine de Bourbon, the Duke of Vendome, married Louise de Lorraine, who doomed and Jeanne d’Albret, the Queen of Navarre, the Valois dynasty by failing to produce an a committed Calvinist Protestant. heir. When in 1576 Henri signed the Edict He fought for the Huguenots of Beaulieu that temporarily resolved the (Protestants) during the Wars of Religion. religious conflict in France, he made an In 1572, he became Henri III, king of Na- enemy of Duke Henry of Guise, who varre. His marriage in 1572 to Marguerite formed the Catholic League to oppose the de Valois, the sister of King Charles IX, in- agreement. Unwilling to lead the kingdom spired the Saint Bartholomew’s Day Mas- into all-out civil war, Henri rescinded the sacre of August 24, in which Protestants Edict of Beaulieu in the face of the duke’s throughout the kingdom were murdered challenge. by the thousands. Henri claimed to con- The death of Henri’s younger brother vert to Catholicism, the faith of his new Francis (Francois) left the succession to bride, but he was held under arrest for the throne of France to Henri of Navarre, several years. He escaped his confinement a Protestant. The king issued an edict ban- in 1576 and took the field at the head of ning Protestantism and denying Henri of the Huguenot forces.

Greenhaven Encyclopedia of The Renaissance 155 Henry the Navigator

In France, according to the Salic law, North America that allowed France to es- women could not reign as monarchs. tablish its claims to Canada. Although he Without a male heir, King Henri III recog- was a popular monarch, known best for nizedHenriofNavarreaslegitimateheir his proclamation that the French would to the throne through the latter’s descent enjoy “a chicken in every pot,” the bitter from King Louis IX. As a Huguenot resentment against his Protestantism still (Protestant) in Catholic France, however, burned in France, and in 1610 he was as- Henri was strongly opposed by the French sassinated by a devout Catholic believer, church as well as a powerful faction of Francois Ravaillac. His nine-year-old son nobles, led by Henri, Duke of Guise. In Louis, the daughter of his third wife Marie 1588, Henri of Guise was murdered on the de Médicis, inherited the throne of France as Louis XIII. orders of Henri III, who was in turn assas- sinated by a monk. As a result of these SEE ALSO: Bourbon dynasty; France; Henri events, Henri of Navarre became Henri IV, III king of France, at the age of thirty-six in 1589. The allies of the Catholic Church Henry the Navigator forced him out of Paris, however, and (1394–1460) named Henri’s uncle Charles as King Prince of the ruling Aviz dynasty of Por- Charles X. Henri held Charles in his cus- tugal, the third son of King John I, and tody but was forced to rally an army and leader of Portuguese exploration of the fight for the kingdom that was legitimately African coasts. In the early fifteenth cen- his to rule. tury, Portugal and the Iberian Peninsula Stymied in his efforts to capture Paris, were the scene of frequent attacks by pi- Henri publicly declared his conversion to rates based in North African ports. To Catholicism in 1593. The announcement thwart these attacks, in 1415, Henry ended the wars of religion, and Henri was planned and took part in the conquest of crowned in 1594. Determined to end the Ceuta, on the North African coast. There generation of violence between Catholics the Portuguese encountered the lucrative and Protestants, in 1598 he passed the trade in gold and slaves across the Sahara Edict of Nantes, which allowed Protestants Desert. Inspired by the possibilities of join- freedom of religion throughout the king- ing this trade, and by the legend of a dom. With the Duke de Sully, his able min- Christian king known as Prester John, said ister, Henri was an active king, working in to rule somewhere in Africa, Henry spon- support of important reforms. The French sored voyages of exploration down the At- economy was improved through reclama- lantic coast of Africa. tion of marshland and other measures to In 1419, Henry was named as the gov- promote agriculture. The state’s finances ernor of Algarve, the southernmost prov- were put on sound footing, and Paris be- ince of Portugal. From his headquarters came the sight of important public works on the Sagres Peninsula, at the southwest- projects, including the Grand Gallery of ern limit of Europe, Henry planned explo- the Louvre, a residential square known as rations into unknown reaches of the At- the Place Royale, and the famous Pont lantic Ocean and helped develop a new Neuf, a wide, paved bridge across the Seine kind of ship, known as the caravel, that River. Henri also promoted explorations to was lighter and nimbler than the heavy

156 Greenhaven Encyclopedia of The Renaissance Henry VIII ships used as freighters by the Portuguese Henry VIII in the Mediterranean. Henry paid for the (1491–1547) explorations he sponsored through his ap- Tudor dynasty king of England from 1509 pointment as governor of the Order of until his death, best known for his defi- Christ, a religious order holding estates ance of the Catholic pope in the matter of and benefices throughout the kingdom, his divorce from Catherine of Aragon and and through his right to one-fifth of all his establishment of the Church of En- the trading profits from lands he discov- gland. Born in a royal palace in Green- ered. wich, he was the son of King Henry VII Leaving from the port of Lagos, the and Elizabeth of York and became heir ap- Portuguese fleets set out to rescue and ran- parent on the death of his elder brother som Portuguese prisoners of the Barbary Arthur in 1502. Coast pirates. The small caravels sailed Henry’s marriage to Catherine of Ara- down the coast of Mauretania and re- gon, daughter of Ferdinand II of Aragon, turned with slaves, thus beginning the era was arranged by his father in order to of European slave trading. Henry’s fleets make a useful alliance with the kingdom discovered Madeira and, in 1427, the of Spain, recently united by the marriage Azores Islands, which were soon colonized of Ferdinand and Isabella of Castile. The by Portugal. In 1434 Gil Eannes rounded younger Henry, although opposed to the Cape Bojador, up to that time the south- marriage, went through with it after the ernmost limit of European exploration. death of his father and just before his own An expedition led in 1437 by Henry to coronation as the king of England. Tangier, however, ended in failure when the Portuguese were defeated by the Moors A patron of the arts, and himself a and Henry’s brother Fernando was made a competent musician and poet, Henry in- prisoner. vited scholars, musicians, and humanists to his court. He ambitiously sought a place Portuguese ships later reached Cape for England in the political affairs and Blanco, the mouth of the Senegal River, wars of the European continent, and to and Cape Vert, eventually reaching the this end joined the Holy League with Spain sub-Saharan coasts that lay beyond the and Venice against France in 1512. He con- limits of Muslim-held Africa. The trade in tested control of Italy with Francis I, who African gold greatly enriched the kingdom became king of France in 1515; after Fran- of Portugal, which began minting the fa- cis was captured at the Battle of Pavia in mous gold coins known as cruzeiros in 1525, Henry joined the League of Cognac 1457. In addition, the establishment of with Pope Clement VII to prevent Em- bases closer to the prevailing westerly trade peror Charles V from dominating the Ital- winds greatly eased the task of navigating ian peninsula. across the Atlantic to the Americas. Even- tually Portuguese navigators would push Early in his reign Henry was a staunch well beyond Africa—to Brazil in South Catholic, and through his writings against America as well as the Indian Ocean and the teachings of Protestant reformer Mar- the Spice Islands. tin Luther earned the honorary title of De- fender of the Faith. But when it became SEE ALSO: Aviz, House of; Camoes, Luis apparent that Catherine of Aragon would Vaz de; exploration not provide him with a male heir, Henry

Greenhaven Encyclopedia of The Renaissance 157 Holbein, Hans (the Younger) petitioned Clement for a dissolution of his sions in the kingdom for the next century. marriage, which Clement adamantly re- He annexed Wales, defeated the rebellious fused to grant. On the suggestion of his Scots at the Battle of Solway Moss, and adviser Thomas Cromwell, Henry declared captured the port of Boulogne from the an end to the supremacy of the pope and French, who regained the city through the the establishment of an English church payment of a ransom. The more promi- with himself as its leader. His break with nent role of England in the affairs of Eu- the church was sealed by his secret mar- rope would be affirmed by political and riage to Anne Boleyn in 1533. military victories achieved by Henry’s When the pope excommunicated the daughter Elizabeth in the last half of the king for this act, the English parliament sixteenth century. passed measures to ban appeals from En- SEE ALSO: Boleyn, Anne; Cromwell, Tho- glish religious courts to the pope, to force mas; Elizabeth I; More, Sir Thomas; Tu- the English clergy to elect bishops that dor dynasty Henry nominated and, by the Act of Su- premacy, to recognize Henry as the su- Holbein, Hans (the Younger) preme head of the Church of England. En- (1497–1543) glish citizens had to acknowledge this Act A German artist, a leader of the Renais- by swearing an oath; punishment for defi- sance in northern Europe, who achieved ance was imprisonment or execution; a his most famous works at the court of measure that was taken against Henry’s King Henry VIII of England. Born in own Lord Chancellor and trusted adviser Augsburg, a town of southern Germany, Sir Thomas More. Uprisings against the he was a student of his father, Hans Hol- new church were put down without mercy; bein the Elder, a noted painter of the late Catholic shrines were destroyed, and the Gothic style in Germany. Holbein the property of the church was seized by the Younger journeyed to Switzerland, where crown and redistributed to loyal ministers, he apprenticed with the painter Hans nobles, and courtiers. Herbster and where he joined the painters Anne Boleyn, mother of the future guild. He also encountered the humanist Elizabeth I, was unable to produce a male scholar Desiderius Erasmus, who engaged heir; for this Henry blithely arranged him to create illustrations for his book In charges of witchcraft, incest, and adultery Praise of Folly. Holbein ran a busy work- against her, for which she was executed. shop in Basel that turned out portraits on Henry’s third wife, Jane Seymour, gave commission from the city’s leading fami- birth to Prince Edward in 1537 but died lies, as well as altarpieces and stained glass shortly afterward. A marriage to a German for local churches. Well-known works from princess, Anne of Cleves, ended swiftly in this time are the paintings Dead Christ and divorce, after which Henry married Cathe- Madonna and Child Enthroned with Two rine Howard. This fifth wife was executed Saints, and a series of forty woodcut prints in 1542; Henry’s sixth and last wife, Cathe- known as the Dance of Death. In 1524, he rine Parr, survived him. visited France, where he discovered the Henry’s reign saw an important trans- technique of drawing in chalk, a method formation in England to Protestantism, an employed by the French portraitist Jean event that would have violent repercus- Clouet. Holbein left Basel in 1526 to seek

158 Greenhaven Encyclopedia of The better opportunities in England. Through Italy, humanism took man as the new a letter of introduction written by Eras- measure of things, and ignored the Chris- mus, Holbein met Sir Thomas More, who tian traditions of miracles, sin and repen- was serving as a chancellor for Henry VIII. tance, and ultimate salvation. Humanism Holbein returned to Basel in 1528, com- lay outside the doctrines of the church, pleting several more woodcut series for the dominant social and cultural institu- books as well as The Artist’s Family, a pic- tion of the Middle Ages. It broke with the ture of his wife and two children. Although past in elevating individual talent and in- he planned to settle in Basel, Holbein spiration above spirituality and faith. Hu- found that the Protestant Reformation un- manism was the aspect of the Renaissance der the leadership of Huldrych Zweingli that had the most drastic and lasting im- was hostile to patronage of artists by the pact on European culture, one that re- church. In 1532 he returned to England mains significant in modern times. and became a citizen of London. The study of ancient Latin and Greek At the royal court, Holbein painted a authors revived the field of natural phi- series of royal portraits, and also served as losophy—the investigation of the sur- a designer of ceremonial clothing, monu- rounding world, without considering my- ments, and palace decor. Holbein painted thology or religious faith, and how that the king, the king’s wives and courtiers, world is organized and functions. The and notables such as More, Thomas Crom- Christian emphasis on humility and faith well, Desiderius Erasmus, Sir Henry Guild- took a secondary position, replaced by the ford, the astronomer Nicholas Kratzer, and contemplation of beauty and how a sense William Warham, the archbishop of Can- of balance, proportion, and seriousness re- terbury. Holbein also earned many por- flects inner virtue. To reach these ideals, trait commissions from the German mer- education and study of the liberal arts— chants living in London. His portraits— and the classical texts—were held as a ba- carefully prepared pencil or chalk sketches sic requirement of the well-rounded that were transferred directly to oak pan- Renaisssance individual, and absolutely els—are masterpieces of color, strong out- necessary to the ability of a prince to rule line, and realistic detail, especially in the depiction of the emotions and character justly and wisely. of their subjects. Holbein was among the Humanism was first displayed in the first portrait painters to gain renown; be- work of Petrarch, the Italian scholar and fore his time, portraitists were simply arti- poet who was the first to offer a critical sans who prepared a work of art much as analysis of classical authors. Petrarch rep- a carpenter creates a piece of furniture. resented thinking contrary to that of the medieval scholastics, who founded their SEE ALSO: Erasmus, Desiderius; Henry VIII; philosophies on interpretations of the More, Sir Thomas Bible and the early church fathers, and on medieval scholars who concentrated on humanism dry, lifeless, logical theories to explain the The culture of the Renaissance was mod- workings of the divine. Petrarch studied eled on a new doctrine of art and philoso- original texts, ignoring interpretations of phy known as humanism. Based on the medieval commentators and striving to revival of classical scholarship in medieval reach the original meaning as revealed in

Greenhaven Encyclopedia of The Renaissance 159 Hungary the language used by classical authors. He whose wide-ranging genius allowed him to began the craze for manuscript hunting, master painting, military engineering, in which scholars fanned out to monaster- anatomy, and the science of flight. One ies and cathedral libraries to uncover long- notable Renaissance humanist, Silvius Pic- forgotten manuscripts and bring the works colomini, also was a scholar of ancient pa- of Greek and Roman authors to light. In gan and Christian values and attained the some cases, these newly discovered works highest position in the church as Pope Pius had a direct effect on the work of artists II. and architects; a first-century work by the The trial of the Italian scientist Galileo Roman architect Vitruvius, for example, Galilei represented the climax of the discovered by Poggio Bracciolini, influ- struggle between faith and reason. Having enced the design of the dome of the ca- discovered the moons of Jupiter with a thedral of Florence, a work completed by telescope, Galileo was forced to explain his the architect Filippo Brunelleschi in the observation by a contradiction to accepted fifteenth century. doctrine of the Christian faith—that the earth was the center of the universe, Following in Petrarch’s footsteps were around which all other observed celestial several generations of scholars, who were phenomena revolved. Galileo escaped with invited to Renaissance courts of Italy and his life, but his works were banned and offered positions as teachers, tutors, and humanist learning was, temporarily, sup- advisers to aristocrats and princes. Their pressed. But humanism in the way of sci- principle subjects were rhetoric, grammar, entific investigation eventually triumphed music, history, philosophy, and poetry. To over the church’s attempts to suppress it, have a humanist scholar in one’s house- and went hand in hand with the dawning hold was the mark of breeding and good of a new age of reason in Europe. taste; the leading families, such as the Medici of Florence, set up academies within their palaces for an education that Hungary would stamp young people with the new A kingdom of central Europe, established outlook and make them loyal to new ide- by the eastern nomads known as the Mag- als. Leading humanists of the Renaissance yars in the tenth century. In the fourteenth include Desiderius Erasmus, who at- century, Hungary was ruled by the foreign tempted to combine classical philosophy Anjou dynasty, whose kings presided over with Christian outlook, as well as Sir Tho- a time of peace and general prosperity. Sil- mas More, Marsilio Ficino, and Giovanni ver and gold mines enriched the treasury, Pico della Mirandola, whose Oration on while the Anjou kings asserted effective the Dignity of Man was an important hu- control over Hungary’s landowning nobles manist manifesto. In this work, Pico della and allied Hungary with Naples and Po- Mirandola held man to be an essential in- land through marriage. Under King Louis termediary between the Divine and the I, who ruled from 1342 until 1382, trade natural world, and unique in his ability to with the rest of Europe increased and the choose his own nature and develop his kingdom’s artisans began forming craft natural abilities. Writers such as Francois guilds to standardize their production of Rabelais adopted the humanist outlook, as goods and limit competition. Louis did painters such as Leonardo da Vinci, founded the first university in Hungary

160 Greenhaven Encyclopedia of The Renaissance Hungary and also encouraged the work of scholars Latin remained an important language of and manuscript copyists. The reign of administration, law courts, and education. Louis’s son-in-law, Sigismund, turned out Matthias hired an Italian architect, Chi- badly for the kingdom, however. menti de Leonardo Camicia, to rebuild the Sigismund was opposed by many Hungar- royal palace of Buda. ian nobles, who were angered by the king’s The reign of Matthias represented a arbitrary cruelty, his heavy taxes, his costly brief golden age in Hungary’s turbulent foreign wars, and his many absences from Renaissance history. His successor, the kingdom after he was elected as the Vladislav II, was a Polish heir who was in- Holy Roman Emperor in 1410 and king of capable of standing up to the demands of Bohemia in 1419. the Hungarian nobles. Abolishing the taxes In the meantime, Hungary was threat- opposed by the nobles, Vladislav also dis- ened from the east by the expansion of banded Hungary’s large mercenary army the Ottoman Empire. The Ottoman Turks as the Ottoman Empire was threatening. had conquered Bulgaria and Serbia in the His son Louis II succeeded to the throne late fourteenth century. Determined to in 1516, at a time when the treasury was stop their advance, Sigismund led an army empty and border defenses abandoned, against them and was routed at the Battle with the king unable to maintain fortresses of Nicopolis, barely escaping the field with or pay his soldiers. At the Battle of Mo- his life. The two kings who followed hacs in 1526 the Hungarians were defeated Sigismund, Albrecht V and Vladislav III, by an Ottoman army and Louis himself both died while campaigning in the Bal- died after being thrown from his horse. kans. The nobles then elected Laszlo V, an After several years of conflict over the suc- infant, and selected Janos Hunyadi to rule cession, the Turks seized the capital of the kingdom as regent. A brilliant military Buda and occupied much of the kingdom. leader, Hunyadi defeated the Turks in Ser- Hungary’s political turmoil and mili- bia and in 1456 lifted the siege of Belgrade, tary conquest by the Turks limited the but soon died of the plague. Hunyadi’s spread of Renaissance art and ideas. The son, Matthias Corvinus, succeeded as the library of the Corvina was closed, and its king in 1458. Seeking the title of Holy Ro- books sent to his own capital by the Otto- man Emperor, Matthias campaigned in man sultan Suleiman. Many Hungarian Bohemia and Austria, and proclaimed his scholars fled the occupied provinces, while intention to forge a Christian alliance to others joined the courts of the Habsburg oppose the Turks. dynasty, which under Ferdinand I came to control the parts of Hungary free of Turk- Matthias was a capable and enlight- ish control. Hungarian writers began cre- ened ruler who reformed the old legal sys- ating a new national literature in the ver- tem of Hungary and established one of nacular language, and translating the Europe’s finest libraries, known as the Cor- works of ancient authors. Balint Balassi vina, for which he hired a small army of was renowned for his poetry, and Faustus copyists and illuminators to create original Verantius, an author and inventor, created manuscripts. He promoted scholarship and a dictionary of eleven languages. book publishing, and established Hungary’s second university. Latin transla- SEE ALSO: Corvinus, Matthias; Habsburg tions of Hungarian writings circulated, and dynasty; Ottoman Empire

Greenhaven Encyclopedia of The Renaissance 161 Hus, Jan

Reformation that would take place in the next century. Husarrivedonthesceneatatimely moment. In 1408 the university was em- broiled in a debate over the papal schism, in which two rival popes competed for fol- lowers throughout Europe. Hus led a neu- tral faction, the only one at the university that favored neither Gregory XII nor Bene- dict XIII. At the same time, he was inspir- ing followers by preaching in the Czech language, an important break from the tra- ditional Latin of church ceremony and university scholarship. His writings and sermons came at a time of rising Czech and op- position to domination by German schol- ars. Hus gained widespread support throughout Bohemia and the support of the Czech king Wenceslaus. In 1408, how- ever, the synod of Prague placed a ban on his preaching for his criticism of the Jan Hus was branded a heretic and burned church. at the stake for his attempts to reform the In the next year, when the Council of Catholic Church. ௠ BETTMANN/CORBIS. Pisa elected Alexander V as the new pope, Hus gave his support to Alexander. At this time, the writings and teachings of the En- Hus, Jan glish reformer John Wyclif were gaining (1371–1415) an audience in Bohemia. When Alexander Religious reformer and scholar of Bohe- issued a papal bull against Wyclif, Hus di- mia who led one of the first movements rectly appeared to the new pope, who re- for independence from the established sponded by ordering Wyclif’s books Christian church. Hus was born in Husi- burned. Alexander also excommunicated nec, a town in southern Bohemia. He ex- Hus and his followers—officially banning celled as a student and earned an appoint- them from the church and its sacraments. ment as dean of the University of Prague. This action touched off riots among fol- At the university he soon gathered support lowers of Hus called Hussites in Bohemia. for his outspoken views on the corruption When Hus continued his defiance, the and imperialism of the Papacy. Hus be- pope initiated a religious ban against the lieved in a personal faith, one based on entire city of Prague, the capital of Bohe- the original scriptures and not practiced mia, that did nothing but increase the bit- through the medium of a bureaucratic and terness and violence in the city. corrupt church hierarchy. These ideas In 1412, Hus defied church representa- made up the foundation of the Protestant tives who had come to Prague to sell in-

162 Greenhaven Encyclopedia of The Renaissance Hutten, Ulrich von dulgences (remissions of sin). The indul- universities of Pavia and Bologna. On his gences were meant to finance a military return to Germany in 1512, he joined the crusade by Pope John XXIII against the armies of the Habsburg emperor Maximil- king of Naples, who supported Gregory ian I. His essays and poetry gained him XII as pope. Hus’s sermons against the in- acclaim from the emperor, who named dulgences lost him the support of King him poet laureate of the realm in 1517. Wenceslaus. In 1414 the Holy Roman Em- In 1519, he was converted by Protes- peror Sigismund promised him safe pas- tant Reformation leader Martin Luther’s sage to the Council of Constance, where doctrine of “justification by faith” and his he was to debate his views with church of- stand against the corrupt and tyrannical ficials. Instead of hearing him out, how- practices of the Catholic hierarchy. Hutten ever, the council ordered his arrest and wrote Vadiscus, a bitter denunciation of had him burned at the stake on July 6, the Papacy, in 1520, and in the same year 1415. The career of Jan Hus greatly influ- published a work in German, Arouser of enced the German reformer Martin Luther, the German Nation, which called on his who also brought about the rise of a na- countrymen to rally to Martin Luther’s tional independent church that broke away side. Hutten took the Reformation one from the control of the pope. The modern step further by organizing an anti-Catholic Czech Republic still celebrates the anniver- militia with Franz von Sickingen. The two sary of Hus’s execution as a national holi- men led the Knight’s Revolt, mounting an day. attack on the estates of the Archbishop of Trier. They were defeated, however, and SEE ALSO: Luther, Martin; Reformation, Hutten was forced to flee Germany. Arriv- Protestant ing in Basel, he failed to enlist the widely Hutten, Ulrich von respected humanist Desiderius Erasmus to his side. By this time he had made an en- (1488–1523) emy of the emperor Charles V, and the German author, humanist, and militant knights he had enlisted had degenerated defender of Martin Luther’s Protestant into a rabble of highwaymen and thieves. Reformation. Born near Fulda, Hutten was Still a rallying figure for Protestants, Hut- sent as a boy to a Benedictine monastery, ten was given shelter by where he was prepared to join the order. on an island in Lake Zurich. There he died Unwilling to submit to monastic disci- of an illness in 1523. pline, however, he escaped and wandered from town to town, eventually arriving in SEE ALSO: Luther, Martin; Reformation, Italy,wherehebecameastudentatthe Protestant; Zwingli, Huldrych

Greenhaven Encyclopedia of The Renaissance 163

Index published a list of corrections, the Index A list of books that the Catholic Church Expurgatorius, for books that were not held to be contrary to church doctrine, deemed worthy of a complete ban. Some and thus forbidden to its members. The books were classified as forbidden, with- official name of the list was the Index Li- out any hope of being admitted by the brorum Prohibitorum, or List of Forbidden church, while others were labeled “forbid- Books. The first edition of the Index was den if not corrected” according to the list published in the Netherlands in 1529, created by the Sacred Congregation. while the first to be published in Rome The latest edition of the Index was appeared during the Papacy of Paul IV in published in 1948, and the church ended 1557. the authority of the list in 1966. The mod- The Index contained rules concerning ern Curia, the administration of the Pa- the publication, selling, and reading of pacy, still includes an important depart- prohibited books. Those works placed on ment, known as the Congregation for the the Index were believed to endanger the Doctrine of the Faith, meant to uphold faith of Christians, and be damaging to sound moral doctrine and suppress hereti- their moral and spiritual life. The works of cal or immoral teachings among its mem- Copernicus, for example, were placed on bers. the Index and held to be contrary to the SEE ALSO: Inquisition; Reformation, Catho- traditional idea that the earth lay at the lic center of the universe. Other authors whose works were condemned by the In- Inquisition dex were Giordano Bruno, Desiderius Er- Although there were many violent contro- asmus, Francis Bacon, John Calvin, Fran- versies over Christian doctrine, until the cois Rabelais, Martin Luther, and Niccolo Middle Ages, the church had no organized Machiavelli. Authors could submit their courts to try religious crimes, such as im- works to the church for review, and were piety, blasphemy, and heresy. In the thir- granted an opportunity to correct those teenth century, however, the rise of the passages that the authorities found to be new sect of Cathars seemed to pose a mor- in error. Anyone found publishing, reading tal danger to the organized church. The or possessing the books on the Index were Cathars defied the authority of the pope subject to excommunication, which meant and the entire Catholic church hierarchy, separation from the church and a ban on and were gaining followers throughout attending the Mass. southern France. The church responded In 1571 the church organized the Sa- by establishing its first courts of Inquisi- cred Congregation of the Index, which tion to try and then punish its opponents dealt with books accused of errors, and and those who strayed by preaching false

Greenhaven Encyclopedia of The Renaissance 165 Inquisition doctrine. Most of these medieval Inquisi- of Faith, that followed, threatened more tionswereoperatedbymembersofthere- severe punishment for those who would ligious orders, particularly the Domini- not confess. The tribunal then made ar- cans. rests, jailing their prisoners and offering them no chance to defend themselves or The first Inquisition of Renaissance face their accusers. Secret trials then ex- times was established by Ferdinand and amined the confessions and any evidence, Isabella, the king and queen of Spain, in decreed torture if necessary to gain more 1478 on the authorization of Pope Sixtus information, and then passed sentence in IV. These courts were created to find and public in an elaborate ceremony known as punish conversos, or Jews that had falsely the auto-da-fé (act of faith). Those found professed to have converted to Christian- guilty had to publicly repent and humili- ity. In the years that followed, many Jews ate themselves by wearing a distinctive gar- fled Spain to the neighboring kingdom of ment that marked them as penitents. The Portugal; the Spanish monarchs then or- most serious offenses were punished by dered all Jews to convert sincerely or leave execution; the Inquisition would hand over Spain. The Spanish Inquisition would the prisoners to the public authorities, who eventually found new courts in Mexico, would ceremoniously burn them at the Peru, and the Philippines. In 1536, King stake. All property of condemned prison- John III would establish the Inquisition in ers was forfeited to the church. Portugal. Six years later, Pope Paul III de- The Inquisition arrested and tried a creed the founding of the Holy Office of great range of people, from commoners to the Inquisition in lands controlled by the nobles to church leaders with suspect Papacy in Italy. The papal Inquisition was opinions, including Saint Ignatius of established to seek out and eradicate Prot- Loyola and Saint Theresa of Avila. Its most estantism, the new branch of Christianity famous defendant was the Italian scientist that was spreading across northern Europe Galileo Galilei, who was condemned to re- and dividing the Christian church. A su- nounce his ideas on astronomy and cease preme court of appeals, known as the publishing his writings. Congregation of the Holy Office, was or- ganized by the Papacy in 1588. The institution gradually died out in the eighteenth century, an age of rising The Inquisitions had a strict hierarchy skepticism toward religious doctrine and and rules of procedure. The inquisitors greater tolerance of competing religious were experts in canon law, or the law of ideologies. The Spanish Inquisition was the church, and presided over large staffs officially abolished in 1834. The Congre- of theological experts, bailiffs, clerks, law- gation for the Doctrine of the Faith, how- yers for the defendants, and jailers. Inquisi- ever, survives to this day as one of the larg- tors made regular visits to the cities in est departments of the Vatican, with its their districts. They issued an Edict of mission the rooting out of incorrect doc- Grace that listed the heresies they were trine and religious heresy among members seeking out, and invited those with any in- of the church. formation to come forward. They offered a short grace period, in which those ac- SEE ALSO: Index; Reformation, Catholic; cused could repent of their crimes and be Reformation, Protestant; Torquemada, rewarded with light sentences. The Edict Tomás de

166 Greenhaven Encyclopedia of The Renaissance Isabella of Castile

ported by the monarch of Afonso V of Portugal. In 1474, on the death of Henry IV, Isa- bella was crowned Queen of Castile, but she was challenged by Afonso and Joan. Ferdinand’s army defeated the Portuguese at the Battle of Toro in 1476, after which Afonso gave up his opposition to Isabella. Three years later, Ferdinand became the king of Aragon. Ferdinand and Isabella united the courts of Castile and Aragon. A new parliament, the Cortes, began meet- ing, and a new system of laws and admin- istration laid the groundwork for a united kingdom of Spain. Determined to establish her legitimacy as queen, which had been so forcefully challenged, Isabella set out to enlarge and enhance the kingdom and her own author- ity. She led the campaign to recapture the Queen . THE LIBRARY OF kingdom of Granada, the last vestige of CONGRESS. Moorish control of the Iberian Peninsula. Over ten years, the Spanish armies laid siege to a series of fortified towns while Isabella of Castile the Moors laid waste to the countryside. (1451–1504) This campaign ended with final victory at Granada in 1492, ending the centuries- Queen of Castile whose marriage to Ferdi- long campaign against the Moors known nand of Aragon was the foundation of a as the Reconquista. united Spanish kingdom. Born in Madri- In the meantime, Isabella had been re- gal, in the , she was the jecting the request of an Italian navigator, daughter of King John II of Castile and Christopher Columbus, to support a voy- Queen . In 1454, her to the west, where Co- half brother Henry IV became the Castil- lumbus believed he would find an easy ian king. When Henry sought to deny the route to the spices and other riches of the succession to his brother, Afonso, support- East Indies. Such a route, Columbus prom- ers of Afonso rebelled, fighting with ised, would allow Spain to bypass the In- Henry’s army at the Battle of Olmedo in dian Ocean, which was under the control 1467. In the next year, Afonso died, and of the Portuguese, and build its own trad- the rebels then supported Isabella as their ing empire in Asia. In August 1492, she fi- candidate for the throne. In 1469, Isabella nally gave in, and Columbus’s voyage to married Ferdinand, prince of the kingdom the New World that fall began Spain’s con- of Aragon. Henry conferred the succession quest of colonies in the Western Hemi- on his daughter Juana, a candidate sup- sphere. The rivalry between Spain and Por-

Greenhaven Encyclopedia of The Renaissance 167 Italy tugal was partially resolved by the Treaty sula. Northern Italy, the most prosperous of Tordesillas in 1494, by which the two region, was dominated by a few wealthy nations divided the world into two spheres city-states, including Milan, Florence, and of colonization. Venice. Smaller cities, such as Lucca, Pisa, At home, Isabella was transforming and Siena, fought for any independence Spain into a purely Christian state. Ferdi- they could win from their more powerful nand and Isabella had established the In- neighbors. In the center of Italy lay the quisition in 1478 to investigate charges of Papal States, cities and principalities nomi- false conversion and heresy. The 1492 De- nally ruled by the pope. In the south were cree of Alhambra called for all Jews to ei- the kingdoms of Sicily and Naples, which ther convert to Christianity or leave the were united under the Spanish rulers of kingdom. In 1502, after a revolt, Muslims Aragon in the mid-fifteenth century. were subject to forced baptism or exile. Through the Middle Ages, Italy had Isabella also vigorously pursued a policy been open to many different influences of strengthening Spain’s ties to other Eu- through the invasion and assimilation of ropean realms through marriage. She al- foreigners, including Normans in the lied Spain with the South, Lombards and later Germans in the by arranging the marriage of her son Juan north, and the Byzantine Empire, which and daughter Joanna into the Habsburg fought for control of the Adriatic coast. As dynasty. She also engaged her daughter secular heads of Christendom, the Holy Isabel to the king of Portugal, Manuel, and Roman Emperors claimed sovereignty in after the death of Isabel engaged her sec- Italy, and contended with the popes for ond daughter Maria to the same king. Her the loyalty of city governments. Through- grandson Charles became king of Spain as out Italy two political factions, the Guel- Charles I and Holy Roman Emperor as phs and Ghibellines, supported the cause Charles V. Her astute marital diplomacy of the pope and the emperor, respectively. raised Spain’s importance in European af- The prosperity of the later medieval pe- fairs, while her sponsorship of Columbus riod allowed the cities some independence established a realm of overseas colonies from foreign rule in northern Italy. Flo- that would enrich the Spanish treasury for rence became a center of banking, while the next two centuries. Venice established a Mediterranean mari- SEE ALSO: Charles V; Columbus, Christo- time empire. These cities expanded their pher; Ferdinand II of Aragon; Inquisition control to the surrounding regions, be- coming powerful states in their own right, Italy fighting for control of trade and territory, Italy was no more than a peninsula at the and using mercenary armies recruited time of the Renaissance. It had no central from the poor regions of the Appenines. authority or king, and no national iden- During the Renaissance, leading fami- tity, either cultural or political. As in the lies emerged to take control of the cities. rest of Europe, the fall of the Western Ro- The Medici dynasty ruled Florence, the man Empire in the fifth century had left it Visconti and later the Sforza in Milan, and fragmented into a patchwork of small, in- the Bentivoglio in Bologna. Throughout dependent states. In the Middle Ages, three the period, Venice kept its status as a re- major regions had emerged in the penin- public, governed by a doge and a council

168 Greenhaven Encyclopedia of The Renaissance Italy of nobles. There remained little conscious- harmony, balance, and proportions of clas- ness of Italy as a united nation at the time sical temples and monuments. A new phi- of the Renaissance. Italians thought of losophy of humanism ran through all of themselves as coming from Florence, or these works, in which human talent and Siena, or Padua, and looked on their cities ingenuity became a new ideal, a new path as their homeland. The cities competed to God and divinity that took no account fiercely for trade, for land, and for the of the doctrines and traditions of the me- presence of scholars and artists who gave dieval church. the dynasties an appearance of taste, With the revived study of classical au- wealth, and advanced thinking. Scholars thors, ancient Rome served as the source and artists wandered from one place to of a national identity. The ideals of the another, seeking the best situation at a du- ancient past took hold first in Italy, and cal court or university. The frequent travel endured there longest. But the divisions between Rome and the outlying cities within Italy also invited foreign interfer- spread classical styles, architecture, litera- ence, and national rulers such as the kings ture, and ideas. of France and Spain schemed to assert In large part, the innovations and dis- their authority in the peninsula. This came coveries of the Renaissance were the disastrously with the invasion of the achievement of Italians. It began with the French in 1494, when Charles VIII brought study of ancient manuscripts newly dis- his army to back up French claims to Mi- covered in monasteries and libraries lan and Naples. Although the French were throughout Europe, giving rise to a new eventually routed from Italy, the Italian study of the Latin language in its original cities proved unable to unite their forces form. Painters made important break- for a common cause of asserting a national throughs in the techniques of their art, independence from outside interference. discovering the use of perspective, using a The rivalry of the popes and the emperors larger palette of colors, and allowing a continued. In 1527 came a devastating pil- greater range of naturalistic appearance laging of Rome by the rebellious armies of and human emotion in their works. Draw- Emperor Charles V. ing on the work of Vitruvius, and the an- cient buildings that had survived the fall SEE ALSO: architecture; Florence; human- of Rome, architects strived to achieve the ism; Lucca; Naples; painting; Venice

Greenhaven Encyclopedia of The Renaissance 169

James I of England (James VI of when Guy Fawkes was arrested while Scotland) caught with dozens of barrels of gunpow- der underneath the House of Lords. Two (1566–1625) years later, Parliament prevented the union King of Scotland who succeeded the last of Scotland and England, which James Tudor monarch, Queen Elizabeth in 1603 supported. The king indulged himself with as King James I. The first monarch of the expensive luxuries and reigned over a Stuart dynasty, he was the son of Mary, court of incompetent and corrupt minis- Queen of Scots, and the Duke of Albany. ters, giving rise to an anti-Stuart rebel- When Mary abdicated her throne in 1567, lion that finally flared into civil war in James became by right of inheritance the the 1640s, during the reign of his son king of Scotland, although he was only Charles I. one year old at the time. Royal power in Under James, England began establish- Scotland was in the hands of several re- ing colonies in North America in Massa- gents, while the country was divided be- chusetts and Virginia. James was the au- tween Catholics, who sought an alliance thor of several works on politics and with France, and Protestants, who wanted government, including The True Law of closer relations with England. James as- Free Monarchy, in which he explained his sumed authority over Scotland in 1583 and belief in the divine right of kings to rule proved a skilled diplomat, especially in his by their own will. He is also known for dealings with England and Elizabeth. commissioning a translation of the Bible When Elizabeth permitted the execution into English. This King James Version, first of his mother Mary, James did nothing in published in 1611, has remained the stan- order to prove his loyalty. This action, and dard text of the Bible for the Protestant, descent from the sister of King Henry VIII, English-speaking world to the present day. earned James the throne of England on Elizabeth’s death in 1603. SEE ALSO: Elizabeth I; England; Scotland After succeeding Elizabeth, however, James ruled with a heavy hand over the Jews English Parliament, toward which he Jews had been a persecuted minority showed hostility and indifference. At the throughout the Middle Ages, and the hu- Hampton Court Conference, he refused to manism and questioning of Christian doc- allow religious tolerance for English Puri- trine during the Renaissance did little to tans, a stand that eventually drove many improve their status. Many European cities of the Puritans to exile and settlement in forbade them to pass through their gates North America. There were several plots at all; most others severely restricted their against his life and reign, with the most movements, their professions, and the famous being the Gunpowder Plot of 1605, neighborhoods in which they lived. From

Greenhaven Encyclopedia of The Renaissance 171 Jews time to time, Jews were completely ex- a limited time, for the purpose of serving pelled by decree of a prince or city coun- as lenders to the poor of the city. cil. Their property was confiscated and the In the literature of the time, including debts owed to them were cancelled—in works of Christopher Marlowe and Sir this way, expulsion was often a convenient Francis Bacon, Jews were often depicted as way for a prince or monarch to relieve a greedy and villainous. Shakespeare’s The debt from his treasury. Expulsions oc- Merchant of Venice presents one of the curred in France in 1394, in Portugal in most memorable Jewish villains, the mon- 1497, in the southern French duchy of eylender Shylock. European Christians Provence in 1502, and from southern Italy branded Jews with sinister libels, such as in 1541. Jews were completely forbidden claiming that they made their ceremonial to live in England throughout the Renais- food with the blood of Christians. These sance, a restriction that dated to the year libels could sometimes lead to violence 1290 and did not end until the middle of and massacre, occasionally with the ap- the seventeenth century. The most impor- proval of the city authorities. In 1475 the tant expulsion of this period occurred in city of Trent arrested every Jewish male on Spain in 1492, when Ferdinand and Isa- the suspicion of carrying out the ritual bella expelled Jews as well as Muslims from murder of Christian children, and put the their united kingdoms of Castile and Ara- captives to death. gon. Jews who claimed to convert to Chris- At the same time, however, Hebrew, tianity in order to keep their homes and the language of the Jews, became a re- property were known as marranos or con- spected subject of interest to many schol- versos. Such converts were under constant ars, including the Protestant scholar Jo- suspicion and often prohibited from leav- hannes Buxtorf, who taught at the ing the confines of the cities where they University of Basel in Switzerland and lived. They were often brought to trial for published Hebrew dictionaries and gram- heresy; the Spanish Inquisition was estab- mars. Jewish texts were translated into lished in the late fifteenth century for the Latin, and several universities established express purpose of testing the sincerity of departments of Hebraica, or Jewish stud- conversos and rooting out the insincere. ies. The study of the Jewish kabbalah, a Jews were often restricted in the cloth- medieval system of symbols and esoteric ing they could wear and in their general knowledge, was undertaken by humanist appearance; in fifteenth-century Spain Jew- scholar Giordano Bruno, Giovanni Pico ish men were forced to grow their beards della Mirandola, and others interested in long. In some cities they were forced to systems of thought that lay outside tradi- wearacircleofyellowfelttoidentify tional Christian teachings. themselves as Jews; other places required In 1516, the first Jewish ghetto was es- wide-brimmed hats or a long dark cloak. tablished in Venice, in a quarter known as The professions available to them were also the Ghetto Nuovo. The Jewish ghetto be- limited. Jews were banned from traditional came a neighborhood cordoned off from artisanal guilds, but permitted to work as the Christian population, often with a sys- moneylenders and as dealers in second- tem of walls and gates. In 1555 the Catho- hand goods. Many Italian communes lic Church began enforcing a twelfth- granted charters allowing Jews to settle for century law that prohibited Jews from

172 Greenhaven Encyclopedia of The Renaissance Joan of Arc living in the same neighborhoods as Chris- alliance, which countered his power in tians. This law was strictly enforced within Italy, Pope Urban VI denounced Joan’s title the Papal States, the cities and territories to Naples and donated the kingdom to under the control of the papal administra- Charles of Durazzo. Charles marched on tion in central Italy. The ghetto spread to Naples at the head of a Hungarian army Germany and then the rest of Europe. Jews and took Joan a prisoner in 1381. In the were commonly confined to the ghettos next year, while imprisoned at the Castle permanently, and were only allowed to of San Fele, she was strangled by her leave in order to transact necessary busi- prison guards. Charles then succeeded to ness in other parts of the city. The gates the throne of Naples. were locked and no traffic permitted at night; Jews caught out after curfew were Joan of Arc subjecttoarrestandaterminprison.The ghetto walls prevented Jewish communi- (1412–1431) ties from expanding, and as a result they A of the French nation, Joan became the most crowded and least health- of Arc was born in the village of Dom- ful neighborhoods, with families raising remy, in the Vosges region of eastern tenements ever higher in order to accom- France. Her father owned a small estate modate the growing population. and served as a village official. At the time of her birth and childhood, much of SEE ALSO: ghetto France lay in ruins from the conflict with England that had begun more than sev- Joan I of Naples enty years earlier. The war had started over (1326–1382) English claims to the French throne, claims Queen of Naples, the daughter of Duke supported by the powerful dukes of Bur- Charles of Calabria and the niece of King gundy. While the English controlled Paris, Philip VI of France. She was engaged to the capital, the Burgundians held Reims, Prince Andrew of Anjou, but when Prince the traditional site of French coronations. Andrew inherited the throne of Hungary For this reason, the heir to the French on the death of Robert, the king of Naples throne, the son of King Charles VI, re- (Joan’s grandfather) she claimed the title mained an uncrowned dauphin (eldest son of sole monarch. Pope Clement VI took of a king) while the English fought for the advantage of the struggle over the succes- claim of Henry VI, an infant who ruled sion to make his own claim as the lord of through the regent John of Lancaster. Naples. Clement’s envoy Cardinal Americ Inspired by visions of the saints to de- crowned Joan Queen of Naples in 1344; in fend France from its powerful enemies, the next year Prince Andrew died at the the sixteen-year-old Joan rode to the hands of an assassin, who may have been French camp at Vaucouleurs to demand acting on Joan’s orders. The death of An- an audience with the dauphin. At first drew prompted Louis I, the king of Hun- mocked and refused, she persisted and gary, to invade. When the western Chris- eventually won over the garrison com- tian church split into French and Italian mander. Arriving in the dauphin’s pres- factions, Joan allied with the king of ence at the chateau of , she asked France and supported the French popes Charles permission to lead an army to the who resided at Avignon. Angered by this relief of Orléans, a French city then hold-

Greenhaven Encyclopedia of The Renaissance 173 Joanna of Castile ing out against an English siege. In a des- II of Aragon and Isabella of Castile, who perate situation, and with little realistic united these two kingdoms to establish the hope of success, the dauphin agreed. In monarchy of Spain. In 1496 Joanna mar- just nine days, however, Joan led the ried Philip the Handsome, son of Emperor French to victory at Orléans. She was re- Maximilian I. After the death of her warded with co-command of an army, brother John, her elder sister Queen Isa- with which she defeated the English at the bella of Portugal, and nephew Miguel of Battle of Patay. She then marched to Re- Asturias, she was the eldest surviving ims, where she witnessed the coronation daughter of Ferdinand and Isabella, and as of the dauphin as Charles VII of France such was officially recognized by the Span- on July 17, 1429. ish Cortes (parliament) as the heir to the After the coronation, Joan continued throne of Castile in 1502. The death of to lead the French against the scattered Queen Isabella in 1504 brought Joanna enemy troops in northern France. At the the formal right to this title, but her claim town of Compiègne, she was captured by was clouded by the ambitions of her hus- a company of Burgundians and then sold band and of her father Ferdinand, who to the English. The English governor in maintained that she had been made a pris- France, Duke Henry of Bedford, put her oner by Philip. Her husband’s death of ty- on trial for religious heresy. Her impas- phoid fever in 1506 left her in a deranged sioned defense proved futile, as the En- state of mind, under which she allowed glish and Bishop Cauchon of Beauvais, an Ferdinand to rule with her as co-regent. ally of England who presided at the trial, Ferdinand took advantage of the situation were determined to see her dead. She was to imprison Joanna in the castle of convicted and burned at the stake in Tordesillas, where she remained. In 1516, Rouen on May 30, 1431. on Ferdinand’s death, her son Charles be- came co-regent. The nobles of Spain did Joan’s inspired leadership of the de- not take to Charles, however, and revolted moralized French army proved a turning against the foreign governors he sent to point in the Hundred Years’ War. By the rule over them in the Revolt of the Comu- Treaty of Arras in 1435, the Burgundians neros in 1520. Kept prisoner at Tordesillas, ended their alliance with the English, who Joanna was unable to summon the rebels lost Rouen in 1449 and their last strong- to her side, and after the revolt was put hold at Calais in 1558. Under the succes- down she was confined to an isolated sors of Charles VII, a unified French king- room, where she remained until her death dom emerged that would develop by the in 1555. end of the Renaissance into the largest and wealthiest realm in Europe. Jones, Inigo (1573–1652) Joanna of Castile English architect who introduced the (1479–1555) building styles of the Italian Renaissance Queen of Castile and Leon whose life was to his native country. Jones was born in troubled by the recurring bouts of insan- London, the son of a Catholic cloth- ity and extreme behavior that earned her worker. Sometime in the late sixteenth cen- the nickname of “Joan the Mad.” She was tury, he traveled to Italy, and lived for a born in Toledo, the daughter of Ferdinand time in Venice. He also spent time at the

174 Greenhaven Encyclopedia of The Renaissance Julius II court of King Christian IV of Denmark. ing pillars of Stonehenge represented the In Italy he studied the designs of Andrea remains of a Roman temple. Palladio, whose villas and monuments On the outbreak of the English Civil were inspired by the classical architecture War in 1642 Jones fled London. The con- of ancient Greece and Rome. Jones ab- flict ended with the execution of his pa- sorbed the ideals of classical architecture tron Charles I; Jones’s property was seized through Palladio and the writings of Vit- and he lost his position as the royal sur- ruvius, an ancient Roman author on ar- veyor. He was officially pardoned in 1646 chitecture who set out in his book De Ar- and lived out his days in obscurity and chitectura the ideals of harmonious poverty. His reputation grew after his proportions and balanced elements. death, however, as his buildings and his Jones returned to England in 1601. His classical ideals became an important model talents were noticed by King James I, and for future generations of English builders. he was appointed official court surveyor to

Henry, the son of James and heir appar- SEE ALSO: architecture; Palladio, Andrea; ent. Jones won commissions to design sev- Vitruvius eral important London buildings, includ- ing the New Exchange in the London quarter known as the Strand. Jones also Julius II designed scenery for court masques, short (1443–1513) allegorical dramas that combined theater, Pope from 1503 until his death in 1513. music, and dance. He returned to Italy in Born in the village of Albissola as Giuliano 1614, in the company of the Earl of Arun- della Rovere, he was the member of a del. On his return to England, James ap- noble but poor family. He was educated in pointed him as the Surveyor of the King’s the city of Perugia by his uncle, Francesco Works. In this position Jones designed the della Rovere, a member of the Franciscan Banqueting House at the palace of White- order. When Francesco was elected as Pope hall. As a Catholic, however, Jones came Sixtus IV in 1471, Giuliano’s prospects in under general suspicion from those fear- the church improved dramatically. He was ing a Catholic attempt to return England immediately made bishop of Carpentras, a to the authority of the pope. diocese in France, and named cardinal- Jones’s most famous buildings include priest of San Pietro in Vincula (Saint Peter several country mansions, including Lind- in Chains), an important Roman church. sey House, Shaftesbury House, the Queen’s House at Greenwich, and the Grange. He He won several more appointments as also designed public places, including the bishop, in Lausanne, Coutances, , London square known as Lincoln’s Inn and Mende, Viviers, Sabina, Bologna, Ostia, the district known as Covent Garden that Lodeve, Savona, and . In 1476, he Jones developed on the model of ancient was named archbishop of Avignon, and in Roman market towns known as bastides. 1480 became the papal legate (ambassador) On commission of King Charles I, Jones to the king of France. also became the first to survey the prehis- Della Rovere’s ambition reached all the toric monument known as Stonehenge, in way to the papal throne, and through skill- southern England. Jones opined in his ful diplomacy and bribery attained a pow- book Stone-Heng Restored that the tower- erful position within the College of Cardi-

Greenhaven Encyclopedia of The Renaissance 175 Julius II

vened the College of Cardinals and through bribery managed to have himself raised to the Papacy through the shortest conclave in the history of the church. Taking the name Julius II, he set out to regain control of the Romagna region of north central Italy, where many pros- perous cities were being ruled by tyrants, including Cesare Borgia, and rival states, particularly the , that had little allegiance to the Papacy. In 1506, marching northward at the head of a pa- pal army, he defeated the Baglioni clan of Perugia and Giovanni Bentivoglio, the ruler of Bologna. In 1508 Julius formed the League of Cambrai with Louis XII of France, Maximilian I, and Ferdinand II of Aragon against Venice. The pope put the city under an interdict. At the Battle of Agnadello the League routed the merce- Pope Julius II, in a portrait by master nary army raised by Venice, and Julius painter Raphael. ௠ NATIONAL GALLERY COLLEC- brought the cities of Rimini and Faenza TION;BY KIND PERMISSION OF THE TRUSTEES OF THE back under his own authority. Seeking to NATIONAL GALLERY,LONDON/CORBIS.REPRODUCED liberate Italy completely from foreign BY PERMISSION. domination, Julius then turned against the French, forming the Holy League with Fer- nals, the body responsible for electing the dinand II, Henry VIII of England, and his pope. In 1492, on the death of Sixtus IV, former enemy, Venice, to attack French he was thwarted in his goal by Cardinal troops in Italy. Rodrigo Borgia, his rival, who attained the Julius began the attack by excommuni- Papacy as Alexander VI. Angrily denounc- cating and deposing Alfonso, the duke of ing the election, Della Rovere fled Italy in Ferrara, who at the time was allied with fear for his life and journeyed back to France. The pope’s actions raised the ire of Paris, where he convinced King Charles the French king Louis XII, who gathered VIII to attempt an invasion of Italy and his bishops into a synod at the city of the conquest of Naples. Della Rovere’s aim Tours to declare themselves free of obedi- was to depose Alexander, but when he ence to the pope, and who conspired with reached Rome in the company of the king, Emperor Maximilian to dethrone Julius. the pope outmaneuvered him by bribing The French invaded Italy and seized Bolo- one of Charles’s key ministers. gna in 1511, reinstating Giovanni Ben- In 1503 Alexander became gravely sick tivoglio as the city’s ruler. The French army after a banquet and soon died. His succes- was thrashed at the in sor, Pius III, reigned for only a few days 1512 and driven out of Italy, Bologna as after his election. Della Rovere then con- well as Param, Piacenza, and Reggio came

176 Greenhaven Encyclopedia of The Renaissance Julius II under the pope’s control, but Julius found producing monumental works for the to his chagrin that the cities of Italy, weak- church. He commissioned Donato Bra- ened by many years of warfare, remained mante to rebuild Saint Peter’s Basilica and an inviting prey to the armies of the Holy Michelangelo Buonarroti to decorate the Roman Empire, which after the death of ceiling of the Sistine Chapel with a series Julius in 1513 would invade the peninsula of fresco paintings that would become the and devastate Julius’s imperial city in the single most imposing work of Italian Re- brutal Sack of Rome in 1527. naissance art. He contributed a large por- tion of the income he earned from his es- Julius is remembered by historians as tates and benefices to the raising of palaces the “Warrior Pope,” determined to make and fortifications in the city, playing a key the Papacy a political and military power role in transforming Rome from a chaotic that would be feared throughout Italy and medieval town into the imposing and in the rest of Europe. But he is more re- monumental city that it remains to this spected as a patron of the arts. Determined day. to turn Rome into an imposing symbol of the church’s power, he brought artists and SEE ALSO: Alexander VI; Bramante, Do- architects to the city and paid them gener- nato; Charles VIII; Michaelangelo Buonar- ously to dedicate their lives and works to roti

Greenhaven Encyclopedia of The Renaissance 177

Kepler, Johannes stating that the radius of a planet sweeps (1571–1630) across equal areas in equal spans of time, were published in New Astronomy, German astronomer who was the first to which appeared in 1609. His Conversation develop accurate theories of planetary mo- with the Starry Messenger, published in tion. Born in the town of Weil, the son of 1610, supported the observations of Gali- a mercenary soldier, Kepler was educated leo Galilei, whose sighting of Jupiter’s at seminaries and the University of Tubin- moons Kepler confirmed with his own in- gen. He was named as a royal mathemati- struments. In his writings Kepler also hit cian in 1594; in this position, the accurate on the idea of an elemental force emanat- predictions of political and weather events published in his almanacs gained him re- ing from the sun and controlling the mo- nown as a prognosticator. In 1595 he be- tion of the planets—an early notion of the gan a serious study of planetary motions phenomenon of gravity. that he published in his first book The Se- In 1611, as Rudolf II gave up his cret of the Universe. This book defended throne, Kepler moved from the imperial Nicolaus Copernicus’s theory of a helio- court at Prague to Linz, in Austria, where centric universe, introducing the idea that he became official mathematician. In the planetary orbits were based on differ- his Harmony of the World, Kepler at- ent geometric shapes. In 1600 Kepler be- tempted a grand, unified theory of geom- came an assistant to Tycho Brahe, court etry, mathematics, and astronomy, and astronomer to Emperor Rudolf II, and published his third law of planetary who remained an adamant supporter of motion, in which the square of the the geocentric (earth-centered) Ptolemaic sidereal period of a planet is proportional system, Brahe’s sudden death the next year to the cube of its distance from the sun. allowed Kepler to take over as court as- Kepler summarized his laws in Epitome of tronomer. He published Optics, a treatise Copernican Astronomy, written between on the use of telescopes in observational 1618 and 1621, which built on the helio- astronomy, in 1604; in the meantime, centric model of the universe proposed by while studying the exhaustive calculations Copernicus but also introduced Kepler’s and observations of Brahe, Kepler con- own theory of elliptical orbits. His book cluded that the planets moved in ellipses, Rudolfine Tables set out charts of planetary rather than circles, a theory now known positions. Its accurate prediction of a tran- as Kepler’s First Law of Planetary Motion. sit of the sun by the planet Mercury This law proved superior to the theories proved Kepler to be the most capable as- of Copernicus and Brahe in explaining tronomer of his time, and the book re- the irregular motion of the planets. mained in use for several generations after Kepler’s First Law, and a second law his death in 1630.

Greenhaven Encyclopedia of The Renaissance 179 Knox, John

drews Castle, where he rallied the besieged reformers with his fiery sermons and his polemics against the evils of the Catholic Church. The group took refuge from Scot- tish and French soldiers but was finally overwhelmed in 1547. Knox was sentenced to a term of service in the French navy as a galley slave. In 1549, after his release, Knox re- turned to England, where he served as one of the king’s chaplains. Unwilling to accept an appointment as a bishop in the Church of England, Knox was unwilling to temper his scathing denunciations of his religious enemies. His stand made him a wanted man on the accession of the very Catholic queen Mary in 1553. He escaped to Eu- rope, joining John Calvin in Geneva and preaching Calvinist reforms and govern- ௠ John Knox. ARCHIVE PHOTOS, 530 W. 25TH ment in the German city of Frankfurt, STREET,NEW YORK, NY 10001. which expelled him in 1555. Knox did not improve his standing with the queen of SEE ALSO: Brahe, Tycho; Copernicus, Nico- England with his pamphlet First Blast of laus; Galilei, Galileo the Trumpet Against the Monstrous Regi- ment of Women, which denounced Queen Mary as well as the Catholic Mary of Knox, John Guise, who ruled Scotland as a regent. The (1514–1572) pamphlet ridiculed the notion of women Church reformer, preacher, author, and holding political power, and so enraged founder of the Presbyterian Church of Mary’s Protestant successor Elizabeth I that Scotland. Born in Haddington, Knox was she prohibited him from ever setting foot ordained a priest in the Catholic Church in England. in 1536, and worked as a notary and tutor to the noble families of Lothian. By 1545 In 1559 Knox was invited back to Scot- he had converted to the cause of the re- land to lead Protestants rebelling against formed church under the influence of the authority of Mary of Guise. Knox and George Wishart. Despite the founding of his allies forced French troops out of Scot- the Protestant Church of England, land and defeated the Catholic Church. Scotland’s rulers remained resolutely The new Presbyterian Church was estab- Catholic, and in 1546, Wishart was ar- lished, in which each congregation elected rested for his teachings and burned at the its parish leaders, and by an act of the stake. When his Protestant followers Scottish parliament in 1560 Scotland offi- avenged themselves by killing a Catholic cially threw off the authority of the Catho- cardinal, Knox joined them at Saint An- lic pope. Knox was also author of History

180 Greenhaven Encyclopedia of The Renaissance Knox, John of the Reformation in Scotland, an impor- tant history of this period.

SEE ALSO: Calvin, John; Elizabeth I; Refor- mation, Protestant; Tudor, Mary

Greenhaven Encyclopedia of The Renaissance 181

Labe, Louise World in the expedition of Nicolas de (1520–1566) Ovando, the new governor of Hispaniola, French poet born as Louise Charly in in order to manage lands granted to his . The daughter of a rope maker, and father by Columbus. In 1510 he became later the wife of one, she was given the the first priest to be ordained in Spain’s nickname La Belle Cordiere. She was edu- American colonies. He served as a mis- cated in music and languages, and as a sionary in Cuba, Mexico, Central America, writer joined a prominent literary circle in and Peru, and was appointed as the priest- Lyon. In 1555, the Lyon printer Jean de procurator of the Indies in 1516, with his Tournes published her Euvres (Works), a duties being to investigate fraud and abuse volume of twenty-four love sonnets, an al- of the Indians by the Spanish colonists. He legory entitled Debate Between Love and eventually came to oppose the system by Madness, three elegies, and twenty-four which the Spanish were destroying the cul- poems written by others in her own praise. ture of Native Americans, forcibly convert- The book went through several editions, ing them to Christianity, and using them while the sonnets made her name among as slaves. Las Casas advocated a new sys- the School of and have survived as tem in which Europeans and Indians her best-known works. Labe fervently en- would cooperatively work rural planta- couraged other women to exercise their tions, but when one such experiment failed new found freedoms to write, speak, study, on the coast of Venezuela, he gave up his and debate in the male-dominated world livelihood as a landowner and retired to a of letters. Her erotic love poetry, however, Dominican monastery in Santo Domingo. inspired scandal, as did a rumored pen- Las Casas’ stand on Native Americans chant for dressing as a man. She was ac- cused of being a courtesan and was con- was based on the idea that the grant of demned by reformers such as John Calvin. the right to colonize this part of the New World by the pope was for the purpose of converting Indians to Christianity, and not Las Casas, Bartolomée de for economic benefit. This aroused strong (1474–1566) opposition among the Spanish landown- Spanish missionary and historian, known ers, who absolutely depended on forced la- today as an advocate for the rights and bor in order to make their plantations liberty of Native Americans. Born in profitable. He pled his case before King Seville, he was the son of a middle-class Ferdinand II and the officials of Spain, merchant who had little traditional school- and won an important success with a code ing. His father and uncle joined the sec- of promulgated by Emperor ond expedition of Christopher Columbus. Charles V in 1542 that banned slavery in In 1502, Bartolomée voyaged to the New Spain’s colonies, as well as the right of the

Greenhaven Encyclopedia of The Renaissance 183 Lasso, Orlando di colonists to pass their lands to their heirs. duke of Bavaria. By this time his composi- In 1544, he was appointed as the bishop of tions were known throughout Europe, and Chiapas, where his primary task was to see he was considered the finest musician and the New Laws enforced. In 1547, when the composertocomefromtheLowCoun- ban on inheritance was rescinded, he re- tries. Lasso was appointed kapellmeister by signed this office. In 1550 Las Casas re- Albrecht V, and he would serve in this post turned to , Spain, to take part in at the ducal court in Munich, Bavaria, for a famous debate with the scholar Juan the rest of his life. His fame attracted many Gines de Sepulveda on the future of the young musicians to Bavaria to study with encomienda system of slave-worked plan- him; Pope Gregory XIII knighted him and tations. Speaking for five days, Las Casas Emperor Maximilian II rewarded him with succeeded in having Sepulveda’s book, a title of nobility. Although many kings which advocated outright war against the invited him to their courts, he preferred Indians, suppressed. In 1552 Las Casas the Bavarian court, where he remained the chronicled the cruelty of the encomienda unquestioned master of a dedicated group system in his most famous work, Brief Ac- of singers and instrumentalists. He was count of the Destruction of the Indians.He also wrote a comprehensive history of the expected to write music for special occa- Spanish conquest, History of the Indies,as sions and ceremonies, train young singers well as a book detailing the lives and cul- for performance in the choir, and com- ture of Native Americans, History of the pose settings of the Mass. The duke Indians, in which work he showed that the granted Lasso a lifetime appointment, as Native American subjects of Spain should well as a generous budget for perfor- enjoy the same rights and freedoms as mances, instruments, and musicians, and their European conquerors. the Bavarian court became a bustling cen- ter of music during the late Renaissance. SEE ALSO: Columbus, Christopher; Cortes, Lasso was a master of many different Hernán; exploration musical forms, including sacred masses, hymns, and motets, as well as secular mad- Lasso, Orlando di rigals and chansons (songs) written in (1532–1595) Latin, Italian, French, and German. He set Composer born in Mons, in the county of the poetry of the Italian writers Petrarch Hainaut, a city of the Low Countries then and Ludovico Ariosto to music, as well as under the rule of Spain. A tradition says a verse from the ancient Roman author that Lasso was kidnapped several times as Virgil. One of his songs was included by a boy for his beautiful singing voice. At William Shakespeare in the play Henry IV, the age of twelve, he traveled to Italy, Part II. Lasso wrote four passions—a where he worked at the Gonzaga court in capella (voice only) settings of the four Mantua and also studied composition in evangelical books of the New Testament— Milan and Naples. In the 1550s he worked that combine plainsong chant (single-line in Rome, first in the service of Cosimo de’ melodies) with passages of multivoiced po- Medici and then as choirmaster of the Ba- lyphony, of which Lasso is still considered silica of San Giovanni di Laterano. He re- the absolute master of all Renaissance turned to the Low Countries after this en- composers. He wrote in the many differ- gagement and was hired by Albrecht V, the ent musical styles and forms that he en-

184 Greenhaven Encyclopedia of The Renaissance Leo X countered on his extensive travels. Some Leo was a generous patron of the arts of his music includes daring harmonies and literature, and made his papal court a and strange chromatic melodies that were center of learning and amusement. The unknown among other Renaissance com- pope hosted lavish banquets staged elabo- posers (with the exception of Carlo rate plays and pageants, and hired musi- Gesualdo). All of his music was written cians and entertainers for the pleasure of for voice and, as far as music historians himself and his guests. He supported know, he wrote no purely instrumental charitable institutions in Rome and gave music at all. He published hundreds of his alms to the poor and crippled. He invited own compositions during his lifetime, a poets to Rome and lavished them with of- rare achievement for any Renaissance com- ficial titles and generous salaries. He poser. Many of his sixty masses were based founded the Medicean Academy in Rome on secular compositions, including bawdy to pursue the study of the Greek classics popular songs, that he adapted for the tra- and sent collectors to the four corners of ditional Latin text of the Catholic Mass. Europe to find and return unknown vol- His last work, the Tears of St. Peter, was a umes of ancient Greek and Roman writ- group of twenty-one madrigals, and re- ers, who were collected in the Vatican Li- mains his most famous work. brary. SEE ALSO: Gesualdo, Carlo; music; Pal- Leo also took the painter Raphael un- estrina, Giovanni der his wing, keeping the artist at the Vati- Leo X can until Raphael’s death in 1520. Raphael (1475–1521) became the dean of artists at the Vatican, Pope and patron of the Italian Renais- and completed his most famous works un- sance, Leo X was born as Giovanni de’ der Leo’s patronage, including the decora- Medici, the son of Lorenzo the Magnifi- tion of the Vatican stanze, or halls, the Sis- cent of Florence. His powerful and wealthy tine Madonna, and cartoons for the family secured important posts for him at tapestries of the Sistine Chapel. The great a young age: head of rich abbeys in France expenses, however, quickly drained the and Italy and appointment as a cardinal of treasury, and to raise money Leo ordered the church in 1489, at the age of thirteen. the sale of church offices and indulgences, He was educated by the leading humanists in which people simply paid money to of the Italian Renaissance, including Pico have their sins officially forgiven. della Mirandola and Marcilio Ficino, and Under Leo’s reign the Papacy was em- studied at the prestigious University of broiled in political and military conflict Pisa. with France, which Leo pursued by mak- After the election of Alexander VI, a ing and breaking alliances all over Europe member of the rival Borgia family of and running up a huge debt for the Vati- Spain, he left Rome for Florence. When a can treasury. In the end, the pope and King rebellion expelled the Medici rulers from Francis I signed a Concordat in 1516, in Florence in 1494, he escaped the city dis- which the pope conceded the authority of guised as a monk. He returned in 1512 when the family returned to power. In the thekingoverchurchpropertyinFrance. next year, on the death of Julius II, he was These events helped to keep France a elected pope. Catholic nation even as Germany and

Greenhaven Encyclopedia of The Renaissance 185 Leonardo da Vinci other countries of northern Europe were breaking away from the church. Leo also provided for his family, work- ing to secure them leadership of wealthy cities in Italy. He named his cousin Giulio as the archbishop of Florence and fought an all-out war against the city of Urbino in order to replace the Duke of Urbino with Leo’s nephew Lorenzo. His actions angered many Roman cardinals, and even inspired a failed plot to assassinate him. Leo responded by having several cardinals poisoned and by blackmailing others. In 1517, he made a clean sweep of the college of cardinals, appointing thirty-one new members, many of whom he appointed simply to secure money or political influ- ence. At the same time, the greed and cor- ruption of Leo’s administration was in- spiring a movement for reform in Ger- Leonardo da Vinci’s masterpiece the “Mona many. Martin Luther, a German monk and Lisa” is one of the world’s most famous scholar, was denying the authority of the works of art. NEW YORK PUBLIC LIBRARY PIC- church and spreading his ideas rapidly TURE COLLECTION. and effectively through the new medium of printing. Leo excommunicated Luther has become a world-renowned figure of in 1521 and had him summoned to the the Renaissance. Da Vinci’s artworks had a Diet of Worms, but Leo’s orders and profound influence on the painters of his instructions to Luther to recant his writ- time; his many inventions—including the ings met with defiance. Shortly after helicopter, bicycle, and parachute—were this, the pope died of a sudden attack inspired by a lifelong investigation into the of malaria. His term as pope is remem- properties of motion, force, and gravity. bered for its generous patronage of the He is still regarded as the archetypal Re- arts but also for disastrous management naissance Man, an individual of profound that allowed the Protestant Reformation creative genius and wide-ranging scientific to gain widespread support, permanently curiosity. dividing the Christian community of Europe. Born near the town of Vinci, west of Florence, Leonardo was the illegitimate son SEE ALSO: Alexander VI; Francis I; Raphael of a notary and a peasant woman. He showed a talent for drawing and composi- Leonardo da Vinci tion very early in his life and, at the age of (1452–1519) fifteen, was sent to Florence as an appren- Painter, engineer, scientist, and inventor tice in the workshop of Andrea del Verroc- who mastered many fields of study and chio. He met the leading painters of the

186 Greenhaven Encyclopedia of The Renaissance Leonardo da Vinci

Sketches of war machines by Leonardo da Vinci. At the top is a chariot fitted with scythes for striking nearby enemies. At bottom are diagrams of an armored vehicle outfitted with firearms, hundreds of years before the first actual tank was built. DE AGOSOTINI/GETTY IMAGES. city, including Sandro Botticelli and Do- in which he blended colors and used light menico Ghirlandaio. From Verrocchio he and shadow to give his works dramatic in- learned the craft of painting, the science tensity. of perspective, and techniques of depicting Leonardo established his own studio the human form in motion. Da Vinci col- in Florence, and in 1481 was commis- laborated with Verrocchio on the Baptism sioned to paint an altarpiece, the Adora- of Christ, produced in about 1475, in tion of the Magi. This work has become an which Leonardo painted the background important study for art historians, as it landscape and an angel. By one tradition, was left unfinished. In 1482 Leonardo ac- Verrocchio was so astonished at the beauty cepted a position as a court painter and and composition of these elements that he architect for Ludovico Sforza, the Duke of gave up painting for the rest of his life. Milan. For the duke he designed artillery, During his time in Florence, Leonardo also fortifications, and military equipment; he painted the Annunciation and a portrait of collaborated with Donato Bramante on the Ginevra de Benci. In these works, he was design of churches, public buildings, and striving for a new style of painting that streets. While in Milan Leonardo was also went beyond the conventions of the early commissioned to paint the Madonna of Renaissance. Leonardo gave the figures the Rocks, which sets the biblical family of softer contours by the sfumato technique, Jesus in a scene of natural wilderness. The

Greenhaven Encyclopedia of The Renaissance 187 Lepanto, Battle of painting exists in two different versions, Piero de Cosimo, Raphael, and Michelan- providing art historians with a source of gelo Buonarroti. endless debate over the authenticity of the Through his many travels and projects works and Leonardo’s methods of paint- Leonardo kept a series of notebooks, in ing. In 1495 he began the The Last Supper, which he used a backward script that was a fresco for the refectory of the convent of not deciphered until long after his death Santa Maria delle Grazie. For this work and which were not published until the Leonardo made a change in the traditional late nineteenth century. The notebooks are formula of fresco paint, in order to more filled with anatomical drawings, artistic easily blend the colors on the hard stone studies, scientific observations and specu- surface of a wall. His experiment turned lations, and inventive designs, including out a failure, as the paint soon began flak- hundreds of new war engines, flying ma- ing from the wall and over many years the chines, canal locks, and vehicles, many of image deteriorated. Nevertheless, The Last which were not produced until centuries Supper remains one of Leonardo’s most after his death, when the fields of engi- famous works and the archetypal image of neering and manufacturing caught up with this biblical event. the artist’s genius. While in Milan he also worked on the In 1506, Leonardo was summoned design of a bronze equestrian statue of back to Milan by Charles d’Amboise, the Francesco Sforza, the Duke of Milan’s fa- French governor of the city. In this period ther and predecessor. Despite years of of his life he took up scientific research study and preliminary sketches, he was un- and observation. In his notebooks, he able to overcome the difficulty of raising a studied geology, botany, hydraulics, and balanced sculpture of a horse in dynamic human anatomy and produced a series of motion. When the French invaded Italy, accurate drawings of the body and its in- the duke was overthrown and Leonardo ternal organs. From 1513 until 1516, he left Milan, moving for short periods to lived in Rome at the invitation of Pope Venice and Mantua, and then back to Flo- Leo X. He completed St. John the Baptist, rence. There he painted the Virgin and worked on several architectural projects, Child with St. Anne, a striking study in the and worked in his notebooks. By this time balance and harmony of a group of fig- his fame had spread throughout Europe ures, and the portrait known as the Mona and in 1516 he was invited to the royal Lisa,orLa Gioconda—names that were French court of Fontainebleau by King given to the painting in the nineteenth Francis I. He was named the court painter century. The painting depicts Lisa Gherar- and architect and was given a handsome dini, the wife of a Florentine silk mer- country home in which to live until he chant, wearing a somber black dress and died in 1519. gazing at the viewer with a mysterious smile, and posing against a natural back- SEE ALSO: Michelangelo Buonarroti; paint- ground. In these paintings Leonardo in- ing; Verrocchio, Andrea del troduced new aspects of “perspective of color,” in which distant objects lose their Lepanto, Battle of outline as well as their hue. This aspect of A momentous naval battle that took place his works had a major influence on the off the western coast of Greece on Octo- painters of the later Renaissance, including ber 7, 1571, between the Holy League—

188 Greenhaven Encyclopedia of The Renaissance Loyola, Saint Ignatius allied Christian forces of Spain, Venice, were dismissed as unworthy pagans by the Genoa, the Papacy, and other states—and scholastic schoolmen and philosophers of the fleet of the Ottoman Empire. Members his day. Lovati edited a manuscript edition of the Holy League were determined to of the of Seneca, and introduced end Ottoman dominance of the eastern works of the Roman poet Ovid and the Mediterranean, and Turkish interference Greek poet Horace. He sparked widespread with merchant shipping of Spain, France, interest in these and other ancient authors, and Italy. To that end, the Christians as- and inspired further research by Petrarch sembled at Messina, Sicily, a fleet of about and Giovanni Boccaccio, men of a later two hundred ships, most of them large generation that were once credited as pio- rowed galleys, placing them under the neers of the humanist movement. command of John of Austria, the illegiti- Lovati saw the medieval fashion for mate son of Emperor Charles V. Aboard French troubadours and their ballads of the ships was a powerful force of thirty romantic love and a throwback to thousand infantry, a number that approxi- an age of ignorance. In the plays and his- mated a Turkish war fleet commanded by tories of ancient Roman authors he ad- Ali Pasha. mired a sense of dignity, balance, and clar- The two fleets engaged for several ity, and a source of cultural pride for the hours before the Turks fled the scene with authors and scholars of Italy. His Latin about forty of their ships intact. Several poems written in 1267 emulated the forms thousand Christian galley slaves were lib- and style of ancient authors, and pioneered erated, and the Turks lost eighty ships and a humanist strain in poetry that would about fifteen thousand killed or captured continue in the works of Dante and much sailors. About seven thousand members of later extend to prose writings. the Holy League were casualties, including Lovati also was one of the first schol- the Spanish writer Miguel de Cervantes, ars to make a close inspection of ancient who suffered a grievous wound to his arm. ruins in the search for the truth about the Although their navy was severely weak- classical past. In the cathedral of Padua, he ened by the defeat, the Turks remained in uncovered a tomb he believed to be that control of the eastern Mediterranean and of the Trojan founder of the city, a discov- soon afterward seized the island of Cyprus ery that gave strength to the city’s claim from control by Venice. for status as an independent commune.

SEE ALSO: Cervantes, Miguel de; Ottoman SEE ALSO: Boccaccio, Giovanni; humanism; Empire; Venice Petrarch

Lovati, Lovato dei Loyola, Saint Ignatius (1240–1309) (1491–1556) A leading civic official of Padua, a noted Founder of the Society of Jesus, a religious poet and scholar, and one of the first Eu- order also known as the Jesuits, and dedi- ropean humanists. The scion of a wealthy cated opponent of the Protestant Refor- family, Lovati was devoted to recovering mation. Born in Loyola, near San Sebas- classical Latin authors, in editing their tian in the Basque region of northwestern works, and in developing a new style of Spain, he entered the service of the trea- writing influenced by the ancients, who surer of Castile as a teenager. He joined

Greenhaven Encyclopedia of The Renaissance 189 Lucca the Spanish army in its fight against the thy rival to the military and economic and was severely power of Florence (later Niccolo Macchia- wounded while defending the city of Pam- velli would commemorate Castracani’s rule plona against a siege in 1517. While recov- in his writings on able political leaders). ering from his injuries, he dedicated him- The city was seized by kings of Bavaria self to the church and became a solitary and Bohemia, and sold to and from aris- devotee of the Virgin Mary. He resolved to tocrats of Genoa, Parma, and Verona. In establish a religious order that would be 1628 an oligarchy took power, which man- organized much like an army, and fight to aged to keep the city independent until its defend the authority of the pope. He wrote conquest by Napoléon Bonaparte in the the Spiritual Exercises, a book of medita- early nineteenth century. tions, and used this work to proselytize for The Cathedral of San Martino served his new order. Attending the University of as the center of religious life in Lucca since Paris, he earned a master’s degree in theol- it was first constructed in the sixth cen- ogy and gathered a small group of follow- tury. The building underwent construction ers who together proclaimed the founding throughout the medieval period. Its inte- of the Society of Jesus in the Church of rior chapels hold several significant works Saint Mary in Paris in 1534. The order of Renaissance art, including paintings by won the approval of Pope Paul III and was Domenico Ghirlandaio and Tintoretto, soon sending its members to build new and a carved sarcophagus by Jacopo della schools and seminaries throughout Catho- Quercia. The latter artist also created an lic Europe. The Society’s goal was to edu- altarpiece for the Basilica of San Frediano. cate the young, carry out missionary ac- tivities, and stamp out Protestantism; it Lucca is also known for an impressive was organized according to Loyola’s Jesuit set of walls that have survived intact to Constitution, which commanded complete the present day. The city was surrounded obedience to the pope. by strong walls since its time as a Roman colony. High towers were also raised SEE ALSO: Reformation, Catholic throughout the city to serve as defensive strongholds for aristocratic families. In Lucca 1544, with Florence menacing Lucca with conquest, the walls were strengthened with An independent city of Tuscany that pro- a series of bastions, ditches, underground duced many renowned Renaissance artists, rooms, and ramparts—a project that took scholars, and musicians. The Roman town more than a century. of Lucca became the capital of a duchy in the sixth century, and then in 1162 an in- SEE ALSO: Florence dependent commune. Lucca prospered as a center of textile industries, the silk trade, and banking. It enjoyed the privilege of Luther, Martin coining its own money and remained in- (1483–1546) dependent of Florence, the strongest power A German monk, scholar, and writer, and of Tuscany, although it also experienced leader of the Reformation that brought periods of rule by tyrants. A condotierre about a new Protestant church. Luther was named Castruccio Castracani took power born in Eisleben, in the kingdom of Sax- in Lucca in 1316 and made the city a wor- ony. His father was a mine operator who

190 Greenhaven Encyclopedia of The Renaissance Luther, Martin

Martin Luther defends his views on Christianity at the Diet of Worms in 1521, before Holy Roman Emperor Charles V and the members of the Reichstag. ௠ HULTON/ARCHIVE.REPRODUCED BY PERMISSION. sought to make a lawyer of his son. tery of Erfurt. He led a strict life of con- Luther’s days at the University of Erfurt, fession, fasting, and prayer, which did little however, were shadowed by doubt and to relieve his self-doubt and uncertainty. guilt over his sinfulness and his worthiness Luther was ordained as a priest in 1507 in the eyes of God. On passing through a and studied for a doctorate in theology at forest in a thunderstorm, Luther vowed to the University of Wittenberg. After win- follow a life of devotion should he survive. ning his doctorate in 1512, he was ap- He decided to drop his study of the law to pointed to a teaching position at the uni- become a monk, much to his father’s dis- versity that he held throughout his life. In may, and entered the Augustinian monas- the meantime, the questions of worthiness

Greenhaven Encyclopedia of The Renaissance 191 Luther, Martin plagued him; he came to the conclusion 1521; Luther had defied the papal bull that only a relationship with God based challenging him by publicly burning it. He on personal faith could bring redemption was now at risk for arrest and execution and grace. This idea provided the founda- on a charge of heresy. Emperor Charles V, tion of his revolution against the Catholic who reigned supreme in the Holy Roman Church hierarchy that had long been Empire, ordered Luther to appear before plagued by greed, corruption, and bureau- the Diet of Worms and state his case. cratic struggles for power. The church Guaranteed safe passage, Luther arrived at judged Christians by their charitable Worms and refused to recant his writings. works, their obedience to the pope, and He then rode in disguise to Wartburg their purchase of indulgences—a system Castle, where he lived under the protec- that Luther saw as the artificial and un- tion of Frederick the Wise, the elector of holy creation of unworthy men. Saxony. Luther grew a beard and took the In 1517, a monk named Johann Tetzel name of Knight George while Charles V arrived in Wittenberg on a mission to sell declared him an outlaw subject to imme- indulgences for the archbishop of Mainz, diate arrest. who would use the money to pay off loans At Wartburg Luther completed a Ger- he had used to pay bribes. This inspired man translation of the New Testament, Luther to write the founding document of which was published in 1522 and which the Reformation, known as the Ninety-five helped to spread his ideas and influence Theses. By tradition, he posted this bold among the common people of Germany. challenge to the papacy on the door of the In 1524, however, a bloody Peasants’ Re- castle church in Wittenberg. Only God volt broke out in Germany, in which the could grant remission of sin, in Luther’s old social order was threatened by mobs opinion, and only God can judge souls proclaiming adherence to Luther’s ideas. worthy of release from purgatory and sal- Appalled by the violence, Luther con- vation from hell. The Ninety-five Theses demned the revolt in his pamphlet Against were soon printed and circulated through- the Murdering, Thieving Hordes of Peas- out Europe, touching off a controversy that ants, in which he urged that revolting peas- permanently divided the Christian com- ants be struck down like dogs. munity. After the Peasant’s Revolt, Luther Over the next few years, Luther de- found himself embroiled in controversy bated his ideas with leading religious men within the Reformation movement. He in Germany. He denied the infallibility and broke with Desiderius Erasmus, the lead- primacy of the pope; he defied the pro- ing humanist of his time; but Lutheranism nouncements of the Papacy and of the was enthusiastically taken up by German church councils; he condemned the sale of princes who saw it as a way to escape the indulgences; he appealed for a return to authority of the emperor and his ally, the the scriptures in all questions of faith and pope. In the meantime, Luther completed doctrine. Luther set out his ideas in two a German translation of the Old Testa- important books, The Babylonian Captiv- ment in 1534; he wrote many treatises on ity of the Church and The Freedom of a the Bible as well as instruction on the Christian Man. Mass, several hymns, and pamphlets and His stand earned him excommunica- essays on matters of personal faith. In 1543 tion from the church by Pope Leo X in he completed On the Jews and Their Lies,

192 Greenhaven Encyclopedia of The Renaissance Luther, Martin in which he condemned in the strongest Countries, and in France, where the terms the freedom of Jews to follow their struggle between Catholic and Protestant faith and advocated their homes and places would turn into a virtual civil war. of work be burned to the ground. In the meantime, the Protestant Reformation was SEE ALSO: Diet of Augsburg; Hus, Jan; Ref- taken up in Scandinavia, England, the Low ormation, Protestant

Greenhaven Encyclopedia of The Renaissance 193

Machiavelli, Niccolo In The Prince,hedrewontheworksof (1469–1527) ancient authors as well as his own experi- ence of government and of political lead- Diplomat and author, and a central figure ers, giving his opinion that a ruler must of the Italian Renaissance whose short be prepared to act unscrupulously, and in- work The Prince has remained a classic of spire fear in his rivals, in order to ensure political philosophy. Born in Florence, Ma- his authority and the well-being of his na- chiavelli was schooled in classical Latin lit- tion. Machiavelli’s rather dark view of hu- erature. He began his career as a govern- man character and the nature of politics is ment clerk in 1494, the year in which the tempered by his opinion that the ultimate Medici dynasty fell from power and re- goal of the actions of a prince should be publican government in Florence was re- the stability of the state he rules. The ends stored. He rose in the ranks of public ser- do not necessarily justify the means, and vant and was appointed a diplomat. He power alone does not excuse violence, dis- traveled on diplomatic missions to the honesty, and criminality. In the case that a courts of King Louis XII of France and ruler must act with violence or cruelty, in King Ferdinand II of Aragon, and to the his view, he must act quickly and effec- headquarters of the Papacy in Rome. tively, strike balance between idealism and In 1503 Machiavelli became an officer reality, and mitigate harsh actions as soon of the Florence city militia. He observed as possible. with great interest the career of Cesare Machiavelli believed The Prince might Borgia, the ruthless and ambitious son of place him in the good graces of the re- Pope Alexander VI. Borgia never hesitated turning Medici; instead it earned him con- in using deceit, violence, and all-out war demnation by the church, which placed to further his own goals, which was the the book on its Index of banned works. conquest of territory in the name of the His contemporaries among the Renais- Papacy that he would rule personally. sance humanists saw the author as an op- In 1512, the Medici regained power portunistic and cynical politician, a repu- and the Florentine Republic came to an tation that survived into modern times in end. Machiavelli was forced out of office, the term “Machiavellian,” meaning to act arrested, and charged with conspiracy. unscrupulously in the quest for power. Subject to torture, he refused to confess to Machiavelli’s interests led him well be- his crime. He survived this ordeal and re- yond politics; he was also a poet, musi- tired to his estate in the nearby country- cian, and a scholar of the classics. In this side, where he took up study of the clas- field he produced Discourse on the First sics and setting down his experiences and Ten Books of Livy, a book describing the his philosophy of government. history of the . The Dis-

Greenhaven Encyclopedia of The Renaissance 195 Magellan, Ferdinand course is a guidebook to republican gov- traveled with a Spanish army to Morocco, ernment, holding up the early Romans as where he was severely wounded in the an ideal to be followed by his Italian con- Battle of Azamor. Accused by his com- temporaries and all others to follow. He mander of insubordination in Africa, he most admired the balanced, three-part na- fell out of favor with King Manuel I, who ture of the early Roman government, di- refused him any further commissions. As a vided as it was into rulers, aristocrats, and result, Magellan resigned his commission common citizens. Two centuries later this and offered his services to the king of opinion would be reflected in the United Spain. States Constitution. Magellan had come to believe that the Spice Islands might be within the Portu- SEE ALSO: Borgia, Cesare; Medici, Cosimo guese domain according to the Treaty of de’ Tordesillas. He was determined to find a westward-sailing route to the Spice Islands Magellan, Ferdinand of East Asia, which promised fabulous (1480–1521) wealth to any individual or company that A Portuguese explorer whose ill-fated ex- could find easier access to them. The Span- pedition, sponsored by the king of Spain, ish monarchs, realizing that the voyages of was the first to circle the globe. Born in Columbus had not reached Asia, needed Saborosa, Portugal, he was the son of the to forge a new westward route in order to town’s mayor, who sent him to be edu- avoid the Portuguese who, after the pio- cated at the court of the king of Portugal. neering voyages of Vasco da Gama, had Magellan studied navigation and as- established well-defended trading stations tronomy at a time when nautical explora- in India and the Spice Islands. tion was opening up new continents for King Charles V agreed to sponsor Ma- Portuguese captains. A key event in this gellan, who assembled a fleet of five ships history was the signing of the Treaty of and set out in September 1519. The ships Tordesillas by Spain and Portugal in 1494. reached the coast of Brazil in December, The two kingdoms divided the globe be- then sailed south in search of the route tween them: lands west of a meridian that would lead them to the Pacific Ocean. drawn about 1,500 miles (2,414km) west Fearing that Magellan was leading them of the Cape Verde Islands were the prop- on a futile mission, several of his officers erty of Spain, to explore and colonize, and mutinied. The uprising was put down and lands to the east were Portuguese. The Magellan had two of his captains executed treaty shaped the history of exploration and two others marooned. One of his ships over the next generation as well as was wrecked in a storm, and another Magellan’s career. would abandon the fleet. In August 1520, Magellan first went to sea in 1505, Magellan found a long and narrow chan- when he accompanied the Portuguese gov- nel across the southern tip of South ernor Francisco de Almeida to his post in America that now is known as the Strait India. He became a captain in 1510 but of Magellan. was relieved of his rank in the next year as The three remaining ships made the punishment for sailing into the East Indies crossing of the Pacific Ocean, reaching the without formal permission. He returned island of on March 6, 1521, and to Portugal in 1512. In the next year he soon thereafter the Philippine Islands.

196 Greenhaven Encyclopedia of The Renaissance Malatesta, Sigismondo Pandolfo

Here Magellan delayed in order to make not have clocks accurate enough to ob- an alliance with the ruler of Cebu and in- serve the variation in the length of the day tercede in a conflict between that tribe and during the journey. This phenomenon the ruler of the nearby island of Mactan. caused great excitement at the time, to the On April 27, the Mactans attacked a party extent that a special delegation was sent to Magellan was leading ashore and killed the the pope to explain this oddity to him. commander. Malatesta, Sigismondo Pandolfo After Magellan’s death, the survivors (1417–1468) abandoned another ship and fled the Phil- ippines. Juan Sebastian Elcano took com- The lord of the Italian city of Rimini, mand of the company. The expedition Sigismondo Malatesta was a tyrant, a ruth- less commander of mercenary armies, and reached the Spice Islands in November and a significant patron of Renaissance artists took on their hard-won cargo of cloves and architects. He was born in Brescia, the and cinnamon. Another ship was captured son of Pandolfo Malatesta, whose ancestral by the Portuguese and the sole remaining home of Rimini was violently contested by ship, the Victoria, set out for the return to the armies of the pope. At the age of thir- Spain. Suffering from disease and malnu- teen, Sigismondo began his military ca- trition, the crew struggled into port on reer, taking up arms against Carlo Malat- September 6, 1522, with only 18 members esta, the lord of Pesaro, who had allied of the original 270-man expedition alive. with Pope Martin V in hopes of conquer- Magellan’s expedition was the first to ing Rimini. After defeating Carlo, Sigis- circumnavigate the globe and the first to mondo was appointed vicar of the towns navigate the strait in South America con- of Rimini, Cesena, and Fano by the pope; necting the Atlantic and Pacific oceans. in 1432, at the age of fifteen, he became Magellan’s crew made numerous, valuable the lord of Rimini by succeeding his half discoveries. They observed several animals brother Galeotto Roberto, who resigned that were entirely new to European sci- the title to escape the many conspiracies ence. These included the “camel without and violence surrounding his family’s humps” (possibly the llama, guanaco, court. vicuña, or alpaca) and a black “goose” that His renown as a military leader spread- had to be skinned instead of plucked (the ing throughout Italy, Sigismondo joined penguin). forces with the pope while still in his teens Two of the closest galaxies, the Magel- to defeat a campaign by the Spanish mer- lanic Clouds, were discovered by crew cenary Sante Cirillo. In 1437 he occupied members in the southern hemisphere. The the city of Cervia; although the pope ex- full extent of the earth was also realized, communicated him for this action, he was since their voyage was 14,460 leagues soon restored to the good graces of the (69,800 km or 43,400 miles). church and made a commander. He allied Finally, an international date line was with Francesco Sforza of Milan and in established. Upon their return they ob- 1442 married Sforza’s daughter, Polissena. served a mismatch of one day between He became Sforza’s rival when the latter their calendars and those who did not obtained Pesaro from Carlo Malatesta. He travel, even though they faithfully main- entered the service of King Alfonso V of tained their ship’s log. However, they did Naples but turned against his patron by

Greenhaven Encyclopedia of The Renaissance 197 Mantegna, Andrea

fighting with Florence, defeating Alfonso’s lasting effect on later Renaissance painters. siege of Piombino. The son of a woodworker, he was adopted Malatesta had a reputation as an un- at a young age by Francesco Squarcione, a scrupulous and violent tyrant, but he also painter and collector who ran an art stu- sought a brilliant legacy as an art patron. dio in the city of Padua. Mantegna struck He invited Leon Battista Alberti to design out on his own at the age of seventeen, the Temple of San Francesco, also known and soon afterward won important com- as the Tempio Malatestiano, in Rimini. missions, to paint an altarpiece for the This structure is known for Alberti’s use Church of Santa Sophia and several large of the Roman arch, the first Renaissance frescoes in the Church of the Eremitani. building to adopt this ancient pagan mo- In these works Mantegna developed the tif. Malatesta himself was a skilled poet new technique of perspective, which gives who dedicated his verses to Isotta degli the illusion of three-dimensional subjects Atti, his third wife and the woman who on a two-dimensional surface. may have inspired the death of Polissena Mantegna was strongly influenced by Sforza, who succumbed to a sudden illness possibly brought on by poisoning. the sculpture of Donatello, and the paint- ings of Paolo Uccello and Andrea del Cast- After the Peace of Lodi, an alliance of agno. He allied himself with the humanist Italian forces joined against Malatesta and movement that was flourishing in Padua, attacked his territory. His skill as a mili- where university professors and scholars tary leader made him a serious threat to the pope and the princes of Italy; in order fromalloverEuropearrivedtostudythe to thwart his ambition Pope Pius II ac- works of ancient Greek and Roman au- cused him of heresy and sodomy in 1460. thors. He studied Roman ruins and litera- Pius sent his armies against Rimini and in ture, and consciously incorporated ele- 1462 Malatesta’s army was smashed near ments of the classical world into his works, the town of Senigallia. His conquered ter- one of the first Renaissance painters to do ritories lost, Malatesta had only the ances- so. tral seat of Rimini remaining in his pos- In 1453 Mantegna married Nicolosia session. With Italy united against him, he Bellini, the daughter of Jacopo Bellini and enlisted in the service of Venice and fought the sister of Giovanni and Gentile Bellini. against the Ottoman Turks in Greece in Six years later he was invited by Ludovico 1465. When he returned to Italy he plotted Gonzaga, the marquess of Mantua, to be- a return to dominance through the mur- come a court painter. He was commis- der of Paul II, the successor of Pius. When sioned to paint in the ducal palace of the he arrived in Rome, intending to carry out city, where he completed two important the deed himself, he lost courage and re- works, the Wedding Chamber and the turned to Rimini, where he died. Painted Chamber. In these works Mante- gna created an entirely new environment, SEE ALSO: Alberti, Leon Battista; Pius II covering all surfaces with striking, illusion- istic pictures that place the viewer in an- Mantegna, Andrea other world, well outside the walls of the (1434–1506) palace and the city. An oculus, or circular Italian painter whose new techniques in opening on the ceiling, gives way to a the composition of his pictures had a long- brightly painted sky, surrounded by a se-

198 Greenhaven Encyclopedia of The Renaissance Mantua

Andrea Mantegna’s “Crucifixion” from the San Zeno Altarpiece. Christ is crucified among thieves, while soldiers stand and watch and the Madonna and the apostles mourn. ௠ COR- BIS.REPRODUCED BY PERMISSION. ries of foreshortened figures. These strik- ored by Mantua with an imposing funer- ing paintings established an entirely new ary monument, a rare honor for an artist technique of ceiling paintings done for pri- even at the height of the Italian Renais- vate homes and churches that flourished sance. in the late Renaissance and the Baroque SEE ALSO: Bellini, Giovanni; d’Este, Isa- eras. In the 1480s, while still in Mantua, bella; Gonzaga, House of; Mantua Mantegna also completed The Triumph of Caesar, a series of nine paintings that Mantua showed a triumphal procession in ancient An influential city in the Renaissance that Rome. Soon after this work, Mantegna was came under the control of the Gonzaga commissioned to paint the private chapel family, among Italy’s leading patrons of of Pope Innocent VIII at the Belvedere Pal- writers, artists, and scholars. Mantua dates aceinRome. to well before the time of Rome, and was Mantegna’s late paintings celebrate the best known in the Middle Ages as the accomplishments of the Gonzaga dynasty. birthplace of the Roman poet Virgil. The He painted Lady of Victory to commemo- city was an independent commune from rate the success of Francesco Gonzaga at the eleventh century but was seized by a the Battle of Fornovo, and Parnassus,to member of the Bonacolsi family in 1273. mark the wedding of Francesco to Isabella The reign of this dynasty brought the city d’Este. After his death Mantegna was hon- prosperity until a revolt occurred in 1328,

Greenhaven Encyclopedia of The Renaissance 199 Manuel I led by Luigi Gonzaga, a city official, and this reason Manuel is also known as “the his three sons. Mantua went through a Fortunate.” century of turmoil until Ludovico Gonzaga Manuel was an enthusiastic supporter seized power and his descendant, Gian- of Portugal’s explorations in Asia and fresco Gonzaga, was named as the mar- South America. During his reign, Vasco da quess of Mantua by the Holy Roman Em- Gama found a sea route to the Indian port peror through his marriage to the of Calicut, Pedro Alvares Cabral discov- emperor’s daughter Barbara of Branden- ered Brazil, and Portugal won a monopoly burg. In 1530, Federigo Gonzaga was given over the trade of the entire Indian Ocean. the title of Duke by Emperor Charles V, Portuguese merchants were settled in the and it was under Federigo’s reign that Indian port of Goa, which served as a cen- Mantua reached its full glory as a center tral base for Portugal’s commercial empire of art, architecture, and music. Federigo in the east. These merchants brought home commissioned the lavish Palazzo Te and a fortune in trade goods from the East In- improved the city with new gardens, roads, dies, allowing the king the money to raise and monuments. The Gonzaga dynasty many important palaces and religious came to an end in 1627, after which it buildings designed in a uniquely national came under the control of a related French style known as Manueline. The king signed clan, the Nevers. A war soon broke out important trade treaties with China and over the contested duchy, and a siege of Persia, and also was an energetic ruler at the city by the emperor’s forces in 1630 home, reforming the tax and justice sys- brought hunger, destruction, and the tems and making the nobility more sub- plague. Prominent citizens and artists fled servient to the king. He took two daugh- the city and Mantua entered a long period ters of King Ferdinand and Queen Isabella of neglect and decline. The dukes were as wives, but failed in his ambition to unite overthrown and the city finally seized by the monarchies of Spain and Portugal and the Habsburg dynasty in 1708. pass the throne on to his descendants. Al- though the Spanish monarchs demanded SEE ALSO: Gonzaga, House of; Tasso, that Manuel expel all the Jews from his Torquato kingdom as a condition of these marriages, he instead allowed them to remain for a Manuel I period of twenty years and banned any of- (1469–1521) ficial inquiry into their religious beliefs. King of Portugal during whose reign the SEE ALSO: Aviz, House of; da Gama, Vasco; Portuguese extended their overseas empire exploration; Portugal and made it the largest among all Euro- pean nations. Born in Alcochete, he was the grandson of King John I and the Margaret of Austria cousin and brother-in-law of John II, (1480–1530) whom he succeeded as king in 1495. Al- The daughter of Emperor Maximilian I though he was raised in a court of dan- and Mary of Burgundy, Margaret of Aus- gerous intrigue and violence, he was fa- tria became known as a wise and just ruler vored by John II as his heir after John’s of the , then part of legitimate son died in an accident and his the Holy Roman Empire. She was born in illegitimate son was denied the throne. For Brussels and betrothed at the age of three

200 Greenhaven Encyclopedia of The Renaissance Marguerite of Navarre to Prince Charles, later King Charles VIII. by a general revolt against Habsburg rule She moved to the royal court of France by the Protestant Netherlanders. In 1567, but returned to her family when Charles Margaret resigned her regency and fled repudiated her and married Anne of Brit- the troubled Netherlands for Italy. Her son tany. In 1497 she married Prince Juan of Alexander Farnese succeeded her as Asturias, the heir of Ferdinand and Isa- governor-general. bella of Spain, but the marriage ended with Juan’s death six months after the wed- Marguerite of Navarre ding ceremony. In 1501 she married Philib- (1492–1549) ert II, the Duke of Savoy, who died in A French author, religious reformer, and 1504. She became regent of the Nether- noble, the sister of King Francis I (Francois lands in 1507, and played an important I) who played a major role in the cultural role in the troubled and rebellious lands flowering and religious conflicts of Renais- that were under the nominal rule of her sance France. The daughter of Charles, father, the emperor. A talented musician Count of Angouleme, and Louise of Savoy, and composer, she welcomed many of she was raised in Angouleme and Cognac Europe’s leading musicians to her court. and was offered an education in Latin and letters. Through her marriage to King In 1529, representing her young nephew Henry II of Navarre, she became the queen Charles V, she settled the Treaty of Camb- of Navarre, a realm lying just beyond the rai with Louise Savoy, mother of Francis I. borders of France and Spain. She held a This “Ladies’ Peace” confirmed Habsburg salon that attracted the most renowned control of contested territory in northern writers and poets of France, including Italy. Francois Rabelais, Pierre de Ronsard, and

SEE ALSO: Charles V Desiderius Erasmus. An able diplomat, in 1525 she negotiated with Emperor Charles V for the release of her brother after his Margaret of Parma capture at the Battle of Pavia. The king al- (1522–1586) lowed her to sit on his council of minis- Duchess of Parma and regent of the Neth- ters and negotiate treaties with England. erlands. Margaret was the illegitimate The queen took a strong interest in re- daughter of Emperor Charles V and Jo- form of the Catholic Church, in order to hanna van der Gheynst, the servant of a counter the radical Protestant movement Flemish noble. Her great aunt was Marga- that was sweeping away traditional church ret of Austria, who was regent of the Neth- institutions in Germany, Switzerland, and erlands from 1507 until her death in 1530. the Netherlands. She defended French In 1533, Charles recognized her as his le- “Evangelicals,” or reformers, including gitimate daughter. She was engaged to Al- Gerard Roussel, from charges of heresy, exander de’ Medici, the son of the pope, and allowed many of them to take refuge and married him in 1536. After her hus- in Navarre. In 1534, she helped John band was assassinated in the next year, she Calvin to escape France under threat of married the Duke of Parma. She was an persecution for heresy. She also established able and intelligent woman who was ap- charities and a system of public education pointed regent of the Netherlands by for the needy, a unique institution in Re- Philip II in 1559. Her reign was marked naissance Europe.

Greenhaven Encyclopedia of The Renaissance 201 Marlowe, Christopher

Marguerite authored poetry and sto- tious central character presented quite ries. On the death of her infant son in sympathetically among a hostile milieu of 1530 she wrote Miroir de l’Ame Pecheresse, Christians. All of Marlowe’s works involves which Catholic theologians labeled a he- a powerful man who is laid low by his own retical work. After her death, her stories outlandish personality and ambition. His were collected in a volume known as the best-known play is Doctor Faustus, which Heptameron. These tales took as their recounts the familiar story of a brilliant model the Decameron of Giovanni Boccac- scholar who sells his soul to the devil. cio but took the woman’s side in the con- Marlowe died in the town of Deptford flicts and misunderstandings between the on May 30, 1593, during a brawl in a pri- sexes. vate home. The circumstances of his mur- der are shrouded in mystery, and some SEE ALSO: Calvin, John; Francis I; Rabelais, historians believe it is connected to his Francois shadowy double life as a spy and govern- ment agent. According to some accounts, Marlowe, Christopher his killer, Ingram Frizer, was working on (1564–1593) instructions of a more powerful man or English playwright and contemporary of on the government’s wishes for Marlowe’s William Shakespeare who wrote moving, death. Others believe Marlowe’s own fiery tragic plays in the new medium of blank temperament and penchant for physical verse. Born in Canterbury, he prepared for assault brought about his death at the the ministry at the University of Cam- hands of Frizer, who was judged by the bridge. Some historical documents indi- authorities to have acted in self-defense. cate that Marlowe was engaged by the minister Sir Francis Walsingham, Queen SEE ALSO: drama; England; Shakespeare, Elizabeth’s secretary of state, to serve as a William spy in France. After earning a master’s de- gree at Cambridge, he moved to London, Masaccio where he joined the Lord Admiral’s Com- (1401–1428) pany and soon ran into trouble with the Tommaso Cassai, nicknamed “Masaccio” law. He was arrested and jailed in 1589 for or “Thomas the Absent-Minded,” was an taking part in a deadly brawl. In 1593, he artist of the early Renaissance who broke was arrested again under the charge of new ground in the technique of painting. atheism. Born in San Giovanni Valdarno, a small Historians are still piecing together the town near Arezzo in Tuscany, Italy, Masac- obscure details of Marlowe’s life and writ- cio traveled to Florence, where he joined ing career. In the course of his short life, the city’s painters guild as well as a circle he wrote only one extended poem and six of artists, including Filippo Brunelleschi plays. His earliest work, Tamburlaine the and Donatello, who were developing new Great, was written in two parts and printed ways of depicting the human form and in 1590. The play describes the career of a setting it in three-dimensional space. His cruel Mongol tyrant. This play was fol- first major work was a fresco painting, Sa- lowed by Dido, Queen of Carthage; The gra del Carmine, done for the cloister of Massacre at Paris; Edward, II; and The Jew Santa Maria del Carmine in Florence. This of Malta, which presents a deviously ambi- work, one of the first large paintings to

202 Greenhaven Encyclopedia of The Renaissance mathematics render a contemporary event, was com- tor of the paintings to certain elements of pleted by 1425 but since that time has been the work, and of setting the figures in a destroyed. more dramatic, natural world. This ap- Very few other works of Masaccio’s proach revolutionized painting and set the have survived into modern times, but on stage for the monumental and powerfully these paintings rests his reputation as a realistic paintings of the Renaissance. highly skilled and original painter. He col- The frescoes became laborated with Tommaso Masolino on a a place of pilgrimage and study for many polyptych, or multipaneled altarpiece, for major Italian artists, including Michelan- the church of Santa Maria del Carmine in gelo Buonarroti, Leonardo da Vinci, San- Pisa. This work was broken apart and dro Botticelli, Andrea del Verrocchio, An- found its way to several museums. The drea del Sartro, and many others. Before central panel, the Madonna and Child En- completing this work, however, Masaccio throned, was flanked by portraits of Saint left for Rome, where he died at the young Paul and Saint Andrew. age of twenty-six. Masaccio also completed an important SEE ALSO: Brunelleschi, Filippo; Donatello; series of frescoes in the Brancacci chapel Florence; painting of the Church of Santa Maria del Carmine in Florence, as well as a fresco of the Trin- mathematics ity in the church of Santa Maria Novella. The Brancacci chapel fresco was commis- Mathematical knowledge in medieval Eu- sioned by Felice Brancacci to Masaccio and rope was strongly influenced by treatises his collaborator Masolino da Panicale. The of Arabic scholars that were imported to paintings include depictions of biblical the continent from Sicily and Moorish- events, set in a classical world: the Expul- controlled Iberia (modern Spain and sion from the Garden of Eden, Tribute Portugal), and by the works of ancient Money, St. Peter Baptizing, Miracle of the Greeks such as Ptolemy, Erastothenes, and Shadow, and St. Peter and St. John Distrib- Euclid that had survived in Arabic ver- uting Alms. Inspired by the new sculpture sions and were later translated into Latin. of Donatello’s, Masaccio composed power- The Italian scientist Leonardo Fibonacci fully expressive and monumental figures, had revived original research in the thir- an important change from the slender, teenth century. The calculation of speed ethereal figures of the saints that were a and uniform motion were problems tack- tradition in European Gothic art. He de- led by a school of mathematicians known picted a wide range of emotional expres- as the Oxford Calculators of the fourteenth sion and more realistic human emotion, century. Everyday calculation, however, was skillfully used light to sharpen and define still a difficult process. It involved the use contours, and incorporated classical archi- of cumbersome Roman numerals and tecture to reflect the new respect artists complex methods of doing division and were showing for the works of the ancient multiplication—without the use of alge- Romans. The invention of artificial per- braic symbols and mathematical signs. spective by Brunelleschi also had an im- The study of mathematics was spurred portant impact on Masaccio. The painter by growing trade and international bank- used foreshortening of the figures and per- ing, which followed an earlier period of spective as a means of guiding the specta- localized trade and the barter system. The

Greenhaven Encyclopedia of The Renaissance 203 Maximilian I expanding economy demanded a better At the same time, astronomy was be- ability to calculate sums, percentages, for- coming a sophisticated mathematical eign exchange, and rates of interest. The method of predicting planetary orbits, the new double-entry method of bookkeeping path of the stars, and the occurrence of allowed merchants to carefully track in- eclipses and other celestial phenomena. come and expenses. Abacists were math The precise observation of the skies and teachers who imparted the needed math- the measuring technique of trigonometry ematical skills to the sons of traders, bank- were spurred by the demands of naviga- ers, and long-distance merchants. The in- tors, who needed accurate charts of newly vention of printing in the middle of the explored areas that lay thousands of miles fifteenth century allowed mathematical distant from familiar home shores. The first textbook in this subject was the Trigo- texts to circulate widely, beginning with nometria, written by Bartholomaeus Pitis- Theoricae Nova Planetarum of Georg von cus and published in 1595. The investiga- Peuerbach in 1472 and a guide to arith- tion of the heavens by telescope enabled metic, known as the Treviso Arithmetic,in more precise astronomical calculations, 1478. The Elements, a study by the ancient undertaken by Galileo Galilei, Tycho mathematician Euclid, first appeared in Brahe, and Johannes Kepler, who devised a printed form in 1482. The Arabic numer- systematic mathematical system for deter- als, decimal places, and mathematical signs mining planetary orbits. The French phi- and symbols borrowed from India came losopher René Descartes developed a new into common use in Europe at about the method of depicting calculations on charts same time. and a system of analytic geometry. The Sixteenth-century mathematicians be- culmination of Renaissance study of math- gan solving many thorny problems, such ematics was the system of calculus, a as cubic and quartic equations. The Ger- method of solving complex problems that man philosopher Johann Müller, known as was first developed by Sir Isaac Newton Regiomontanus, wrote commentaries on and the German scholar Gottfried Wil- Ptolemy’s Almagest and published his own helm Leibniz. book of calculations, Detriangulus.An- other German, Johann Widman, was the SEE ALSO: Brahe, Tycho; Kepler, Johannes first to use the plus and minus signs in a published work. Other significant German Maximilian I mathematicians were Adam Riese, Chris- (1459–1519) toph Rudolff (who pioneered the use of Holy Roman Emperor who greatly ex- root symbols), and Michael Stifel, who panded the realm under the control of the wrote an algebra text, the Arithmetica Inte- powerful Habsburg dynasty. He was born gra, dealing with powers, radicals, and in Wiener Neustadt, a suburb of Vienna, negative numbers. In Italy, Geronimo Car- the son of Emperor Frederick III and dano wrote Ars Magna, the first algebra Eleanor of Portugal. In 1477, he married treatise written in Latin. Cardano’s follow- Mary of Burgundy, who brought the Low ers included Niccolo Tartaglia, who drew Countries and Burgundy under Habsburg up the first “firing tables” for use by artil- control. In 1482, on the death of Mary, lery, and was the first to discover a for- Burgundy became a part of France while mula for solving cubic equations. the Netherlands, which had always resisted

204 Greenhaven Encyclopedia of The Renaissance Medici, Cosimo de’

Habsburg control, signed a treaty with Cosimo set out to increase business by King Louis XI of France. On the death of lending money to European rulers and in- his father Frederick in 1493 he ascended vesting in trading expeditions to Africa to the Habsburg throne; in the next year and Asia. he married Maria Sforza, daughter of the Cosimo rankled the aristocrats of Flo- Duke of Milan. In 1493 Maximilian signed rence by enlisting the artisans and guilds the Treaty of Senlis that surrendered Bur- of the city to his side. He was arrested in gundy and Picardy (in northern France) 1433 at the instigation of his most power- in exchange for the Netherlands and the ful rivals, the wealthy Albizzi clan. Threat- territory of Franche-Comte. He later ap- ened with a trial and execution, he was pointed his daughter Margaret of Austria eventually exiled from the city after paying as the regent of the Netherlands. a bribe to the head of the city’s justice de- His marriage to Maria Sforza fired partment. In the next year, a new Floren- Maximilian’s ambitions to contest control tine government overturned his sentence, of the wealthy cities of northern Italy. This the Albizzi were banished, and Cosimo re- touched off the Italian Wars with France turned to the city. He soon held the reigns that dragged on for a generation and em- of power firmly in his hands, by appoint- broiled nearly every major city of Italy as ing his own supporters to the high offices well as the Papacy. After the Battle of Dor- known as magistracies. Although he held nach, Maximilian signed the Treaty of no formal title, Cosimo enjoyed fervent Basel, which granted independence to the support among common people and ordi- Swiss Confederation. He arranged a mar- nary workers. With his popularity greater riage for his granddaughter Mary with than ever, he reformed the tax system to Louis, the son of the king of Hungary and favor the middle class and spent great Bohemia, and his grandson Ferdinand to amounts of money on important public marry Louis’ sister Anne. These betrothals works, including the restoration of the eventually brought Hungary and Bohemia Church of San Lorenzo. He allied the city under Habsburg control. with Milan and Venice, in order to balance the power of Naples and the Papacy. This SEE ALSO: Charles V; Margaret of Austria balance of power survived into the late fif- teenth century under the skillful manage- Medici, Cosimo de’ ment of his grandson, Lorenzo de’ Medici. (1389–1464) Cosimo also began a Medici tradition Ruler of Florence and founder of the of patronage of the arts and letters. He in- Medici dynasty, one of the wealthiest and vited artists and sculptors to contribute most influential clans of Europe. The son their works to his palace and local of Giovanni de’ Medici, a gonfalero (high churches. He collected manuscripts from official) of Florence, Cosimo inherited a throughout Europe and had them copied fortune made by his father in the new in- and preserved. The books were gathered dustry of international banking. The in local monasteries and made available to Medici profited from expanded trade and scholars and writers. Cosimo also founded business contacts among the nations, the Academy of Plato, also known as the which called for more sophisticated meth- Neoplatonic Academy, to teach the phi- ods of exchanging and investing money. losophy and writings of this ancient Greek On inheriting the family’s bank in 1429, writer, under the leadership of Marsilio Fi-

Greenhaven Encyclopedia of The Renaissance 205 Medici, Lorenzo de’ cino. These actions made Florence the cen- tacked Lorenzo and his brother, Giuliano, ter of an emerging new view of the world during Mass in the cathedral of Florence. that placed the genius of human artists Although Lorenzo escaped his would-be and philosophers on an equal footing with assassins, Giuliano was stabbed to death. the inspiration of traditional religion. The pope then excommunicated Lorenzo and put the city of Florence under an in- SEE ALSO: Ficino, Marsilio; humanism; terdict, forbidding the Florentines to cel- Medici, Lorenzo de’ ebrate Mass. At the pope’s urging, King Ferdinand I Medici, Lorenzo de’ of Naples then ordered an assault on Flo- (1449–1492) rence. In response, Lorenzo courageously Lorenzo il Magnifico, or Lorenzo the Mag- sailed to Naples and negotiated directly nificent, ruled the Italian city of Florence with the king. Persuaded by his adversary’s as a patron of artists, writers, and human- bold actions, Ferdinand made a truce with ists. During his reign, the city saw a re- Florence, and both Naples and Florence birth of the arts and scholarship that is were spared a costly war. Eventually the known as the Renaissance. pope also ended hostilities, and Lorenzo The scion of a wealthy family of bank- emerged as the most influential ruler in ers, he was the grandson of Cosimo de’ northern Italy. Medici, the first of the Medici to rule Flo- Lorenzo passed a new constitution for rence. Lorenzo’s father Piero de’ Medici il the city in 1480, establishing a council of Gottoso (the Gouty) was a collector of an- seventy leading citizens who would govern cient works and contemporary art; his the city for life. He brought the leading mother Lucrezi Tornabuoni was an ama- artists of Italy, including Domenico teur poet. His parents gave Lorenzo a thor- Ghirlandaio, Fra Filippo Lippi, Andrea del ough education in ancient Greek and Verrochio, Sandro Botticelli, and Mich- Latin, and the classical authors. At the age elangelo Buonarroti, as well as the scholars of seventeen he married Clarice Orsini, a Marsilio Ficino and Giovanni Pico della member of a wealthy and influential Ro- Mirandola to his splendid court. He ex- man family. On the death of Piero de’ panded his family’s splendid library by Medici in 1469, Lorenzo became head of sending agents through southern and east- the family and, with his brother Giuliano ern Europe in search of unknown ancient serving as his co ruler, the leading citizen manuscripts, which became the founda- of Florence. tion of Florence’s famous Laurentian Li- One of Lorenzo’s first achievements brary. As copies of these books traveled was to affirm the handling of the papal fi- through Italy and Europe, they played a nances by the . But the great vital role in the spread of classical learning wealth and influence of the Medici family and humanism that was the foundation of were cause for grave alarm for Pope Sixtus the Renaissance. IV, who sought to extend the papal terri- Lorenzo staged great festivals, proces- tories northward to the frontier of Tus- sions, and entertainments for the citizens cany. Over the next few years, the pope of Florence. Early in his reign, he ensured formed an alliance with the Pazzi clan, ri- the city’s grain supply during a famine, an vals of the Medici. On April 26, 1478, a action that won over the population to few of the Pazzi and their hangers-on at- enthusiastically support him. Nevertheless,

206 Greenhaven Encyclopedia of The Renaissance medicine he was careless with money, and his ex- sician, and one of the most important fig- pensive tastes and desire for fine art and ures of Renaissance medicine. He believed spectacle drained the treasuries of both his that sickness resulted from imbalances of family and city. In addition, a backlash ar- essential minerals and chemicals in the rived with Girolamo Savonarola, a fiery body, and prescribed medicines meant to Dominican monk who bitterly condemned correct these imbalances. He also investi- the lavish and decadent tastes of the Flo- gated the action of poisons, and hit upon rentines and conducted public burnings of the idea that a toxic substance, when ap- art and books in the city’s central square. plied in a limited dose, can cure the body After the death of Lorenzo, the truce of illness. Paracelsus applied his theories he had arranged among the city-states of to the treatment of miners, who seemed to northern Italy soon gave way. The penin- have several dangerous illnesses in com- sula again fell into violent squabbling and mon that resulted from their occupation became prey to foreign rulers, including and not from the state of their bodily hu- the king of France, who invaded Italy in mors (fluids) or their souls. 1494. His son Giovanni was elected Pope Leo X, and his nephew Giulio, the son of In the generation of Paracelsus, new Giuliano, was Pope Clement VII. treatments for sickness and injuries were developed, which bypassed many of the SEE ALSO: Medici, Cosimo de’; Michelan- old superstitions of the medieval age. The gelo Buonarroti; Pazzi Conspiracy French surgeon Ambroise Pare developed the use of ligatures to close battlefield medicine wounds, a method intended to deter infec- The practice of medicine in the early Re- tion and avoid the complications caused naissance was still bound by the study of by sealing wounds with burning irons. Pare the ancient Greek doctors and writers, in set down his findings in Method of Treat- particular Hippocrates, Dioscorides, and ing Wounds Inflicted by Arquebuses and the second-century physician Galen. The other Guns, which after its publication in writings of Galen were the accepted teach- 1545 became a standard medical textbook ing in universities and sanctioned by the for military doctors. For the majority of Catholic Church, which held control the population, however, medical practice through the universities over the training still held to medieval traditions, and spiri- of professional doctors. Galen’s own ana- tual healing was still the most common- tomical knowledge was limited, however, place approach to sickness. Barber/ by a prohibition on human dissection, a surgeons set bones, pulled teeth, carried practice still banned by the medieval out bloodlettings, and performed amputa- church. Thus the limitations of Galen’s tions of infected limbs. Ordinary medical knowledge persisted for a thousand years doctors still relied on the philosophy of within Europe, even as the church held his the four humors of the body (blood, teachings to be infallible. phlegm, yellow bile, and black bile) to di- A new approach to knowledge and in- agnose illness and prescribe treatment. vestigation of science bloomed in the Re- Apothecaries and herbalists offered a wide naissance. Old methods and treatments range of plant and animal products to ap- came under question. The German phi- ply or to ingest, mixtures designed to heal losopher Paracelsus was the son of a phy- disease through their sheer repulsiveness.

Greenhaven Encyclopedia of The Renaissance 207 Médicis, Catherine de

The discovery of new land in the West- ern Hemisphere and Asia also had an im- portant impact on Renaissance medicine, bringing new treatments and medicines to Europe. University professors and doctors put dissection and the new microscope to work to explore the human body, while artists such as Leonardo da Vinci under- took their own investigations in order to render the human body as realistically as possible. The first translation of Galen’s work On Anatomical Procedures into Latin was accomplished in 1531 by Johannes Guinter. In this book Galen recommends human dissection, a stand that promoted the practice by doctors and scientists in the late Renaissance. A new age of investi- gation was opened up, led by anatomists such as Andreas Vesalius, a professor of surgery at the University of Padua, the aca- Catherine de Medicis, queen and regent of demic center of medicine in the Renais- France. THE LIBRARY OF CONGRESS. sance. Vesalius was the first to practice public dissection before students on hu- her birth and then raised in the midst of man corpses. His book On the Structure of stormy conflict between France, the Holy the Human Body, first published in 1543, Roman Emperor, and the popes over con- offered detailed and accurate anatomical trol of Italy’s wealthy cities and principali- drawings. These investigations culminated ties. In 1527 the Medici dynasty in Flo- in the discovery of the circulation of the rence was overthrown, and Catherine was blood by William Harvey, an English doc- taken hostage for the good behavior of her tor who published On the Motion of the family. She was freed by her uncle, Pope Heart and Blood in Animals in 1628. Clement VII, who was temporarily de- throned before being restored by Emperor SEE ALSO: Paracelsus Charles V. Clement arranged the marriage of his Médicis, Catherine de niece to Henry, the Duke of Orléans, in (1519–1589) 1533. A member of the Valois dynasty, Queen of France as the wife of King Henry Henry became King Henry II in 1547. Al- II, and a woman who wielded a powerful though Catherine remained his wife, her influence on French politics and on the influence over him was overshadowed by violent religious conflict that was dividing Diane de Poitiers, who became the king’s the realm into hostile camps of Protes- confidante and mistress. As a foreigner, tants and Catholics. Born in Florence as Catherine’s loyalty to France came under the daughter of Lorenzo de’ Medici and a suspicion, and she had little influence to French princess, Madeleine de la Tour match that of her rival Diane. At a festival d’Auvergne, she was orphaned soon after to celebrate the betrothal of their daughter

208 Greenhaven Encyclopedia of The Renaissance Médicis, Marie de

Elizabeth, however, Henry was severely in- Médicis, Marie de jured in a joust, and soon afterward died. (1573–1642) Catherine had Diane banished from the The of King Henry IV of court and then saw her son succeed to the France. The daughter of Francesco de’ throne as Francis II. At this time French Medici, the Duke of Tuscany, and the Protestants were gaining strength and ally- Archduchess Joanna of Austria, she mar- ing with the Protestant monarch of En- ried Henry in 1600. When Henry was as- gland, Elizabeth I, raising suspicion of sassinated in 1610, she served as regent for treason among them by Catholic nobles their son and successor, Louis XIII. She and ministers. In 1560, after the death of made a truce with the Habsburg dynasty, Francis, Catherine served as regent for her son Charles IX. Catholics and Protestants the traditional enemies of France, and al- were unable to reconcile their differences lied with Spain through the marriage of and in the 1560s their disagreements her son Louis to Anne, a princess of the brewed into open warfare. Habsburg clan. In control of the royal trea- sury, she squandered vast sums on court Catherine took the Catholic side in the festivities and on bribes to nobles hostile Wars of Religion and conspired endlessly to the crown. She also ordered important against the French Protestants, known as building projects in the capital of Paris, the Huguenots, as a way of strengthening gracing the city with imposing monuments her family’s position at the royal court. In and palaces, including the Luxembourg the countryside, Huguenot armies ravaged Palace on the city’s formerly neglected Left Catholic towns, raided convents and mon- Bank. This palace was decorated with an asteries, and committed atrocities, while important series of paintings describing the Catholic forces staged bloody reprisals her life, by the Flemish artist Peter Paul in northern France, a Huguenot heartland. Rubens. By the Peace of Saint Germain in 1570, she arranged the marriage of her daughter Marie’s regency saw trouble brewing Marguerite to Henry of Navarre, a Hugue- among the French nobility, which was as- not leader. In 1572, on the occasion of the serting ancient rights to balance the au- wedding, Catherine plotted at a wholesale thority of the king. A general assembly massacre of Protestants in the kingdom, known as the Estates General was con- known as the Saint Bartholomew’s Day vened in 1614; at the same time Marie pro- Massacre. Four years later she helped to moted an Italian friend, Concino Concini, form the Catholic League, an anti- to a powerful position within the govern- Huguenot army, and worked tirelessly to ment over the capable Duc de Sully. Re- garner support for her son, King Henry sentment at the meddling of this outsider III. Shortly after her death, this king was hardened opposition to the monarchy. assassinated by a Dominican monk, and Louis came to the throne in 1617, three Catherine’s ambitious dreams for the years after his age of majority. Concini was Valois dynasty came to an end when the assassinated on Louis’ orders in the same Protestant Henry of Navarre came to the year and the young king soon exiled his throne (after converting to Catholicism) as mother to the castle of Blois, fearing con- King Henry IV. spiracies on her part against him. In 1619 Marie escaped her virtual captivity and SEE ALSO:HenryIV raised an open revolt against her son, but

Greenhaven Encyclopedia of The Renaissance 209 Mehmed II her forces were defeated. The son and his After this victory, Mehmed was able to mother were reconciled in 1622, with extend his authority throughout Anatolia Marie advancing her ally Cardinal Rich- and use Constantinople as a base for fur- elieu to the position of the king’s chief ther assaults against Christian states in the minister. Within a few years Richelieu and Balkan Peninsula. Mehmed besieged Bel- Marie de’ Médicis were adversaries, with grade in 1456 and in the following years the king eventually siding with Richelieu battled an army led by Prince Vlad Dracula and again banishing Marie. After she of Wallachia. Mehmed seized the last rem- mounted a foiled coup against the king, nants of the Byzantine Empire in the she was exiled by the king, this time to the Peloponnesus in 1460 and Trebizond, in city of Compiegne and then out of the Anatolia, in 1461. kingdom permanently. Marie fled to the Mehmed allowed Byzantine Christians Netherlands, where she continued to rally to remain in Constantinople and freely opponents of Richelieu in hopes of return- practice their faith. He attempted to forge ing to Paris in control of the royal court. cultural links with European nations, in- She failed, however, and lived a shadowy viting artists and scholars to work under life as an exile until her death in 1642. his patronage. He improved roads and ca- nals in his newly conquered capital and SEE ALSO: Bourbon dynasty also raised important structures, including the Topkapi Palace, which remained the home of the sultans throughout Ottoman Mehmed II history. Mehmed’s personal ambitions (1432–1481) were unsatisfied by the fall of Constanti- Sultan of the Ottoman Empire, and con- nople, however. He attacked the Italian queror of Constantinople and the Eastern peninsula in 1480, intending to besiege Roman or Byzantine Empire. Born in the Rome and become the ruler of a reunited Ottoman capital of Edirne, Mehmed II was Roman Empire. Although he captured the the son of Sultan Murad II. He was trained southern Italian port of Otranto, his lines as a ruler in the province of Amasya, and of retreat were threatened by a rebellion in at the age of twelve became the titular Ot- and, under pressure from a Chris- toman ruler after his father abdicated his tian army gathered by Pope Sixtus IV, he throne. Hard-pressed to rally troops be- retreated from Italy in 1481. hind him for an assault against Christians SEE ALSO: Fall of Constantinople in the Balkans, Mehmed ordered his father out of retirement to lead the Turks in the Battle of Varna in 1444, a complete victory Melanchthon, Philipp for the Ottoman forces. In 1451 Murad II German theologian, ally of Martin Luther, died and Mehmed became the unques- and early leader of the Protestant Refor- tioned leader of the empire. Over the next mation in Germany. Born in the town of two years, he rallied his forces for an as- Bretten in the Palatine, Melanchthon stud- sault on Constantinople, defended by a ied the Latin and Greek classics and, at the stout ring of fortifications. The siege of age of thirteen, was admitted to the Uni- Constantinople ended in May 1453, with versity of Heidelberg. Too young to earn a the fall of the city and the death of the degree, he moved to the University of Tub- last Byzantine emperor, Constantine XI. ingen in 1512, and took up the study of

210 Greenhaven Encyclopedia of The Renaissance Mercator, Gerardus philosophy, astrology, and mathematics. did a portrait with the poet’s wife and chil- He became a lecturer in rhetoric and po- dren. Memling is also known for series pic- etry. He became a professor of Greek at tures, including the SevenGriefsofMary the University of Wittenberg, where he in- and the Seven Joys of Mary. His last great spired a large following and won the work was a series of six paintings done for friendship of Martin Luther. He defended a small shrine of Saint Ursula, commis- Luther’s challenge to the Catholic hierar- sioned by two nuns for the Hospital of chy, at the risk of his own life, and helped Saint John in Bruges. He died a wealthy to write the Augsburg Confession, which man and was regarded by many as one of Luther presented at the Diet of Augsburg the best painters in Europe. in 1530. SEE ALSO: van der Weyden, Rogier; van Memling, Hans Eyck, Jan (1430–1494) Flemish painter whose works continued Mercator, Gerardus the richly colored and precisely drawn style (1512–1594) of Jan van Eyck and Rogier van der Wey- A Flemish cartographer who invented a den. Memling was born in the town of Se- system of setting lines of latitude and lon- ligenstadt, near Frankfurt, Germany, and gitude on charts of the spherical earth, the as a young man moved to the city of Brus- “Mercator projection,” which has become sels, in Burgundy. He may have worked as a standard for maps into modern times. an apprentice with van der Weyden, whose Born in Rupelmonde, a small town in work had a strong influence. In 1466 he Flanders, he studied at the University of moved to the city of Bruges, a Flemish Louvain, where he achieved a master’s de- town that had grown wealthy from the gree in 1532. Troubled by the conflict of wool trade and that offered many oppor- ancient Greek philosophy with Christian tunities for a skilled painter to find pa- doctrine, Mercator studied mathematics, trons and commissions. Memling pros- philosophy, geography and astronomy in pered by painting for churches, guilds, order to reach some conclusions about the civic organizations, and private citizens, origins and true nature of the world. He who commissioned the portraits that have was above all fascinated by the developing become Memling’s best-known works in art of mapmaking, which in his day ben- modern times. His major works include efited from the discoveries of explorers and an altarpiece known as the SevenGriefsof traveling merchants. He became a skilled Mary, painted for the guild of booksellers maker of globes and instruments; under of Bruges, and The Last Judgment,awork the training of Gemma Frisius and Gaspar that Memling painted for a Bruges mer- Myrica, two men expert in the craft, he chant that was stolen at sea by a pirate also mastered the difficult art of engrav- and brought to the cathedral of Gdansk, ing. A workshop set up by the three men Poland. Memling’s renown spread to Italy, turned Louvain into an important center where his works were in demand from of globe making, cartography, and the pro- wealthy collectors such as the Sforza rulers duction of sextants, telescopes, and other of Milan and the Medici of Florence. He scientific instruments. His far-ranging ex- painted a Virgin and Child for the English ploration and questioning of accepted poet John Donne, for whom Memling also Christian doctrines, however, landed him

Greenhaven Encyclopedia of The Renaissance 211 mercenaries in trouble with the religious authorities, kings. The mounted knight was no match and in 1544 he was arrested, tried, con- for masses of archers and crossbowmen, victed, and briefly imprisoned on a charge who dominated the battlefield during the of heresy. Hundred Years’ War in France. This war, In 1552 Mercator moved to Duisburg, which dragged on for generations until in the Germany duchy of Cleves, where he the final defeat of the English in the 1450s, was appointed a professor of mathematics demanded permanent armies in the field. and also became a land surveyor. In Duis- A permanent force was an impossibility burg, where he remained for the rest of under a feudal system that demanded only his life, he helped to found a grammar forty days of annual service from a king’s school and continued his work in cartog- vassals. raphy. After publishing a map of Europe in 1554 and then several other local maps At the same time, the economy of Eu- of Britain and the European continent, his rope was expanding through better trans- reputation spread. He also developed a portation and communications, and the new method of producing globes, in which new international banking system relied he pasted on the sphere printed maps that on credit, money, and bills of exchange. were cut to fit by tapering their edges to- This made it possible for rulers to borrow ward the top and bottom. and to hire mercenaries to fight their battles. Mercenaries could take the field Mercator was appointed by the Duke for as long as they were paid, allowing of Cleves as an official court cartographer. kings and princes to mount long cam- He perfected his system of marking paral- paigns against their rivals and undertake lel lines on a map to indicate degrees of sieges of enemy fortresses. The system had longitude that could be applied to naviga- its roots in the practice of scutage, or pay- tion charts and allow ship captains to ment by a vassal in lieu of military service. more accurately follow their course at sea. The payment of scutage allowed feudal He first used this system on a map of the lords to hire professional soldiers, who world he completed in 1569. In the 1570s trained from a young age in the military he began producing an atlas, a collection that included the maps of the ancient arts and often proved more able than he- Greek astronomer Ptolemy as well as his reditary knights who simply fought out of own maps covering France, Germany, Italy, traditional obligation. the Netherlands, eastern Europe, Greece, Mercenaries came from all corners of and the British Isles. This work, which he Europe, but they were especially numerous completed over the span of more than in Switzerland, then a poor land where twenty years, was finally published by his young men looked elsewhere for opportu- son after his death. nity. The Swiss infantry enjoyed a reputa- tion as skilled fighters, well disciplined and mercenaries well armed with fearsome halberds, which Warfare went through an important could kill an armored knight at a single change in the . Once the blow. Mercenary captains assembled small domain of mounted knights who fought armies, drilling them relentlessly with for- in the service of their feudal overlords, mation and fighting tactics, in which in- war became a matter for professional mer- fantry, archers, and cavalry were carefully cenary armies that fought for powerful coordinated.

212 Greenhaven Encyclopedia of The Renaissance Michelangelo Buonarroti

The city-states of Italy favored merce- naries as an alternative to levies of the citi- zens. Bankers, industrialists, and merchants did not want to go to war, and disrupt the commerce that was essential to their pros- perity. Instead, they hired condottieri (a word that means “contractors”) to fight their battles. The best mercenary captains were well paid and in very high demand, and were honored by their patron cities with noble titles and monuments. Not ev- eryone in Renaissance Italy appreciated the service of mercenaries, however. The diplomat and political philosopher Nic- colo Machiavelli detested mercenaries as a symptom of a divided and weak Italian nation, one that was losing out while rival societies were organizing themselves into powerful, centralized kingdoms. The French king Charles VII organized a standing army of mercenaries, organized into compagnies d’ordonnance. These per- manent armies of France as well as the Holy Roman Empire invaded Italy in the late fifteenth and early sixteenth centuries, Michelangelo’s “David.” PHOTOGRAPH BY SU- and eventually put an end to the indepen- SAN D. ROCK.REPRODUCED BY PERMISSION. dence of the Italian city-states. By the end of the Renaissance, mercenary armies that prese, and Francesca Neri. His father sent were hired for short campaigns were obso- him to study with Francesco Galeota, a lete. They were replaced by standing na- scholar of Urbino. At a young age Mich- tional armies, which were raised by levies, elangelo took an interest in painting, and and permanently garrisoned in strong- at thirteen he joined the studio of Do- holds. menico Ghirlandaio. His ambition to be SEE ALSO: Macchiavelli, Niccolo; Montefel- an artist, however, was opposed by his fa- tro, Federigo da ther, who saw painters and sculptors as lowly craftsmen and wanted his son to be- Michelangelo Buonarroti come a merchant and civic leader. (1475–1564) Michelangelo’s talent earned him an invi- Italian sculptor, fresco painter, architect, tation from Lorenzo de’ Medici, a distant and poet, whose works have become popu- cousin to his father, to join the Medici lar and world-renowned examples of Re- court, then a center of Renaissance learn- naissance art. Born in the town of Caprese, ing and art. Medici had organized a school near Florence, he was the son of Ludovico of sculpture in the Garden of San Marco, de Buonarroti, podesta of the town of Ca- near the San Lorenzo church, where Mich-

Greenhaven Encyclopedia of The Renaissance 213 Michelangelo Buonarroti elangelo studied classical statues to create elangelo flew into a rage and carved his his first works, Sleeping Cupid, The Ma- name into the sash running across the fig- donna of the Stairs, and Battle of the Lap- ure of Mary, making the Pietà the only iths and Centaurs. work of art that he signed. The Pietà, a In 1492 Lorenzo died and several fac- vivid evocation in marble of death and resignation, displays both great strength tions began a violent struggle for control and tender sadness. of Florence. The weakened state was de- feated by the French army under Charles After the overthrow of Savonarola and VIII. Girolamo Savonarola’s campaign to the proclamation of the Florentine repub- rid the city of art and frivolity goaded lic, Michelangelo returned to what he al- ways considered his home town. The city’s Michelangelo into leaving Florence for Wool Guild, responsible for decorating and Rome, where he made an intense study of furnishing the Florence cathedral, com- classical ruins and created the sculpture missioned a stone statue of David, which Bacchus, a commission from a wealthy Michelangelo began in 1501. Over a pe- banker who next commissioned a Pietà, a riod of three years, the statue emerged sculpture of the Virgin Mary holding the from a block of marble 19 feet (5.8m) body of a crucified Christ. This work, com- long. The finished work stood 14 feet pleted in 1498, still stands in the original (4.2m) in height; the figure of David rep- place intended for it in Rome’s Saint resents Florence itself, strong in youthful Peter’s Basilica. After overhearing a by- vigor and spirit and ready to defy any and stander remark that the Pietà was the work all tyrants and foreigners seeking to chal- of Christoforo Solari, a rival artist, Mich- lenge it. At Michelangelo’s insistence, the sculpture was carefully moved to the large square in front of the Palazzo Vecchio, the town hall of Florence; later the statue was moved to the gallery of the Accademia, and replaced with a copy. By the time of the completion of David, Michelangelo’s reputation as an art- ist of genius had spread throughout Italy. In 1505 Pope Julius II invited Michelan- gelo and many other important artists to glorify the city of Rome and the papacy with original works of arts. From Mich- elangelo he commissioned sculptures for his own tomb, which was intended to dis- play several dozen life-size statues. Michelangelo’s painstaking work in the marble quarries of Carrara ended in a dis- pute with the pope over the costs of the project, and the artists fled Rome in dis- In “La Pieta`,” Michelangelo shows the Vir- gust in 1506. Julius and Michelangelo soon gin Mary mourning as she holds the body of reconciled, however, and the artist was Christ in her arms. then asked to suspend work on the tomb

214 Greenhaven Encyclopedia of The Renaissance Michelangelo Buonarroti and take up the painting of twelve apostles the city and prepare for an assault. The on the ceiling and walls of the Sistine city of Florence asked Michelangelo to de- Chapel. The idea for this project was re- sign a series of fortifications. He joined layed to the pope by Michelangelo’s own the army defending Florence but then fled rivals, who believed him an inferior the city for Venice when it appeared the painter, incapable of carrying out the task, mercenaries would actually invade. The and likely to run into trouble with the artist was exiled for this act but later was pope and lose his commission for the pa- allowed to return. pal tomb. In the meantime, the tomb In 1519 the artist was commissioned project was proving so costly to Julius II to design two tombs for Lorenzo and that he ordered it stopped. Giuliano de’ Medici, to be built in the sac- At first reluctant to undertake the Sis- risty of Florence’s San Lorenzo Church. tine Chapel ceiling, Michelangelo finally The tombs were designed with symbolic accepted the commission and began work representations of dawn, dusk, day, and in 1508. He introduced a new concept in night. The figures are shown crying in grief fresco painting by rendering complete dra- at the passage of time and the inevitability matic scenes on an overhead space, some- of death. The artist left them incomplete thing no other artist had ever attempted. when he returned to Rome in 1534. Pope By the time he completed the ceiling, in Clement VII commissioned him to paint 1512, he had rendered nine scenes from The Last Judgment fresco in the Sistine the Bible’s book of Genesis, including the Chapel. A huge painting, the largest fresco creation of man, the temptation of Adam painting of its time, The Last Judgment and Eve, and the biblical flood, with more was completed in 1541. The painting than four hundred larger-than-life figures, caused a scandal because of its depiction all while lying on his back on top of a of nude figures on the wall of a sacred wooden scaffold. The Sistine Chapel ceil- chapel, and for a time after its completion ing was a magnificent achievement that the figures were covered with cloth drap- left the artist emotionally drained and ery for the sake of modesty. physically weakened. He then completed In the meantime, Michelangelo had the tomb for Julius II that included the met Vittoria Colonna, a poet dedicated to dour figure of Moses, a sculpture created the reform of the church. The two became from a lump of marble so poorly propor- close friends, a relationship that inspired tioned and misshapen that several artists the artist to write fine lyric poetry, son- had already refused to work with it. Also nets, and madrigals in her honor. At this as part of this tomb were to be two im- time he was commissioned to design portant sculptures, Bound Slave and Dying buildings on the Campidoglio, the ancient Slave, which he left unfinished at the death Capitoline Hill of Rome. The construction of the pope in 1513. of the buildings was not begun until the After completing the Sistine Chapel late 1550s and not completed for another ceiling, Michelangelo returned to Florence. century. The bronze equestrian statue of He took on architectural projects, includ- Marcus Aurelius was placed in the center ing the design of the Laurentian Library. of the square. In 1526 the Medici were again driven out In 1546, Michelangelo was appointed of Florence, while Pope Clement VII or- chief architect of Saint Peter’s Basilica. Do- dered German mercenaries to surround nato Bramante, who had died in 1514, had

Greenhaven Encyclopedia of The Renaissance 215 Milton, John designed the structure but had left it un- and was a precursor to subjects Milton finished; it was now left to Michelangelo would take up in his most famous work. to design the dome. Milton lived on his family’s country Late in life Michelangelo designed the estate after leaving Cambridge. He spent a Rondanini Pietà for his own tomb, but un- year in Italy and, in 1639, returned to En- satisfied with the material or the design he gland, where he wrote in support of re- constantly altered it and ultimately dam- form of the Church of England. He be- aged it. At his death Michelangelo was came an ardent supporter of Oliver honored by the citizens of Florence, who Cromwell during the English Civil War, recognized him as the greatest artist their which pitted Cromwell’s anti-royalist city had produced. He was known as “The forces against defenders of the monarchy. Divine One” during his lifetime, and since Milton wrote in support of the new En- that time his works have been widely re- glish commonwealth that Cromwell estab- garded as the highest achievements of the lished and in favor of the execution of Renaissance in Italy or any other country. King Charles I. His essay “Areopagitica” stoutly defended the principle of freedom SEE ALSO: Julius II; Leonardo da Vinci; of speech and debate, and the right to Medici, Lorenzo de’; painting; sculpture publish without censorship by the church or government. Historians believe this Milton, John stance had a lasting effect in the American (1608–1674) colonies, where its principle was officially Essayist and poet whose Paradise Lost is adopted in the U.S. Constitution. “The widely considered the greatest epic of the Tenure of Kings and Magistrates,” pub- English language. The son of a prosperous lished in 1649, was a defense of controls scrivener, he was born in London and edu- on the power of kings, arguing that the cated in the classics at Saint Paul’s, one of people have a right to rise up and end the the city’s finest private schools. He was service of incompetent or corrupt mon- educated at Christ’s College, Cambridge, archs. He was rewarded for his anti-royalist where he began studies at the age of fif- stance with an appointment in 1649 as a teen and prepared for a career as a minis- foreign secretary in Cromwell’s govern- ter in the Church of England. He wrote ment, a position in which he wrote in sup- epigrams, eulogies, and poems in Latin, as port of the government and translated its well as short epics on English history. He official documents into Latin. Although he first gained notice with his poem On the was imprisoned at the restoration of the Morning of Christ’s Nativity. He turned monarchy in 1660, and his books were away from Latin and Italian and began publicly burned, he was eventually granted writing English verse, which he used for a pardon. his essay “On Shakespeare,” written in 1632 By this time he was blind, and forced for a book about the playwright, whose to dictate his letters and poetry to a secre- reputation was gaining in the generation tary. In this way he completed Paradise after his death. In 1634 one of his mas- Lost, which describes the revolt of Satan ques—a combination of music, dance, and and the story of Adam and Eve and their poetry—was performed on a stage at the expulsion from the Garden of Eden. Mil- castle of Ludlow. This work, Comus, deals ton wrote the epic in ten books of blank with the themes of purity and temptation, verse, describing Satan’s war against God,

216 Greenhaven Encyclopedia of The Renaissance Montefeltro, Federigo da the biblical stories of the creation of the mond Sebond. In 1570, he retired as a law- world and the fall of man. Milton’s vivid yer and moved to the family estate, known and powerful imagination was a strong as the Chateau de Montaigne. There he match to the ancient, familiar themes of began work on a series of short writings, his subject; his poetry inspired generations in which he expressed his private views on of later English writers, who most admired politics, society, literature, family life, his Satan as a complex, fascinating, and childhood, and many aspects of the com- dramatic rebel—an icon for the age of Ro- mon human experience that had never mantic poetry in the nineteenth century. been considered suitable material for a se- Milton later published a sequel, Paradise rious writer. Working for ten years in iso- Regained, about the temptation of Christ lation, he brought out his book of Essais by Satan, and the way to ultimately tri- in 1580, to widespread puzzlement and umph through humility and faith. Along disdain on the part of serious writers, with this work Milton published a drama scholars, and philosophers. Gradually, as entitled Samson Agonistes, telling a biblical the writing of personal experience and story in the form of an ancient Greek trag- confession grew in popularity, Montaigne’s edy. work won widespread acceptance. Seeking a cure for poor health and Montaigne, Michel de painful kidney stones, Montaigne set out (1533–1592) on a journey across Europe in 1580. From French writer whose very personal this experience he wrote a series of travel thoughts and confessions—in the form of essays that were eventually published in essais or “tries”—have remained influential the late eighteenth century as the Travel in modern times. Born into a wealthy fam- Journal. In the meantime, the citizens of ily that owned estates in the Aquitaine re- Bordeaux elected him mayor, in honor of gion of southern France, Montaigne was his capable statesmanship during the vio- the son of Pierre Eyquem, a mercenary lent Wars of Religion between Protestants soldier and one-time mayor of Bordeaux. and Catholics. After his term as mayor Montaigne was given a humanist educa- ended in 1585, he returned to his country tion and a thorough training in the use of estate, where he died in 1592. Latin as both written and spoken language. Montaigne’s book of Essays is one of Trained as a lawyer in Toulouse, he be- the most important and original literary came counselor to the Parlement court in works of the Renaissance. In these short Bordeaux in 1557. He entered the service works, all literary pretense and artificiality of King Charles IX in 1561. is dropped, and the author reveals his own Montaigne took a much greater inter- thoughts and emotions directly to the est in letters and poetry than the study reader. Montaigne’s work created a foun- and practice of law. The politics and rival- dation for the confessional literature that ries of the royal court, and the demands remains a popular literary genre to the of public service, left him yearning for pri- present day. vacy, solitude, and enough time to read, study, and work out a personal philosophy Montefeltro, Federigo da of life and how it should be lived. In 1569 (1422–1482) he published a translation of Natural The- The Duke of Urbino, a skilled condottiere, ology, a work of the Spanish monk Ray- and a renowned patron of Renaissance art

Greenhaven Encyclopedia of The Renaissance 217 Monteverdi, Claudio and scholarship. Born in the Umbrian hill SEE ALSO: Malatesta, Sigismondo Pandolfo town of Gubbio, an illegitimate son of Guidantonio da Montefeltro, the Duke of Monteverdi, Claudio Spoleto and lord of Urbino, Federigo was (1567–1643) raised in an aristocratic court and knighted Composer who pioneered the art of opera, by the Holy Roman Emperor at the age of born in Cremona, Italy. Monteverdi’s first fifteen. Soon afterward he became a con- works were motets and madrigals, com- dottiere, or captain of mercenaries. In 1444 pleted when he was still a teenager. He he became the leader of Urbino after the joined the court of Vincenzo I of Mantua assassination of his half brother, Oddanto- as a singer and musician, and later was nio da Montefeltro. Federigo’s great skill appointed conductor of the court orches- on the battlefield earned him a reputation tra. He pioneered many innovations in the all over Italy; he finally enlisted with the writing of music, including the use of in- illustrious Sforza family, the rulers of Mi- strumental accompaniment known as con- lan, and married a member of the Sforza tinuo and the use of monody, a simpler clan. In the late 1450s he served Pope Pius and clearer melody that would be taken II in the pope’s campaign against Sigis- up by composers of the Baroque period mondo Malatesta, defeating Malatesta at that followed the Renaissance. Monteverdi the Battle of Cesano in 1462. Montefeltro’s combined vocal music with drama, and loyalty was easily lost, however, as he soon invented opera with the premier of turned against the pope to wrest control L ’Orfeo in 1607. This work was the first of the territory forfeited by Malatesta in to assign musical parts to specific instru- the region and the Adriatic port ments and to convey a dramatic plot with city of Rimini. the use of musical devices and the singing In Urbino, Montefeltro built a large li- voice. He wrote The Vespers of the Blessed brary in his ducal palace and employed Virgin in 1610, a work that began the prac- scribes and scholars. He created the finest tice of repeating melodies for dramatic ef- collection of manuscripts in Italy, after that fect and to unify the composition. Mon- of the pope. Realizing that the duke made teverdi became the conductor of San a much better ally than enemy, Pope Six- Marco Cathedral in Venice in 1613. There tus arranged the marriage of Giovanni he wrote more books of madrigals and in- della Rovere, his nephew, to Federigo’s vented new techniques of playing string daughter, and bestowed the title of duke instruments, including the tremolo, in on Montefeltro. The pope hired him to which a note is rapidly repeated or captain the papal forces against the city of “shaken,” and pizzicato, in which the mu- Florence, where Montefeltro allied with sician plucks the string with his finger. Late the Pazzi conspirators against the Medici. in his life he completed The Return of Ul- The failure of the plot to overthrow the ysses and The Coronation of Poppea,awork Medici was a serious blow to the duke as based on the life of the Roman emperor well as the pope. In 1482, while besieging Nero. the city of Venice, Montefeltro died, leav- ing the to his son More, Sir Thomas Guidobaldo, a sickly and ineffective ruler (1478–1535) at whose death the duchy was seized by An English statesman, author, and re- the Papacy. nowned Renaissance humanist who ran

218 Greenhaven Encyclopedia of The Renaissance Mühlberg, Battle of afoul of King Henry VIII’s break with the in England was opposed by More, who saw Catholic Church, Thomas More paid for the Protestant movement as a deadly threat his stand with his life. His father, Sir John to the survival of Christianity. He ordered More, was persecuted by Henry VII, the the imprisonment and execution of many first Tudor king. He was Lord Chancellor Protestants in England. of England from 1529 to 1532. In 1510 he More did not support Henry’s efforts became an undersheriff of London. He be- to divorce Catherine of Aragon, however, came a counselor to the king in 1517 and and to protest the king’s actions he asked was sent as a diplomat to Emperor Charles to resign his post. Although the king V. His success in this mission earned him granted this request in 1532, he was deeply a knighthood, attaining the title of under- angered by More’s refusal to take an oath treasurer in 1521. More served the king as acknowledging Henry as the head of the adviser and go-between with Cardinal Church of England. When Henry’s second Thomas Wolsey, the leading representative wife, Anne Boleyn, was crowned the new of the pope in England. queen of England in 1533, More avoided In 1516 More completed Utopia,a the ceremony. This snub and his continu- book describing an ideal political and eco- ing friendship with Catherine of Aragon nomic system in which religious tolerance made him a marked man. In 1534 he was and the common ownership of property arrested for refusing to take another oath, bring about a peaceful and orderly society. one that would acknowledge an Act of More was inspired by ideal societies de- Succession denying the ultimate authority scribed by classical Greek authors such as of the pope in matters of religion. He was Plato and Aristotle; his name of Utopia is brought to trial; unwilling to recant his derived from the Greek phrase eutopos, or belief that a king could not replace a pope, “no place.” he was found guilty and sentenced to be In 1523 More was named speaker of drawn and quartered—a severely cruel the House of Commons and in 1525 chan- punishment. Henry spared him this or- cellor of Lancaster, a key post in northern deal, ordering him instead to be beheaded, England. In the meantime he wrote sev- which took place on July 6, 1535. More eral tracts against the Protestant reformers became a martyr for the Catholic Church who were gaining a following on the con- in its efforts to halt the spread of Protes- tinent of Europe. His Defence of the Seven tantism in Europe. Sacraments, written for Henry VIII, earned SEE ALSO: Boleyn, Anne; Erasmus, Desid- the king a commendation as “Defender of erius; Henry VIII the Faith” from Pope Leo X. At the same time, however, Henry was growing strongly disenchanted with his wife of twenty years, Mühlberg, Battle of Catherine of Aragon, who had failed to A battle between the forces of the Holy provide him with a male heir. In 1527 he Roman Emperor Charles V and the asked Cardinal Wolsey to petition Pope Schmalkaldic League, a band of Protestant Clement VII to have his marriage annulled. German princes opposed to the emperor’s The pope refused to cooperate; Henry re- authority in their domains. By the evening acted by forcing Wolsey from his post and, of April 23, 1547, the Schmalkaldic com- in 1529, replacing him with More. Henry’s mander, John of Saxony, had gathered argument that the pope had no authority about eight thousand foot soldiers and

Greenhaven Encyclopedia of The Renaissance 219 music three thousand cavalry on the eastern bank Augsburg would temporarily settle their of the Elbe River, in what is now north- differences. eastern Germany. Charles and his com- SEE ALSO: Charles V mander, the Duke of Alba, had about thir- teen thousand foot soldiers and five music thousand cavalry. This force of Spanish, Composers of the Renaissance built on a Flemish, and German soldiers took up centuries-long tradition of sacred music their lines on the river’s western bank. that had its roots in the plainsong chants With the advantage in numbers, Charles and Masses of the . But decided to take the initiative and attack on whereas a single line of unaccompanied the morning of April 24, 1547. melody, improvised or committed to Early that morning, men of the impe- memory, had once sufficed for the chant- rial army armed with muskets and har- ing of the Catholic Mass, the psalms, and quebuses forded the Elbe and created a other sacred music, the late Middle Ages strong bridgehead on the eastern shore. had seen a flowering of polyphonic (multi- Maneuvering in a thick fog, and told of an part) music and written compositions, and easy ford of the river by a local peasant, a the emergence of professional composers. large squadron of Spanish cavalry fol- Polyphonic music reached new heights of lowed, throwing the forward scouts of the complexity in the late Middle Ages, as the Schmalkaldic League into a panic. Several range of voices was extended and new hundred yards to the east, John of Saxony scales and melodic intervals were put to use. then drew up his forces, with infantry flanked by cavalry, to face the assault. Alba, Mass settings and motets remained the forming a squadron of heavy cavalry, most popular musical forms, but many Re- charged the left flanks of the Protestant naissance composers began working in secular song forms such as the Italian position and threw its men into a panic. madrigal and the French chanson, which In the meantime, the harquebusiers and grew out of the sung poems of the medi- lancers were attacking the Saxon horses on eval troubadours. An important school of the other wing, causing the horses to break musical composition emerged in fifteenth- and run into a nearby forest. The Protes- century Burgundy. Led by Guillaume Du- tant infantry remained to face flanking at- fay, it bridged the medieval and Renais- tacks on both sides. The battle continued sance periods. was a for two hours before the Saxon foot sol- master of counterpoint, able to set several diers finally broke and retreated from the complex lines of music in motion from a field. simple motif, a precursor to the elaborate With the defeat at Mühlberg, the fugues of Johann Sebastian in a later Schmalkaldic League lost two of its most century. Josquin des Prez, was the most important leaders, John of Saxony and the significant composer of the Flemish school, Duke of Brunswick, as prisoners. The whose musicians and composers were in league broke apart and submitted to high demand throughout Europe. Charles V, but the dispute between Protes- Purely instrumental music also tant rulers and the emperor would con- emerged during the Renaissance in a vari- tinue for eight years before the Treaty of ety of forms: The toccata (“touched” rather

220 Greenhaven Encyclopedia of The Renaissance Muslims than sung) was a piece that showed off the dance in the presentation of a tragic or musician’s ability; the pavane was a slow comic play. The Venetian School influ- lament for the dead; and the allemande, enced music in the rest of Italy, as well as galliard, and courante were popular dance Germany and France, while opera emerged forms. Musicians were given wide latitude in the seventeenth century as a form that to improvise their parts; the best could brought music into direct competition play elaborate free cadenzas while staying with the theater for the attention of a mass within the limits of a strict system of har- audience. mony, counterpoint, and melodic progres- SEE ALSO: des Prez, Josquin; Gesualdo, sion. In England, many skilled composers Carlo took up the Italian madrigal, a sung form that relied on the texts of well-known son- Muslims nets and other poetry. The Islamic conquest that began in the In the late Renaissance composers be- early seventh century spread the new faith gan to simplify complex melodies and em- from its home in Arabia to the north, east, phasize a single pure line, accompanied by and west. At its height, the Muslim caliphs one or several lesser parts. Imitative coun- (rulers) held both secular and sacred au- terpoint allowed the composer a wider thority over a realm stretching from north- range of melodic devices in order to show ern India and central Asia west to Persia, off his skill at combining different voices Mesopotamia, the Levant, North Africa, and instruments. This new freedom was and Iberia (modern Spain and Portugal). applied to sacred music, which could The campaigns between Christians and change from po1yphonic to homophonic Muslims in the Levant, known as the Cru- (written in a single voice) and back again, sades, ended with the last Christian states as the composer wished. Dissonance and destroyed by the armies of the Mamluks. chromaticism—the use of notes not part The Mamluk dynasty, with its capital in of the key scale—was tolerated and in the Cairo, Egypt, originated in a caste of sol- work of some composers, notably Carlo diers. The Mamluks turned back the Chris- Gesualdo, strongly emphasized, causing tians as well as the Mongols, who in the strange and surprising shifts in mood and middle of the thirteenth century invaded tenor. and destroyed Baghdad, the center of the In Venice, sacred music was often com- Abbasid caliphate. Cairo was the most posed for multiple choirs and groups of prominent center of learning in the Islamic instruments, laying the groundwork for world, with the Tunisian scholar Ibn Khal- the classical symphony. Giovanni Pal- dun who was the leading historian and estrina, a Roman composer, mastered the philosopher of this period. difficult art of polyphony and wrote text- The Mongols ruling in Iran and Iraq books that instructed composers in this were converted to Islam in the late thir- art up to the twentieth century. A new teenth century. In the sixteenth century, a form of sung drama was taken up by many new Safavid dynasty emerged in what was skilled composers, notably the Italian ancient Persia. In India the Mughal Em- Claudio Monteverdi, whose Orfeo is con- pire was established in 1526 by Babur, a sidered by many to be the first opera. This Timurid prince of Kabul. The Mughal rul- new form combined music, singing, and ers built their capital at Delhi and collected

Greenhaven Encyclopedia of The Renaissance 221 mythology tribute from Hindu states south of the In- into the Balkan Peninsula, and during the dian peninsula. In the meantime, the me- European Renaissance the Turkish armies dieval Muslim societies of the Middle East posed a constant threat to Christian terri- developed a productive agricultural sys- tory. The Ottoman Turks crushed a Hun- tem, building new irrigation systems that garian army at the Battle of Mohacs in put former desert land into production. 1526 and eventually reached Vienna, the New food and cash crops imported from seat of power for the Habsburg dynasty. India and Southeast Asia, including ba- Although the sieges of Vienna failed, the nanas, rice, cotton, citrus, eggplants, and Ottomans remained a force to be reckoned many others, were propagated in the west. with by the Renaissance princes of Europe, Many Muslim cities were surrounded by who were unable to set aside their differ- large rings of market gardens and small ences and unite their forces for the recap- ture of the eastern Mediterranean. farms that supplied their harvests to a growing and prospering urban population. SEE ALSO: Mehmed II; Ottoman Empire Control of the spice trade between Asia and Europe contributed to the general mythology wealth and security of the medieval Is- The mythology of the classical world en- lamic world. The search for a route to by- tered the mainstream of Renaissance art pass the Middle Eastern spice markets was and thought through the work of scholars, the prime reason for Portuguese explora- as well as the poetic works of medieval tion of the African and the Indian ocean writers who adopted the themes of ancient coasts in the fifteenth century. As Portugal writers such as the Roman poet Ovid. In and later Spain established overseas colo- Italy, translators and commentators on nies, and began drawing on their newly writers such as Plato and Virgil spread the discovered resources, the Muslim world knowledge of classical mythology to stu- entered a period of economic decline. In dents and university scholars. The trend Spain a Reconquista (reconquest) eventu- beganintheworksofPetrarch,whoren- ally drove the Muslims out of al-Andalus. dered ancient myths in his collection of The kingdom in Granada, the last rem- poems entitled Canzoniere, and Giovanni Boccaccio, whose Genealogy of the Gods nant of the Moorish conquest of the was the first serious study of the pagan eighth century, paid a heavy tribute to the deities and the myths associated with rulers of Castile, a Christian kingdom, un- them. With the invention of printing in til the united forces of Castile and Aragon the middle of the fifteenth century, the captured Granada in 1492. Muslim farm- works of Ovid were presented in new edi- ers fled to North Africa or were absorbed tions, in Latin and in vernacular languages, into the newly united kingdom of Spain as gradually spreading throughout the conti- converts to Christianity. nent and to newly literate social classes. After the Mongol invasion the Otto- The study of pagan myths made them man tribe of Turks rose to prominence in common knowledge, and with the reli- Asia Minor. They crossed into Europe in gious significance long stripped away, the the fourteenth century and in 1453 con- gods became symbols of purely human quered Constantinople and the Byzantine qualities, adopted by many poets and Empire. The Ottoman domains extended painters in their works.

222 Greenhaven Encyclopedia of The Renaissance mythology

Renaissance sculptors, woodworkers, nowned of Renaissance artists, including jewelers, and painters depicted these dei- Leonardo da Vinci, Michelangelo Buonar- ties, who replaced the biblical events and roti, Michelangelo da Caravaggio, and themes that dominated the art of the Titian, whose mythological paintings, in- Middle Ages. At first, classical mythology cluding Venus of Urbino, The Rape of Eu- served as diversion, entertainment, and ropea, Diana and Actaeon, and Bacchus and simple decoration in the form of garden Ariadne, are considered his masterpieces. sculptures and ceiling frescoes for private Writers, including Francois Rabelais, Lu- salons and public halls. Serious art was dovico Ariosto, William Shakespeare, and Christian art in the early Renaissance until Pierre de Ronsard, drew heavily on my- Sandro Botticelli—in works including Pri- thology, while Diane de Poitiers, the mis- mavera and The Birth of Venus— put pa- tress of the French King Henri II, became gan gods at the center of his canvas, mak- the subject herself of a pagan cult, in po- ing paganism a visual reflection of the etry and art, in which she was given the emerging humanism in literature. Mythol- attributes of Diana, Roman goddess of the ogy allowed artists freer reign in their hunt. In the meantime, the use of classical choice of subject matter—they could treat mythology had a subversive effect on lust, pride, avarice, and other sins by adopting an ancient myth and giving it a Christianity and its institutions. Giving a personal interpretation, and not one con- prominent place in poetry and sculpture trolled by medieval pictorial traditions. to the Greek gods, for example, implied Eventually, political leaders took up my- that religious faith—whether that of the thology as well, identifying themselves pagans or the Christians—was simply a with the ancient gods and taking on their reflection of the human imagination. At attributes (Emperor Charles V, for ex- the end of the Renaissance, ancient myths ample, was often shown as the Roman god began to prevail in public art and in seri- Jupiter, and the Tudor dynasty of England ous poetry, accompanying an age of skep- modeled itself on the ancient Trojans). ticism that eventually resulted in the En- Eventually pagan mythology became lightenment, a movement that cast doubt popular subject matter for the most re- on religious faith of any kind.

Greenhaven Encyclopedia of The Renaissance 223

Naples Aragon in 1442, the Angevin dynasty did City of southern Italy that was the capital not give up its claim to the kingdom. of a kingdom covering the southern re- Alfonso celebrated his victory by rais- gions of the peninsula and the island of ing one of the most famous monuments Sicily. Naples had been a thriving port city of Naples, the Arco di Trionfo di Constan- from the time of the ancient Greeks, who tio, a monumental arch inspired by the ar- founded the metropolis and called it Ne- chitecture of ancient Rome. Under the apolis or “new city.” After the fall of the Aragonese dynasty Naples became an im- western Roman Empire, the Byzantine portant center of painting, with a re- Empire made Naples a key port. Trade nowned school established in the city by from southern Europe to Greece and the Colantonio del Fiore. Neapolitan kings Middle East brought great wealth to the commissioned works by Pisanello, Dona- city and made it a valuable prize for the tello, and Michelozzo, all artists of Flo- Normans, who established a kingdom in rence and Tuscany, while noble families of southern Italy and the island of Sicily in Naples hired these and other northern 1039. painters to decorate their private chapels in the city’s leading churches. A unique During the Renaissance, the kingdom Neapolitan style of painting and sculpture of Naples was contested by the Angevin developed in the late fifteenth century; its dynasty, which had its roots in northern leading artists were Diego de Siloé and France, and the rulers of the Spanish realm Bartolomé Ordonez, both Spaniards. of Aragon. The Angevin dynasty was In the meantime, the Angevin line died granted Naples by Pope Clement IV in out in 1481, and the French claim to 1266. Angevin kings brought important Naples was taken up by the Valois dynasty. Italian artists, including Giotto and Si- The Valois was given support by Pope In- mone Martini, to the city to decorate nocent VIII, who saw the Aragonese as a churches, palaces, and buildings belonging serious threat to his own authority in cen- to the , an order of monks es- tral Italy. When Alfonso’s son and heir Fer- tablished in the thirteenth century. rante died in 1494, the pope invited King In 1373, when Queen Joan I renounced Charles VIII to invade Italy with the goal the Angevin claim to Naples, she named of seizing Naples and allying it with the Duke Louis I of Anjou as her heir. The ri- Papacy. The French troops defeated the val of Louis, the Prince of Durazzo, took Aragonese but facing a much stronger his vengeance by murdering Joan and con- army sent by Ferdinand II of Aragon, quering Naples in 1382, when he was Charles soon retreated from Italy. The Ara- crowned as Charles III, king of Naples. Al- gonese remained in control of Naples though Naples was seized by Alfonso V of while the kings of France made unsuccess-

Greenhaven Encyclopedia of The Renaissance 225 Neoplatonism ful efforts to wrest it from their control. and poets during the Renaissance. The Finally Spain united Naples and Sicily un- Neoplatonist school began in the books of der its own government in 1501 and sent and his student Porphyry, the au- viceroys to rule the city. By the Treaty of thor of the Enneads, an important early Cateau-Cambrésis of 1559 France officially book of the Neoplatonist school. These ceded Naples to Spain. Under Spanish rule scholars of Alexandria sought to explore Naples grew to become the second-most and clarify Plato’s original philosophy, and populous city in Europe, after Paris, and extend it into new doctrines using Pla- attracted renowned painters, writers, schol- tonism as a foundation. The central belief ars, and sculptors from throughout Italy. of Plotinus and his followers was that the In the sixteenth century Naples was universe emanated from a divine, all- visited by Raphael, who painted the Ma- pervading “Source” in the form of lesser donna del Pesce for a family chapel in San beings, and that human spirituality and Domenico Maggiore, and Giorgio Vasari, philosophy strived for a return to that who painted frescoes and paintings for the Source. Later students of the Platonic tra- monastery of Monteoliveto. In the early dition, including and Proclus, seventeenth century, the wealthy religious added to these writings an element of mys- orders were hiring Neapolitan and foreign ticism and magic, and the idea that se- artists to decorate the chapels, refectories, midivine beings such as angels and de- and halls of their monasteries in and mons served as intermediaries between around the city. Noble patrons also com- ordinary humans and the Source. Neopla- missioned important works from Mich- tonism can be seen as a synthesis of an- elangelo da Caravaggio, who spent several years in Naples and left behind The Seven cient Greek mythology with the monothe- Acts of Mercy and the Flagellation of Christ. ism that was gaining followers throughout The sculptor Pietro was also work- the Mediterranean, notably in the beliefs ing in Naples at this time as was the phi- of the early Christians. losopher Giordano Bruno. Important Neoplatonic philosophers Under the Spanish viceroys Naples ex- lived in Alexandria, Asia Minor, and perienced the peak of its prestige and Greece; their ideas were a strong influence wealth, but it also suffered under oppres- on Christian writers and church fathers, sive tyranny. In 1647 a violent revolt led including Saint Augustine of Hippo, and by a humble fisherman, , broke the medieval philosophers Boethius and out in the city. The revolt was put down John Scotus, as well as medieval Islamic but after an outbreak of plague killed half and Jewish philosophers. The Neoplatonist the population in 1656, Naples began to doctrines of the soul, the afterlife, and the decline as an economic and artistic capi- divine source were incorporated into many tal. aspects of Christian doctrine. In the Renaissance, many scholars of Neoplatonism ancient Greek philosophy studied Neopla- A philosophy that originated in the third tonism, reviving its beliefs as a counter to century A.D., modeled on the ideas of the the strict and orthodox Christianity that Greek thinker and teacher Plato, and had held sway throughout the Middle which was revived by scholars, essayists, Ages. This Neoplatonic revival took place

226 Greenhaven Encyclopedia of The Renaissance Netherlands in the writings of Giovanni Pico della Mi- randola, Marsilio Ficino, and Giordano Bruno, and was taken up by significant artists such as Sandro Botticelli and Mich- elangelo Buonarroti. Ficino was a scholar of Plato as well as Plotinus who sought to reconcile Neoplatonism and Christianity, and one of the first to translate the works of the ancient Greeks. His writings, in par- ticular commentaries on Plato’s dialogues, served as a foundation for new concepts of beauty and romantic love, and the idea that philosophy should be part of any se- rious work of art or literature. Neopla- tonism found a wide following in France, and its adherents included renowned es- sayists and poets including Marguerite of Navarre, Pierre Ronsard, and Francois Ra- belais.

SEE ALSO: Bruno, Giordano; Ficino, Mar- silio; Pico della Mirandola, Giovanni

Netherlands The 17th-century Vleeshall (meat market) in Haarlem, Netherlands. The Netherlands In the Middle Ages the Netherlands, or were a major trading center during the Re- Low Countries, was a territory of the naissance, a fact reflected in the size and duchy of Burgundy, a wealthy realm that elaborate detail of this and other commer- stretched from the English Channel south cial buildings. LIPNITZKI/ROGER VIOLLET/GETTY to the Alps. The major Flemish cities, in- IMAGES. cluding Brussels, Bruges, and Ghent, were among the most prosperous in all of Eu- rope. The dukes of Burgundy were patrons of Burgundian monarchs and aristocrats. of the arts and the Netherlands was home While the ideals of classical Greece and to the most innovative painters and com- Rome had less importance, the artists of posers of northern Europe. Musicians of the Netherlands made their own innova- the Flemish School were in high demand tions. Jan van Eyck developed an astonish- throughout Europe. Josquin des Prez, Guil- ing realism in his pictures, while Pieter laume Dufay, and Johannes Ockegham de- Brueghel turned to the natural world and veloped a widely imitated style, written for the lives of ordinary townsmen and peas- selected groups of instruments and always ants for inspiration. Hieronymus Bosch with a mind to balanced melody and care- used the startling imagery of fantasy and ful harmonic progressions. Local artists dreams to convey his deep religious con- traveled to Italy and brought home new victions. Later painters of the Netherlands trends in art, while Italian artists and ar- specialized in still-lifes, landscape paint- chitects came north to enjoy the patronage ings, and portraits.

Greenhaven Encyclopedia of The Renaissance 227 Nicholas of Cusa

In 1496, the marriage of Philip the changed his opinion, however, and he later Handsome with Joanna, a Habsburg prin- became a proponent of a supreme pontiff. cess of Spain and daughter of Ferdinand He entered the service of Pope Eugene IV and Isabella of Castile, eventually brought in 1437 and became a wide-ranging papal the Netherlands under the rule of Emperor diplomat, who mediated disputes within Charles V, their son and the ruler of Spain the church and attempted to resolve the and the Holy Roman Empire. During the long-standing schism between the eastern next century, the region suffered occupa- and western branches of the faith. He also tion by Spain and a destructive civil war. attempted to raise an alliance against the The Protestant Reformation took hold Ottoman Turks, who were threatening an during the sixteenth century, when the invasion of Europe from their base in the Netherlands were in revolt against the rule Balkans, but found his efforts thwarted by by the Catholic Habsburgs. The emperor the rivalries among Christian princes of sent armies to put down the rebellion and Europe. enforce Catholicism. At the end of the pe- In 1440 he completed Of Learned Ig- riod, the Habsburgs retained control of norance, a book that propounds the idea the Flemish provinces (now Belgium), that humans can only have limited knowl- while Holland won its independence and edge of the true state of the universe, and built a far-flung colonial empire, from the that their experience of God must come Americas to East Asia. through a sense of the divine that has no relation to ordinary, rational thought and SEE ALSO: Bosch, Hieronymus; Brueghel observation of the senses. Nicholas was family; Rubens, Peter Paul; van Eyck, Jan ahead of his time in the subjects of math- ematics, medicine, and astronomy, and Nicholas of Cusa held that the earth revolved about the sun (1401–1464) well before the observations of Nicolaus Humanist, papal legate, and scholar whose Copernicus. His writings were known to skeptical inquiries into the natural world Copernicus as well as Isaac Newton, Gali- broke new scientific and philosophical leo Galilei, and Johannes Kepler, and he ground at the dawn of the Renaissance. was regarded as one of the true scientific Born Nicholas Krebs in the Moselle River geniuses of the fifteenth century. He also valley, Nicholas of Cusa was schooled in a applied his knowledge in a practical way religious fraternity known as the Brothers by inventing convex lenses to correct near- of the Common Life. Although he trained sightedness. in the law as a university student, Nicholas He was appointed a cardinal in 1448. also attained a doctorate in the field of Two years later he became the bishop of canon law from the University of Padua Brixen, in the Tyrol region of the Alps. and finally decided on a career in the Here his efforts to reform the church and church. He attended the Council of Basel its monasteries brought him into conflict in 1432 and argued in favor of a general with Sigismund, the Habsburg Duke of church council that would hold authority Austria, who had Nicholas briefly impris- over the pope and the institution of the oned, an act for which the pope excom- Papacy. To support his views, he wrote De municated Sigismund. In 1458, Nicholas Concordantia Catholica. The endless bick- returned to Rome, where he joined the ering and politics of church councils court of Pope Pius II.

228 Greenhaven Encyclopedia of The Renaissance Nogarola, Isotta

Nicholas V slaves, thus giving the papal stamp of ap- (1397–1455) proval to the growing African slave trade. Nicholas began the revival of culture Pope from 1447 until 1455 who resolved and learning in the city of Rome. He re- the long-standing conflict between the built and repaired the city and aspired to conciliar movement and the Papacy and make it a monument to the power and whose efforts to restore classical Rome prestige of the popes. Rome’s walls were made him in the view of many historians fortified, its streets paved, its sewers and the first “Renaissance pope.” Born as Tom- water systems repaired, and its ancient sys- maso Parentucelli, in Sarzana, a town near tem of Roman aqueducts returned to ser- Genoa, he was the son of a physician and vice. He sponsored the work of scholars a talented scholar and linguist. He traveled and copyists in bringing the works of an- to Florence, where he was hired as a tutor cient writers to light after centuries of ne- to the city’s aristocratic families. After glect. Nicholas also established the Vatican studying theology at the University of Bo- Library, the largest repository of books in logna, he traveled throughout northern Europe. Europe as a scholar and book collector. Nicholas was appointed as the bishop SEE ALSO: Council of Basel; Fall of Con- of Bologna in 1444. He was sent by Pope stantinople; Papacy; slavery Eugene IV to the Holy Roman Empire in order to resolve the dispute between the Nogarola, Isotta pope and the emperor. His skillful diplo- (1418–1466) macy was rewarded with an appointment An Italian scholar, author, and feminist as cardinal and in 1446, as the successor who was renowned, and notorious for her to Eugene IV. ambition to debate religion and philoso- As pope, Nicholas’s mission was to phy with the men of the Renaissance. Born undo the work of the Council of Basel, into a noble family of Verona, she was of- whose delegates were asserting the primacy fered an extremely rare (for a young girl) of church councils. He signed an impor- private education. Her tutor, Martino Riz- tant treaty known as the Concordat of Vi- zoni, followed the new humanist philoso- enna with Frederick III, the king of Ger- phy and instructed her in Latin, moral phi- many, who agreed that the council’s losophy, poetry, and history—leaving out decisions would have no effect in his lands. rhetoric, considered to be the exclusive do- Nicholas made great efforts to resolve si- main of young men preparing themselves mony and other corrupt practices that for a public career. She wrote skillful es- were throwing the church into ill repute. says and letters in classical Latin and Nicholas ended the long schism in the sought a mentor in Guarino of Verona, western church by convincing the last an- then the leading humanist of northern tipope, Felix V, to give up his claim to the Italy, who ignored her for a full year be- Papacy in 1449. Nicholas crowned Freder- fore deigning to reply to her letter with a ick III as the Holy Roman Emperor in scornful rejection. 1452, the last pope to carry out this ser- In 1438 Nogarola fled plague-stricken vice. In the same year, he wrote a papal Verona for Venice. She drew criticism in decree, Dum Diversas, that allowed the that city for presuming to debate male king of Portugal to take non-Christians as scholars, and was satirized in an anony-

Greenhaven Encyclopedia of The Renaissance 229 Nostradamus mous play for her alleged decadence. In Montpelier, which expelled him for engag- 1441 she returned with her family to Ve- ing in the lowly craft of apothecary. De- rona, where she studied the Bible and clas- ciding on a career as a physician, he moved sical authors, lived with her family, avoided to Agen at the invitation of a celebrated marriage, and wrote nothing that has sur- Italian scholar and physician, Jules-Cesar vived to modern times. Scaliger. Her letters were considered good Nostradamus’s brief training as a phy- enough to be copied and circulated, how- sician, his knowledge of medicines, and ever, and reached a wide audience, from his assumed title of “Doctor” gained him a Venice to Rome, by the middle of the fif- reputation as a healer. During an epidemic teenth century. Later in her life Nogarola of plague in 1546–1547 he treated and aspired to a synthesis of Christian ethics cured many cases of the disease—so it was with the emerging humanist philosophy. believed. In 1547, he settled in Salon de In 1451 she came out of isolation to de- Provence, where his marriage to a wealthy bate Ludovico Foscarini of Venice, a diplo- mat then living in Verona. From their cor- widow provided him with the means to respondence and argument she authored a buy a comfortable house and write at his dialogue, Of the Equal or Unequal Sin of leisure. He made several voyages to Italy, a Adam and Eve, over the fall of humanity land that kindled his interest in the arts of into sinfulness and God’s expulsion of magic and prophecy. In 1550, he began Adam and Even from the Garden of Eden. writing a yearly almanac, a calendar ac- In hundreds of letters, Nogarola defended companied by prophecies written in the Eve and maintained her sins and guilt to form of four-line verses known as qua- be less than those of Adam—contrary to trains. The almanacs found a large audi- the popular and traditional view that Eve’s ence, and as his reputation spread people temptation of Adam was the cause of the began calling on Nostradamus for his ser- expulsion. After her death the dialogue was vices as an astrologer and seer. He began published, along with her lone surviving collecting the quatrains separately and poem, Elegia de Laudibus Cyanei Ruris,a published them in Le Propheties, which eulogy praising the charms of the coun- first appeared in 1555 and in which the tryside. verses are grouped in sets of 100 known as a “century.” With an ambition to publish Nostradamus 1,000 of his short and obscure poems, he (1503–1566) published a second edition in 1557 and a A French physician and prognosticator, third in 1558; all three surviving volumes whose fame as a Renaissance prophet has of Le Propheties contain a grand total of endured into modern times. “Nostrada- 942 quatrains, all but one of them rhym- mus” is the Latin form of his given name, ing. Michel de Nostredame. Born in the town Nostradamus based his predictions on of Saint Remy de Provence, the son of a his own knowledge of the Bible, of his- grain dealer, he studied at the University torical events, of classical Latin authors of Avignon but left after a short time when such as Livy and Plutarch, on medieval a plague struck southern France and the historians such as Jean Froissart and seers university closed. He then studied medi- such as Girolamo Savonarola, and on as- cine for a brief time at the University of trology. He sought to create a system of

230 Greenhaven Encyclopedia of The Renaissance Nostradamus prediction based on the configuration of Nostradamus’s legacy has endured stars and planets as it would exist at some through his own skill in predicting natural future point, and finding correspondences and man-made disasters in vague terms in that configuration to important events that are open to many interpretations. He in the past. has been credited with predicting the French Revolution, the campaigns of In 1555, Nostradamus attracted the at- Napoléon, the rise of , the two tention of Catherine de’ Médicis, the world wars of the twentieth century, and queen of King Henri II. A prophecy con- the terrorist attacks of September 11, 2001. cerning the royal family prompted her to Believers unable to decipher his quatrains summon him to Paris, where he cast the as corresponding to any specific event al- horoscopes of the king’s children and low them to stand for an event that has where, in 1560, King Charles IX made him not yet taken place. Many commentators one of the royal physicians. Nostradamus’s view Nostradamus as a historian who prophecies hinted at occult knowledge, but wrote in verse rather than a “prophet”—a he was always careful to remain in the term he never used to describe himself— good graces of the church. One of the and believe he wrote in deliberately vague king’s decrees demanded that he secure language in order to avoid persecution as permission from the church before pub- ahereticorasanopponentoftheFrench lishing his almanacs, and in 1561 he was monarchy. tried, found guilty, and jailed for not heed- ing this order. SEE ALSO: astrology

Greenhaven Encyclopedia of The Renaissance 231

Ottoman Empire Mehmed’s successors, Selim I and Sule- The Ottoman Empire was established by iman the Magnificent, who ruled from Osman, a Turkish tribal leader who over- 1520 to 1566, brought the realm to the threw the Seljuk Turks in Anatolia in the height of its power in southeastern Eu- late thirteenth century. The Ottoman rope, the Levant, North Africa, and Meso- armies crossed into the Balkan Peninsula potamia. Suleiman reorganized the law and in the middle of the fourteenth century justice system of his realm and was a pa- and won crucial victories in the Battle of tron of the arts, literature, and Islamic Kosovo in 1389 and the Battle of Nicopo- scholarship, as well as a brilliant military lis in 1396. In 1453, the Ottoman sultan leader. Under his leadership the Turks Mehmed II extended Ottoman authority crushed a Hungarian army at the Battle of throughout Asia Minor and conquered Mohacs in 1526, and then captured the Constantinople, the capital of the Byzan- capital of Buda in 1541, overthrowing the tine Empire, thus destroying the last rem- Hungarian ruling dynasty. Ottoman sul- nants of the Eastern Roman Empire. tans ruled as caliph, or head of the entire

A map of the Ottoman Turkish empire in 1606, from the Mercator “Atlas.” THE STAPLETON COLLECTION.REPRODUCED BY PERMISSION.

Greenhaven Encyclopedia of The Renaissance 233 Ovid

Islamic community. In the meantime, the trained as elite warriors, posed a constant Ottomans drove into Arabia and Persia, threat to the sultan’s authority, while the overthrew Mamluk dynasties in Syria and sultans themselves lived in luxury and in- Egypt, and fielded the most powerful navy dolence, completely cut off from their sub- in the Mediterranean. jects and unable to exercise effective con- The Ottoman government controlled trol over their domains. The last was turned back in 1683, and in its far-flung domains through a system of 1699 the Turks surrendered Hungary to vassalage, in which local rulers paid an an- the Habsburg dynasty. The empire grew nual tribute in gold or in goods in ex- weaker under a succession of corrupt and change for their limited independence. incapable rulers, and after long and ex- Ottoman’s governors oversaw the adminis- pensive wars with Russia and the Hab- tration of these territories, paying princely sburgs. sums in bribery for their lucrative posts and exacting heavy taxes from the popu- SEE ALSO: Fall of Constantinople; Mehmed lace. During the Renaissance in Europe, II; Muslims the Ottoman Empire posed a most serious foreign threat to Europe’s Christian states Ovid and rulers. The disunited Christian states, (43 B.C.–178 A.D.) however, were unable to rally an effective Roman poet whose works were revived striking force to counter Turkish control and widely admired during the Renais- of the Balkans. The calls for further cru- sance. Born Publius Ovidius Nao in the sades to the east went unheeded, while in town of Sulmo, he was trained as a lawyer the 1530s the French king Francis I struck and educated by leading rhetoricians, who up an alliance with the sultan against the taught the craft of making persuasive and Habsburg dynasty. Ottoman armies arrived eloquent speeches. Ovid traveled widely as twice at the gates of Vienna, and Turkish a young man but returned to Rome at the corsairs raided European ports and ship- urging of his father. Finding the life of a ping, taking treasure and slaves back to public official not to his taste, Ovid began the Barbary Coast ports in North Africa. writing poetry and soon attracted notice Piracy in the Mediterranean finally in- and a circle of admirers. He collected his spired a united effort on the part of the first short love poems into a volume called Habsburgs and Venetians, who gathered a Amores, in which he wrote of an unattain- powerful naval force and defeated the Ot- able love by the name of Corinna, and toman navy at the Battle of Lepanto in some fictional letters into Heroids. 1571. Metamorphoses is an epic written in A decline began in the late seventeenth fifteen books of hexameters, the same po- century. The succession to the throne, etic form used by Virgil in his epic The which was not limited to the eldest son of Aeneid. Considered Ovid’s masterpiece, the sultan, brought about constant palace Metamorphoses describes myths that have intrigue and frequent assassinations. the common theme of physical transfor- Grand viziers governed the state and a mation. The stories come from the Greeks military caste known as the Janissaries, as well as the Romans, from the time of who had originated as a company of the Creation down to Julius Caesar, the Christian slaves converted to Islam and Roman general and statesman who was

234 Greenhaven Encyclopedia of The Renaissance Ovid assassinated in the year before Ovid’s birth. banished from Rome in the same year). The poet skillfully revives the nearly for- Ovid spent the rest of his life writing com- gotten mythologies of Greece and finds in plaints of his lonely exile in a boring fron- them an endless source of beauty, clever- tier town, and sending petitions for a re- ness, and profound philosophical truths. call to Rome that were never granted. Ovid’s work The Art of Love was a The poetry of Ovid was held in high parody of conventional love poems and a regard throughout the Middle Ages and witty and biting portrayal of Roman aris- the Renaissance. His elegant wit and sen- tocrats. The poem was widely admired in suous writing, and his talent for storytell- Rome but also criticized as a work of loose ing, inspired writers as well as sculptors morality. It also brought him trouble with and painters, who illustrated many of his most famous themes and subjects. The the emperor Augustus, who may have been leading writers of the Renaissance, includ- infuriated by Ovid’s revelation of misbe- ing John Milton, Edmund Spenser, and havior on the part of the emperor’s grand- William Shakespeare, freely borrowed daughter Julia. Augustus censored all of Ovid’s plots and incorporated Ovidian leg- the poet’s works and banished him to per- ends into their works. manent exile in a distant Roman colony on the Black Sea in about A.D.8 (Julia was SEE ALSO: classical literature; Virgil

Greenhaven Encyclopedia of The Renaissance 235 painting pecially in Italy. The most important as- As the primary art associated with the Re- pect of Renaissance painting is the ideas naissance, painting reflects many of the the artworks expressed. It was seen as most important discoveries, philosophies, novel at the time for a scene on wood or and innovations of this historical period. canvas to carry the philosophy and per- The greatest artists of the period were sonality of the artist. Artists emerged from painters, and their works have remained obscurity and anonymity to become re- the most familiar Renaissance artifacts, es- nowned individuals, and the works of the

The Renaissance saw major advances in the art of painting. Artists like Michelangelo Buonarroti used new techniques to produce masterpieces that are still familiar today, such as the “Creation of Adam” from his fresco on the ceiling of the Sistine Chapel in Rome.

Greenhaven Encyclopedia of The Renaissance 237 painting best of them were sought after by collec- temporaries. An independent career as a tors, monarchs, and nobles. painter, however, was still an impossibility Painting in the Middle Ages was domi- for most, and painters eagerly sought the nated by religion and familiar scenes from patronage of wealthy noblemen, kings, or the Bible and Christian mythology. It was popes in order to support themselves with an art closely associated with architecture, well-paid commissions. Private citizens or- as painting was a medium used most of- dered portraits of themselves or their fami- ten for the decoration of church walls, ceil- lies; and had painters decorate the cham- ings, altars, doorways, and naves. In the bers of their homes. Prosperous cities early Renaissance, this tradition began to asked artists to enhance their public build- change, as artists began creating works in- ings with frescoes and create interior mu- tended to stand alone as works of art ad- rals celebrating their history. mired for the skill of the artist rather than The wealth earned through trade and for their function as an object of worship banking made Florence a center of art pa- or religious instruction. tronage that had no rival in Europe. At the The humanism of the Renaissance left same time, ideas were spreading rapidly as an important stamp on painting. Human- communications improved and long- ism passed over religious faith to seek out distance travel grew easier, and as printed essential truths through rational investiga- books became available after the 1450s. tion, deduction, and debate. Painters in Leading Italian painters of the Renais- the humanist tradition set pagan myths sance include Masaccio, Paolo Uccello, Fra and philosophies on an equal footing with Angelico, Sandro Botticelli, Piero della Christianity. They studied anatomy to ar- Francesca, Leonardo da Vinci, Raphael, rive at a more accurate depiction of the Michelangelo Buonarroti, Andrea Mante- human form, and developed the science of gna, Titian, Tintoretto, Paolo Veronese, the perspective to lend their painted scenes Bellini family, and Giorgione. Major paint- the illusion of three-dimensional reality. ers of the Northern Renaissance, in En- These new techniques were greatly helped gland, the Low Countries, and Germany, by the invention of oil painting and the included Albrecht Dürer, Lucas Cranach, artist’s easel, which enhanced the idea of Matthias Grünewald, Pieter Brueghel, and the painting as a self-contained work of Hans Holbein. These painters were con- art. The greatest humanist monument of cerned with a precise rendering of natural the Renaissance, however, was the im- detail, with the astonishing technique of mense frescoed ceiling of the Sistine the Dutch painter Jan van Eyck serving as Chapel, created by Michelangelo, which their model. Religious imagery still played depicted biblical themes in the dramatic a strong role in art of the north. and monumental style of ancient classical In the late Renaissance, several Italian sculpture. painters developed a new, “Mannerist” Painters of the Renaissance usually style in reaction to the naturalistic detail trained as apprentices in the workshops of of leading painters such as Michelangelo, older, more experienced men. After serv- Raphael, and Leonardo. Mannerist paint- ing their terms, many of them traveled in ings created crowded and elaborate scenes, order to study, to discover classical archi- exaggerated certain details of the human tecture, or to view the works of their con- form, and tricked the observer’s eye with

238 Greenhaven Encyclopedia of The Renaissance Palladio, Andrea techniques of perspective and optical illu- cred music that exhibited a complete mas- sions. Mannerism was meant not to con- tery of the difficult craft of counterpoint vey a religious scene or classical myth, but (the balanced setting of two or more lines to simply display the skill of the painter. It of music under very strict rules of ended innovation in the Renaissance era harmony). He provided a model for Ital- and ushered in the new period of Baroque ian composers of sacred music for a cen- painting that would dominate European tury after his death and was also an im- art for two centuries. portant influence on the works of Johann Sebastian Bach. Palestrina remains a widely SEE ALSO: Bellini, Gentile; Bellini, Gio- studied model for students of composition vanni; Bellini, Jacopo; Botticelli, Sandro; into the twenty-first century. Caravaggio, Michelangelo da; Fra An- gelico; Giorgione; Grünewald, Matthias; SEE ALSO: Byrd, William; Dowland, John; Leonardo da Vinci; Masaccio; Michelan- music gelo Buonarroti; Raphael; Titian Palladio, Andrea Palestrina, Giovanni Pierluigi da (1508–1580) (1525–1594) Italian architect and writer who adopted Italian composer born in the town of Pal- classical motifs and style in his public and estrina, east of Rome. He began his musi- private buildings. Born in Padua as An- cal career as a choirboy and organist, and drea di Pietro della Gondola, he served as in 1551 was appointed by Pope Julius II as an apprentice to a stonecutter. He worked director of the Julian Chapel at Saint as a stone carver in , where he was Peter’sinRome.Hisreputationasacom- further trained by the scholar Giangiorgio poser grew with Masses that he wrote for Trissino, who gave him the nickname of performance in Rome, where Dutch and “Palladio” after the Greek goddess Pallas French composers had once dominated the Athena. Palladio began designing private scene. He became musical director of the homes in Vicenza and, in 1541 traveled to Roman Church of Santa Maria Maggiore Rome, where he began studying the monu- from 1561 until 1566, and then served as a ments of ancient Rome. When he returned court musician for the d’Este family at to Vicenza, he began incorporating designs their palace in Tivoli, in the hills north of of Roman temples, baths, and monuments Rome. He returned to Saint Peter’s in into the facades of buildings he designed. 1571, and remained in the service of the In 1546 the city of Vicenza commis- popes for the rest of his life. Palestrina was sioned Palladio to renovate the Palazzo commissioned by Pope Gregory XIII to re- della Ragione, the city’s law court. He sur- turn church music to the traditional style rounded the building with loggias, or of plainchant, in which different voices walking passages covered by an arcade. sung melodies in unison. But he found With this work Palladio’s reputation spread himself poorly suited to this antique form among the wealthy merchants and aristo- of music and instead became one of the crats of the Veneto region, which was pros- most skilled composers of polyphonic pering through trade within Venice’s far- (multi part) music of the Renaissance. He flung Mediterranean empire. In honor of wrote exclusively vocal music: Masses, its architect, the project, which was not motets, hymns, madrigals, and other sa- completed until the early seventeenth cen-

Greenhaven Encyclopedia of The Renaissance 239 Papacy tury, came to be known as the Basilica Pal- power of the eastern Roman (Byzantine) ladiana. Palladio wrote a guidebook to the emperors, and the Christian bishops of antiquities of Rome, illustrated a Renais- that city challenged the authority of Rome. sance edition of the writings of the Ro- The popes of Rome sent missionaries to man architect Vitruvius, and founded an northern Europe to convert pagans to the academy in Vicenza. His Four Books on Ar- new faith, a process that took five centu- chitecture, completed in 1570, is a com- ries through the early Middle Ages. In the plete account of techniques of architecture meantime, the Eastern and Western Chris- applied to private homes, religious build- tian churches contended for centuries over ings, and civic buildings. doctrine and their respective authority in Palladio is best known for private vil- Europe, with a Great Schism occurring be- las he designed in the Veneto, including tween the two in 1054. In the meantime, the Villa Barbaro and the Villa Capra, an the popes of Rome were fighting the em- elegant symmetrical cube topped by a perors of the Holy Roman Empire for con- dome and displaying a temple front on trol of Italy, with the popes wielding the each of its four sides. His elegant “Palla- power of excommunication over the em- dian” style combined ancient building ele- perors, who had large, multinational ments and the Renaissance taste for the armies and allied Italian cities and states opulent display of wealth. Drawing on his on their side. discoveries in the ruins of ancient Rome, he employed classical columns, arches, The medieval Papacy was torn by its pediments, atriums, and peristyles own inner conflicts and rivalries, leading (courts), always careful to balance the dif- to the “Babylonian Captivity” in which the ferent elements of a building and consider popes moved from Rome to a palace in the structure’s presence on its natural site. the city of Avignon in southern France. Palladian buildings exhibited the harmony The schism within the Papacy, which at and balance of the classical world. Palladio times was claimed to be led by three dif- swept away the decorative Gothic style and ferent men, and the worldliness of the set the standard for architecture for the church inspired a movement for reform next two centuries, when builders in Eu- and defiance of the pope’s authority. Un- rope and the United States, including Tho- der the leadership of Jan Hus, Martin mas Jefferson, were imitating his style in Luther, Huldrych Zwingli, and John Calvin, structures large and small. the Protestant Reformation sought a re- turn to the early simplicity and purity of SEE ALSO: Alberti, Leon Battista; architec- the Christian faith, and an end to the ture; Bramante, Donato worldly power and wealth claimed by the Papacy popes and their representatives. In Rome, Since the time of the early Roman Empire, the papal court became a leading center when the Christian faith was banned, the for the patronage of artists, sculptors, bishops of Rome exercised a wide-ranging scholars, and architects, and the Papacy authority over Christian believers, based grew wealthy from the system of tithing on the establishment of the Roman church and the selling of indulgences—the par- by the apostle Peter. After the fall of the doning of sins. western empire in the fifth century, the A Counter-Reformation began in the city of Constantinople became the seat of late Renaissance after several meetings of

240 Greenhaven Encyclopedia of The Renaissance Paracelsus the Council of Trent, which set down new gnon, France, and the Papal States fell un- doctrine to be enforced by the members der the authority of secular princes. of the church. Making alliances with The restoration of the Papacy in Rome Catholic rulers, such as the Emperor led to the expansion of papal authority in Charles V, the popes sought to return Prot- central Italy, beginning in the late fifteenth estant lands to Catholicism, with mixed century. Pope Alexander VI sanctioned a results. The popes claimed civic as well as campaign by his son Cesare Borgia to con- religious authority in several principalities quer these small principalities, which did of central Italy, known as the Papal States. not have effective defenses against Borgia’s During the sixteenth century, the Papacy large and disciplined forces. Cities of the conquered many important cities of Italy Romagna, a region centered in the valley and imposed direct rule over them. The of the Po River in northern Italy, and the power of the Papacy over even Catholic Marches, along the central Adriatic coast, rulers declined after the Renaissance, until came directly under the pope’s authority. the Papal States were finally dissolved in The power of the Papacy was strengthened the nineteenth century and the Papacy be- in the late Renaissance, after Pope Julius II came a purely religious institution. and later popes abolished secular govern- ments in several key cities, including Fer- SEE ALSO: Alexander VI; Julius II; Papal States; Reformation, Protestant rara and Urbino. The Papal States re- mained independent of more powerful Papal States states that were emerging in the north (such as Venice and Tuscany) and the The states where the Catholic pope held south (including Naples). In 1796 a French direct “temporal” authority in central Italy, army under Napoléon Bonaparte, a deter- beginning in the middle of the eighth cen- mined opponent of the church’s civic au- tury, and where papal sovereignty ended thority, invaded and disbanded the Papal with the unification of Italy in 1870. The States, which were restored for a last time fall of Rome in the fifth century left the in 1815. The last remnant of the Papal popes as the strongest power in the city States is , a small enclave in and its surrounding region. When Italy Rome that is the seat of the modern was under the threat of total conquest by Catholic Church. the Lombards, Pope Stephen II sent for help from the Franks and their king Pepin SEE ALSO: Italy; Julius II; Papacy the Short. The Franks invaded Italy de- spite the efforts by the eastern Roman Paracelsus (Byzantine) empire to establish rule over (1493–1541) the peninsula and restore the empire. In Germany physician and alchemist who 756, the Franks turned over territories un- pioneered a new approach to treating ill- der their control to the church, an event ness, and helped usher medicine out of its known as the Donation of Pepin. The do- medieval occultism and into the more ra- mains of the popes expanded in the tional scientific philosophies of the Re- Middle Ages, to include Naples, Sicily, and naissance. The son of a physician, his given Sardinia under Pope Sylvester I, and Tus- name was Philippus Aureolus Theophras- cany in the early twelfth century. From tus Bombast von Hohenheim. He was born 1305, the seat of the Papacy was in Avi- and raised in the town of Einsiedeln in

Greenhaven Encyclopedia of The Renaissance 241 Parr, Catherine what is now Switzerland and spent several the mind, the body, and the spiritual years wandering to the far corners of the world. For this reason, the study of both known world to learn from philosophers, human philosophy and scientific as- scientists, and doctors from Europe to Ara- tronomy were needed for a physician to bia and India. He studied in several uni- truly understand the workings and dis- versities, poring over the medical texts of eases of the body. the ancient writers and exploring the al- In 1524 Paracelsus became a lecturer chemical tracts of medieval writers. His and physician in the city of Basel, where studies and experiments led him to the his strange new ideas and his teaching in conclusion that all matter derived from German instead of traditional Latin three basic substances—salt, sulfur, and sparked bitter conflict with his physician mercury—that originated in a matter rivals and quickly drove him from the city. known as mysterium arcanum. In 1536 he published a handbook of sur- Paracelsus rejected the traditional gery, Der Grossen Wundartzney. He died practices of physicians, who in his day five years later under mysterious circum- worked to rid the body of impurities stances, with many historians believing through bleeding and purging. In his book that he was poisoned by rivals. Archidoxis, he explained his theory that certain essential qualities all derive from SEE ALSO: medicine substances found in nature. He believed that philosophy, astronomy, alchemy, and Parr, Catherine virtue were all necessary to the work of a (1512–1548) doctor, and that disease represented a mal- The sixth and last wife of King Henry VIII function of the body and not, as was tra- of England. She was born in Kendal, the ditional, the imbalance of the bodily hu- daughter of Sir Thomas Parr, a court offi- mors. He elaborated his ideas in another cial. She married twice, the first time to major work, Opus Paramirum,orWork Lord Edward of Borough. After his death, Beyond Wonder, which also explained the she married Baron John Neville, who died organs of the body as containing a guiding in 1543. Although she was drawing close spirit that separated good qualities from to Thomas Seymour, the brother of the bad. To cure disease, the physician needed king’s late wife Jane Seymour, Henry him- to apply a substance manufactured from self proposed marriage to her. His previ- minerals, metals, or other compounds that ous wife, Catherine Howard, had been ex- was proper to the functioning of the dis- ecuted on a charge of adultery, after which eased organ and could mimic the body’s the enraged king’s ministers and inner natural balancing action. circle felt a great reluctance to propose any Paracelsus saw man as a microcosm of woman as his next consort. Parr was an the universe, a being in which all the quali- acceptable candidate by the fact that she ties found in nature had their counter- had been twice married already, and thus parts on the human scale. The physical her chastity was not an issue as it would body, the soul, and an astral body were have been for an unmarried woman. She present, in which the latter spirit—which accepted the proposal despite her love for originated in the heavens—served as a Thomas Seymour, and the sixth royal wed- blueprint for the form and function of all ding of Henry’s reign took place on July things and as an important link between 12, 1543, at the palace of Hampton Court.

242 Greenhaven Encyclopedia of The Renaissance Paul III

After his five marriages had ended in she died of a fever shortly after giving divorces or executions, Henry was growing birth to her first child, a daughter. stout, sickly, and extremely paranoid and fearful of cabals and conspiracies at court. SEE ALSO: Elizabeth I; England; Henry VIII In this troubled atmosphere Catherine helped tutor the king’s two daughters, Paul III Mary and Elizabeth, who had grown es- (1468–1549) tranged from their father. Catherine suc- Pope of the Catholic Church from 1534 ceeded in softening Henry’s intolerant at- until his death in 1549. Born Alessandro titude toward his daughters and possibly Farnese in Canino, in the region saving them from accusations of treason. surrounding Rome, he was the scion of a In the summer of 1544, Henry took wealthy family who was educated in Rome the field for a campaign in France, ap- by humanist scholars and in Florence, pointing Parr as regent to rule England in where he was tutored at the court of his place. She carried out her duties with Lorenzo de’ Medici. He entered the service competence, attending to the finances of of the church but remained a devoted the realm and supplying Henry’s armies scholar of the classics and a friend to many with men, supplies, and provisions. The of Europe’s leading artists, writers, univer- queen regent’s ability greatly impressed sity professors, and collectors. In 1493, he the young Elizabeth, who looked to her was appointed a cardinal by Pope Alex- stepmother as a model for her own man- ander VI. He was ordained as a priest in agement of England after she took the 1519, but in the meantime had fathered throne. four children, whose careers he was deter- Parr’s sympathies for the new reformed mined to advance through his position in faith, however, made Catholic courtiers the church. He became dean of the Col- hostile to her, and their machinations with lege of Cardinals and in 1534, after the the king put her in danger. She was guilty death of Clement VII, was elected to the of debating religious issues at court and Papacy. encouraging commoners to read the Bible Paul III came to office at a time when in an English version, an act that consti- the Catholic hierarchy was dealing with a tuted defiance of the king as the supreme spreading Protestant Reformation in head of the church. An arrest warrant was northern Europe. To deal with the de- issued but on the eve of being taken pris- mands for reform of a church that many oner Catherine soothed the king’s ego with saw as corrupt and worldly, he appointed submissive and penitent speeches; when capable ministers and assembled a com- palace guards arrived to take her prisoner mittee of nine church leaders to make rec- the king angrily sent them away. ommendations for reform. One of his first After the death of Henry in 1547, important acts in office was to convene a Catherine Parr carded the title of Dowager general council at Mantua, but when Ger- Queen of England and quickly married man Protestants refused to attend, the Thomas Seymour. She took a strong inter- pope canceled the council and waited est in the Reformation ideas then current nearly ten years to finally assemble the on the continent, and commissioned an Council of Trent. He sent representatives English translation of a work of Desid- to debate with Protestants in Regensburg, erius Erasmus. In the next year, however, Germany, with the intention of reconciling

Greenhaven Encyclopedia of The Renaissance 243 Paul IV

Protestant and Catholic branches of the church, Paul took the Papacy in a direc- Christian faith, with the eventual goal of tion away from what he saw as the dan- bringing Protestants back under papal au- gerous humanist secularism of the Renais- thority within the traditional church. To sance. Born as Giovanni Carafa, in the this end, he founded the Congregation of town of Capriglio in the Campagna re- the Holy Office, also known as the Roman gion, he belonged to a noble family that Inquisition, in order to try cases of heresy. counted cardinals and high church offi- During his tenure, the Society of Jesus, or cials among its members. He was trained Jesuits, was established in order to teach in Latin and Greek but rejected the hu- Catholic doctrine to students, carry out manist teachings of the Renaissance, in- the Catholic Reformation in Europe, and stead following the philosophies of medi- enforce the church’s missionary activities eval Scholasticism. He was ordained as a in the new colonies of Asia and the Ameri- priest in 1505 and shortly afterward made cas. (For one, Paul decreed that Native bishop of the town of Chieti. He was ap- Americans should not be taken as slaves.) pointed archbishop of Brindisi, a port Taking more direct action, Paul allied the town on the Adriatic Sea, in 1518, and in Papacy with Emperor Charles V in his 1536 he was appointed as a cardinal. He campaigns to smash the Schmalkaldic became the archbishop of Naples in 1549 League of Protestant German princes. and in 1555 was elected pope as Paul IV. Determined to return Rome to its role Paul was a harsh disciplinarian who as a leading city of the arts and scholar- had poor relations with the Catholic rulers ship, Paul hired Michelangelo Buonarroti of Europe, including the Habsburg emper- to paint the giant fresco known as The Last ors and the king of Spain. He spared little Judgment on a wall of the Sistine Chapel. effort in enforcing a strict and sweeping Paul ordered the renovation of ancient reform of the church. He had monks, monuments in Rome, such as the Castel priests, and cardinals tried for minor in- Sant’ Angelo and the Roman monuments fractions and sentenced to prison and to of the Capitoline Hill. He was also respon- slave galleys, and banished church officials sible for the building of the massive from other towns who had taken up the Palazzo Farnese in central Rome, a mag- easy court life in the city of Rome. He was nificent Renaissance palace that currently fervently opposed to the presence of Jews houses the embassy of France. Like other in Rome and decreed in 1555 the building Renaissance popes, however, Paul saw the of the city’s ghetto, a walled compound Papacy as an opportunity to enrich and whereRomanJewswereforcedtoliveand empower his close relatives, who received work. appointments in the church, land, and To prevent opposing opinion and he- other property. retical views from spreading to the public, he established in 1559 the Index Librorum SEE ALSO: Paul IV; Reformation, Catholic; Prohibitorum, or Index of Forbidden Reformation, Protestant Books, a list of volumes (including all books and tracts written by Protestants) Paul IV that were henceforth banned to Catholics. (1476–1559) Paul had little regard for the work of gen- Pope of the Catholic Church from 1555 eral church councils, however, and failed until 1559. A zealous reformer of the to convene the Council of Trent, which

244 Greenhaven Encyclopedia of The Renaissance Pazzi Conspiracy still had unfinished business in the matter was at odds with the Medici over contested of reform and the reconciliation of Catho- territory between the Papal States of cen- lics and Protestants. When the Habsburg tral Italy and Tuscany, the region domi- emperor Charles V agreed to the Peace of nated by Florence. A loan from the Pazzi Augsburg that allowed Protestant princes bank allowed the pope to purchase strate- to establish the faith of their choosing in gic land and cities in exchange for grant- their own domains, Paul threatened to de- ing the Pazzi a monopoly on valuable pose the emperor and replace him with mines. Furious by this arrangement, someone more loyal to the Catholic Lorenzo de’ Medici took his revenge by Church. thwarting the pope’s efforts to appoint Paul carried out war against the Span- Francesco Salvati, an ally of the Pazzi, as ish king Philip II in 1556. The forces allied an archbishop in Tuscany. to the pope suffered a rout within a year, and the heavy burdens the war placed on With the pope’s connivance, the Pazzi the church, as well as his flagrant nepo- then allied with Salvati and Girolamo tism in appointing his relatives to high , the pope’s nephew, to kill Lorenzo positions, made the pope widely unpopu- and his brother Giuliano de’ Medici dur- lar. On his death in 1559, the people of ing Sunday services in the Duomo. Fed- Rome rioted to show their displeasure at erigo da Montefeltro, the Duke of Urbino, his policies and burned the offices of the was brought into the plot and promised to Roman Inquisition. bring a company of six hundred men to Florence in support of the Pazzi. During SEE ALSO: Index; Inquisition; Paul III; Ref- the solemn singing of Mass on the ap- ormation, Catholic pointed day, April 26, 1478, a group of men fell on Giuliano de’ Medici and bru- Pazzi Conspiracy tally stabbed him to death, while his The Pazzi Conspiracy was an important brother escaped to the sacristy of the event in the history of the city of Florence, church. Unable to reach Lorenzo through a center of the Italian Renaissance. The a locked door, the conspirators left the name comes from a wealthy banking fam- Duomo and then attempted to capture the ily of Tuscany who traced their lineage to (town hall) of Florence. They a famous eleventh-century crusader, whose were captured by an angry mob of Floren- bold fighting style during a siege of Jerusa- tine citizens and immediately lynched. lem earned him the nickname of “Pazzo” Salviati himself was hanged from the wall (the Madman). In honor of their illustri- of the Signoria, an execution captured in a ous ancestor, each year the Pazzi struck a famous sketch by Leonardo da Vinci. In light from a stone of the Basilica of the revenge for the killing of the archbishop, Holy Sepulchre on Holy Saturday, the day the pope forbade Mass to be held in Flo- before Easter, to relight the altar candles in rence, and enlisted the king of Naples to the Duomo, the cathedral of Florence. attack the city. Lorenzo de’ Medici, how- At a time when the Medici family ruled ever, voyaged to Naples to surrender him- Florence, the wealthy and ambitious Pazzi self to the king and dissuade him from were striving to usurp the Medici and take this plan. The conspiracy resulted in the control of the city for themselves. To this exact opposite of what it intended, laying end,theyalliedwithPopeSixtusIV,who low the Pazzi dynasty in Florence and in-

Greenhaven Encyclopedia of The Renaissance 245 Peasants War spiring widespread support of Medici rule these demands in a document known as in Florence. the Twelve Articles. The rebels seized the town of Heilbronn, where they formed a SEE ALSO: Medici, Lorenzo de’ parliament, as well as Würtzburg, the seat of a Catholic bishop. In Thuringia, the Peasants War rebels were led by Thomas Muntzer, a fi- A rebellion that lasted from 1524 to 1525 ery Protestant leader. in German-speaking domains of the Holy Poor townspeople and urban artisans Roman Empire. The revolt originated in joined the rebellion, which also won the opposition to the heavy burdens of taxes support of Huldrych Zwingli, a prominent and duties on the German serfs, who had Protestant leader, but was opposed by Mar- no legal rights and no opportunity to im- tin Luther. In the meantime, an army of prove their lot. These conditions had the Swabian League gathered and marched sparked conflict in the fifteenth century, north into Franconia, in central Germany, but these uprisings remained local and defeating the peasants in battle at Fran- contained. A more widespread rebellion kenhausen and Königshofen. About one was finally sparked in the 1520s by the hundred thousand combatants and civil- movement for reform in the Catholic ians were killed before the fighting died Church, and the social and political up- down in late 1525, while the armies of the heavals that the Protestant Reformation opposition carried out deadly reprisals for caused. With the authority of church prel- the next two years. Small local rebellions ates challenged by Martin Luther and oth- continued into the next year in Austria, ers, the peasants saw their cause supported but the defeat of the peasants in Germany by the Protestant emphasis on individual brought a complete repudiation of their faith. Empowered in their religious views, demands for a more just economic system. and pressed by crop failures that threat- The discontent of the peasants would con- ened starvation, they saw an opportunity tinue through the sixteenth and early sev- to overthrow the feudal system, in which enteenth century, adding to the bitter con- they were bound to the estates of the flicts between Protestant and Catholic nobles and forced to give up the produce territories that would finally erupt into the of the fields in which they worked. Thirty Years’ War in the early 1600s. The revolt began in the summer of 1524 in the county of Stühlingen, in the SEE ALSO: Reformation, Protestant; Thirty region of Upper Swabia near the border of Years’ War Germany and Switzerland. It spread quickly in southern and western Germany, perspective and as far as Switzerland and Austria. In Although the classical Greek and Roman the spring of 1525, there were five large world was widely admired and imitated in bands of peasants roaming the country- the Renaissance, the art of antiquity was side, burning homes of nobles and princes, surpassed in several technical aspects by and bringing townspeople over to their later artists. One of the most important side. The peasants sought relief from heavy advances was made in the science of per- taxes, an end to serfdom, fair trials, and an spective. The artists of the classical world end to the taxes they owed on the death of attempted in vain to accurately portray a member of their families. They set down three-dimensional space on their wall

246 Greenhaven Encyclopedia of The Renaissance Perugino paintings, while medieval artists had de- greater distance. Leonardo da Vinci put picted scenes and figures on a flat plane, aerial perspective to use in The Virgin of with no attempt to create an illusion of the Rocks, in which a sense of great depth depth. The techniques of perspective were and mystery is achieved by the rendering finally developed in Italy in the early Re- of the natural landscape as well as the con- naissance, in the work and the writings of tours of the figures. several Italian artists. “Linear perspective” SEE ALSO: painting makes use of a single vanishing point, to- ward which objects appear to grow smaller Perugino and the lines of structures and surround- ings appear to converge. (1450–1523) Italian painter whose style expressed clas- The basic principles of this system sical ideals of balance and harmony, and were discovered by the Florentine architect whose works made him an important fore- Filippo Brunelleschi in the early fifteenth runner of the High Renaissance style of century. While observing the Baptistery, an Italian art. Nicknamed for the town of Pe- octagonal structure near the cathedral of rugia, he was born in the Umbrian town Florence, Brunelleschi painted the struc- of Citta della Pieve as Pietro di Cristoforo ture directly onto a mirror, then held up a Vannucci. He studied painting as a boy second blank mirror in order to verify that with the leading masters of Perugia, then his painted version was an exact replica. left for Florence, where he apprenticed He then carefully analyzed and measured with Piero della Francesca and, as a fellow his painting to discover the underlying pupil of Leonardo da Vinci, with Andrea mathematical principles that governed per- del Verrocchio. Two of his early works are spective. The Baptistery instructed The Miracle of St. Bernardino and The Ado- Brunelleschi in the use of a vanishing ration of the Magi. He joined the confra- point and the horizon line, where the lines ternity of Saint Luke, a painters guild, in of different planes and objects converged. the early 1470s. In 1479 he was summoned Brunelleschi published his findings to to Rome by Pope Sixtus IV and in 1481 be used by other artists, and Renaissance completed a commission to assist in the painting took on the most important as- decoration of the Sistine Chapel in Rome. pect of its naturalistic, lifelike quality. His work for the famous chapel included Paolo Uccello, another artist of Florence, The Baptism of Christ, Moses and Zippo- used perspective with surprising effect on rah, and Christ Giving the Keys to St. Peter, his mural ,where a painting noted for its expansive open horses, weapons, and human figures all spaces and idealized, symmetrical architec- serve to emphasize lines of perspective and ture. The careful composition and har- the vanishing point. The science of per- mony of the poses give this and other spective was further explored in Della Pit- works of Perugino a sense of philosophical tura, a work by Leon Battista Alberti, who dignity and calm, ideals to which artists of offered precise mathematical formulas for the later High Renaissance would strive. the use of artists. Later artists developed Unfortunately, the paintings covered the new systems of perspective, including section of wall that would later carry The aerial perspective, in which objects go out Last Judgment of Michelangelo Buonarroti, of focus and appear in a bluish light with and would be destroyed in order for Mich-

Greenhaven Encyclopedia of The Renaissance 247 Petrarch elangelo to carry out his design. paneled altarpiece completed in the Cer- In 1486, after the Sistine Chapel com- tosa of Pavia. He returned to Rome on the mission ended, Perugino moved to Flo- invitation of Pope Julius II in 1508 to paint rence, where he completed several major sections of the Stanza dell’Incendio del works in which human figures are artfully in the Vatican, but found his own placed in a setting of classical architecture paintings overlooked for the masterpieces to achieve a sense of symmetry and seren- of his pupil, Raphael. Finally returning to ity. These works include The Vision of St. Perugia in 1512, he completed frescoes for Bernard and a tondo, or circular painting, the Church of Madonna delle Lacrime in entitled The Madonna Enthroned with Trevi and for the monastery of Sant’ Saints, both painted in the mid-1490s, as Agnese in Perugia. He died during a plague well as a Crucifixion painted for the Santa epidemic in 1524. Maria Maddalena dei Pazzi in Florence. SEE ALSO: painting; Raphael; Verrocchio, Perugina established a thriving workshop Andrea del in Florence but found his work coming under criticism in the city’s highly charged and competitive atmosphere. Sometime Petrarch around 1496 he moved back to Perugia, (1304–1374) where he remained for the rest of his life. Italian poet and scholar who idealized the He completed an altarpiece, The Ascension, classical world and introduced a new, hu- for the Church of San Pietro and in 1497 manist sensibility to the secular literature he began work on a fresco series in the of Italy. Born in Arezzo, in Tuscany, he Audience Hall of Perugia’s Collegio del was the son of a notary of Florence who Cambio, the guild hall of the city’s bank- had been exiled from the city. In 1312, the ers. Historians consider two of Perugino’s family moved to Avignon, the city of designs, The Nativity and The Transfigura- southern France that was serving as the tion, to be among the finest examples of seat of the Catholic popes. He studied at his work, showing a mastery of composi- the University of Montpellier, also in tion and architectural perspective. The France, and the University of Bologna, walls also carry a variety of portraits of where he trained as a lawyer. His interest Greeks and Romans, depictions of the car- in poetry was strongly discouraged by his dinal virtues, and a self-portrait; historians father, who on one occasion seized and believe that the younger Raphael, at the burned several volumes of ancient Latin time Perugino’s apprentice, may have authors found in his son’s possession. helped him complete the work. After the death of his father Petrarch Perugino won several commissions gave up the study of law and returned to from the aristocratic patrons, including Avignon. In 1330 he joined the household Isabella d’Este, for whom he painted The of Cardinal Giovanni Colonna, a member Triumph of Chastity. He was still unsuc- of an aristocratic Roman family. Granted cessful in winning the respect of his peers, the freedom to travel and study, Petrarch however, and on one occasion had his abil- journeyed to France, Germany, and the ity insulted by Michelangelo himself. Un- Low Countries in 1333, searching in successfully suing Michelangelo for belit- churches, libraries, and monasteries for tling his character, Perugino responded forgotten classical manuscripts. He began with The Madonna and Saints, a multi- writing poetry and in 1342 produced a set

248 Greenhaven Encyclopedia of The Renaissance Philip II of sonnets and canzoni (songs) in a vol- cluse, he wrote a biographical work, De ume entitled Canzoniere, a collection that Vita Solitaria (Of the Solitary Life). In the would grow to nearly four hundred poems late the Black Death struck Europe, in a variety of forms—sonnets, ballads, eventually killing many of Petrarch’s and madrigals—through several later revi- friends and acquaintances, including sions. In his early works Petrarch describes Laura, the love of his life, as well as Cardi- a mysterious and distant love, Laura, nal Colonna and Petrarch’s son Giovanni. whom he had first seen in 1327 in The plague inspired The Triumph of Death, Avignon’s Church of Saint Clare. Although which he followed with The Triumph of his love was unrequited, the figure of Love and The Triumph of Chastity. Laura would haunt Petrarch’s poems and Although he had achieved fame as a letters for the rest of his life. scholar and poet, Petrarch found himself As his family was not wealthy, and he uninterested in the status or profit that had no interest in public life or a career in would come with an important appoint- the law, Petrarch took the vow of Holy ment. He turned down several offers of Orders as a young man. His work as a rep- high posts in the Catholic Church and as resentative and diplomat for Cardinal Col- a professor at the University of Avignon. onna allowed him the freedom and the in- Instead, he lived in Milan, where he en- come to pursue his true interest: classical joyed the patronage of Giovanni Visconti, scholarship. He was one of the first medi- the ruler of the city, and then in the city eval writers to closely study the ancient of Padua, where he also had the patronage Roman authors and take these pagan writ- of a nobleman and where he built a coun- ers seriously as a model for his own works try house in which to live out his years. and philosophy. In the late 1330s he was Petrarch’s important works in Latin in- living the life of a hermit in the moun- clude On Contempt for the Worldly Life, tainous region of Vaucluse, in the French Metrical Epistles, On Solitude, and the Alps, where he began working on schol- Eclogues. He was the first author to find arly and historical works, including the inspiration in Christian piety as well as epic poem Africa on the career of the Ro- classical scholarship; his life was devoted man general Scipio Africanus. In the to balancing the intellectual life of a meantime, the poems of Canzoniere won scholar and the spiritual pursuits of a man renown throughout Europe. In 1341, Pe- of the church. This outlook had great in- trarch was crowned as a poet laureate in fluence on other writers of Italy and Eu- Rome, becoming the first writer to enjoy rope and looked forward to the humanism this honor since the time of the Roman of Renaissance art and scholarship. Empire. Still in the service of the cardinal, Pe- SEE ALSO: Dante Alighieri; humanism trarch was sent on a mission to Naples in 1343. On his return to France, he traveled Philip II through Verona, where he discovered un- (1527–1598) known letters of Cicero in the library of King of Spain from 1556 to 1598. Born in the cathedral. Transcribing the manu- Valladolid, he was the son of Isabella of scripts, he deliberated on a collection of Portugal and Charles V, ruler of the Holy his own letters as a personal testament to Roman Empire as well as Spain, southern his life and philosophy. Returning to Vau- Italy, Sicily, the Low Countries, and Spain’s

Greenhaven Encyclopedia of The Renaissance 249 Philip II

and threats to Spanish trade and shipping in the Mediterranean from North African pirates and the navy of the Ottoman Em- pire. Although England had allied with Spain in the war against France, the cam- paign turned into a pointless stalemate and was finally ended by the Treaty of Cateau- Cambresis in 1559, which was followed by Philip’s marriage to Elizabeth of Valois, the daughter of the king of France. The succession was thrown into doubt when Philip’s son Don Carlos showed himself unfit to inherit the throne; when evidence came to light implicating Don Carlos was plotting against Philip, the king had him arrested. Don Carlos died under mysteri- ous circumstances in 1568, and may have been executed on Philip’s orders. In 1571 Philip joined a grand alliance, Phillip II, King of Spain. including Venice and the Papacy, that de- feated the navy of the Ottoman Empire at colonies in the Americas. Charles named the Battle of Lepanto, off the western coast Philip his regent in Spain in 1543, when of Greece. But in the Low Countries, Philip he also arranged his son’s marriage to badly miscalculated the determined oppo- , who died giving birth sition of Protestant towns and nobles to Philip’s first son, Don Carlos, in 1545. against rule by Catholic Spain. By raising Charles then arranged the marriage of taxes, imposing Catholic prelates, and dis- Philip to Mary, the daughter of King regarding the authority of local councils, Henry VIII of England, in 1554. He also his policies inspired a full-scale revolt. The made his teenage son the nominal ruler in occupation of the Low Countries would the , the Franche-Comte, end badly for Spain, as the northern Prot- Sicily, and Naples before abdicating all of estant countries ultimately won indepen- his titles, leaving the Holy Roman Empire dence as the United Provinces (the mod- in the name of his brother Ferdinand I. ern Netherlands). Raised and tutored as a devout Catholic, Philip’s rivalry with Elizabeth, the Philip found the largely Protestant nation queen of England who had spurned his of England hostile and uncongenial, and offer of marriage, prompted him to as- returned to Spain in 1555. For the rest of semble a massive fleet, known as the Span- his life, Philip remained within the bor- ish Armada, for a full-scale assault on the ders of his kingdom, having little interest English coast. He ordered the ships to link in following his father’s example of fre- with Spanish troops in the Low Countries, quent travel through far-flung domains. with the mission of disrupting England’s At the start of Philip’s reign, Spain was support for the Protestant rebels and, ulti- involved in open warfare with France, a mately, the Catholic conquest of England brewing rebellion in the Low Countries, itself. In 1588 the Armada sailed to the

250 Greenhaven Encyclopedia of The Renaissance Pico della Mirandola, Giovanni

British Isles but was defeated by storms Plato and Aristotle. In Florence he met and by the skilled English captains who Angelo Poliziano and the monk Girolamo had the advantage of lighter and more ma- Savonarola, who would later establish a neuverable ships. puritanical dictatorship over the city. In Philip did have success in Portugal, 1485 Pico journeyed to Paris, where he where after the death of the childless King took part in lively scholarly debates over Henry, he pressed a claim to the monarchy the nature of philosophy and the teachings through his mother, Isabella of Portugal. of the medieval Scholastics. After return- Spanish armies invaded Portugal and the ing to Italy, he was soon embroiled in a country was annexed to Spain in 1580. scandal after abducting the wife of a mem- Spanish colonists built outposts in Florida ber of the Medici clan, the powerful ruling and in the Philippines, an archipelago house of Florence. He was arrested and named for the king. Philip also oversaw thrown into prison, but eventually saved the building of the Escorial, a royal palace from execution by Lorenzo de’ Medici, near Madrid, where he spent most of his whose friendship and patronage he had time. Although he had raised a splendid won in Florence. monument to the wealth and power of the Pico’s studies in Italy and Paris had led Spanish monarchy, he had emptied Spain’s him to the conclusion that it was possible treasury with the many foreign wars, and to discover the underlying agreements of the expense of the ill-fated Spanish Ar- Plato, Aristotle, and all the medieval reli- mada. Income from the American colonies gious philosophers—Christian, Muslim, dwindled, Philip’s taxes remained a heavy and Jewish—and bring these competing burden on the people, and farmers suf- schools of thought into harmony. He fered a series of droughts and poor har- wroteoutaseriesof900 Conclusions, vests. After his reign Spain entered a pe- which was published in 1486 and which riod of slow decline from which it would he intended to defend in a grand conclave never completely recover. of the best scholars of his day. As an introduction to the 900 Conclu- SEE ALSO: Charles V; Spanish Armada sions, Pico wrote his famous essay Oration on the Dignity of Man. But his plans for a Pico della Mirandola, Giovanni council of scholars, before which he would (1463–1494) defend the points of his work, were Italian scholar and philosopher, whose blocked on the orders of Pope Innocent writings became the most important VIII, who appointed a church council that philosophical testaments of Renaissance studied and rejected most of Pico’s argu- humanism. Born into a noble family, the ments. When Pico responded with his son of the Count of Mirandola and Con- Apology, which in large part defended his cordia, he was a precocious young student original arguments, the pope responded of Latin and Greek, and left home for Bo- by denouncing his entire body of work. logna at the age of fourteen to study canon Sensing danger in the church’s formal dis- law, the law of the church. He gave up this approval of his thinking, and the pope’s coursework and moved to Ferrara, where accusations of heresy, Pico fled Italy for he studied philosophy, and then to the Paris, but was arrested in France on the University of Padua, where he studied the orders of the pope’s representatives and teachings of the ancient Greek thinkers imprisoned in the fortress of Vincennes,

Greenhaven Encyclopedia of The Renaissance 251 Piero della Francesca near Paris. Eventually he was released He Francesco, where he painted a famous received the protection of Lorenzo de’ fresco cycle known as the The Legend of Medici, who settled him in an estate near the True Cross, which was inspired by tra- the village of Fiesole, where he wrote an- ditional legends surrounding the cross on other controversial tract, Heptaplus, ASev- which Christ was crucified. The orderly enfold Account of the Six Days of Genesis. arrangement of figures give these pictures In 1493 he received a formal pardon from a sense of calm rationality, a new sensibil- Pope Alexander VI for his transgressions ity that made a break with traditions of against orthodox church doctrine. During Gothic painting and its direct appeal to this period he also wrote Disputations the emotions. The Flagellation,arenowned Against Divinatory Astrology, which at- work of the early Renaissance, presents tacked the precepts of astrology. When Gi- three mysterious figures in the foreground over whom art historians have been argu- rolamo Savonarola took control of Flo- ing for five centuries. rence and decreed the destruction of works of art, philosophical writings, and all other For the Duke of Urbino, Federigo da worldly vanities, Pico surrendered his Montefeltro, Piero completed a double money and property and burned all of the portrait of the duke and his wife, as well as a famous altarpiece, Madonna with poetry he had written. He did not take Saints and Donor. Piero’s great skill and monastic vows, however, and died in 1494 knowledge of mathematics and linear ge- of a sudden illness, brought on in the ometry allowed him to construct master- opinion of some historians by poison. On ful paintings with the use of foreshorten- the day of his death, King Charles VIII of ing and perspective, which gives a three- France entered Florence and overthrew the dimensional appearance to the flat surface Medici dynasty. of a painting. He wrote a treatise, De Pro-

SEE ALSO: Medici, Lorenzo de’; Savonarola, spectiva Pingendi, on the art of perspec- Girolamo tive, and works on mathematics, including Treatise on the Abacus,inwhichhecov- ered the subjects of geometry, algebra, and Piero della Francesca the problems of perspective. (1415–1492) SEE ALSO: Montefeltro, Federigo da Italian painter and a master of the early Renaissance. The son of a shoemaker, who diedbeforehewasborn,hegrewupin Piero di Cosimo the small village of Borgo San Sepolcro (1462–1521) near the Tuscan town of Arezzo. He moved Italian painter. Born in Florence, where he to Florence to train as a painter and helped lived his entire life, he trained in the work- older painters with the decoration of sev- shop of Cosimo Rosselli, whose name he eral churches in that city. He worked for a took as his own (his given name was Piero noble patron, Sigismondo Malatesta, for di Lorenzo). In 1482 Cosimo traveled to whom he painted a famous portrait, as Rome with Rosselli to assist in the paint- well as for the pope in Rome. He spent ing of the Sistine Chapel. There Cosimo much of his adulthood in the town of San painted a landscape background for Sepolcro and Arezzo, where he was hired Rosselli’s fresco of The Sermon on the to paint the choir of the church of San Mount.

252 Greenhaven Encyclopedia of The Renaissance piracy

Cosimo specialized in painting scenes gers. These corsairs, or Barbary Coast pi- from classical mythology, such as The rates, had been operating for centuries us- Death of Procris. His vivid imagination in- ing fast, shallow-drafted ships that could spired the creation of original figures, half outrun any large warship, and take shelter human and half animal, set in a naturalis- in bays or rivers where military ships could tic landscape and serving as symbolic rep- not go. Piracy was an important industry resentations of ideas and emotions. In- in Tunis, Algiers, and other Barbary Coast spired by the ancient Roman writer cities, where syndicates of wealthy inves- Vitruvius, Cosimo painted imaginary tors sponsored voyages and divided the scenes from a time when the human race profits as well as hostage ransoms. The led a simpler existence; these works in- corsairs posed a constant threat to coastal clude Hunting Scene, Return from the Hunt, towns in Sicily, Spain, and the southern Discovery of Honey, and Discovery of Wine. coasts of Italy, and even raided in the At- Such works, which were painted outside lantic Ocean as far north as Iceland. Their the tradition of religious painting, came piracy was often supported by ruling sul- under official disapproval during the reign tans, who protected the corsairs in port of the fanatic Dominican monk Girolamo and built holding cells for hostages, who Savonarola in Florence. Cosimo reacted by at one point numbered tens of thousands taking up Christian subjects, including The in the city of Algiers. Immaculate Conception and The Holy Fam- ily. Cosimo also was well known in Flo- At the same time, piracy was spreading rence as a portrait painter, with his most to the Caribbean and the Atlantic as new famous work in this vein being the Por- colonies were founded in the Americas, trait of Simionetta Vespucci, a picture of and treasure fleets transporting gold to the mistress of Giuliano de’ Medici. He Europe presented tempting targets. As na- also trained many of the best Florentine tions competed for colonies and resources, artists of his time, including Andrea del the European monarchies began sponsor- Sartro. ing pirates called privateers to undertake raids against the ships of their rivals. One SEE ALSO: Florence; Sartro, Andrea del; of the most successful was Sir Francis Savonarola, Girolamo Drake, commissioned a privateer by Queen Elizabeth I of England. Drake raided Span- piracy ish ports in the Caribbean and California, Piracy on the open seas dates back millen- and fought in the queen’s service during nia, and was a common plague of mer- the campaign of the Spanish Armada in chant shipping in ancient Greece and 1588. Rome. Through the Middle Ages, Mediter- The buccaneers, as they were also ranean pirates commonly hijacked cargoes known after the French cooking grill as well as individuals, selling them into known as a boucan, were hired by the gov- slavery or holding them for ransom. With ernments of England, the Netherlands, and small or nonexistent navies, weak central France for the purpose of harassing Span- governments could do very little to sup- ish shipping to and from Spain’s American press piracy. In the sixteenth century, with colonies. The buccaneers formed a power- the rise of the Ottoman Empire, piracy in ful military faction in the Caribbean re- the Mediterranean posed even greater dan- gion, and established protected bases in

Greenhaven Encyclopedia of The Renaissance 253 Pirckheimer, Willibald the Bahamas, Tortuga, Jamaica, and later became a prosperous lawyer and a leading Panama. Under Henry Morgan, pirate public official, a man of letters and, nota- bands captured the major cities of bly, the patron of Dürer. Pirckheimer gath- Spanish-held Panama, including Portobelo ered one of the largest personal libraries and the city of Panama, a crucial link in in Germany and translated ancient Greek the transportation of silver and gold from and Latin books, including the Geography the Andes region to Spain. Their ranks of the astronomer Ptolemy, into German. were often increased by mutineers from He wrote influential essays on art, human- British military ships, who escaped a istic thinking, and on the various contro- versies dividing the Protestant church. As miserable and dangerous existence for a close friend of Dürer, he helped the art- the chance to share in captured gold and ist make important journeys to Italy, where loot. Dürer came under the influence of Italian Piracy also thrived in Asian waters. The Renaissance art and philosophy. Chinese pirate Pinyin Zheng Zhilong, after leaving the service of the Portuguese at SEE ALSO: Dürer, Albrecht Macau, raided Dutch shipping in the East Indies. Cheng Ch’eng Kuon seized the en- Pisanello tire island of Formosa from the Portu- (ca. 1395–1455) guese, using it as a base for a long cam- Italian artist of the early Renaissance, paign of piracy in the South China Sea—a known for portraits, frescoes, and for med- region that remains a dangerous hotbed of als he designed to commemorate impor- piracy in the twenty-first century. tant people and events. Born as Antonio Pisano in Pisa, he was the son of Pucio di Pirckheimer, Willibald Giovanni and Isabetta Giovanni, who (1470–1530) raised him in Verona after the death of his father. He was trained as an artist in Ve- German author and humanist, and patron rona in the studio of Stefano di Verona, an of Albrecht Dürer and other leading Ger- artist whose strong influence can be seen man artists of the city of Nuremberg. He in an early work of Pisanello’s called Ma- was born in Eichstätt, a town in the south- donna of the Quails. By 1415 he was work- ern state of Bavaria, and studied law in ing as an assistant to Gentile da Fabriano, Italy as a young man. His experience in who had a strong influence on his style. Italy brought him into contact with the The two artists completed frescoes for the humanism of the Renaissance, in which Grand Council Hall in the palace of the scholars were studying the ancient writers Doge in Venice. According to the Renais- and inspiring a rebirth of art and philoso- sance historian Giorgio Vasari, Pisanello phy. His abilities crossed many different also made a close study of the work of fields, and brought him the notice of the Paolo Uccello, and learned from him the Holy Roman Emperor. In 1499 Pirckhe- art of drawing and painting horses. While imer commanded a company of infantry employed by the Gonzaga family, the rul- in the Swabian War between the emperor ers of Mantua, Pisanello completed the and the independence-minded Swiss. Annunciation, a fresco for the Church of After his return to Germany, Pirckhe- San Fermo. In the Pellegrini Chapel of the imer had settled in Nuremberg, where he Church of Sant’ Anastasia he painted Saint

254 Greenhaven Encyclopedia of The Renaissance Pius II

George and the Princess of Trebizond; in the Pius II ducal palace of Mantua he painted Scenes (1405–1464) of War and Chivalry. These are the only Pope from 1458 to 1464, a determined op- frescoes Pisanello completed that have sur- ponent of the conciliar movement and the vived to the present day. Ottoman Turks. Born as Eneo Piccolomini Pisanello moved to Rome in later years in Corsignano, in Tuscany, he was the son and completed frescoes in the Basilica of of a poor noble, Silvio de Piccolomini. He Saint John Lateran that had been left un- attended the University of Siena and in finished by Gentile da Fabriano on his Florence, where he learned classical lan- death. He returned to Verona in 1432 and guages and literature. While later studying spent the rest of his life traveling from one law in Siena, a bishop invited him to join aristocratic court to the next, seeking pa- him at the Council of Basel, where he re- tronage and enjoying a reputation as one mained for several years. He served several of the most skilled painters in Italy. In Flo- bishops as a secretary and by 1435 was rence, he completed portraits of the em- working for Cardinal Albergati, who sent peror Sigismund and a Portrait of a Man. him on a secret diplomatic mission to In the city of Ferrara he painted two fa- Scotland. On returning to the city of Basel, mous works, Portrait of Lionello d’Este he won a seat on the council, which was and Madonna with Saints Anthony and negotiating to end the schism in the George. church, and won appointment to several Pisanello is known for his skillful ceremonial posts. His enjoyment of life’s drawings and his rendering of clothes, more sensual pleasures prevented him from taking the vows of the clergy, how- hats, fabric, and elegant costumes. He was ever. He favored study of the classics and also skilled at drawing animals, birds, and writing poetry, and in 1442 was named an from nature, a talent he shared with Paolo official poet laureate by Emperor Frederick Uccello. In 1439, he designed a medal for III, who also appointed him to a position the Byzantine emperor John VII Paleolo- at the imperial court in Vienna. Piccolo- gus, who was in Italy to attend the Coun- mini wrote novels, verse, and plays, but in cil of Ferrara. He was renowned for his search of a more secure life he finally skill at designing and casting medals. agreed to join the church. Rather than stamping the medals with a In 1445 Piccolomini traveled to Rome press, which was the traditional method, and in the next year was ordained as a dea- he cast them from bronze and created the con. He was appointed as the bishop of designs and portraits in relief, in which Trieste in 1447 and in 1450 bishop of the design emerges from the flat surface of Siena. Frederick sent him on important the surrounding material. He cast other diplomatic missions, while Pope Calixtus commemorative medals for Filippo Vis- III also rewarded his service with an ap- conti, Francesco Sforza, King Alfonso V of pointment as a cardinal in 1456. Piccolo- Naples, Sigismondo Malatesta, the ruler of mini used his appointments to gather ben- Rimini, and for the wedding of Lionello efices—profitable estates and property— d’Este and Maria of Aragon. and soon grew wealthy. In 1458, he succeeded Calixtus III as SEE ALSO: Uccello, Paolo pope, taking the name of Pius after the

Greenhaven Encyclopedia of The Renaissance 255 Pizarro, Francisco

phrase “pius Aeneas” in the poetry of Vir- gil. After the Fall of Constantinople in 1453, he was determined to face down the threat of invasion of Europe by the Otto- man Turks. In 1459, the first year of his reign, he summoned the rulers of Europe to a congress in Mantua to plan a cam- paign against the Turks. The princes gath- ered at the congress were reluctant to co- ordinate their forces, however, and Pius’s attempt to gather armies and money for a campaign against the Turks came to noth- ing. Pius believed the councils at Basel and elsewhere had contributed to a decline in the authority of the Papacy, and became a powerful advocate against the conciliar movement. He issued the bull Execrabilis in 1460 that condemned the councils and proclaimed that anyone appealing to a council as an authority higher than the pope would be excommunicated from the church. Pius still was determined to fight the ௠ Turks, personally if necessary. He gathered Francisco Pizarro. ARCHIVE PHOTOS, 530 an army of crusaders and led them across W. 25 TH STREET,NEW YORK, NY 10001. the mountains of central Italy to the port of Ancona, on the Adriatic Sea. Already ill Christopher Columbus and those who fol- and his body weakened through the many lowed to the New World as an opportu- years of sensual pleasures before he joined nity for riches, glory, and status. In 1510, the church, he died in Ancona before the he joined an expedition to led crusade could set out. by . In 1513, he accompa- SEE ALSO: Council of Basel; Fall of Con- nied Vasco Nunez de Balboa on his expe- stantinople dition across the Isthmus of Panama, when Balboa became the first European to sight Pizarro, Francisco the Pacific Ocean. After arresting Balboa (1476–1541) on the orders of Pedrarias de Avila, Pizarro Spanish conquistador who subdued the settled in Panama on an estate granted to Incan Empire of the South American him. Andes and founded Peru as a colony of Convinced that an opportunity for Spain. Born in Trujillo, Estremadura, a great wealth lay in the undiscovered re- poverty-stricken region of western Spain, gions to the south, Pizarro joined with Di- he was the son of a poor farmer. Like ego de Almagro and a priest, Fernando de many young men with few prospects in Luque, and set off for the western coasts the kingdom, he saw the discoveries of of South America. The two undertook

256 Greenhaven Encyclopedia of The Renaissance plague journeys of exploration in 1524 and 1526. symptoms, with the most common being He returned to Spain in 1528 and won the a painful swelling of the lymph nodes that commission of Emperor Charles V to causes an abnormal growth known as a found a new colony in South America. Ac- bubo in the groin or under the armpits companied by several members of his fam- (from “bubo” comes the term “bubonic ily, he set out again in 1530 with a force of plague”). In the Middle Ages, the bacillus 180 men, including 4 members of his own was spread by a flea hosted by rats, the family, and landed at Tumbes, on the Pa- common companions of peasants as well cific coast of South America. Pizarro as city-dwellers. The plague spread rapidly, marched from the coast to the Incan capi- sometimes killing as much as 80 percent tal of Cajamarca. Weakened by civil war of the local population, leaving entire re- and a struggle between competing factions gions depopulated, and causing a break- for the monarchy, the Incans were unable down of civil order. The plague outbreak to mount an effective resistance against of 1347–1349, also known as the Black the invaders. After agreeing to negotiate Death, was the worst in history and re- with the Incan emperor, Atahuallpa, duced the population of Europe by about Pizarro took the ruler captive. Atahuallpa one-third. Mortality was especially high bargained for his freedom by promising among the aged, but a second wave in the the Spaniards an entire room full of gold, 1360s, known as the “children’s plague,” but on delivery of the ransom, Pizarro had had a higher mortality rate among the Atahuallpa executed. A Spanish force un- young. The population of the continent der Diego Almagro captured the ancient fell dramatically in the fourteenth century, capital of Cuzco, effectively overthrowing which was also a time of widespread fam- the Incan Empire, and in 1535 Pizarro founded the colonial capital of Lima. ine and, in France, the devastating effects of the Hundred Years’ War. Rivalry broke out among the founders of the colony established by Pizarro. Al- The plague played an important role magro, feeling cheated by the division of in ending traditional medieval society. By spoils ordered by Pizarro, seized Cuzco eliminating so much of the labor force, and war broke out. In 1538, Almagro was the epidemic drove up wage rates. This captured after losing the Battle of Salinas, gave serfs an opportunity to defy the ma- and Pizarro ordered his execution. Pizarro’s norial system, in which they were tied to greed and unjust actions alienated many the estates of the landowners, and become of the colonists, and the followers of Di- free-roaming peasants. Many peasants ego Almagro took their vengeance by as- moved to the cities to take up artisanal sassinating Pizarro in 1541. trades in the cities. The plague turned the social order up- SEE ALSO: Cortes, Hernán; exploration side down and inspired important works of art and literature. Plague played a cen- plague tral role in the Decameron of Giovanni The generic term plague covers a host of Boccaccio, a collection of stories told by a epidemic diseases, with the most familiar group of young men and women who flee being a rapidly spreading, often-fatal in- a plague-ridden town for the safety of the fection caused by Yersinia pestis.TheYers- countryside. The plague also prompted inia pestis bacillus causes a variety of new writings and historical tracts concern-

Greenhaven Encyclopedia of The Renaissance 257 Plato ing the history and nature of contagious paring cases and taking note of preventive disease, a first step toward the modern un- measures that seemed to work. In this way, derstanding of disease and its causes. the plague helped medical science to Plague outbreaks continued during the progress to its modern era of diagnosis, Renaissance, striking cities seemingly at treatment, and prevention. random. Cities were affected more than SEE ALSO: Boccaccio, Giovanni; medicine rural areas; some regions of Europe and cities were spared, while others were dev- Plato astated. The plague continued to strike Eu- (ca. 428 B.C.–348 B.C.) rope at regular intervals through the Re- naissance and did not subside until the Ancient Greek philosopher who influenced early eighteenth century, when a final seri- European philosophy and science through ous outbreak occurred in the French port the Middle Ages and the Renaissance. Born of . in Athens, he was the son of a noble fam- ily and was given a good education. As a The plague forced cities to organize young man he came under the influence new methods of combating epidemics. of Socrates, a renowned philosopher and Italy led the way during the early Renais- debater. Plato experienced firsthand the sance in fighting plague through civic or- turmoil of politics in his native city and, ganizations. The disease prompted Flo- after the execution of his friend Socrates rence and other cities to create civic on a charge of corrupting the youth of organizations and committees responsible Athens, spent time voyaging to Sicily, then for new public health measures, such as the home of several Greek colonies. When the enforcement of sanitary laws, the he returned to Athens he founded a school prompt disposal of the dead, and the quar- known as the Academy. He began writing antining of plague-stricken houses. Special dialogues, accounts of debates and conver- hospitals were set up to treat plague vic- sations among the teachers and philoso- tims, and a new system of quarantining phers of Athens, with Socrates given an ships was set up in ports, which isolated important role. Plato’s major work, how- crew, passengers, and cargo for a certain ever, is The Republic, an account of an period (usually a month) in order to make ideal society in which the virtuous and sure the ship was not carrying any epi- talented hold leadership and all classes cul- demics. Larger urban administrations be- tivate the virtues of wisdom, courage, and came permanent, as cities placed authority moderation. in health officials drawn from the citizenry. Plato’s school in Athens survived until Most believed the plague to be the the seventh century A.D., and Platonic phi- workings of God’s wrath for the sins and losophy remained a dominant strain of corruption of humanity. In places where thought in the Mediterranean world. While the plague struck, it was common for the the Roman Empire was at its height, Neo- citizens to hold public displays of repen- platonism emerged in the Greek city of tance for their sins. At the same time, sci- Alexandria, founded by several prominent entists and doctors were taking the first scholars and commentators and based on steps in understanding how the plague was Plato’s metaphysical ideas. Although the transmitted. They examined victims and philosophy and science of Aristotle domi- watched the progress of the disease, com- nated the Middle Ages, Plato’s writings

258 Greenhaven Encyclopedia of The Renaissance Pliny the Elder were also well respected, and in the fif- After serving for about ten years, he re- teenth century Platonism was revived in turned to the capital and the practice of the scholarly investigations of Marsilio Fi- law. During the reign of the emperor Nero, cino and other Renaissance students of the he wrote a ’s German wars classical world. Plato’s belief in the im- in twenty books, a work that Roman his- mortality of the soul, and the ideal “Pla- torians considered the best authority on tonic” love that existed on a spiritual and the subject but which was eventually lost. not physical plane, attracted Renaissance In the year A.D. 70, under the emperor Ves- philosophers and poets who were seeking pasian, he served in southern Gaul and new ideas complementary to the accepted later in Spain as a procurator. He visited doctrines of Christianity. Platonism also northern Africa and made a close study of took an important place in the writings of human and natural environment in the Giovanni Pico della Mirandola, who at- Roman domains. On his return to Rome tempted a synthesis of many different Pliny began work simultaneously on a his- philosophical and religious traditions, in- tory of Rome as well as Naturalis Historia, cluding Platonism, Christianity, and the or Natural History, a collection of books kabbalah system of Judaism. The Republic covering the sum of human knowledge of inspired the writing of Utopia, an account the natural world. He dedicated the work of an ideal society written by Sir Thomas to his patron and ally, the emperor Titus, More. Plato’s concept of the universe also and completed it in 77. To return the made a contribution to the works of Re- honor Titus appointed him commander of naissance astronomers such as Johannes a naval squadron at Misenum, on the Bay Kepler. of Naples. On August 24 of the year 79, Pliny witnessed the eruption of Mount Ve- SEE ALSO: classical literature; Ficino, Mar- suvius, which destroyed the cities of silio; Neoplatonism; Pico della Mirandola, Pompeii and Herculaneum. He set out to Giovanni rescue a company of people trapped on a shore near the eruption, but on touching Pliny the Elder land he was either asphyxiated by poison- (23 A.D.–79 A.D.) ous fumes or suffered a stroke or heart at- Roman naval commander and naturalist tack (the true cause of Pliny’s death has whose works were regarded as the author- been the subject of speculation by histori- ity on the natural world during the Re- ans for centuries). naissance. Born Gaius Plinius Secundus in Pliny was devoted to study and a pro- the town of , in northern Italy, he lific author, who wrote dozens of books was schooled in Rome by the poet Publius on a great variety of subjects: military af- Secundus. He trained to become a lawyer fairs, education, grammar and rhetoric, but remained devoted to the study of phi- music, art, and Roman history. Natural losophy and the natural sciences. History, however, remains the only work Pliny served in the Roman army as a of his to have survived into modern times. cavalry commander in western Germany, The book contains sections on the struc- along an important frontier between Ro- ture of the universe; on the societies of man territory and the lands of the uncon- Europe and Asia, and Africa; on animals; quered German barbarians. He also trav- on botany; and on medicine. The final eled in Gaul (modern France) and Spain. books of the work cover geology, the prop-

Greenhaven Encyclopedia of The Renaissance 259 Poliziano, Angelo erties of various minerals, and the history turned to Florence at Lorenzo’s invitation of Roman art—the only ancient book to and became a lecturer in Greek and Latin treat this particular subject. The collection rhetoric at the Studium, where students was copied extensively in the Middle Ages from all over the European continent at- and was an essential volume in the few li- tended. braries of ancient manuscripts that then In addition to notes on the classical existed. Rather than undertake scientific authors, Poliziano published epigrams, investigations of his own, Pliny simply re- odes, and elegies in Latin and also wrote a ported on the writings of authorities of scholarly work, the Praelectiones, on the his own time and of the past—473 au- history of poetry. He wrote the Nutricia, thorities in all. Although it served for cen- didactic (teaching) poems on the works of turies as an authoritative collection of sci- Virgil and other classical authors, and his entific knowledge, it also contains many book Centuria Prima Miscellaneorum ana- errors of fact and misinterpretations of lyzed classical texts. Poliziano’s Latin and the author’s sources. Pliny’s works began Greek poetry includes Manto,anodeto to go out of style during the later Renais- the works of Virgil. sance, as new philosophies and scientific Poliziano also wrote important works theories came into vogue and a new age of in Italian, including the Stanze per la Gios- scientific investigation began in the experi- tra, a series of poems dedicated to the ments of Sir Isaac Newton, Galileo Galilei, glory of Lorenzo’s brother, Giuliano de’ and others. Medici. He wrote in different poetic forms, favoring serene, natural worlds and sim- Poliziano, Angelo pler, shorter forms such as the rispetto and (1454–1494) the ballata. His play La Favola di Orfeo de- Italian scholar, humanist, and poet. Born scribes the ancient Greek myth of Or- as Angelo Ambrogini in Montepulciano, pheus, the first poet. Orfeo, written for the he was nicknamed “Poliziano” after the court of Mantua, was one of the first plays name of this town. His father, Benedetto to be written in vernacular (everyday) Ital- Ambrogini, was assassinated for support- ian. ing the cause of the Medici clan in his A noteworthy scholar of ancient books, town; after this event the ten-year-old An- he translated the works of Galen, Hippo- gelo was brought to Florence and schooled crates, and Callimachus in Italian. He also at the Studium Academy, a school estab- served Lorenzo as a book scout, roaming lished by the Medici dynasty. He was a stu- libraries and monasteries in Italy in search dent of Marsilio Ficino, a leading human- of worthy manuscripts for the Medici li- ist and scholar, and learned to write in the brary in Florence. For his dedicated ser- classical Latin of ancient Rome. He trans- vice he was rewarded by the Medici with a lated a part of the Iliad, the epic poem of villa in the town of Fiesole. the ancient Greek writer Homer, into Latin for the use of Lorenzo de’ Medici. He be- SEE ALSO: humanism; Medici, Lorenzo de’ came a close friend of the Florentine ruler and served as tutor to the sons of Lorenzo Portugal and as chancellor (manager) of a Medici Kingdom located on the Iberian Peninsula estate. After a falling out with Lorenzo he that led the European exploration of Af- lived for a short time in Mantua, but re- rica, Asia, and the Americas beginning in

260 Greenhaven Encyclopedia of The Renaissance Portugal the fifteenth century. After the fall of the By building a lighter and more ma- western Roman Empire in the fifth cen- neuverable ship known as the caravel, the tury, Portugal became part of the kingdom Portuguese were able to sail through re- of the Visigoths. After the Moorish inva- gions of unfavorable winds, down the sion of the eighth century, the Christian western coast of Africa, around the Cape nobility fled to the northern mountains, of Good Hope, and into the Indian Ocean. and from this remote region they took part Portuguese navigators founded dozens of in the reconquest of the Iberian Peninsula. port cities in East Africa, India, and the Portugal joined the Kingdom of Leon, of East Indies, all of them serving as depots northern Spain, and then became a part of for a lucrative trade with Asia. When Spain the Kingdom of Galicia. Portugal became began exploring the Western Hemisphere an independent realm after the Battle of after the discoveries of Christopher Co- Sao Mamede in 1128, after which Prince lumbus, however, Portugal saw its mo- Afonso Henriques was declared the Portu- nopoly on overseas exploration vanish. guese king. The Christian armies drove The two kingdoms divided the new lands the last Moors from the southern region they intended to colonize in the Treaty of of the Algarve in 1250, after which the Tordesillas. capital of the realm was established in Lis- Renaissance scholarship and artistic bon. movements arrived in Portugal via con- In the early fifteenth century, King tacts with Spain and Italy. An important John I ordered a fleet of heavily armed writer of Renaissance Portugal was Joao de vessels to the port of Ceuta, on the Medi- Barres, who penned one of Europe’s first terranean coast of North Africa. The con- complete histories of exploration, Decadas quest of this city marked the starting point de Asia. The discoveries of Portuguese for expansion of the Portuguese frontiers navigators also inspired an architectural thousands of miles across the oceans. style known as Manueline, named for King Within a few years, Portuguese captains Manuel I. This heavily ornamented style discovered the Azores, Madeira, and the combined late-Gothic motifs and mari- Canary Islands; and passed Cape Bojador time symbols and emblems of foreign dis- on the West African coast, a point beyond coveries. Churches, monasteries, and pub- which Europeans had never ventured. The lic buildings financed by the riches in trading posts built by the Portuguese in spices and other foreign trade goods were West Africa brought gold, ivory, and slaves designed in the elaborate Manueline style to the kingdom and within a century, trade by Mateus Fernandes, Diogo de Arrudu, in Africa as well as Asia—which allowed and other prominent architects. The Man- European merchants to bypass caravan ueline style extended to sculpture as well routes controlled by Arabs—would make as the paintings of leading artists such as Portugal one of the wealthiest nations of Jorge Afonso, Vasco Fernandes, and Gre- Europe. This age of exploration and con- gorio Lopes. quest was inspired in large part by the ef- Early in the sixteenth century, Portugal forts of Prince Henry the Navigator, a son began sending expeditions to Brazil, Per- of John I who patronized navigators and sia, Ceylon (modern Sri Lanka), China, organized expeditions to distant and un- and Japan. Portugal established settlements known realms. at Goa, India, as well as the Malay Archi-

Greenhaven Encyclopedia of The Renaissance 261 printing pelago and Macao, off the coast of China. sheets of paper against the matrix created At home, however, the royal dynasty ended a printed page. with the death of King Sebastian in 1578, Gutenberg used the press to create after which Spain invaded Portugal and elaborately illustrated Bibles, as well as the Spanish king Philip II declared himself broadsheets, pamphlets, and color prints. King Philip I of Portugal, uniting the two The press spread rapidly through western realms. Portugal remained under Spanish Europe in the late fifteenth century, creat- rule until 1640. During this period Portu- ing a new industry and revolutionizing gal began losing its colonies to its Dutch, communication. Venice, Paris, and the French, and English rivals; its trading em- Netherlands became important printing pire was gradually eclipsed by more pow- centers; bookshops began selling their erful northern European nations and by wares in every major city. Printing allowed the eighteenth century the nation was in philosophers and scholars to distribute economic and cultural decline. their works all over the continent, and po- ets to set their verse in a permanent form. SEE ALSO: Aviz, House of; exploration; Presses were set up in the Spanish colonies Henry the Navigator in the 1530s; the first in North America was running in Massachusetts in 1638. printing Printing shops operated as did many In the Middle Ages, books were labori- other artisanal industries in Renaissance ously copied by hand. They were rare, Europe. The masters selected constructed carefully preserved in monasteries and pri- presses, selected titles to print, and pur- vate collections, and too expensive for all chased materials. Apprentices mixed inks but the wealthiest to own. Few people were and cut and prepared paper. Journeymen literate; books were the preserve of the ar- were responsible for casting type, com- istocracy, the members of the church, and positors set the type, and pressmen set up university professors. pages and worked the printing press. Jour- The first printing technology in Eu- neymen had to serve many years of ap- rope used wood-blocks, which were carved prenticeship and had to learn Latin, the with various designs and images that could language of education, law, religious tracts, be transferred to cloth and, at the start of and mass communication. Printing tech- the fifteenth century, to paper. This nology spread when journeymen moved method was invented by the Chinese and from town to town in search of new em- may have been brought to Europe by over- ployers and opportunities to set up their land merchant traders, or by Christian own shops. missionaries and explorers on their return The publishing industry grew rapidly from China. In the 1440s Johannes Guten- in the sixteenth century, when the first berg, a German goldsmith, developed a large publishing houses opened for busi- method of printing by movable type. ness. Some were supported by groups of Gutenberg transformed a farmer’s press, wealthy men who pooled their capital and loading small blocks of letter type that he published books as financial speculations. cast from a metal alloy. The type was set Others printed and sold books by sub- into a wooden matrix and then covered scription, in which those willing to buy a with an oil-based permanent ink. Pressing book agreed to pay cooperatively for its

262 Greenhaven Encyclopedia of The Renaissance Prussia printing. Some books were printed in in- the Order of Teutonic Knights in the thir- stallments, in which a short section of the teenth century. The Knights established work was printed each time. Installment their own state in what is now northern printing spread out the cost of printing Poland, Latvia, Estonia, and the Baltic and reduced the financial risk. Specialty coastal region of what is now northeastern printing houses created journals, calen- Germany, and built a seat of power at dars, almanacs, illustrated prints, political Königsberg. The Knights paid homage to broadsheets, and the first newspapers. the Holy Roman Emperor, but they also Printing spread literacy and specialized contended with the kings of Poland, who knowledge to a wider cross section of Eu- commanded a powerful medieval army ropean society. It allowed scientists to and who defeated them at the Battle of share ideas and challenge concepts that Grunwald in 1410. By the middle of the had been accepted for more than a millen- fifteenth century the Teutonic Knights had nium. Books allowed thinkers to openly come under the authority of the king of question the authority of the Catholic Poland. Church, and unite with like-minded writ- ers across the continent. No longer iso- The duchy of Prussia was organized lated by long distances and difficult travel, among the territories of the Knights in Europeans could garner larger followings 1525 by Albert of Brandenburg, a Protes- for their ideas, and take part in open tant and a member of the Hohenzollern scholarly and religious debates. By the end dynasty, rulers of the duchy of Branden- of the Renaissance, thousands of books burg and the city of Berlin. In 1618, Prus- were being printed every year, the first sia and Brandenburg were united. The Ho- public libraries were operating, and books henzollern domains were scattered had moved from a preserve of the aristoc- throughout northern Germany and were racy to the common possession of the the scene of invasion and fighting during middle class. the Thirty Years’ War. In 1701, Frederick I

SEE ALSO: Gutenberg, Johannes; Venice crowned himself as the first king of Prus- sia, and the realm remained one of the Prussia strongest military powers in Europe until The kingdom of Prussia had its medieval the unification of Germany in the late origins in the conquest of pagan tribes by nineteenth century.

Greenhaven Encyclopedia of The Renaissance 263

Quercia, Jacopo della this central square was being demolished, (1374–1438) after drawing public superstition for its use of a figure of the pagan goddess Ve- Italian sculptor who was born in the town nus. Quercia designed a magnificent rect- of Quercia Grossa and trained in the angular structure in marble, adorned with workshop of his father Piero d’Angelo, a dozens of figures and scenes, with the Vir- skilled goldsmith and wood-carver. Quer- gin Mary, the patron saint of the city, tak- cia assisted Nicola Pisano in carving the ing a prominent part. In this work Quer- pulpit of the Cathedral of Siena. As a cia abandoned the stiff poses that were young artist he was strongly influenced by traditional of Gothic sculpture, and carved contemporaries from Florence, including his figures with strength, movement and the architect Brunelleschi and the sculptor liveliness. The fountain, known as the Donatello (Quercia took part in the com- Fonte Gaia, took the artist more than five petition to design the Baptistery doors but years to complete and remains one of the lost this prize commission to Lorenzo most prominent Renaissance artifacts of Ghiberti). Although trained in the Gothic Siena. The wide public admiration for the style of carving, Quercia’s study of Roman fountain earned another commission from artifacts and sculpture in the town of Pisa the Sienese, who asked Quercia, Donatello, had a strong effect on his methods and his and Ghiberti to create reliefs for the bap- style, and early in his life he began incor- tismal font in the baptistery of the Siena porating Roman motifs and figures from cathedral. pagan mythology in his work. One of his He was commissioned to design an al- first important commissions was the carv- tar for the Trenta Chapel of the Church of ing of a monumental tomb for Ilaria del San Frediano in Lucca, but had to halt Carretto, the wife of the ruler of Lucca. work when he was accused of various This work combines Gothic style with ele- crimes of immorality in 1413 and forced ments borrowed from stone sarcophagi to leave the city. His fame as a carver in dating to Roman times—some of the ear- marble as well as wood survived this set- liest classical references of the Renaissance. back, however. For the Collegiata in San For the cathedral of Lucca he also carved Gimignano he carved wooden statues of a famous altarpiece known as the Man of the Virgin and the angel Gabriel. His most Sorrows; another important work is the famous work was the design of Porta Ma- Seated Madonna (also known as the Ma- gna, a main entrance of the Church of San donna of the Pomegranate) that he carved Petronio in Bologna. The doorway is deco- for the Cathedral of Ferrara. rated with ten elaborate sculptural reliefs In 1408 Quercia was commissioned by of biblical prophets and scenes, including the city of Siena to design a fountain for , the story of Cain the Piazza del Campo. The old fountain in and Abel, and the temptation of Eve. This

Greenhaven Encyclopedia of The Renaissance 265 Quercia, Jacopo della work inspired Michelangelo Buonarroti in cia for his fine work with a knighthood. his designs for the Sistine Chapel in the Vatican. The city of Siena asked Quercia SEE ALSO: Brunelleschi, Filippo; Ghiberti, to supervise the construction of the city’s Lorenzo; Michelangelo Buonarroti; sculp- cathedral in 1435, and also rewarded Quer- ture; Siena

266 Greenhaven Encyclopedia of The Renaissance Rabelais, Francois spired philosophies of the Renaissance. As (ca. 1483–1553) thinly disguised attacks on traditional scholarship and the intolerance of the Author and physician whose satires Gar- church, Rabelais risked his career as well gantua and Pantagruel have survived as as his life by writing at a time when the some of the most celebrated writings of Protestant Reformation was sweeping Renaissance France. Born in the Val- through central Europe but the Catholic ley region of Touraine, Rabelais was the hierarchy was still firmly in control in son of a lawyer. As a boy he became a nov- France. ice monk and was educated at a Franciscan Undaunted by the disapproval of the monastery and later became secretary to authorities, Rabelais continued expanding Geoffrey d’Estissac. He acquired a wide- his work. In 1546 he brought out a Third ranging knowledge of science, philosophy, Volume, this time signing his real name to medicine, and ancient Greek and Latin. the book, which suffered immediate con- After leaving the monastery he trained as demnation from the scholarly authorities a physician at the University of Montpel- of the University of Paris. This book offers lier, where he became a lecturer in the clas- an account of the character named Pa- sical medical science of Galen and Hippo- nurge. A fourth volume came out in 1548, crates. In 1532 he became a physician in in which Rabelais described the unfortu- Lyons, where he also worked as an editor nate Papefigues, who had fallen victim to and translator of Latin works. In the same the Papimanes—a reference to the tyranny year he published the first volume of his of the Catholic Papacy. Pantagruel. Two years later appeared Gar- gantua, a work in which the events occur before those of Pantagruel and which as a Raleigh, Sir Walter result is always published as the first of (1552–1618) the two volumes. Explorer and historian who helped to es- In fear of the reaction to these satires, tablish the first English settlement in Rabelais signed the works as Alcofrybas North America, helping England to stake Nasier, an anagram of his name. In his its future claim to colonies on the conti- lengthy novels Rabelais satirized contem- nent. He was the son of a country squire porary writings as well as the medieval who owned an estate in Devonshire near chivalric romance by describing the outra- Plymouth, a harbor on the English Chan- geous history of a family of giants. The nel. Although he was sent to Oxford for books treat the subjects of religion, war, university studies, he left a short time later and the new humanistic thinking that was and then enlisted with a company of En- sweeping away medieval habits of mind glish infantry fighting alongside the French and replacing them with the classically in- Huguenots (Protestants) on the continent

Greenhaven Encyclopedia of The Renaissance 267 Raleigh, Sir Walter of Europe. Historians know little of his ca- money for the venture from several wealthy reer as a soldier, however. investors. By 1575 Raleigh was living in London On returning to Ireland, Raleigh again but keeping family ties in Devon, which took up the cause of English settlement on was becoming a center of English efforts the island, and became acquainted with to explore and colonize the New World. the poet Edmund Spenser, whom he He joined his half brother, Sir Humphrey helped to win a royal pension and to pub- Gilbert, on an expedition against the Span- lish the first three books of his epic poem ish. This voyage ended in failure, however, The Faerie Queene. He was losing favor at and Raleigh made efforts to secure an ap- Elizabeth’s court, however, and was pre- pointment at the court of Elizabeth I. In vented several times from taking part in 1579, he helped to put down a rebellion in expeditions against the Spanish. On re- Ireland, where he dealt ruthlessly with turning from one aborted voyage, he was Irish Catholics and ordered a massacre of arrested and thrown into the Tower of several hundred enemy mercenaries. For London for seducing and secretly marry- his service he was rewarded with towns ing Elizabeth Throgmorton, one of the and estates in County Munster, where he queen’s maids. Raleigh retired from the promoted English settlement in Ireland as royal court and, finding himself short of a way of keeping the rebellious island un- money, voyaged to South America in 1594 der English control. in search of the legendary gold mines of Raleigh returned to England in 1581 El Dorado. Failing in this purpose, he re- and received lucrative patents, or licenses, turned to England, where he published an from the queen. He was granted a knight- account of his voyage, The Discovery of hood in 1584 and in the next year became Guiana. He returned to the queen’s favor a warden of productive tin mines in west- after an expedition against the Spanish ern England. After Elizabeth granted him port of Cadiz in 1596. When the Earl of forty thousand acres in Ireland, Raleigh Essex, the queen’s favorite, brought Ra- brought in English farmers and introduced leigh along on a voyage to the Azores, the cultivation of tobacco and the potato. two men quarreled. After returning to En- Seeking to establish lucrative settlements gland, Essex was accused of conspiring in North America, he promoted an expe- against Elizabeth and was executed under dition to Newfoundland in 1583 and in Raleigh’s supervision. 1584 a voyage that reached the Atlantic Raleigh was appointed governor of the coast of North Carolina. He became a island of Jersey in 1600. But the death of member of Parliament in the same year, Elizabeth in 1603 and the accession of and in 1585 sent out a company of settlers King James I proved disastrous, as Raleigh under the leadership of Sir Richard Gren- found himself out of favor for his political ville. This group settled on Roanoke Is- and religious views and had already been land, but the small colony soon ran afoul forced to sell his Irish estates in order to of the surrounding Indian tribes and aban- raise money. He was accused of conspiracy doned their homes. As an individual, Ra- against the king, arrested, put on trial, and leigh was unable to sustain an entire colo- sentenced to death. He languished in the nial enterprise on his own, and the effort Tower of London for thirteen years, work- to colonize Virginia would pass to a joint- ing on a History of the World,aswellases- stock company that was able to raise says and poetry that earned him a reputa-

268 Greenhaven Encyclopedia of The Renaissance Raphael

A detail from Raphael’s 1510 fresco “Parnassus.” tion as one of England’s finest writers. In Raphael 1616 he proposed to the king that he un- (1483–1520) dertake another voyage to South America in search of gold. Although the king was A painter of the Italian Renaissance ad- warned by the Spanish that Spain already mired for the balance and harmony of his had valid claims on this territory, James compositions, and who had a major influ- was in need of funds and released Raleigh ence on art of the later Baroque period. from prison. The expedition set out in Born in the town of Urbino, he was the March 1617, but clashed with a Spanish son of a painter, Giovanni Santi, who was settlement along the Orinoco River in Gui- a court painter to the Duke of Urbino, Fe- ana. Raleigh sailed home, where he was ar- derigo da Montefeltro. After the death of rested again. The king made good his his father in 1494, the eleven-year-old promise to execute Raleigh should his ex- Raphael took on greater responsibility for pedition fail or find itself trespassing on managing the Santi workshop, and quickly the claims of Spain, and the sentence was developed a reputation as one of the best finally carried out on October 29, 1618. painters in Urbino. His earliest known

SEE ALSO: Elizabeth I; exploration; Spenser, works are paintings done for the Church Edmund of San Nicola in the nearby town of Cas-

Greenhaven Encyclopedia of The Renaissance 269 Raphael tello. In 1500 Raphael apprenticed to the The work he completed at the Vatican painter Pietro Vannucci, also known as Pe- spread Raphael’s name and fame through- rugino, under whom he developed a strik- out Italy. In Rome, he presided over one ing, expressive personal style in a series of of the city’s busiest and most successful religious paintings, including the Marriage workshops. Raphael hired a large staff of of the Virgin, and the Mond Crucifixion. assistants to complete the frescoes in the Ambitious and hardworking, he moved to Stanza dell’Incendio and the Vatican log- Florence in 1504, and soon came under gias between 1514 and 1519. In this pe- the influence of Leonardo da Vinci’s paint- riod he also created a series of ten car- ings as well as the works of Fra Bartolom- toons (designs) of the lives of Saint Peter meo. The Mona Lisa of Leonardo served and Saint Paul for tapestries that were to decorate the Sistine Chapel. These draw- as a model for Raphael’s portraits of Ag- ings were sent to workshops in Brussels, nolo and Maddalena Doni, which he com- Belgium, where they helped to spread his pleted in 1505. In Florence, Raphael fame and painting style to northern Eu- painted a series of Madonnas in which he rope. adopted Leonardo’s sfumato method of In the meantime, the pope engaged soft contours as well as Leonardo’s typical Raphael as his chief architect after the pyramid composition, with complex death of Donato Bramante in 1514. groups of figures rising to a single point. Raphael designed chapels in Sant’ Eligio His most famous work from this period, degli Orefici and Santa Maria del Popolo the Entombment, borrowed ideas from in Rome, and a small section of the new Michelangelo’s painting Battle of Cascina. Basilica of Saint Peter. He also designed In 1508 Raphael left Florence for several aristocratic palaces, adopting for Rome,wherehewasengagedbyPopeJu- them the classical style of Donato Bra- lius II to decorate a series of rooms known mante, adding detailed ornaments and as the Stanza della Segnatura. These fresco flourishes that would become typical of paintings, which the artist completed in later Renaissance and Baroque architec- 1511, were based on the subjects of theol- ture. ogy, philosophy, poetry, and law. They in- In Rome Raphael also created several clude The Triumph of Religion and The masterpieces of Renaissance portraiture, School of Athens, one of the most impor- including famous paintings of Baldassare tant works of the late Renaissance, in Castiglione, Pope Julius II, and the latter’s which classical philosophers gesture and successor, Pope Leo X. He collaborated pose in a setting of opulent grandeur. Over with Marcantonio Raimondi in his print- the following years Raphael also painted ing shop to produce such engravings as frescoes in the Stanza d’Eliodoro that in- The Massacre of the Innocents and Lucretia. clude The Expulsion of Heliodorus, The These inexpensive prints were made by the Miracle of Bolsena, The Repulse of Attila thousands and circulated throughout Italy, from Rome by Leo I, and the Liberation of making Raphael’s name and works known St. Peter. In his studio he completed a se- to commoners as well as aristocrats. His ries of famous Madonnas, including the largest painting, The Transfiguration, was Sistine Madonna, The Madonna of the still unfinished in 1520, when Raphael died Chair, Madonna with the Fish, and the Alba suddenly at a young age and of mysterious Madonna. causes.

270 Greenhaven Encyclopedia of The Renaissance Reformation, Protestant

SEE ALSO: Julius II; Leo X; Leonardo da Protestants to the Catholic fold and gather Vinci; Michelangelo Buonarroti; painting new converts among the people of newly discovered colonies in Asia and the Ameri- Reformation, Catholic cas. Jesuit schools throughout Catholic Eu- rope instructed students in the faith. The Catholic Reformation, or Counter- The Catholic Reformation was sup- Reformation, was the effort by the Catho- ported by many prominent scholars, in- lic Church to stem the tide of Protestant- cluding Sir Thomas More of England and ism that was sweeping across northern Desiderius Erasmus, who opposed the Europe by the middle of the sixteenth cen- Protestants’ complete rejection of Catholic tury. In response to charges of corruption authority. The movement, however, also and the greed for wealth and power, the represented a reaction against the human- church undertook reforms and established ist ideas that had inspired Renaissance new institutions, including the Inquisition, scholars, artists, and writers. The views of to counter the Protestants. This campaign scientists such as Galileo Galilei and Nico- was begun by Pope Paul III, who convened laus Copernicus were condemned, even as the Council of Trent in 1545. Over the the church eliminated the practice of sell- next eighteen years, the Council made im- ing indulgences and put a stop to the ac- portant changes to the structure of the cumulation of ostentatious luxuries in the Catholic Church, reaffirmed church doc- papal court in Rome. The Catholic Refor- trine in questions of the Mass and the sac- mation was successful in bringing many raments, and reformed the training of European territories back into the church, priests. The Council of Trent rejected Prot- including Austria, Poland, Hungary, south- estant Reformation leader Martin Luther’s ern Germany, and Bohemia. doctrine of justification by faith alone, leaving no room for compromise with SEE ALSO: Catholicism; Papacy; Reforma- Protestants on the central issue of the na- tion, Protestant ture of faith. It was followed by the cre- ation in 1559 of the Index of Prohibited Reformation, Protestant Books, which controlled the exposure of A movement that set Christian religious Catholic believers to new ideas and unor- leaders against the teachings and practices thodox philosophies. In the meantime, of the Catholic Church, and which reached new religious orders such as the Capuchins the height of its influence during the late were founded in order to preach among Renaissance. In essence, Protestants re- the common people. jected the authority of the pope and trans- The Counter-Reformation was a mili- formed the meaning of religious faith, re- tary and political effort as well. Catholic jecting the traditional role of the priest monarchs, including Emperor Charles V, and the sacraments. fought against Protestant princes in Ger- The Protestant Reformation was many and central Europe. King Philip II prompted by the new scholarship that of Spain campaigned against Protestant emerged in the early Renaissance. Tradi- rebels in the Low Countries and dis- tional attempted to patched the Spanish Armada against En- perfect and explain religious doctrine, gland. Ignatius Loyola established the So- never to question it. The new humanism ciety of Jesus, or Jesuits, to return introduced debate and investigation into

Greenhaven Encyclopedia of The Renaissance 271 Rome the subject of religious doctrine. Philoso- the Church of England—seizing Catholic phers and writers disagreed on the nature properties, exiling or executing Catholic of the soul, on the ideas of sin and salva- leaders, abolishing monastic orders, and tion, the nature of Christ as a manifesta- rejecting outright the authority of the tion of God, and the relation of religious pope. At the same time, Luther’s doctrines and secular authority. This questioning spread into the Low Countries and Swit- was further spurred by the invention of zerland, while in France, Protestants the printing press and the wider circula- known as Huguenots were making up a tion of new books and ideas. growing minority in the Christian com- munity. Protestantism also grew out of a drive Eventually the Protestant movement for reform of Catholic institutions in the wasmetbyaneffortofreformbythe fifteenth century. The sale of indulgences Catholic Church and by new institutions (remissions of punishment for sins), the designed to combat Protestantism, includ- practice of simony (sale of church offices), ing the Inquisition, the Index of Prohib- and the growing wealth and political ited Books, and the Society of Jesus, or Je- power of the church set off a reaction suits, a missionary and educational among many members of the church. Jan organization. Many territories returned to Hus, a reformer from Bohemia, dared to Catholicism, but the Christian church was question papal authority and criticize the left permanently divided, and the rivalry Catholic hierarchy, for which he was between Catholic and Protestant would burned at the stake in 1415. The German play a central role in the devastating Thirty monk Martin Luther a century later devel- Years’ War of the early seventeenth cen- oped his doctrine of justification by faith tury. alone, an idea that eliminated the need for priests, bishops, popes, and the entire SEE ALSO: Calvin, John; Luther, Martin; Catholic hierarchy in the spiritual life of Reformation, Catholic; Zwingli, Huldrych the individual. Luther’s ideas were taken up by Huldrych Zwingli in southern Ger- Rome many and Switzerland, leading to the es- Ancient capital of the Roman Empire, later tablishment of the Reformed Church. the headquarters of the Papacy and an im- In the time of Martin Luther, a new portant center of patronage and artistic humanist education was allowing young innovation during the Renaissance. At the scholars to question accepted traditions. fall of the western empire in the fifth cen- Luther became a hero in cities throughout tury, Rome entered a chaotic period when Germany, where his followers destroyed the city was subject to invasion by barbar- Catholic images and refused to take part ian tribes and civil war among its most in Catholic ritual. Protestantism became powerful families, the Colonna and the the majority religion in the 1530s, as local Orsini. The emergence of the Papacy gave rulers adopted Luther’s doctrine to declare the city prominence in the late Middle their independence from the Catholic em- Ages. After the schisms within the church peror. After his petition for a divorce from were settled in the early fifteenth century, Catherine of Aragon was denied by the the Papacy was established permanently in pope, King Henry VIII of England estab- the city. The city attracted artists from all lished a Protestant church in his domain— over Italy with its ancient ruins and monu-

272 Greenhaven Encyclopedia of The Renaissance Ronsard, Pierre de ments that inspired them to emulate the many for religious heresy. The popes architectural styles of antiquity. ended the lavish feasts and festivals that Pope Nicholas V, whose reign began in had entertained the city, and adopted new 1447, invited scholars and artists to the costumes and regalia meant to display the city and commissioned Leon Battista Al- church’s more devout, somber, and mod- berti to design a new basilica. The new est character. Under Pope Sixtus V, the Pa- Saint Peter’s Basilica was constructed over pacy established a large police force and the next century from the plans of Alberti, banned all manner of unruly behavior, Donato Bramante, Michelangelo Buonar- from prostitution to public assembly to roti, Raphael, and several other renowned dueling. Pope Sixtus cleared away many artists and architects. Pope Sixtus IV es- old neighborhoods in order to make Rome tablished the Vatican Library in 1475, be- a more welcoming center for religious pil- gan construction on the Sistine Chapel, grims. By the end of the Renaissance the and ordered new roads to clear away the city had been completely transformed, city’s dark and sinister medieval alleys. with new churches and palaces raised in the new style largely inspired by the city’s Rome became a major political center ancient ruins. as the popes expanded their authority to the Papal States in central Italy and con- SEE ALSO: Julius II; Papacy; Papal States; tended for power in northern Italy. The Sack of Rome city was occupied by the French in 1494 and in 1527 sacked by the mutinous troops Ronsard, Pierre de of the Emperor Charles V. In the mean- time, several popes gained a reputation for (1524–1585) nepotism and corruption, and the city re- French poet, born in La Poissoniere as the mained a lawless place where murder and son of an aristocratic but poverty-stricken riots were frequent occurrences. Under family. His father arranged for him to be Pope Julius II, Leo X, and Clement VII, sent to the court of Francis I as a page Rome became a thriving artistic center of boy, where he served the sons of King the Renaissance, the home of new Francis I. He then served under Princess churches, palaces, and masterpieces cre- Madeleine after her marriage to King ated by Michelangelo, Bramante, and James V of Scotland. He returned to Raphael. At the same time, the popes and France and joined a circle of classical the Catholic Church were being directly scholars around Jean Dorat, who became challenged by the Protestant Reformation principal of the College de Conqueret in sweeping northern Europe. By convening 1547. The group formed a literary circle the Council of Trent, Pope Paul III at- known as the Pleiade. He began writing tempted to reform the church and return poetry and in imitation of the odes of the Protestant territories to the religious au- Greek poet wrote The First Four thority of Rome. The Catholic Reforma- Books of Odes in 1550, praising members tion that followed discouraged new schol- of the royal family in his lines. His next arship and placed new restrictions on the work, Amours, was a tribute to the love style and subject of art and literature, with sonnets of the Italian poet Petrarch. an Index banning certain works entirely Ronsard wrote several essays during and an Inquisition accusing and trying the 1560s condemning the civil war in

Greenhaven Encyclopedia of The Renaissance 273 Rubens, Peter Paul

France between Protestants and Catholics. These include DiscourseontheMiseryof These Times, which satirically criticized the followers of John Calvin, and the Reproof to the People of France. When Protestant critics returned fire and accused him of being a poor poet and an irreligious pagan to boot, Ronsard replied with his Response to Insults and Calumnies. His fervent sup- port of the king earned him a stipend from King Charles IX, and he joined the king’s court as an honored poet. In 1572 Ronsard brought out The First Four Books of the Franciad, a failed attempt to imitate the classical epics and to create a French national myth that traced the lin- eage of the kings of France back to the Trojan kings of Homeric times. In 1578 he published a collection of sonnets, the Son- nets for Helene. Ronsard gained fame in Peter Paul Rubens’ self portrait. GETTY IM- his lifetime and many of his poems were set to music. Using the classic and medi- AGES. eval Italian modes in which Ronsard had worked, the Pleiade group made French a Like many northern European artists, new and vital medium for poetic expres- Rubens looked to Italy for instruction in sion. new styles and methods of painting. He traveled to Venice in 1600 and studied the SEE ALSO: Rabelais works of Veronese, Titian, and Tintoretto. Soon afterward he joined the ducal court Rubens, Peter Paul at Mantua and won the patronage of Vin- (1577–1640) cenzo Gonzaga, the ruler of the city, who Flemish painter whose elaborate religious helped him travel to Rome, where the and mythological scenes, sensuous por- young artist found inspiration in the fres- traits, and detailed historical works marked coes of Michelangelo Buonarroti and a transition from the Renaissance period Raphael and the paintings of Leonardo da to the Baroque. Born in Siegen, Germany, Vinci and Michelangelo da Caravaggio. he was the son of a Calvinist Protestant Rubens served Mantua as a diplomat as family that fled persecution in their home- well, traveling to Spain and the court of town and took refuge in the city of Co- King Philip III on a mission in 1603. In logne. In 1589 he moved to the city of Spain he began painting portraits, a me- Antwerp with his widowed mother, and dium he continued when he returned to converted to the Catholic faith. He studied Italy. with Tobias Verhaeght, a minor artist, and In Rome Rubens won commissions to several other artists of Antwerp, and joined paint altarpieces for the Church of Santa the city’s painters guild in 1598. Croce and Santa Maria in Vallicella, which

274 Greenhaven Encyclopedia of The Renaissance Rudolf II he adorned with a picture of the medieval The Feast of Venus, The Three Graces, and Pope Gregory admiring an icon of the Vir- The Judgment of Paris. Inspired by the gin Mary. Having well absorbed Italian hu- country around Antwerp and his estate, manism and classicism, he returned to the Chateau de Steen, he mastered land- Antwerp in 1609 and began to transform scape painting in works such as Farmers northern European painting. He became a Returning from the Fields, which took their court painter for the governor of the Span- themes and style from the works of Pieter ish Netherlands (modern Belgium) and Brueghel. built a studio and workshop in Antwerp, SEE ALSO: Brueghel, Pieter; Médicis, Marie where he completed several important al- de; Titian tarpieces for local churches. He became a renowned print designer, working in both metal and wood to create illustrations and Rudolf II title pages for books. A devout Roman (1552–1612) Catholic, he showed reverence for tradi- Holy Roman Emperor of the Habsburg dy- tional biblical scenes but also used shadow nasty from 1576 until his death in 1612, and contrasting, vivid colors to give his and who also reigned as the king of Bohe- pictures a dramatic and very modern look. mia and of Hungary. The son of Emperor By the 1620s Rubens was known Maximilian II and Maria of Spain, Rudolf throughout Europe. His workshop in was educated at the court of King Philip II Antwerp trained several leading painters, of Spain, Maximilian’s cousin. Philip in- including Anthony Van Dyck. Rubens had spired him with devotion to Catholicism several assistants complete his design for a and a determination to stamp out Protes- major painting, The Assumption of the Vir- tantism in Habsburg lands—a policy that gin Mary, which was raised in the cathe- ran counter to the religious tolerance of dral of Antwerp. He was also commis- Maximilian. sioned by Marie de Médicis, widow of the On the death of Maximilian in 1576, French king Henri IV, to create a series of Rudolf as the eldest son inherited the Hab- works describing her life. The twenty-one sburg throne. He brought members of the paintings of this cycle were to hang in the Jesuit sect to Germany, seeking to convert royal Palace of Luxembourg. his Protestant subjects. Rather than return- Rubens was also trusted with diplo- ing Habsburg territories to Catholicism, matic missions by the king of Spain, who however, this policy inspired widespread sought an agreement with the Dutch Neth- opposition and outright revolt. erlands that would keep Spain in control In 1604, a rebellion against Rudolf’s of its colony. He helped settle a treaty be- policies broke out in Hungary, where the tween England and Spain in 1630. This opponents of the Habsburgs, under the work earned him the honor of a knight- leadership of Istvan Bocskay, allied them- hood from King Philip IV of Spain as well selves with the Ottoman Turks. After this as King Charles I of England. For Charles event Rudolf’s brother Matthias seized IhecreatedAllegory of Peace and War,a control of Hungary, Austria, and Moravia, huge ceiling painting done for London’s at the invitation of nobles in those lands Whitehall Palace. who sought a more tolerant sovereign. In In the 1630s Rubens completed several response, Rudolf offered the Letter of Maj- of his most famous creations, including esty to the Estates of Bohemia, a promise

Greenhaven Encyclopedia of The Renaissance 275 Russia of religious freedom, in 1609, but two completed in the thirteenth century, when years later he was also forced to surrender a wave of “Tatar” (Mongol) horsemen this kingdom to Matthias. The conflict be- overran Kiev and the Russian princely tween the Catholic Habsburgs and the states. Novgorod survived the onslaught Protestants in Bohemia was the spark that and prospered through trade with the west eventually set off the Thirty Years’ War. through the Baltic Sea and northern Eu- Rudolf suffered from fits of depression rope. The Russian princes paid heavy trib- and insanity, and several times during his utes to the Tatar realm, known as the reign he was unable to fulfill the duties of Golden Horde, and its rulers at the city of his office. After one such bout in 1600 he Sarai, near the northern shores of the Cas- became a recluse in the city of Prague, the pian Sea, until the late fifteenth century. capital of Bohemia, which he had made The Tatar princes allowed the princes and the Habsburg seat of power. He was an the Russian Orthodox Church to remain avid student of alchemy and the magical in authority over Russian economic and arts, but also a generous patron to the cultural life. Russia was cut off from the leading scientists of his time, including Jo- political and cultural influence of the west. hannes Kepler and Tycho Brahe. After In the thirteenth century, Alexander moving the Habsburg capital to Prague, in Nevsky, a prince of Novgorod, successfully order to evade the assaults of the Turks, defended his domains against a hostile Rudolf invited architects and artists to his force of Scandinavians and German Teu- court and made the Bohemian capital an tonic Knights. important cultural center. The of Moscow, founded by a son of Alexander Nevsky, gained con- SEE ALSO: Bohemia; Brahe, Tycho; Thirty Years’ War siderable power when the Tatars recog- nized the authority of its rulers over the Russia rest of Russia. When the patriarch (head) of the Russian church made the city his The Russian state traces its foundations capital, Moscow gained further status and back to the realm of Kievan Rus, estab- influence. In 1380, the Tatars suffered a lished by Scandinavian Vikings in the crushing defeat at the Battle of Kulikovo, ninth century A.D. This state controlled after which their influence on the north- trade in honey, wax, timber, and slaves ern princes and on Russia began to wane. along the rivers running through the plains The Moscow prince Ivan III “the Great” and forests of Russia and the Ukraine. Rus- defied the Tatars by ending Russian trib- sian culture was heavily influenced by the ute, absorbed several rival principalities Byzantine Empire and the Eastern (Greek) into his state, and declared himself em- Orthodox Church after the Kievan ruler peror of all the Russians. His successor Vladimir I forced the baptism of Kiev’s Ivan IV “the Terrible” took the title of nobles into the new religion in 988. “tsar,” or emperor. He destroyed the last Kiev eventually weakened through remnants of the Golden Horde at Kazan struggles among its ruling dynasty, and and Astrakhan, after which the Russian power over the Slavic peoples of the Empire emerged as the largest and most steppes and river valleys passed to more powerful state in eastern Europe. Ivan northerly cities such as Novgorod, codified the laws of Russia, expanded its Vladimir, and Suzdal. The process was territory to the west, and ruthlessly subor-

276 Greenhaven Encyclopedia of The Renaissance Russia dinated the Russian boyars (nobles) to his Peter the Great, a new city was established will. He also established trade links with at Saint Petersburg, on an arm of the Bal- western Europe. tic Sea. Peter’s intention was to open his Through this time, Russian contacts state to trade and exchange with the west. with the innovations and scholarship of Through the seventeenth and eighteenth century artists and architects arrived from the Renaissance was limited. By its ties to western Europe. The Romanov leaders had the eastern church, Russia also took no enormous palaces and country mansions part in the struggle between the western built in imitation of the classically inspired (Catholic) church and the Protestant Ref- buildings of Renaissance Europe, and be- ormation. In the early seventeenth cen- gan collecting the works of western paint- tury, after a lengthy civil conflict known as ers and sculptors. the Time of Troubles, the Romanov dy- nasty emerged. Under the Romanov tsar SEE ALSO: Fall of Constantinople

Greenhaven Encyclopedia of The Renaissance 277

Sack of Rome the steps of Saint Peter’s Basilica, while An assault on the city of Rome that oc- Clement escaped through a secret passage curred on May 6, 1527, by the armies of to the fortified Castel Sant’ Angelo. The Charles V, the Holy Roman Emperor. The remaining defenders quickly surrendered popes and emperors had been contending and were massacred, while the armies of for power in the Italian peninsula for cen- Charles V degenerated into a violent mob, turies, with the other major powers of the killing, raping, and plundering without re- continent taking sides in the conflict to straint. The sack continued for three days advance their own interests. In 1494, while the pope remained a prisoner in the France entered the fray by invading north- Castel Sant’ Angelo. For several weeks af- ern Italy, making alliances with several Ital- terward the leading citizens of Rome suf- ian cities and briefly occupying the city of fered the ransacking of their houses and Naples. By the early sixteenth century the kidnapping for heavy ransom payments. advantage in this conflict had shifted to Realizing that the members of the League the Holy Roman Empire; to offset the im- of Cognac would not relieve the city or perial armies Pope Clement VII had allied stage any kind of counterattack, Clement with France in the League of Cognac that finally surrendered on June 6, one month also included Milan, Venice, and Florence. after the siege began, he was forced to pay A polyglot army of thirty-five thousand a huge ransom and give up papal territo- Spaniards, Germans, Italians, and French ries in northern Italy to the emperor. under the command of Charles III, the The imperial troops finally retreated Duke of Bourbon, was fighting in north- from Rome in February 1528, leaving the ern Italy on behalf of the Holy Roman city heavily damaged and the Papacy per- Empire in the spring of 1527. Poorly fed manently weakened in its long-standing and going for several weeks without pay, conflict with the Holy Roman Empire. these troops mutinied and forced their Clement agreed to formally crown Charles commanders to march on Rome, which V as emperor in February 1530. In the was defended by a small force of five thou- meantime, Rome’s primacy in the artistic sand militia, including the Swiss Guard re- and cultural life of the Renaissance came sponsible for protecting the pope, and can- to an end, as important artists fled the city non set atop the city’s ancient walls. to seek patronage elsewhere. The Sack of On the day of the attack, the Duke of Rome also freed the emperor of any need Bourbon was killed, leading to a complete to fight in Italy, Charles V turned with full breakdown of discipline among the impe- force against the Protestant princes of Ger- rial troops. By sunset the attackers were many. breaking through the gates of the city, while the Swiss Guard took positions on SEE ALSO: Charles V; Paul III

Greenhaven Encyclopedia of The Renaissance 279 Salutati, Coluccio

Salutati, Coluccio (1331–1406) Important humanist, scholar, and political leader of Florence, Italy. Born in the vil- lage of Stignano, Tuscany, he studied at the University of Bologna and was then appointed as the secretary to Pope Urban IV. Appointed the chancellor of Florence in 1375, Salutati held the post for the rest of his life. As chancellor, Salutati supported Leonardo Brunt in his struggles with the church hierarchy, hosted Manuel Chryso- laras in Florence and granted this impor- tant scholar a pension. His patronage of scholars on behalf of Florence provided impetus to classical scholarship. Salutati opposed Giangaleazzo Visconti of Milan in his efforts to take control of Florence. Salutati waged a war with Milan that lasted for more than twelve years, un- til the death of Visconti in 1402. Florence A portrait of Girolamo Savonarola, by Fra remained an independent city and in the Bartolommeo. next century flourished from its involve- ment in banking and trade. son of a doctor, Savonarola was trained Salutati is credited as much for his cul- tural achievements as for his political ones. for a career in medicine but took a stron- A skilled orator and writer, Salutati ger interest in the Bible, the writings of amassed a large collection of books. He Aristotle, and the work of the medieval sought out classical manuscripts and dis- Scholastics, including Saint Thomas covered the lost letters of Cicero as well as Aquinas. He studied at the University of the works of other Roman writers, includ- Ferrara but spurned a career as a scholar ing Cato and Germanicus. Salutati also by turning to the Dominican order, which supported the merits of pagan classical lit- he joined in 1475. In this year he began erature, which was still under assault by his harsh public criticism of the Papacy, the church. naming it a “proud whore” in his poem De Ruina Ecclesiae. Savonarola, Girolamo Favoring the solitary and ascetic life, (1452–1498) he withdrew to the monastery of San Do- Dominican monk whose fiery preaching menico in Bologna and, in 1481, joined ignited a movement of cultural reform and San Marco, a convent in Florence. At the puritanism in Florence, and who became a Church of San Lorenzo, he preached martyr for his cause on the day of his pub- against the vice, corruption, and vanity of lic execution in the city’s main square, the the church and its leaders as well as the Piazza della Signoria. Born in Ferrara, the pursuit of riches among the Florentines.

280 Greenhaven Encyclopedia of The Renaissance Savonarola, Girolamo

At first, his use of the didactic and ob- arola became the absolute master of Flo- scure language of religious scholars turned rence. listeners away. He left the city in 1487 but In 1495, Savonarola had passed a new returned under the patronage of Count constitution establishing republic in Flo- Pico della Mirandola in 1490. He contin- rence. He reformed the tax code, replacing ued his sermons and gained a following arbitrary levies with a tax of 10 percent on by speaking in a more direct and popular property, assessed against all citizens manner. His accurate predictions of cer- equally. He made sodomy a capital offense, tain worldly events also earned him a banned popular entertainments, forced the reputation as a prophet. Florentines to don plain clothing, and or- In 1491 Savonarola became the prior ganized the famous Bonfire of the Vani- of San Marco. His biting criticism of the ties, the destruction of books, artworks, Florentine aristocrats and tyrants inspired and vain luxuries (mirrors, musical instru- the anger of Lorenzo de’ Medici, the ruler ments, games, cosmetics, jewelry, fine of Florence who advised the monk to con- clothing) in the Piazza della Signoria. The trol his tongue or suffer the consequences. Renaissance of new learning, art, and cul- In 1492, the monk boldly denied Lorenzo ture inspired by the antiquities of Greece absolution of his sins, as punishment for and Rome represented to Savonarola a re- his tyranny over the city. In the same year, turn to the paganism of the ancients, and Savonarola’s accurate prediction of the a defiance of the religious piety and purity deaths of Lorenzo as well as Pope Inno- of medieval times. cent VIII brought him a fearful respect Savonarola’s sermons on the corrup- among ordinary citizens. After Lorenzo’s tion of the church, as well as his alliance son Piero succeeded his father as ruler of with the French invaders, earned him the the city, Savonarola’s influence increased; enmity of the Duke of Milan and of Pope his prediction of a coming catastrophe as Alexander VI, who ordered him to cease punishment for the city’s sins and tyranny preaching, an instruction that Savonarola found a receptive audience. defied. The pope excommunicated the In 1494, Piero de’ Medici was deposed monk in 1497, upon which Savonarola ac- and Savonarola became the city’s ruler, in- cused Alexander of gaining his title tending to make Florence a pure, republi- through bribery. Savonarola’s power can example for the rest of Italy. Savon- among the commoners and middle class arola saved his severest criticism for the in Florence represented a threat to the es- Papacy, which he saw mired in luxury and tablished church, to the merchant class of corruption, an institution in dire need of the city, to the Arrabiati (supporters of the reform. For this reason, he supported the Medici family), and most dangerously to invasion of Italy by the French under King the pope. He was also opposed by mem- Charles VIII, seeing in this event an op- bers of the Franciscan order, rivals of the portunity for Florence and the other cities Dominicans. of northern Italy to establish democratic The pope excommunicated Savonarola governments and for the Papacy to change in 1497 and then threatened to put the its ways. Savonarola personally negotiated entire city of Florence under an interdict with Charles after the king deposed Piero for Savonarola’s continued preaching. The de’ Medici, and convinced Charles to mod- town fathers took the threat seriously and erate his demands. After this event Savon- ordered the monk to cease his preaching.

Greenhaven Encyclopedia of The Renaissance 281 Savoy

In 1498, when one of Savonarola’s follow- the Statutes of Savoy, that set down the ers agreed to a public ordeal by fire, a privileges of its three “estates” of nobility, storm prevented the ordeal from taking clergy, and townspeople. In 1559 the capi- place. This greatly angered the Florentines, tal was moved from Chambery to the who were growing weary with Savonarola northern Italian city of Turin. Savoy re- and his puritanical regime. The entire city mained a prosperous and stable region, a suddenly turned against him, rioting at refuge for many seeking shelter from the San Marco, killing several of his followers, religious and political turmoil affecting and demanding his arrest. Savonarola was France and Italy during the Renaissance. taken into custody with two of his follow- ers and charged with heresy, sedition, and SEE ALSO: France false prophecies. He was tortured on the rack and reportedly confessed to his Savoy, Louise of crimes. The three men were convicted, sen- tenced to death, hanged by chains from a (1476–1531) cross, and then burned to death in the Pi- Mother of King Francis I and influential azza della Signoria. Savonarola’s remains figure in the culture and government of were crushed into the cinders and thrown Renaissance France. The daughter of Philip into the Arno River, to prevent any relics II, the Duke of Savoy, and Margaret of of his body from being preserved and ven- Bourbon, Louise was married at the age of erated by those still loyal to him. twelve to Charles of Valois, the count of Angouleme and cousin of King Louis XII. SEE ALSO: Alexander VI; Charles VIII; Flo- She had two children, Marguerite de Na- rence; Medici, Lorenzo de’; Medici, Piero varre and Francis, the future king. Louise de’ effectively promoted the interests of her son, bringing him to the royal court of Savoy France and arranging his engagement to A territory in what is now southeastern , the daughter of King France that held a strategic position astride Louis XII. After the wedding took place in the Alpine passes that linked Italy and 1514, Louis formally recognized Francis as northern Europe and became an influen- his heir. In the next year, on the death of tial state during the Renaissance. The Sa- Louis, Francis ascended the throne of voy dynasty was founded in the eleventh France and rewarded his mother with the century by Humbert aux Blanches Mains counties of Angouleme, Maine, and Beau- (White Hands), who extended his domain fort. into northern Italy. Savoy established a Louise took an active part in diplo- parliament of nobles, clergy, and city rep- macy. After the defeat of the French army resentatives in 1264 and a lawmaking as- at the Battle of Pavia in 1525, she helped sembly in 1329. In 1416 Amadeus VIII, to negotiate the Treaty of Cambrai be- the Count of Savoy, was granted the titles tween France and the Holy Roman Empire of prince and Duke of the Holy Roman in 1529. This “Ladies’ Peace,” signed by Empire by the Emperor Sigismund. The Louise and Margaret of Austria, ended a duchy was one of the first states in Europe long-standing feud between France and to convene a regular assembly of represen- Charles V, the Holy Roman Emperor, over tatives and write a constitution, known as control of Italy.

282 Greenhaven Encyclopedia of The Renaissance Scotland

SEE ALSO: France; Francis I; Margaret of Scotland Austria Kingdom of northern Britain that re- mained independent of the English king Saxony throughout the Renaissance, but also kept A medieval duchy of northern Germany close economic and cultural ties with the European continent. Scotland at this time whose leaders, since 1356, had the privi- was ruled by the Stuart dynasty, which ar- lege of taking part in the election of the rived at the throne of Scotland with the Holy Roman Emperors. In 1422, the Wet- accession of King Robert II in 1371. At tin dynasty was established by Margrave this time the kingdom was fragmented in Frederick II. During the sixteenth century, several small, virtually independent earl- Saxony became a hotbed of Protestant ac- doms under the authority of local rulers, tivism, and the Saxon elector Frederick III who paid little allegiance to the national extended his protection to Martin Luther, monarch. Through the fifteenth century, the monk who founded the Protestant the Stuarts managed to impose a measure movement in Germany. After Luther’s of central authority on the realm. By the open declaration of a radical new doctrine time of James IV, who ruled from 1488 in the Ninety-five Theses, he was sum- until 1513, the earls had largely submitted moned to Rome by the pope to answer for to the king. his heresy. Frederick intervened, however, After study on the continent, several and the pope relented, also granting Luther prominent Scottish clerics and scholars safe passage to the Diet of Worms and had brought home the humanism and in- sheltered at the Wittenberg Castle. Protes- tellectual curiosity of the Renaissance. An tantism first took hold in Saxony under important group of these scholars had Frederick’s successor John, who ordered gathered around Desiderius Erasmus in Luther’s new doctrine to be preached in Paris, and several of them took part in the his domains and formed the Schmalkaldic founding of universities at Glasgow, Aber- League to defend Saxony against the very deen, and Saint Andrews in the fifteenth Catholic emperor Charles V. John’s succes- century. Gradually, literacy and scholar- sor John Frederick was defeated at the ship spread down the social ladder from Battle of Mühlberg in 1547. Protestantism the nobility to landowners to the middle triumphed in Saxony, however, when Luth- classes, while the arrival of the printing eranism became the official religion in the press opened a new era of scholarship, early seventeenth century and all other study, and intellectual debate. One promi- nent Scottish poet, Gavin Douglas, trans- faiths were banned. Renaissance architects lated Virgil’s Aeneid into the Scottish lan- raised new palaces and churches in the guage, which became the dominant capital city of Dresden, and the State Li- medium of government, business, and a brary founded in 1556 became the finest burgeoning school of Scottish Renaissance collection in Germany, gathering books poetry. and manuscripts from Europe, Asia, and the Ottoman domains. By trading its wool and other goods, Scotland was also developing close eco- SEE ALSO: Luther, Martin; Prussia; Refor- nomic ties with the cities of the Baltic re- mation, Protestant gion and the European continent. In the

Greenhaven Encyclopedia of The Renaissance 283 sculpture meantime, the Scottish monarchs arranged sculpture a series of marriage alliances with various As in painting and architecture, the sculp- European powers, including Denmark and ture of the Renaissance made important the Netherlands. Scotland also held to an breaks with the traditions of the Middle old alliance with France, which supported Ages. While Gothic sculpture presented Scottish independence from England. In idealized forms, in order to inspire faith 1503, however, James IV married Marga- and Christian devotion, Renaissance sculp- ret, the daughter of King Henry VII of En- tors strived for the classical ideals of har- gland, thus drawing Scotland closer to mony, proportion, and realism. Their England’s new Tudor dynasty. Despite this works broke out of the religious tradition marriage, the people of Scotland remained of the Middle Ages, to commemorate poli- deeply hostile to the English, and it was ticians, princes, and mercenary captains as this popular sentiment that prodded James well as saints, biblical scenes, and the life to invade England in 1513, an action that of Christ. Renaissance sculptors mastered led to his death at the Battle of Flodden. the demands of monumental public art, In 1542, on the death of King James V, decorating churches and public squares his one-week-old daughter Mary became with larger-than-life statuary and architec- the queen of Scotland. At the age of five, tural embellishments. Sculptors of the pe- Mary was sent to France for her safety riod also excelled in the medium of bronze, while England pursued a takeover of Scot- which demanded strength and mastery of land. Mary returned to Scotland in 1561 the craft of forming and casting metal. but was deposed from the throne in 1567 The Florentine sculptor Donatello under accusations of adultery. She was revolutionized and humanized the art taken captive by her cousin, Queen Eliza- form. This artist decorated the Cathedral beth I, and imprisoned in London for of Florence and the Church of Orsan- twenty years before being put to death in michele with a work in a new style, one 1587. In the meantime, her son James was that more accurately depicted the human schooled in the ideas of Renaissance hu- figure and lent it the ideal proportions of manism by George Buchanan. In this pe- classical sculpture. Donatello introduced riod Scotland threw off its ties to France the low relief technique, in which figures and to the Catholic Church and adopted set in a narrow or confined space are given the Presbyterian sect founded and led the illusion of motion and depth through by the Scottish religious reformer John the use of perspective. For the first time, Knox. In 1603, on the death of Elizabeth I, the sculptor took into account the point the last Tudor monarch of England, of view of the observer in designing and James VI of Scotland established the Stu- placing his works. Donatello’s most famous art dynasty of England as King James I. In works include reliefs on the altar of the 1707 the Scottish and English realms Sanctuary of Saint Anthony at Padua, the would be united by the Act of Union, Miracle of the Believing Donkey and Miracle which established the Kingdom of Great of the Irascible Son, monumental pan- Britain. oramic scenes, and two pulpits in bronze for the Church of San Lorenzo in Florence. SEE ALSO: James I of England; Knox, John; His statue of Judith and Holphernes has Tudor dynasty been a landmark of the Piazza della Si-

284 Greenhaven Encyclopedia of The Renaissance Sforza, Caterina gnoria in Florence since the fifteenth cen- Pietà; David, a work more than fourteen tury. feet high; and Moses, created for the tomb Lorenzo Ghiberti’s two sets of baptis- of Pope Julius II in San Pietro in Vincoli tery doors, completed over a period of two Church. Four works known as the Slaves decades in Florence, were done in bronze also created for the same tomb, show bod- relief. The rectangular panels were three- ies partially captured in the stone. The al- dimensional, sculptural paintings, with the legorical use of sculpture, rather than its figures set in landscapes and architectural use as representation, led the way to the backgrounds. The panels represented a new Mannerist style that ended the Re- daring technical achievement, with figures naissance. foreshortened and emerging from the Sculpture at the close of the Renais- background in three dimensions. In the sance became complex, elaborate, and work of Donatello and Ghiberti, sculpture lacking in the simple classical virtues came under the influence of ancient Ro- widely admired at the start of the era. One man art and its treatment of the human of the most famous works of Benvenuto body and face. The idealized, unearthly Cellini, a skilled metal caster and jeweler, forms of the Middle Ages gradually gave was a solid gold salt cellar that the artist way to the expressive power of movement designed for the French king Francis I. An- and the depiction of strong human emo- other Cellini sculpture, the bronze Perseus, tions. Other famous Florentine sculptors influenced the following generation of Flo- were Antonio Pollaiuolo and Andrea del rentine sculptors, including Giovanni Bo- Verocchio, who is best known for the logna, the most renowned marble sculptor group Doubting Thomas, created for the of the late Renaissance. The Mannerist facade of the church of Orsanmichele. Ja- style developed by this sculptor empha- copo della Quercia, one of the most skilled sized movement and balance, with the fig- Italian sculptors outside of Florence, lived ures skillfully posed in complex arrange- and worked in Bologna. ments. Giambologna, as he was known, worked for the Medici dynasty in Florence, In the Renaissance, sculpture was a dis- creating sculptures for parks and grottoes play of wealth and status. Busts decorated and miniature bronzes for the decoration halls and outer niches, full figures and of noble households. His most famous equestrian statues were raised in public works, including The Fountain of Neptune squares, and members of the nobility com- (created in Bologna), The Rape of the Sab- peted to patronize the best sculptors and ine Women and several versions of Mer- have their names associated with their cury, had a lasting influence on later sculp- works. Collectors commissioned copies of tors of the Baroque period. Greek and Roman statuary, in marble as well as bronze, a method that kept the best SEE ALSO: Cellini, Benvenuto; Donatello; workshops of wealthy cities busy. Ghiberti, Lorenzo; Michelangelo Buonar- Michelangelo dominated the area of roti sculpture of the sixteenth century. He was considered by many to be a greater master Sforza, Caterina of the medium than Roman sculptors, the (1463–1509) highest compliment of the Renaissance. Countess of the Italian domain of Forli His principle works include Bacchus; the and a formidable rival to the Borgia fam-

Greenhaven Encyclopedia of The Renaissance 285 Sforza, Francesco ily, Caterina Sforza was the illegitimate the citadel of Forli until January 1500. She daughter of Duke Galeazzo Maria Sforza, was taken as a prisoner to the Castel Sant’ a member of the ruling dynasty of Milan. Angelo in Rome, but was released in 1501 At the age of ten she was engaged to Giro- and fled to Florence. When the Medici dy- lamo Riario, the nephew and reputed ille- nasty turned against her, she retreated to gitimate son of Pope Sixtus VI. She moved the convent of Annelena, where she re- to Rome and bore her husband eight chil- mained until her death in 1509. dren, while the couple, with the help of SEE ALSO: Alexander VI; Borgia, Cesar; the pope, became the rulers of the cities of Sforza dynasty Imola and Forli. The couple spent lavishly to win the support of the people of these towns, but their heavy taxes and Riario’s Sforza, Francesco cruelty and deceit earned them widepsread (1401–1466) hatred. A conspiracy by a rival family, the Duke of Milan from 1450 until 1466. The Orsi, against Riario ended with his assassi- illegitimate son of Muzio Sforza, a condot- nation in 1488; Caterina and her children tiere (mercenary), he was born in San were taken prisoner but Caterina escaped, Miniato, a village of Tuscany. He was promising to turn over the fortress of Forli raised in the Basilicata region of southern to her enemies. Once she was released, Italy, where he ruled as the marquis of Tri- however, she turned against them and carico, a title granted him by the king of gathered a strong company of supporters, Naples. On reaching adulthood he fol- eventually winning back the city and tak- lowed his father’s profession and earned a ing bloody vengeance on her enemies. Her reputation while in the service of Naples second marriage, to Giacomo Feo, came to as a skilled and courageous military leader. a tragic end in 1495 when he was mur- Francesco served in the forces of Pope dered while the couple was riding through Martin V as well as , the streets of Forli. Caterina soon had the the leader of Milan. He fought against conspirators and all their families massa- Venice in 1431 and as a reward for his ser- cred. vice, Filippo Maria engaged his illegitimate Caterina then allied with Florence daughter, Bianca Maria, to him. through a secret marriage to her third hus- Sforza felt no strong loyalty to the Vis- band, Giovanni de’ Medici. After conti clan, however, and while campaign- Giovanni’s death in 1498, Pope Alexander ing against the papal territories he changed VI offered a marital alliance between his his allegiance to Pope Eugenius IV, who daughter Lucrezia Borgia and Caterina’s rewarded him with the title of vicar of An- son, Ottaviano Sforza. The pope was seek- cona. In the service of Florence and then ing to expand the papal dominions to Venice, he campaigned against Milan in Imola and Forli, but when Caterina re- 1438 and 1440. When his territories in fused the alliance, Alexander simply issued southern Italy came under siege by the a decree granting Imola and Forli to his king of Naples, however, he again allied son Cesare Borgia, who then assembled a with the Visconti, and in 1441 married Bi- huge army of mercenaries and French anca Maria Visconti. troops and began a siege. Refusing all of- Sforza’s further campaigns against Mi- fers of a truce, Caterina took personal lan on behalf of Venice convinced Filippo command of her troops and held out in Maria to bribe him again by naming him

286 Greenhaven Encyclopedia of The Renaissance Sforza, Ludovico the commander of the armies of Milan. seven years of age. Ludovico was thwarted On the latter’s death in 1447, Milan de- in his attempt to seize the duchy and ex- clared a republic. Francesco allied with iled from Milan by Gian Galeazzo’s chief Venice and the Medici rulers of Florence, minister, Cicco Simonetta. Soon returning then besieged and conquered Milan and to the city, Ludovico had Simonetta mur- proclaimed himself its duke in 1450. In dered in 1480 and then banished Gian the same year, he made the Peace of Lodi Galeazzo and his mother, Bona of Savoy, with Cosimo de’ Medici, the leader of Flo- from Milan. Gian Galeazzo established a rence. Francesco allied with Florence and rival court in the city of Pavia and, with other northern cities in order to prevent the support of his wife Isabella of Castile, conquest of northern Italy by larger and the daughter of the king of Spain, contin- more unified realms of northern Europe, a ued to make his claim for the duchy. threat that came to fruition after his death when the king of France invaded Lom- In search of ways to secure his author- bardy to subdue the power of Milan. ity, Ludovico allied himself with King Francesco’s son Ludovico succeeded him Charles VIII of France, and, in order to and was formally proclaimed Duke of Mi- glorify and legitimize his reign, he engaged lan by Emperor Maximilian I of the Holy Leonardo da Vinci to create works of art Roman Empire. in the city that would include the Last Sup- Francesco glorified himself and his per, painted for the refectory of the Santa new Sforza dynasty by his patronage of Maria della Grazie monastery. sculptors, artists, and architects who raised On the death of Gian Galeazzo in new monuments and buildings in Milan. 1494, the way was clear for Ludovico to He improved the city’s finances and made secure his hold on the duchy. He struck an the Milanese court an important center of alliance with King Charles VIII of France Renaissance scholarship. and arranged a marriage between his niece and Maximilian I, the Holy Roman Em- SEE ALSO: Sforza, Caterina; Sforza, Lu- peror. In return Maximilian officially rec- dovico; Visconti dynasty ognized Ludovico as the Duke of Milan, while the French assembled an army and Sforza, Ludovico invaded Italy. In 1495, Ludovico turned (1452–1508) against the French, who were eventually Duke of Milan from 1494 until 1499. The defeated and chased from Italy. second son of , he was In 1499, Charles’s successor King Louis born in the town of Vigevano in the Lom- XII laid claim to the duchy through his bardy region of northern Italy. He was a descent from , a ruthlessly ambitious Renaissance prince member of the dynasty that had preceded who patronized some of the greatest art- the Sforzas as dukes of Milan. Louis in- ists of Europe, including Leonardo da vaded Italy and forced Ludovico to flee Vinci and Donato Bramante. Milan. After assembling an army of Swiss On the death of Francesco Sforza in mercenaries, Ludovico prepared a counter- 1466, Ludovico’s elder brother Galeazzo attack. His forces were defeated at the became the duke of Milan. When Galeazzo in 1500 and he was taken was murdered in 1476, the duchy of Milan prisoner by the French. Brought to the passed to his son Gian Galeazzo, then castle of , in central France, Lu-

Greenhaven Encyclopedia of The Renaissance 287 Shakespeare, William

ing Anne Hathaway and starting a family, he left his hometown for London to make his fortune as an actor and author. Historians know almost nothing about Shakespeare’s early years in London but have speculated that he may have been an actor or schoolteacher. By 1592, the year Shakespeare published Venus and Adonis,a long mythological poem, he was well known in London literary circles as a poet. Shakespeare was familiar with classical my- thology and literature and based one of his early works for the stage, The Comedy of Errors, on comic plays by the Roman writer Plautus. Shakespeare’s other plays from this early period are Two Gentlemen of Verona and Love’s Labour Lost, comedies of mistaken identity and the trials and tribulations of love. The author’s complex plotting and brilliantly inventive language are used to draw large casts of memorable characters, whose very human foibles and eccentricities make them familiar to mod- ern audiences in any language. The title page of “Much Ado About Noth- At some time in the 1590s Shakespeare ing” from the First Folio (1623) edition of joined a repertory company, Lord Shakespeare’s plays. Chamberlain’s Men. At this time, the popular theater was gaining widespread dovico languished in a dungeon for eight acceptance among all classes of English years before dying. society, and plays were coming to be ac- cepted as a worthy pursuit of talented SEE ALSO: Leonardo da Vinci; Sforza, Cate- writers, including Shakespeare’s contem- rina; Sforza, Francesco; Visconti dynasty poraries Christopher Marlowe and Ben Jonson. Shakespeare went well beyond the Shakespeare, William ordinary playwrights of his day, however, (1564–1616) in creating epics such as Henry VI and Ri- Playwright and poet whose works made chard III, plays that combined theatrical his reputation as the most original and dramatics with recent English history. brilliant writer of the English language. The Lord Chamberlain’s Men relied on Born as the son of a glove maker in Shakespeare as a writer, financial backer, Stratford-upon-Avon in 1564, Shakespeare and actor. In 1599 the company built the came from a middle-class family. He was Globe Theatre on the south bank of the educated in the local grammar school in Thames River, a large stage surrounded on the traditional subjects of rhetoric, logic, three sides by the audience, and open to Latin, and classical literature. After marry- the sky. For the company Shakespeare

288 Greenhaven Encyclopedia of The Renaissance ships and shipbuilding wrote The Taming of the Shrew, in which who describes characters alienated from the author combines Italian and English their surroundings, and who are controlled plot devices, the fantasy play A Midsum- and ultimately destroyed by their passions mer Night’s Dream,aswellasThe Mer- and desires. The Tempest,believedtobe chant of Venice and Much Ado About Noth- Shakespeare’s final play, describes the ship- ing. On a request from Queen Elizabeth wreck of the magician Prospero, who rep- that he write a romantic story for Falstaff, resents an author looking back on his own a character of the two historical plays of works as the strange, magical creations of Henry IV, Shakespeare wrote The Merry a powerful imagination. Wives of Windsor. Other comedies from Shakespeare returned to Stratford at this period include As YouLikeItand the end of his life and lived a comfortable, Twelfth Night. prosperous retirement. After his death in 1616, his reputation as poet and play- In 1593, the theaters of London were wright spread rapidly in England and on closed due to an outbreak of plague, and the European continent. In 1623 all of his Shakespeare turned to the writing of po- plays were collected and printed from the etry. For his patron, the Earl of Southamp- author’s own manuscripts, a rare act in ton, he wrote The Rape of Lucrece. Both Renaissance England, where plays were this poem and Venus and Adonis are con- widely considered to be disposable works sidered masterpieces in the tradition of meant only for the temporary amusement the long narrative epic. He also wrote a se- of a mass audience. In all, Shakespeare ries of 154 sonnets, fourteen-line poems wrote thrity-eight plays, including many in which the author explored a wide range that are still considered the pinnacle of the of emotions and moods, and described a dramatic art: Hamlet, Macbeth, Othello, mysterious “dark lady” whom historians King Lear, and The Tempest.Hisworks have yet to identify. have been translated into many languages, Around 1600 Shakespeare wrote trag- have been performed all over the world, edies including Romeo and Juliet, Julius and have been remade into operas and Caesar, and Hamlet, his most famous movies. Hundreds of lines and phrases single work. He treated the ancient Trojan from his plays became familiar expressions War in Troilus and Cressida, and also wrote that have survived into the twenty-first a bittersweet play of love and sex in Mea- century. In the meantime, Shakespeare be- sure for Measure. In 1603, on the accession came emblematic of the literary achieve- of King James I, the Lord Chamberlain’s ments of the English Renaissance during Men won the support of the crown and which, partially through the popularity of became the King’s Men. The last produc- his own works, a relatively obscure and tive years of Shakespeare’s life saw the little-used language emerged to become writing of historical plays Antony and Cleo- the national tongue of a great empire. patra, Timon of Athens, and Coriolanus,all SEE ALSO: Elizabeth I; James I of England; based on short biographies by the Greek Marlowe, Christopher; theater historian Plutarch, as well as three of Shakespeare’s most famous plays, Macbeth, Othello, and King Lear. These plays, based ships and shipbuilding on traditional English historical tales, re- As frontiers of knowledge expanded dur- veal a more cynical and pessimistic author, ing the Renaissance, new vessels made it

Greenhaven Encyclopedia of The Renaissance 289 ships and shipbuilding possible for navigators to expand the lim- deck aft (in the rear). The ship could sail its of the known world. Medieval ships close to the wind and was extremely buoy- were small sailing vessels—some of them ant. Caravels could be rigged with square powered by oars—that had a limited range or lateen sails, depending on the wind con- and were best suited for use along coast- ditions, and they could navigate in rivers lines and in river mouths. There were very and shallow waters, which made them use- different shipbuilding traditions in north- ful for coastal exploration. The caravel ern and southern Europe. Squat and wide brought the Portuguese as far as the East ships known as cogs were in use in the At- Indies and Brazil, and was also used in the lantic Ocean and the North Sea, while in first expedition of Christopher Columbus Genoa and other Mediterranean ports, to the Western Hemisphere. rowed galleys and small sailing ships mod- The artillery aboard ships transformed eled on the Arab dhow were built. naval warfare, forcing ships to fight longer- In the late Middle Ages, these two ship range battles of maneuver and tactics that typeswerecombinedinahybridmodel replaced the old strategy of simply grap- known as the carrack. This ship, also pling an enemy ship and trying to board known in Spain as the nao, was built in her for a hand-to-hand fight. The carrack many European ports in the fifteenth cen- was used as both cargo vessel and warship; tury. It employed a larger sail as well as a its gun ports allowed iron and bronze can- bowsprit, a mast extended from the front non to be added to the traditional comple- of the ship. Castles were raised in the bow ment of infantry and archers. The caravel and at the rear of the ship. The carrack was not fast enough, however, for good used a rudder built into the stem post, use as a warship. To meet this purpose, in rather than a rudder steered from the side the sixteenth century Portuguese and of the ship, and adopted the square main- Spanish shipwrights pioneered the galleon. sail, which had powered the cog and the The galleon was a carrack turned into a longship. From the Arabs shipbuilders bor- large gun platform. It was an imposing rowed a lateen (triangular) sail that was ship, with several decks of guns and can- rigged to a rear mizzenmast. As ships and non firing from the forecastle and aft castle crews grew larger, a third mast was added decks. Most galleons had four masts with as well as a second “topsail” on the main two lateen-rigged masts in the back. Strong mast. hulls made the ship good for long-distance Smaller and more maneuverable ships campaigns, such as the great fleet of galle- known as caravels were the key to long- ons and smaller ships known as the Span- range exploration. They were first used by ish Armada. The galleon had a narrower the Portuguese to navigate down the west profile and a low forecastle, making it ex- coast of Africa, where reefs, tricky currents, tremely stable, fast, and maneuverable. It strong desert winds, and superstition had was also less expensive to build than the limited exploration to Cape Bojador, be- carrack. Galleons remained in use for three yond which sailors believed the world sim- centuries both as military and cargo ves- ply ended. The caravel was more maneu- sels, and were the forerunners of the large verable than the carrack. It was developed square-rigged, long-distance clipper ships from the dhows of the Muslim world, with that came into use in the eighteenth cen- a long, sloping hull and high, wide poop tury.

290 Greenhaven Encyclopedia of The Renaissance slavery

SEE ALSO: Columbus, Christopher; explora- early Italian Renaissance. The Sienese tion; Henry the Navigator; trade School of painting flourished through the fourteenth century, with its leading artists Siena , Guido of Siena, and Am- brogio Lorenzetti. On its oval main square, A city of Tuscany in northern Italy that the Piazza del Campo, was built the became an important rival of Florence Palazzo Pubblico, an imposing public during the Renaissance. Founded by the building that contains a famous Lorenzetti ancient Etruscans, Siena came under the fresco, Allegory of Good Government.The control of the Lombards after the fall of main square also became the site of sev- the Roman Empire in the middle of the eral medieval palaces and mansions and fifth century. The city won its indepen- the tall Torre del Mangia. The Fonte Gaia, dence in the twelfth century, and gradually an elaborate fountain, was designed for expanded the surrounding territory that the square by Jacopo della Quercia. The came under its control. Early in its history cathedral of Siena was raised over a period as a self-governing commune Siena was an of three centuries, and remains one of the important center of support for the Ghi- most important examples of Gothic archi- belline faction that supported the author- tecture in Italy. The neighboring Biblioteca ity of the Holy Roman Emperor in Italy. Piccolomini was decorated with fresco In 1260 the city defeated a force of Flo- paintings by Pinturicchio. The Campo re- rentines at the Battle of Montaperti, which mains the scene of a famous horse race, remains a rallying cry for modern Sienese known as the Palio, that echoes festive con- in their sporting rivalries with the larger tests of skill and strength that were com- city of Florence. In 1270 the city was con- mon in the medieval era (although the quered by the king of Naples, Charles I. Palio itself originated in the middle- Siena joined an alliance of Guelph cities seventeenth century). that supported the Papacy against the em- peror, while growing wealthy as a center of SEE ALSO: Florence banking and trade. The aristocratic Petrucci family ruled the city late in the slavery fifteenth century; after this dynasty was Slavery, an important institution of the overthrown in 1523 the wealthy city was classical world, declined in the Middle fought over by the Spanish, French, and Ages as Christianity spread to northern the Habsburg dynasty. In 1554 Cosimo de’ and eastern Europe, and the teachings of Medici rallied an army and laid siege to the new church prohibited making slaves the city, which was then under the control of those who had converted. Yet the prac- of a branch of the Strozzi dynasty. The tice never completely died out. From the Florentines defeated the Sienese at the teachings of Aristotle and others, slavery Battle of Marciano in 1554. In 1555, it was was considered a natural state for lesser invaded by Emperor Charles V, who passed orders of human beings, as well as nonbe- control of the city to Cosimo de’ Medici lievers. Slaves taken as prisoners of war as Duke of Tuscany two years later. served as household servants and manual Siena was an important center of laborers in the homes of the wealthy. Their painting, sculpture, and architecture, and children were commonly born as free per- has several notable works dating from the sons, sometimes considered the legally

Greenhaven Encyclopedia of The Renaissance 291 Spanish Armada adopted sons or daughters of the owners Americas to work sugar, indigo, and cot- of their parents. ton plantations.

Crusaders took captive Muslims as SEE ALSO: exploration; Las Casas Barto- slaves in the Middle East, and in the early lomé de Renaissance human trafficking grew more common in the Mediterranean states of Spanish Armada Spain and southern Italy. Muslims cap- Also known as the Great and Most Fortu- tured in North Africa and in battles with nate Navy, the Spanish Armada was a the Ottoman Empire were made servants grand fleet of warships sent by Spain in in wealthy and noble families, while Ven- 1588 to attack England. Spain’s goal was ice and other maritime states used slaves to end English interference in the Spanish- as well as prisoners to row their galley controlled Low Countries, and return the fleets. A few slaves from sub-Saharan Af- English kingdom to the Catholic fold. rica were also brought to Europe via cara- Philip II, the husband of the late queen van routes that linked the Mediterranean , saw the return of the with the west African empires, including Protestant Church under Queen Elizabeth Ghana and Mali. as a mortal threat to the Catholic Church, The industry of slavery revived with which he staunchly defended, and a chal- the Portuguese explorations of the west lenge to Spanish domination in the Neth- coast of Africa in the fifteenth century. Af- erlands. He sent the Armada under the ricans were captured and brought to forti- command of the Duke of Medina Sedonia, fied posts at the coast, then transported to whose orders were to bring Spanish sol- Portuguese colonies to work farming plan- diers from the Low Countries to the vicin- tations. With the discovery of the Ameri- ity of London, where a direct threat to the cas, and the encounters with native tribes city would change English minds about of the Caribbean, Europeans found an- supporting revolts against Spanish rule in other source of slave labor. Without hav- the Netherlands. A secondary aim of the ing what the slave-dealing countries con- Spanish Armada was to end English inter- sidered organized governments, true ference with Spain’s colonial empire in the religion, or profitable occupations, Native New World. Americans were considered properly slaves, In the spring of 1588 the Armada set who benefited from their service to their sail with 130 ships, eight thousand sailors, masters. A few voices protested this prac- and eighteen thousand soldiers. In the tice, including the Spanish monk Barto- meantime England was fully informed of lomé de Las Casas, and in Europe, several Spanish intentions through a network of philosophers including Desiderius Eras- spies in the Spanish royal court. On July mus and Sir Thomas More rejected the 19 the Armada arrived in the English doctrine of “natural slavery.” In Europe, Channel, intending to rendezvous with a slavery died out in the late Renaissance, as company of twenty thousand Spanish in- the new doctrine of equality was taken up fantry on the continent. An English battle by the Enlightenment writers and philoso- fleet of 55 ships immediately set out from phers. Slavery continued in the overseas the port of Plymouth, engaging the Ar- colonies, which benefited immensely from mada at skirmishes at Eddystone and Port- slaves imported from Africa and the land. When the Spaniards took harbor at

292 Greenhaven Encyclopedia of The Renaissance Spenser, Edmund the Isle of Wight, the English commander teers and its navy against Spanish interests Sir Francis Drake attacked, chasing the Ar- in the New World. mada out of the Channel. After passing SEE ALSO: Drake, Sir Francis; Elizabeth I the southern English coast the Spanish an- chored off the port of Calais, where the English attacked with fireships. Greatly Spenser, Edmund fearing these dangerous ships that were (1552–1599) packed with explosives and gunpowder, English poet and essayist who was an im- the Spanish scattered from Calais and portant figure in the founding of a new sailed north to Gravelines, prepared to ren- English poetic tradition during the Renais- dezvous with the Spanish infantry under sance. The son of a tailor, Spenser was the Duke of Parma. born in London, where he attended the Merchant Taylors’ School. He enrolled at At Gravelines, the faster and more ma- Cambridge, where he studied classical neuverable English ships dodged the heavy Latin and Greek writing, worked as a ser- Spanish cannons that were used ineffec- vant to wealthier students, and translated tively by the Armada, and stayed well out poetry of the medieval Italian poet Pe- of grappling range in order to avoid hand- trarch. After earning a master’s degree in to-hand fighting. Several Spanish ships 1576, he became secretary to John Young, were lost, and the Armada retreated from the bishop of Rochester, in 1578, and the coast under strong northwesterly joined a literary circle led by Sir Philip winds. With the threat of a land invasion Sidney. In Rochester he began work on his thwarted, the English shadowed the Ar- first major poem, The Shepherd’s Calendar, mada as it sailed up the eastern coast of which was published in 1579. A series of England, then attempted a return home twelve poems that imitated the allegorical via the coasts of Scotland and Ireland. Latin poetry of Virgil, The Shepherd’s Cal- With food and water running low, the endar disguised praise of Queen Elizabeth Spanish commander ran into a heavy and the Tudor dynasty, and biting com- storm that destroyed 24 of his ships off mentaries on current events in England, the western coast of Ireland. Hundreds of with the form of “pastoral” poetry and sailors were drowned or captured after imagined conversations among shepherds. swimming to land, where the Irish—al- The success of this volume encouraged ways hostile to English power—gave some Spenser in the laborious endeavor of writ- of them food and shelter. ing a much larger and more difficult epic As the Spanish fleet limped home, the poem, The Faerie Queene, which would be English gathered an armada of their own his major work of poetry. and prepared for a counterattack. This ex- On considering the meager prospects pedition failed, but the defeat of the Span- for poets, Spenser sought to win a secure ish Armada gave a boost to the Protestant position in government service, and took cause in Europe and to the prestige of up the study of law. In 1580 he gained an Queen Elizabeth, who at a crucial moment appointment as the secretary to Lord Grey, had rallied her country’s troops with a stir- England’s lord deputy of Ireland. He spent ring speech. England continued its sup- much of the rest of his life in Ireland port of the rebellion in the Low Countries where, after helping to put down a rebel- and also supported the efforts of priva- lion by the Irish natives, he was rewarded

Greenhaven Encyclopedia of The Renaissance 293 Stampa, Gaspara with a three thousand– country estate his Amoretti, love sonnets in the style of in Kilcolman, County Cork, which he in- the Italian poet Torquato Tasso, and his tended as a center of English settlement Epithalamion, an ode to love and marriage and colonization. In early 1590, the first that he wrote on the occasion of his three books of The Faerie Queene appeared wedding to Elizabeth Boyle. His best- in London. Dedicated to Queen Elizabeth, known essay, View of the Present State of the poem was a celebration of the rise of Ireland, supported the policies of Lord the English nation and England’s identity Grey and suggested a new program for as a Protestant land that stood in proud English administration of Ireland, in which independence from the Catholic Church the Irish language and culture would be and its medieval institutions. Spenser took suppressed and replaced with what was in his view the superior moral and cul- as his model the twelve books of Virgil’s tural life of the English. As the work Aeneid, the national epic of ancient Rome. was critical of England’s policy, it was not Each of the twelve books of The Faerie published until well after the author’s Queene was to consider one of the twelve death. moral virtues of Aristotle, as seen through Spenser published three more books of the life and acts of a chivalric knight mod- The Faerie Queene in 1595, but his ambi- eled on the heroes of Arthurian legend. tion to create an epic in twelve books was The poem would become a national epic not accomplished. In 1598 he became the of England, but also a grand allegory that sheriff of Cork. Soon after this a rebellion combined Christian morality with ancient broke out and he was forced to flee his philosophies of Aristotle and Plato. For home, which was destroyed by the rebels. this work Spenser developed a new poetic After returning to London and giving a form, the nine-line “Spenserian stanza,” report to the queen on his experience in which was taken up by major English po- Ireland, he became ill and died. By this ets in the following centuries. Although time regarded as one of the finest poets in written in archaic language and relying on England, he was buried with honors in the medieval traditions of chivalry, Westminster Abbey. The Faerie Queene be- Spenser’s inspiration by classical pagan came one of the most influential poetic philosophies made his poem a truly Re- works in English, and inspired later poets naissance work. from John Milton to William Wordsworth. The Faerie Queene was considered a SEE ALSO: Elizabeth I; England; Milton, great work when it was published, but John; Shakespeare, William Spenser failed in his efforts to win a lucra- tive position at court. Having received fame and a substantial income from sales Stampa, Gaspara of the work, he returned to Ireland from (ca. 1523–1554) London in 1591. He published a collection Italian poet whose sonnets in the style of of shorter poems under the title Com- Petrarch, dedicated to a largely unrequited plaints. He also wrote an autobiographical love, made her reputation as one of the poem entitled Colin Clout’s Come Home finest poets of the Italian Renaissance. Again, describing his life and fame in Lon- Born in Padua, she moved to Venice at the don and his attempts to fit in to the life of age of eight with her mother Cecilia, soon the royal court. Readers and critics praised after the death of her father, Bartolomeo

294 Greenhaven Encyclopedia of The Renaissance Strozzi family

Stampa. In Venice, she studied literature one of the most imposing mansions of his and music, and with her sister Cassandra native city. Having gathered a vast fortune, she became an accomplished lute player. he commissioned the artist Fra Filippo Her brother Baldassare was earning some Lippi to decorate the church of Santa renown as a poet and gathering friends Maria Novella. and writers to the family home, which be- His son, who is known as Filippo II came a popular salon enlivened by music Strozzi the Younger (1489–1538), allied performed by the Stampa sisters. After the death of her brother in 1544, Gaspara con- himself with the Medici through his mar- tinued the salon and she became the cen- riage to Clarice de’ Medici, the daughter of ter of a literary circle, among whom she Piero de’ Medici. He provided loans to the earned praise as a poet. Three of her po- Medici but his own plans for political ems were published during her lifetime, power brought him into conflict with the but after her death Cassandra collected Medici and ultimately his banishment 311 of her poems into the collection Rime. from the city. He led fellow exiles in an The poems describe Gaspara’s love affair uprising against the Medici in 1527. The with Count Collaltino de Collato that was overthrown in brought her heartbreak and frustration. 1530, but instead of allying with Alessan- Her sonnets took their inspiration from dro de’ Medici, the new dictator of the Petrarch and his love for the distant Laura. city, Filippo left for Venice. He organized a group of Florentine exiles who sought to SEE ALSO: d’Aragona, Tullia; Petrarch; Ven- reestablish the republic after the assassina- ice tion of Alessandro de’ Medici in 1537. The conflict ended in a battle at Montemurlo, Strozzi family where he was captured. Thrown into the A dynasty of aristocratic Florentine mer- prison of Fortezza da Basso, he was tor- chants who rose to prominence in the thir- tured and he died, either by murder or by teenth century, and who are remembered suicide. for their long-standing feud with the pow- The sons of Filippo Strozzi distin- erful Medici family. Palla Strozzi (1373– guished themselves in the service of 1462) was a patron of scholars of Florence France. Leone Strozzi (1515–1554) joined and Padua, who founded the first public the Knights of Malta and then the navy of library in Florence. Under his leadership France, where he rose to the rank of ad- the Strozzi banking empire survived a fi- miral. Leone’s brother Piero Strozzi (1500– nancial crisis in the fourteenth century 1558) joined the French army in its cam- that left his own and the Medici dynasty paigns in Italy. For his service he was as the most powerful business corpora- named a marshal of France in 1554. In tions in Italy. Filippo Strozzi the Elder 1557 he took part in the French siege of (1428–1491) was an outspoken opponent the port of Calais, then in the hands of of the Medici, who was banished from Flo- the English. Their descendant Carlo Strozzi rence by Cosimo de’ Medici and estab- (1587–1671) was an author who wrote sev- lished himself in Naples. After returning eral noted books of Florentine history. to Florence in 1466, he became an adviser to Lorenzo de’ Medici and began construc- SEE ALSO: Florence; Medici, Cosimo de’; tion of the Strozzi palace, which remains Medici, Lorenzo de’

Greenhaven Encyclopedia of The Renaissance 295 Suleiman

Suleiman him for his ambition to rule Persia. (1494–1566) Suleiman made important reforms in the administration and laws of his expand- Sultan of the Ottoman Empire from 1520 ing empire. He also made an alliance with until 1566, under whose rule the empire the French king Francis I against the Hab- reached the height of its power and influ- sburg emperors. This alliance made the ence, as well as its peak as a center of sci- Turks a forceful influence in the dynastic ence, culture, literature, and art. Born in rivalries of Europe for the next three cen- 1494, he was the only son of Sultan Selim turies. I, who appointed him to serve as the gov- ernor of the provinces of Bolu and Kaffa. In the 1540s he fought against Euro- He became the tenth sultan of the empire pean armies in Hungary and Austria. The in 1520 on the death of his father. Ottoman Empire annexed Hungary in 1541 and by 1547 was earning an annual An ambitious and capable military tribute from the Habsburg rulers of Aus- leader, Suleiman spent much of his life tria. The Ottoman navy captured the campaigning on the frontiers of the Otto- North African port of Tripoli in 1551. Un- man Empire. When an Ottoman company der Khair al-Din Barbarossa, the Ottoman of diplomats was refused tribute by the Empire reigned over North Africa and the king of Hungary, Suleiman ordered his Turkish navy became the most powerful army into the Balkan Peninsula, and con- force in the Mediterranean. Turkish ships quered Belgrade in 1521. He then ordered staged frequent raids on European ports an attack on the Knights Hospitallers, a for gold and slaves. Ottoman forces also Christian military order in control of the raided ports on the Red Sea as far as the Greek island of Rhodes. In 1522, the is- Indian port of Diu, a colony of Portugal, land surrendered after a long siege. and annexed the coasts of Arabia to the In 1526 Suleiman returned to Hun- empire. After warring for several more gary, defeated the Hungarian army at the years with the Persian armies of Shah Tah- Battle of Mohacs, and captured Buda, the masp, Suleiman settled the eastern fron- capital of the Hungarian kingdom. He re- tiers of the Ottoman Empire in 1555, in- turned in 1529, drove the occupying Aus- cluding Baghdad and the Persian Gulf port trian army out of the capital, and installed of Basra under their control. a Duke of Transylvania, John Zapolya, as Suleiman was a patron of the arts and his vassal. From Hungary Suleiman led an literature, and was himself a distinguished assault on the Austrian capital of Vienna poet and writer. A distinctly Ottoman style in the fall of 1529. The siege of the city in the visual arts emerged, and the sultan failed as the weather worsened and the commissioned the building of several im- professional soldiers known as Janissaries portant mosques in the Ottoman capital abandoned the siege. of Istanbul (formerly Constantinople). After Vienna, Suleiman campaigned in Suleiman’s private life, however, was Persia and Mesopotamia. Under the lead- marred by constant intrigue and the cor- ership of his grand vizier, Ibrahim, the Ot- ruption of his ministers and diplomats. toman armies captured Baghdad and the He took as his wife a slave girl, Roxelana, Persian city of Tabriz in 1534. Suleiman who was given the title of Khurrem Sultan sacked the city of Tabriz in 1536, and in and who gave birth to Suleiman’s younger the same year ordered the murder of Ibra- son Selim in 1524. Roxelana intrigued in

296 Greenhaven Encyclopedia of The Renaissance Sweden favor of her sons Selim and Bayezid against farmers. This body frequently contended their elder half brother Mustapha. In 1553, with the Danish monarchs; the conflict be- as Mustapha’s own power and influence at tween Danish royalty and Swedish nobility the sultan’s court reached a dangerous reached a bloody climax in 1520, when point, Suleiman had him executed. In 1558 King Christian II ordered the execution of Roxelana died, an event followed by a war hundreds of Swedish nobles in Stockholm. between her sons Selim and Bayezid. The Forging an alliance with the Hanseatic conflict ended in the defeat and the be- trayal of Bayezid by the shah of Persia, League, Gustav Vasa broke with Denmark who turned him over to Suleiman for ex- and established Sweden as an independent ecution in exchange for a large payment of state. Elected king in 1523, Gustav Vasa gold. While on campaign in Hungary, Sule- defied the Catholic Church, establishing iman laid siege to the Szigetva, where he Protestantism as the national church. He died. His son Selim II inherited the Otto- made himself the head of the church as man Empire at the greatest extent of its well as the state and required all Swedish history. citizens to attend Sunday church services, which became a useful platform for rally- SEE ALSO: Ottoman Empire ing support. Vasa reformed the tax code and confiscated church lands to shore up Sweden the Swedish treasury. A kingdom of northern Europe that The Bible was first translated into reached the height of its power during the Swedish in 1541, an event that spread lit- late Renaissance. Sweden was the home- eracy throughout the kingdom and gave land of Scandinavian pagans who held to impetus to the development of a national their traditional gods until the tenth cen- literature. A nationalist movement known tury and were among the last in Europe to as Gothicism arose during this time, when be converted to Christianity. A series of Swedish writers harkened back to the wars clans fought for control of this part of and accomplishments of the Gothic tribes. Scandinavia, where kings were elected by councils of nobles rather than inheriting King Gustavus Adolphus, who ruled their titles. A new era began when Queen Sweden from 1611 until 1632, founded a Margaret I of Denmark established the Swedish empire in northern Europe and Kalmar Union in 1397, uniting the states fought for the Protestant princes in Ger- of Denmark, Norway, and Sweden under many during the Thirty Years’ War against an elected Danish monarch. The Kalmar Sweden’s main economic rival, the Holy Union was intended to balance the rising Roman Emperor. Gustavus Adolphus won power of the Hanseatic League, a union of an important victory at the Battle of cities in Germany and other points in Breitenfelt in 1631, but in the next year he northern Europe. But the kings and nobil- was killed at the Battle of Lutzen. In the ity of Sweden and Denmark were un- meantime, his armies were sweeping friendly allies and frequently clashed over through central and eastern Europe, and their respective territory and trade. In the by the Treaty of Westphalia that ended the meantime, Sweden developed its own par- war Sweden took possession of much of liament, the Riksdag, comprised of four the Baltic Sea coastlands. This hotly con- estates of clergy, nobility, burghers, and tested area was vital to trade between

Greenhaven Encyclopedia of The Renaissance 297 Sweden northern Europe and the interior of Rus- most of its possessions south of the Baltic sia, which supplied valuable commodities Sea in the Great Northern War with Rus- such as furs, honey, and slaves to the Eu- sia in the early eighteenth century. ropean market. But the growing power of Russia made it increasingly difficult for SEE ALSO: Thirty Years’ War; Vasa, House Sweden to defend, and the kingdom lost of

298 Greenhaven Encyclopedia of The Renaissance Tasso, Torquato had an important influence on Italian mu- (1544–1595) sic and the development of opera over the next two centuries. In 1575, Tasso’s famous Considered the finest Italian poet of the epic poem Jerusalem Liberated was first late Renaissance, Torquato Tasso was the published. Written in the poetic form son of Bernardo Tasso, a poet and courtier known as ottava rima, in which the poem whoservedassecretarytotheprinceof is divided into eight-line stanzas, Jerusalem . When the prince was banished by Liberated used The Aeneid of the Roman the King of Naples, Torquato and his fam- poet Virgil as its model. Tasso described ily lost their property and were forced to the First Crusade, the exploits of the move from . Torquato lived in Christian knight Godfrey of Bouillon and Naples and was educated by the new order a fictional hero, Rinaldo, and the romantic of Jesuits, the guardians of doctrine and idylls of several invented characters. religious expression of the Catholic Trained in the strictures of the Jesuit or- Counter-Reformation. He learned Latin der, however, Tasso worried for the rest of and Greek before leaving Naples for Rome, his life about the religious propriety of his where his father was serving the prince of work. He submitted the poem to several Sorrento in exile. In 1557, at the age of scholars as well as to the church for re- thirteen, Torquato already enjoyed a repu- view. When the poem drew criticism for tation as a scholar and poet, and was hired its structure, characterizations, and reli- as a tutor to the son of Duke Guidobaldo gious tone, Tasso began putting it through of Urbino. Tasso studied law and philoso- a drastic revision that drained his creativ- phy at the universities of Padua and Bolo- ity as well as his sanity. gna. He preferred poetry, however, and In 1576 Tasso began suffering from a first won renown in 1562 with Rinaldo,an mental illness that some modern histori- epic poem of chivalry and courtly man- ans have identified as schizophrenia. He ners. He also wrote a didactic work, Dis- grew suspicious and paranoid, fearing that courses on the Art of Poetry. He earned a the Duke of Ferrara and many others reputation as a critic and theorist on po- meant to do him harm. Outbursts of vio- etry, while his career as a scholar was cut lent anger alternated with depression. short at the University of Bologna, where When he assaulted a servant whom he sus- he was ostracized for writing satiric verses pected of spying on him, he was sent to a about students and professors. convent by the duke. He escaped to Sor- In 1565 Tasso entered the service of rento but returned to Ferrara in 1579, the d’Este family of Ferrara as a court where Duke Alfonso was celebrating his poet. He completed Aminta, a pastoral play wedding. On arriving in Ferrara, however, in verse and music that combined myth Tasso violently denounced the duke and and idealized court life, in 1573. This work for this he was imprisoned in a hospital

Greenhaven Encyclopedia of The Renaissance 299 Teresa of Avila for the next seven years. His epic poem was published in a pirated edition and for the next several years Tasso revised the work, finally bringing out his own edition in 1580. Tasso wrote hundreds of sonnets, mad- rigals, dialogues, and canzoni (songs) in verse. His last years were spent traveling from one Italian court to the next in search of patrons and conditions that would al- low him the necessary peace of mind to work. He was nominated as the poet lau- reate of Italy but died just before he was to receive the honor in an official cer- emony. In 1600, Jerusalem Liberated was translated into English; the poem would have an important influence on the works of Edmund Spenser and John Milton.

SEE ALSO: Ariosto, Ludovico; Milton, John; Saint Teresa of Avila. HULTON ARCHIVE/GETTY Spenser, Edmund; Virgil IMAGES. Teresa of Avila (1515–1582) others to be directly inspired by God. Vow- ing to lead a life of prayer and self-denial, A nun and patron saint of Spain, and an she left the monastery, where the wealthier author of important religious and auto- nuns were free to lead a comfortable life biographical works, Saint Teresa was born and enjoy material possessions and social- in Avila, Spain, as Teresa Sanchez Cepeda ize with men. Davila y Ahumada. She was the daughter of Beatriz de Ahumada and Alonso de Believing the order had grown too Cepeda, a wealthy converso,orconverted worldly and needed reform, Teresa estab- Jew. Believing his daughter had few pros- lished a more austere branch of the Car- pects for a successful marriage, he sent her melites in 1560 and then the new Convent to the Convent of Saint Mary of Grace for of Saint Joseph in 1562. This Order of Dis- her studies. She joined the Monastery of calced (barefoot) Sisters, isolated itself the Incarnation but after falling ill traveled from the community and established strict to several towns to visit faith healers. Her rules of poverty, silence, prayer, simple liv- sickness worsened in 1539, when she be- ing, and the most simple clothing gan experiencing hallucinations and pa- (including a ban on footwear, outside of ralysis. Eventually she recovered, believing the simple sandals Teresa designed for that prayer and the saints had been re- them). King Philip II of Spain saw such sponsible for her survival. Visions and the reforms as vital to the task of combating conversations with phantoms continued, the Protestant movement, and called on putting her at the center of a controversy, the monasteries of his kingdom to lead in which some believed her a witch and the way.

300 Greenhaven Encyclopedia of The Renaissance theater

Teresa described her visions and her rising popularity of the Protestant sects of youthinanautobiography,The Life, and northern Europe. the philosophy of her new order in The SEE ALSO: Catholicism Way of Perfection. In 1567, the head of the Carmelite order, Giovanni Rossi, asked her theater to establish new reformed convents, and The medieval religious plays performed for the next decade she traveled through for small audiences, blossomed into the Spain with a companion, Saint John of the theater, the most popular form of enter- Cross, and gained renown throughout the tainment during the Renaissance. The new kingdom for her austere spirituality. Male drama was given impetus by the discovery orders of barefoot friars who followed her of ancient Greek and Roman plays, includ- precepts were also established, and new ing the works of Terence, Plautus, and Sen- Discalced Carmelite monasteries were es- eca. In Italy, the new tradition of pastoral tablished in foreign countries. In 1571 Ter- plays gained popularity along with the esa returned to the Convent of the Incar- tragedies and comedies written on classi- nation in Avila as the prioress, and cal models. The Italian love for music and reformed the main order’s rules. She then display emerged in the intermezzo, a piece wrote The Foundations, a book of instruc- tion for members of the order, and The performed between the acts of a serious Interior Castle, a book about the process of performance, and the commedia dell’arte, “mental prayer,” which Teresa believed to a boisterous and improvised comedic be a road to direct communication with romp with a familiar set of characters that God. Her strict rules for the “unreformed” was performed in city streets and squares. Carmelites raised opposition by some lead- Eventually music, drama, and dance would ers of the Catholic Church, some of whom be combined in the new form of opera; saw silent prayer as a less devout practice which emerged in the sixteenth century in than vocal prior. She lost her position as the works of Claudio Monteverdi and prioress at the Convent of the Incarnation, other Italian masters. and for a time was even under investiga- In France, the leading playwrights in- tion by the Spanish Inquisition. In 1578, cluded Estienne Jodelle and Alexandre however, the pope of the church officially Hardy, who defied the classical style. In recognized her order, which was declared the late Renaissance, however, there was a separate twelve years after her death in return to ancient forms of (in the 1594. Teresa was declared the patroness of works of Jean Racine and Pierre Corneille), Spain by the Cortes (Spanish parliament) and masterful comedies by Moliere. These in 1617, and in 1622 she was canonized as playwrights wrote under the influence of a saint by Pope Gregory XV; in 1970 she Cardinal Richelieu and the Catholic Refor- became the first woman to be named mation, which resisted innovation and “Doctor of the Church.” Her writings and sought a return to tradition, whether that philosophy grew in importance among of religion or of art. The Spanish writer Catholics throughout Europe and Teresa Lope de Vega authored hundreds of plays was eventually accepted as one of the ma- full of action and drama in the tradition jor figures of the Counter-Reformation, in of the medieval chivalric romance. Theater which the church returned to its spiritual flourished in Spain through the seven- roots in order to better contend with the teenth century, with the production of sac-

Greenhaven Encyclopedia of The Renaissance 301 Thirty Years’ War ramentales, or one-act religious plays, co- mark, and the Habsburg dynasty that ruled medias nuevas, or new comedies, and the Holy Roman Empire. The roots of the musical shows known as zarzuelas. conflict lay in the Protestant Reformation In England the first outdoor theater of the sixteenth century. The Reformation, was established in London in 1576, and strongly opposed by the Catholic Hab- was soon attracting thousands of people, sburgs, brought religious persecution and who paid a pittance to stand among the civil war to Germany. By the Peace of “groundlings” or slightly more for seats in Augsburg, concluded in 1555, each Ger- covered sections raised above the stage. man prince was free to choose the reli- Previously, stages had been set up in pub- gious faith—either Lutheranism or Ca- lic squares or marketplaces and were open tholicism—to be followed in his own to all; the Globe and other theaters of the realm. late sixteenth century were the first struc- Religious conflict continued despite the tures devoted exclusively to public enter- Peace of Augsburg, complicated by the ter- tainment. Smaller, “private” theaters also ritorial ambitions of the nations surround- operated, offering spectators an indoor ing Germany, then a patchwork of small venue and seating for all. and autonomous duchies, kingdoms, coun- Thomas Kyd’s The Spanish Tragedy was ties, margravates, and city-states. Sweden among the most popular plays of the Eliza- and Denmark, kingdoms to the north, bethan era and set the standard for all later were seeking new territory in northern tragedies. The Renaissance drama reached Germany, while France was opposing Hab- the peak of its poetic and dramatic power sburg power in Germany and the Low in the works of William Shakespeare, as Countries. Open warfare between Catho- well as his contemporary Christopher Mar- lics and Protestants broke out in Swabia, a lowe. Shakespeare was a masterful poet region of southwestern Germany, in the and dramatist who worked in many differ- early 1600s. Protestant Calvinists formed ent forms, including tragedies, comedies, the League of Evangelical Union, while and historical plays. After the Elizabethan Catholics gathered their forces into the era, the English theater entered a period of Catholic League. slow decline until the Puritan government In 1619, Ferdinand of Styria became closed the theaters in 1642. The leading Ferdinand II, Holy Roman Emperor. His dramatist of this “Jacobean” era was the dedication to Catholicism and determina- satirist Ben Jonson, who found humor in tion to stamp out Protestantism prompted the follies of ordinary people. a revolt in Prague, the capital of Bohemia. SEE ALSO: de Vega, Lope; Marlowe, Chris- Two of the emperor’s representatives were topher; Shakespeare, William; Tasso, attacked and thrown out of a window af- Turquato ter a trial, an act that sparked a general re- volt against Ferdinand’s authority in Bo- Thirty Years’ War hemia and Hungary. To quell the rebellion, An international conflict taking place in Ferdinand asked for help from his nephew, northern Europe from 1618 to 1648. The King Philip IV of Spain. Although Vienna, war was fought between Catholics and the Habsburg capital, came under siege by Protestants and also drew in the national a Protestant army, Ferdinand won a vic- armies of France, Sweden, Spain, Den- tory against the Protestant Union at the

302 Greenhaven Encyclopedia of The Renaissance Tintoretto, Jacopo

Battle of Sablat in 1619. The Protestants of and after more battles in Bohemia and Bohemia responded by declaring Ferdi- southern Germany the Truce of Ulm was nand deposed as their king and replacing signed in 1647. The him with Elector Frederick V of the Palati- followed in the next year. Over the three nate. decades of war, Germany was ravaged by Spain then sent armies from Flanders fighting, pillaging, and widespread disease to come to the emperor’s assistance. Span- and famine. The nation would remain ish armies marauded through the Protes- fragmented and weak for more than two tant cities of western Germany, then joined centuries. Spain began a long decline that up with the emperor to put down the re- left it one of the weakest nations in Eu- bellion in Austria. At the Battle of White rope, and the republics of the Low Coun- Mountain on November 8, 1620, Ferdi- tries permanently broke away from Span- nand defeated the Protestant armies under ish control. Habsburg authority was also Frederick V, a victory that permanently re- weakened in central Europe, while France, turned Bohemia to Habsburg control. which saw little fighting, emerged as Spanish armies then captured Mannheim, Europe’s dominant power. Heidelberg, and many other cities, execut- SEE ALSO: Habsburg dynasty; Reformation, ing or driving out their Protestant leaders. Protestant The king of Denmark then came to the rescue of the Protestants by gathering Tintoretto, Jacopo a mercenary army, allying himself with En- (1519–1594) gland and France, and invading Germany. Venetian painter of the Late Renaissance, The Danes suffered two defeats at the who rejected the careful precision of con- Battle of Dessau Bridge in April 1626 and temporary painters for a freer, more ener- the Battle of Lutter in August 1626. By the getic style and who was keenly skilled in Treaty of Lubeck in 1629, the Danes gave the rendering of light, perspective, and up their alliance with the Protestants and sheer drama in his works. Born into a fam- the Danish king was allowed to keep his ily of twenty-one children, he was the son throne. The Swedish king Gustavus Adol- of a dyer, whose occupation (tintore)gave phus then intervened, fearing the growing his son the nickname of Tintoretto. He Habsburg power in northern Germany. A was sent by his father to the workshop of brilliant military tactician, this king won Titian, who soon sent the boy home out several important battles, including the of jealousy or contempt for his indepen- Battle of Breitenfeld in 1631. The Swedes dent style of drawing. As a result, Tintor- won again at the Battle of Lutzen, but etto was largely self-taught as an artist, Gustavus Adolphus was killed in the battle. taking both Titian and Michelangelo The Peace of Prague of 1635 tempo- Buonarroti as his models. He developed rarily ended the fighting and granted a his own method of preparing paintings by truce to the Protestant opponents of the constructing three-dimensional clay or emperor. After this, France entered the war wax models, posing them and using light on the Protestant side against the Hab- from various angles to get the most dra- sburgs. Catholic Spain invaded France in matic effects. retaliation. The war caused massive dam- Tintoretto’s first major commission age and heavy casualties on both sides, was a painting for the Scuola di San

Greenhaven Encyclopedia of The Renaissance 303 Titian

Marco, an important Venetian confrater- naissance, and whose works display a mas- nity. He decorated the Scuola with paint- tery of color, design, and painting tech- ings based on biblical stories, and his great nique. Born as Tiziano Vecellio in the skill in executing these works built up his village of Pieve di Cadore in northern Italy, reputation in Venice. Three famous he left at the age of nine to make his way works—The Worship of the Golden Calf, in Venice, where he first joined the work- The Presentation of the Virgin, and The Last shop of a mosaic artist, Sebastiano Zuc- Judgement—were completed for the cati. Titian next apprenticed in the Vene- Church of the Madonna. Eventually these tian workshop of Gentile Bellini. He works were painted over, and most of his became a close friend of Giorgione, whose other church paintings and frescoes have works had an important influence on not survived to modern times. For the Titian’s own. One of his early commis- Scuola di San Rocco, he contributed mag- sions was a fresco painting for the walls of nificent ceiling and wall paintings, includ- the German Merchant’s Foundation, where ing The Crucifixion, The Plague of Serpents, he collaborated with Giorgione. At the age and Moses Striking the Rock. He was com- of twenty-one Titian decorated the Scuola missioned to paint all of the halls of the del Santo of the Confraternity of Saint An- Scuola as well as the Church of San Rocco, thony in Padua with frescoes of Saint An- a work that produced more than fifty thony. Titian’s most famous early work is paintings and on which the artist was oc- an altarpiece, entitled Assumption of the cupied until his death in 1594. Virgin, a monumental painting completed In the meantime Tintoretto completed in the Santa Maria Gloriosa church of Ven- large frescoes in the Doge’s Palace and the ice. Sala dello Scrutinio, a seat of power in Other famous early works include Venice, as well as many portraits of Vene- Flora, Madonna of the Cherries, Presenta- tian rulers and noblemen. Several large tion of the Virgin, Christ and the Tribute paintings on historical themes, including Money, Christ Crowned with Thorns, and the Battle of Lepanto, were destroyed in a Sacred and Profane Love, in which the art- fire in 1577. Tintoretto’s masterpiece, Para- ist contrasts clothed and nude figures of dise, is an immense canvas 74 feet (22.5m) the goddess Venus. These paintings made in length by 30 feet (9m) high. Tintoretto’s the artist’s reputation in Venice, and word works reflect a new trend in art, the dra- of Titian’s mastery was soon spreading matic use of light and shade to tell a story, throughout Europe. His work was in de- as well as exaggerated movements, dra- mand by popes, by the Holy Roman Em- matic poses, and distortion of figures. peror Charles V, by King Philip II of Spain, These would become key features of the and by the Dukes of Ferrara and Urbino, art of the Baroque period that followed important art patrons of Italy. For Alfonso the Renaissance. d’Este, the Duke of Ferrara, Titian com- pleted three famous mythological paint- SEE ALSO: Titian; Venice ings, Andrians, Worship of Venus, and Bac- chus and Ariadne. For the Gonzaga ruler Titian of Mantua, he painted a Madonna with a (1490–1576) Rabbit and a series of portraits of Roman Painter of Venice who is regarded by many emperors, which were eventually de- as one of the finest artists of the late Re- stroyed.

304 Greenhaven Encyclopedia of The Renaissance Titian

Titian’s “Sacred and Profane Love” contrasts different types of love through two different de- pictions of the Roman goddess Venus.

Titian’s deep colors, rich textures, and works by prelates of the church and also complex, carefully balanced designs give executed portraits of the popes, including his paintings an air of elegance and seren- a profound portrait known as Paul III and ity. Art historians consider his paintings His Grandsons, that explores the complex Worship of Venus, Bacchus and Ariadne, and mistrustful relationship between the and the Venus of Urbino as among the fin- members of a privileged and powerful est masterpieces of the late Renaissance, family. Michelangelo’s strong, sculptural and among the best examples of the “Ve- figures influenced the figures in Titian’s netian school” of painting. The many com- Christ Crowned with Thorns and Martyr- missions he received made him a wealthy dom of St. Lawrence. man, and by the 1530s Titian had settled Charles V, who had met the artist in himself into the Casa Grande, one of the Bologna in 1530 on the occasion of his finest mansions of Venice, where he enter- coronation as Holy Roman Emperor, in- tained a devoted following of students, vited Titian to Germany in 1548. Charles writers, and nobles. made Titian an honorary count of the Pa- In 1545, the artist moved to Rome at latine, and Titian repaid the compliment the invitation of Pope Paul III. In Rome by painting the emperor into La Gloria, he met Michelangelo and was deeply in- completed in 1554. An equestrian portrait fluenced by the ruins of the ancient city as oftheemperorasherodetovictoryatthe well as the art of Michelangelo and Battle of Mühlberg became one of the Raphael. He was offered commissions for most famous royal portraits of the Renais-

Greenhaven Encyclopedia of The Renaissance 305 Torquemada, Tomás de sance. For King Philip II of Spain, he com- became both confessor and adviser. pleted several works on mythological In 1478, Pope Sixtus IV established the themes, including Perseus and Andromeda, Inquisition, an office meant to root out all Diana and Callisto, and The Rape of Eu- religious heresy. The first Inquisition court ropa. Several major works, including Adam was established in the southern city of and Eve and the Martyrdom of St. Seville. In 1483, the pope rewarded Torque- Lawrence, were painted for the monastery mada for his service to the church by nam- of San Lorenzo del Escorial near Madrid; ing him to the post of General Inquisitor. in the royal palace of the Escorial Titian Over the next few years Torquemada painted Christ Carrying the Cross, The Last founded Inquisition courts in Valladolid, Supper, and Agony in the Garden. Titian’s Seville, Cordoba, Zaragoza, and Avila, es- last painting is the Pietà, a work he in- tablished a council of five to hear appeals, tended to decorate his tomb. The painter’s and wrote a set of rules and regulations original use of perspective, foreshortening, for religious trials that remained in effect and his technique of blending colors to until the eighteenth century. But the In- mask outlines of figures and objects were quisition had jurisdiction only over Chris- taken up by painters of the Mannerist and tians; in the meantime the Jews of Spain, Baroque styles who would dominate art also known as Marranos, were accused of after the end of the Renaissance. heinous crimes, including the notorious murder of Pedro de Arbues, another mem- SEE ALSO: Bellini, Gentile; Giorgione; ber of the Inquisition, in 1485. Frustrated Michelangelo Buonarroti; Tintoretto, Ja- by his inability to arrest and try members copo; Venice of the Jewish faith, Torquemada decided on a show trial as the most effective way Torquemada, Tomás de to enhance his authority. He had eight Jews (1420–1498) rounded up in the town of LaGuardia, and A notorious prosecutor of the Spanish In- had them tried and convicted of the ritual quisition who served the Spanish mon- murder of a Christian child—even though archs Ferdinand and Isabella by ruthlessly the court had no evidence of the crime ridding their kingdom of non-Christians and no victim. In 1492, the threat of Jew- during the 1490s. It was Torquemada’s task ish ritual murder, as revealed by the La- to root out all false converters and punish Guardia trial, persuaded Ferdinand and them with imprisonment, public humilia- Isabella to pass the Alhambra Decree, giv- tion, expulsion from the kingdom, or ing all Jews one month to leave Spain; death. Born in the town of Torquemada, those who remained had to sincerely dis- he was the nephew of a Catholic cardinal, avow their faith and convert to Christian- Juan de Torquemada. Raised in Valladolid, ity. Tomás became a friar of the Dominican Torquemada’s Inquisition court ar- order and was then appointed as the prior rested suspects denounced by a network of of Santa Cruz, a monastery in Segovia. He spies, and extracted confessions through became confessor of Isabella, heir to the torture. The Inquisition seized the prop- throne of Castile, while the princess was erty of those it accused, then paraded them living in Segovia. In 1474, when Isabella through the streets before having them became the queen of Castile, Torquemada publicly whipped at the doors of a church. followed her to the royal palace, where he Some of the suspects were turned over to

306 Greenhaven Encyclopedia of The Renaissance trade the civil authorities for a public execution. corresponded with Toscanelli and who car- A mass execution of this sort, known as ried a copy of Toscanelli’s map and letter an auto-da-fé, or “act of faith,” might have with him on his first voyage. Toscanelli a dozen or more victims tied to stakes and miscalculated the size of the globe, how- burned to death. ever, believing Europe and Asia to cover much more of the earth’s surface than they SEE ALSO: Ferdinand II of Aragon; Inquisi- actually do. This misconception convinced tion; Isabella of Castile; Jews Columbus that he had actually reached Asia in 1492, whereas his fleet had in fact Toscanelli, Paolo only sailed as far as the eastern islands of (1397–1482) the Caribbean Sea. An Italian physician, astronomer, map- SEE ALSO: Columbus, Christopher; explora- maker, and mathematician who is best tion known for creating a map of the world that may have been used by Christopher trade Columbus in planning his voyage to the East Indies. Born in Florence, he was the In the Middle Ages, long-distance trade son of a doctor, Dominic Toscanelli. He was rare. Travel was dangerous, and most studied mathematics with Giovanni people lived a subsistent existence on rural dell’Abacco in Florence and attended the estates, where they grew just enough to University of Padua, earning the title of support their families and pay a landlord doctor of medicine in 1424. He returned for the use of the land. Rare and valuable to Florence and earned a reputation as a goods were imported from the Middle East leading mathematician and astronomer, and, in later centuries, via the Silk Road considered by many people to be the most that linked eastern Europe with central brilliant scientist of his day. Asia. As money was in short supply, most A skilled astronomical observer, of this trade was carried out by the barter Toscanelli observed and measured the or- system, in which goods were exchanged bits of comets, including the occurrence of for other goods. Halley’s Comet in 1456. In the cathedral The expansion of the banking system, of Florence he designed a gnomon, a slab the improvement of roads, and the growth of marble placed high in the left transept of manufacturing industries and a middle of the church that cast a shadow of the class all contributed to a rise in interna- sun, allowing an observer to determine tional trade during the Renaissance. Cities noon and measure the occurrence of the of the Low Countries and northern Italy winter and summer solstices. From his became the wealthiest in Europe. These re- studies of ancient writers, including gions specialized in the making of cloth, Ptolemy, and his conversations with travel- silk, woven tapestries, armor, and other ers and explorers, Toscanelli created a map goods in demand throughout Europe. Ger- of the world that was sent to the king of man cities prospered from a trade in sil- Portugal in 1474, and explained the possi- ver, England sold its wool and herring, bility of sailing west, rather than around and the Scandinavian countries exported Africa and through the Indian Ocean, to fur and timber. From port cities such as reach the East Indies. The scheme became Amsterdam, Genoa, Lisbon, and Venice, known to Christopher Columbus, who merchants and navigators sailed to distant

Greenhaven Encyclopedia of The Renaissance 307 Tudor dynasty regions of Asia to trade in valuable goods opened up new sea routes and established in short supply in Europe, such as silk and colonies, which allowed Portugal and the spices. rest of Europe to bypass the Italian middle- The rise of a middle class went hand men who had controlled trade between in hand with economic growth, and the Europe and the Middle East. Busy ship- wider circulation of money played an im- ping lanes across the Atlantic linked En- portant role in the artistic flowering of the gland, France, and Spain with their over- Renaissance. Prominent families such as seas American colonies, which provided the Medici of Florence thrived from loans raw materials and eventually a hungry and letters of credit that made long- market for goods manufactured in Europe. distance trade possible. The Medici ran an Foreign trade replaced agriculture as the international conglomerate, with banks, lifeblood of western Europe’s economies, mines, mills, trading houses, and other and would spur the industrial revolution businesses all over Europe; the vast wealth that began in the eighteenth century. they acquired allowed them to take power as a hereditary ruling dynasty in Florence. Tudor dynasty The Medici and other merchant families A series of monarchs that ruled England displayed their wealth by patronizing art- and Ireland from 1485 until 1603. The Tu- ists, architects and sculptors, and commis- dor kings and queens reigned as England sioning new works of art for their homes, developed into a powerful and influential palaces, and private chapels. state, an important center of Protestant re- Italy was well located to serve as a cen- sistance to papal authority, and a leader in ter of international trade. Its ports and Renaissance letters, science, and art. The manufacturing centers lay between west- Tudor line began with a Welsh squire, ern Europe and the Middle East, along Owen Tudor, a member of the court of convenient shipping routes through the King Henry V. On the king’s death Tudor Mediterranean. Trade was also conducted married his widow, Catherine of Valois; along the major rivers of the continent, his eldest son was Edmund Tudor, who in including the Danube, the Rhine, the turn fathered Henry Tudor. During the Loire, and the Rhone. As monarchies grew War of the Roses, this Lancastrian noble- stronger and unified nations emerged, cen- man defeated King Richard III in 1485 at tral governments extended their control of the Battle of Bosworth Field and then was trade through taxes, tariffs, and customs enthroned as the first Tudor king, Henry barriers. At the same time, foreign trade VII. helped diminish the feudal system, as the The brother of this king, Henry VIII, money economy allowed bonded serfs to began his reign in 1509. Henry married leave their estates and sell their know-how his brother’s widow, Catherine of Aragon, and skills in the cities. who gave birth to his first child Mary but The age of exploration that began in failed to provide the new king with a male the fifteenth century, with Portuguese ex- heir. Falling out of favor with Henry, peditions down the coast of Africa and Catherine was replaced by the king’s mis- across the Indian Ocean to southern Asia, tress, Anne Boleyn. When Henry found spelled the end of Italy’s dominance of himself unable to convince the pope to trade. Portuguese and other navigators sanction his divorce from Catherine, he

308 Greenhaven Encyclopedia of The Renaissance Tudor dynasty declared papal authority ended in his cians, and poets at her court. Talented men realm and founded the Church of England. such as William Shakespeare, Christopher He then married Anne Boleyn, who gave Marlowe, and Ben Jonson flourished dur- birth to a single daughter, Elizabeth. Anne ing the Elizabethan Age, when England ran afoul of powerful nobles allied with was also home to a leading scientific phi- the king and was accused of treason and losopher, Sir Francis Bacon. During her incest, which brought about her arrest and reign England began to colonize North execution. Henry’s third wife, Jane Sey- America, and the English captain Sir mour, died giving birth to the king’s sole France Drake led the first voyage of En- male offspring, Edward. glish ships around the world. She also de- At the age of nine, Edward VI suc- feated the attempt by her cousin, the ceeded his father in 1547. This young and Catholic Mary, Queen of Scots, to over- sickly king died in 1553, leaving the throne throw her, and regretfully ordered Mary’s to his half sister Mary, daughter of Cathe- execution in 1587. In the next year, an im- rine of Aragon. A loyal Catholic, “Bloody mense armada of Spanish warships was Mary” made futile attempts to return En- sent by the king of Spain, scattered by gland to the Catholic Church, ordering the storms in the English Channel, marking seizure and execution of several Protestant the rise of English power on the continent nobles and clergymen. Mary died in 1558 and the beginning of a steady decline in without an heir, which brought the acces- the power of Spain. sion of her half sister Elizabeth, daughter With Elizabeth remaining unmarried of Anne Boleyn. Devoted to the memory and childless, the Tudor dynasty came to of her mother, Elizabeth felt determined an end with her death in 1603. The throne to reign in the religious conflict and po- passed to James I, the king of Scotland litical intrigue that plagued the Tudor and the first monarch of England’s Stuart court since the time of Henry VII. dynasty.

Elizabeth restored the Church of En- SEE ALSO: Edward VI; Elizabeth I; England; gland and encouraged playwrights, musi- Henry VIII

Greenhaven Encyclopedia of The Renaissance 309

Uccello, Paolo Uccello lived and worked in Florence, (1397–1475) but he also completed works in Venice, Italian painter born as Paolo di Dono, where he created mosaics for the facade of noted for the original use of perspective in the Basilica of San Marco, Bologna, Prato, his works. Born in Florence, the son of a and Urbino. In the Duomo (cathedral) of barber, he earned the nickname “uccello” Florence, he painted scenes on a large in- (Italian for bird) for his skill at painting terior clock and a fresco of the English birds. In 1407 he became an apprentice to mercenary Sir John Hawkwood, completed the sculptor Lorenzo Ghiberti, the artist in 1436 and famous for its unusual per- who had won the commission to cast spective, which gives the illusion of view- bronze panels for the doors of the Baptis- ing a three-dimensional sculpture from tery in Florence. Ghiberti’s workshop was below. a busy, vital artistic center of Florence at a SEE ALSO: Florence; Ghiberti, Lorenzo time when the city’s painters were leading the way in the new science of perspective. universities In Uccello’s works, perspective became an integral part of a unified picture, used in The improved literacy and communica- order to give the scene depth and not to tions of the Renaissance era went hand-in- simply separate different elements or sto- hand with an increasing respect for intel- ries within the paintings. lectual training for professions such as In 1414, Uccello became a member of medicine, theology, and the law. To create the Compagnia di San Luca, a painters well-rounded and educated citizens, major guild, and in the next year he was admit- universities were established throughout ted to the official painters guild of Flo- western Europe: at Ferrara, Turin, and rence. His early works include commis- Parma in Italy; Bordeaux and Nantes in sions to paint frescoes for the churches of France; Copenhagen and Uppsala in Scan- Santa Trinita and Santa Maria Maggiore. dinavia; Frankfurt and Tubingen in Ger- He was also engaged to paint frescoes on many; Saragossa and Valencia in Spain; the outdoor walls of the Green Cloister of and at Kraków, Poland. The University of the Church of Santa Maria Novella. For Paris, which taught the liberal arts and this work he created scenes of the Cre- theology, remained the model for institu- ation, the Expulsion from the Garden of tions throughout northern Europe, award- Eden, and the Flood. The paintings, which ing bachelor’s degrees and training stu- earned widespread admiration among the dents of the upper classes—all male—in a artists of Florence, showed the influence of fundamental classical learning of gram- Ghiberti and his Baptistry panels, although mar, rhetoric, and ethics. Uccello developed even greater skill at de- For cities and their lords, the univer- picting nature and animals. sity was a mark of prestige. It represented

Greenhaven Encyclopedia of The Renaissance 311 universities advanced thinking, enlightened rule, the interpretation of the ancient texts and stu- new trend of humanistic learning and dents were discouraged from critical think- scholarship, and the generous patronage of ing. town fathers and aristocrats. Universities After a course of study, the student was competed for renowned professors, who in put through a degree examination by pro- turn attracted the best scholars. Members fessors and scholars, who tested his mas- of the expanding middle class, at the same tery of the subject and his ability to de- time, sought out higher education for their fend his ideas in open debate. The sons, who trained themselves in the law, bachelor’s degree enabled further study, medicine, and for careers as administra- while the master’s was a license to teach. tors and diplomats. The University of Bo- The doctorate was awarded for scholars logna in northern Italy became a center devoted to the study of a particular field for the study of the revived Roman law, and the contribution of original knowl- Within the university, students at- edge to that field. Most universities during tended lectures by professors, who spoke the Renaissance had several hundred stu- and debated in Latin. The courses relied dents, while the largest at Bologna and on the teachings of ancient philosophers Paris had a few thousand. Students within such as Aristotle, Galen, Hippocrates, and the universities organized themselves ac- the Arab scientist Avicenna. Following the cording to their homelands. At the largest humanistic philosophy, students critically universities these student unions held con- examined classical texts, studying the origi- siderable power, making demands for bet- nal language, whether Greek or Latin, in ter working and living conditions and in order to get at the intended meaning. This some places passing on the hiring of new was an important break with medieval professors by the university. higher education, in which professors sim- ply handed down the accepted traditional SEE ALSO: Aristotelianism; humanism

312 Greenhaven Encyclopedia of The Renaissance Valois dynasty gundy, Guienne, and Brittany under cen- A dynasty of thirteen kings of France who tral control. The French nobles were reigned from 1328 through 1589. The brought to heel through a system of sen- Valois dynasty began with Philip VI, who eschals—representatives who enforced succeeded the last king of the House of royal laws and decrees—and by the actions Capet, Charles IV. At this time England of royal courts known as Parlements that and France were in conflict over French were established throughout the nation. support of a rebellion in Scotland, and At the end of the fifteenth century, over the English king Edward III’s claim to with central authority strengthened and the throne of France. The two countries France recovered from the Hundred Years’ went to war in 1337, a contest that en- War, the Valois monarchs Charles VIII and dured for more than a century and Louis XII involved the kingdom in the brought ruin to cities and estates through- many disputes burning in the Italian pen- out France. The authority of the kings of insula. In the end, France was expelled France was challenged by powerful French from Italy by an alliance of the Habsburg nobles and tested further by the arrival of emperors and the Italian city-states, which the Black Death—the bubonic plague that fielded effective mercenary armies. struck France in the late 1340s and killed millions of its citizens. The plague and the The Valois line continued through the war drove many French nobles to break reigns of Francis I from 1515 to 1547 and away from the authority of the king, and a Henri II, whose reign began in 1547. Fran- peasant rebellion known as the Jacquerie cis I was a dedicated patron of writers and brought further chaos and violence to the artists, and made France a center of the kingdom. At the Battle of Agincourt, in Renaissance. Both Francis I and Henri II 1415, English longbowmen defeated the strongly resisted the Protestant Reforma- armies of the king and devastated the tion, prosecuting Protestant heresy and French knights. keeping France within the Catholic The French cause and the Valois dy- Church. The conflict culminated during nasty found salvation in the person of Joan the reign of Charles IX in a nationwide of Arc, who convinced Charles VII to ap- assault on Protestants in 1572 known as point her commander of the French forces the Saint Bartholomew’s Day Massacre. lifting the English siege of Orléans. Al- The assassination of Henri II in 1559 though Joan was captured and executed in touched off a bloody civil conflict known 1429, the French began scoring victories as the Wars of Religion between Catholics against the English. Royal authority and French Protestants, also known as Hu strengthened under Charles and his suc- guenots. Henri III was murdered in 1589 cessors, who brought Normandy, Bur- and left behind no heir, bringing Henri IV

Greenhaven Encyclopedia of The Renaissance 313 van der Weyden, Rogier to the throne as the first of the Bourbon dynasties commissioned his portraits, and dynasty. the duchess of Milan sent one of her fa- vorite artists back to Brussels to appren- SEE ALSO: Francis I; Henri III; Henri IV tice in van der Weyden’s busy studio. By the time of his death he was renowned van der Weyden, Rogier throughout Europe for the way he com- (1399–1464) bined traditional Flemish precision with A noted Flemish painter of religious sub- strong emotional intensity, a quality that jects and portraits born as Roger de la Pas- made his work more accessible to painters ture in Tournai, northern France. The son of southern Europe and that made him a of a knife maker, he apprenticed in the key influence on the painters of northern workshop of Robert Campin, and took his Europe for several generations. artistic influence from Campin and Jan SEE ALSO: van Eyck, Jan; Brueghel family van Eyck. As van der Weyden never signed his paintings, historians have argued for van Eyck, Jan centuries between van der Weyden and Campin as the artists of many important (ca. 1385–1441) works. In 1432 van der Weyden earned the Flemish artist who pioneered new meth- title of painting master of Tournai. In 1435 ods of painting at the dawn of the Renais- he moved to Brussels, seat of the wealthy sance in northern Europe. Born in the dukes of Burgundy, where he changed his town of Maaseik, he was a court painter name to Rogier van der Weyden and where for the Duke of Bavaria, the Count of Hol- he was appointed as the official city land, and later for Duke Philip III the painter. This title brought him commis- Good of Burgundy, then ruler of one of sions to paint portraits of the dukes and the wealthiest realms of Europe. Van Eyck members of the local aristocracy, and he served the duke as a diplomat as well as a was soon prospering. Van der Weyden painter, and traveled on several missions completed a series of huge wooden panels in the duke’s service. for the town hall of Brussels, works that Van Eyck ran a busy workshop in the were famous throughout Europe before city of Bruges, where he remained for most they were destroyed in a bombardment of of his life. His works and his painting tech- the city in 1695. By 1440 he had completed nique were copied by many other north- Descent from the Cross, one of his most fa- ern European artists. He was a well-read mous works, for the guild crossbowmen of scholar of ancient writers, notably Pliny Louvain. His best-known works include a the Elder, a Roman naturalist who wrote Last Judgment altarpiece that measures 18 on the subjects of art and painting. Many feet (5.5m) in width, as well as the Braque of his works carry Latin inscriptions, a Triptych, Adoration of the Magi, St. Luke sign in his own day of a well-educated Painting the Virgin, the Deposition panel man. Historians have counted ten of his and Crucifixion triptych, as well as a Por- works that he signed, an unusual practice trait of a Lady. in the Middle Ages and evidence that van Van der Weyden may have made a pil- Eyck enjoyed a high reputation among pa- grimage to Italy in about 1450, a journey trons and collectors. that left important marks on his painting Van Eyck had a gift for composition, style. Members of the d’Este and Medici rendering his subjects in great detail with

314 Greenhaven Encyclopedia of The Renaissance Vasa, House of

detail and bright coloration. Van Eyck also painted Madonna with Chancellor Rolin and a famous Annunciation,aswellasa self-portrait, Portrait of a Man in a Tur- ban. These and other works were known to artists throughout Europe, and van Eyck’s attention to naturalistic detail, rich texture, and intense coloration influenced generations of artists in northern Europe.

SEE ALSO: painting

van Hemessen, Catherine (ca. 1527−1587) Flemish painter, the first documented fe- male painter of the Low Countries and a noted portrait painter. Born in Antwerp, the daughter of Jan Sanders van Hemes- sen, a minor artist, she studied with her father and eventually joined the painters guild of Antwerp. During the 1540s, she The central panel of Jan van Eyck’s “Ghent was taken on as a court painter by Maria Altarpiece.” It depicts God the Father en- of Austria, then serving as regent for Em- throned as a Pope with St. John the Baptist peror Charles V in the Low Countries. She and the Virgin Mary on either side. Below painted portraits, mostly of women set against a plain dark background that strik- them is the Adoration of the Lamb. ௠ AR- ingly focused the observer’s eye on the fea- CHIVO ICONOGRAFICO, S.A./CORBIS.REPRODUCED BY tures and character of the subject. Her own PERMISSION. self-portrait of 1548 is known as the first to depict the painter working at an easel. careful shading of light and texture. He When Maria returned to Spain in 1556, was also a master of the technical aspects van Hemessen followed her patron and of painting, and was one of the first artists was rewarded with a pension for her work to work with oil paints. He produced after Maria’s death in 1558. She then re- large-scale religious works as well as inti- turned to Antwerp. Only ten of her works mate personal portraits. His largest and have survived to modern times, and there most famous single work is the Ghent Al- are no works at all from this later period tarpiece, also known as The Adoration of in her life. Historians believe she may have the Lamb, an elaborate polyptych, or multi given up painting altogether after her mar- paneled painting, that he completed with riage. the help of his brother Hubert van Eyck. This work was carried out for the Cathe- Vasa, House of dral of Saint Bavon in Ghent. He is also A royal dynasty with branches in Sweden known for a later work, the Marriage of and Poland, which reigned in the sixteenth the Arnolfini, a wedding portrait rich in and seventeenth centuries. The dynasty

Greenhaven Encyclopedia of The Renaissance 315 Vasari, Giorgio was founded in Sweden by Gustavus I. His troops invaded Poland, bringing Poland as son John married Catherine Jagellonica, well as Lithuania under Swedish control. the sister of King Sigismund II of Poland. The Polish line of the Vasa dynasty had John’s brother, then the king of Sweden, continued through the reigns of Ladislav bitterly opposed this marriage and con- IV, who was succeeded in 1648 by his fined the couple to the castle of Gripsh- brother Jan II Kazimierz. This king escaped olm, where their son Sigismund was born the Swedish assault of 1655 and from his and was educated by fervently Catholic Je- refuge in Silesia called on the Polish na- suit priests. tion to resist the Swedes. The uprising re- In 1587 Sigismund was elected as King sulted in the Treaty of Oliwa in 1660, Sigismund III Vasa by the electors of the which returned Sweden and Poland to commonwealth of Poland. When his fa- their original borders. ther King John III died, Sigismund also became the king of Sweden, but his at- SEE ALSO: Sweden; Thirty Years’ War tempts to return Sweden to the Catholic Church was opposed by the parliament of Vasari, Giorgio Sweden, which deposed him in 1599. In (1511–1570) Poland, Sigismund led an attack on the Baltic state of Latvia, intending to annex it Painter, architect, and author, whose book to Poland, in 1600. This provoked war with Lives of the Most Celebrated Painters, Sculp- Sweden and a series of conflicts between tors, and Architects remains an important the two Vasa dynasties that would con- source of information on the life and tinue for more than fifty years. works of many Renaissance artists. Born in Arezzo, Tuscany, Vasari studied with In Sweden Sigismund was succeeded Guglielmo de Marsiglia in his hometown by Charles IX, his uncle and a Protestant. before leaving for Florence at the age of Gustavus II Adolphus succeeded Charles. sixteen. He apprenticed as a painter in the An able military commander, Gustavus led workshop of Andrea del Sartro in Flo- a powerful Swedish force against the rence; he also traveled to Rome to study Catholics in Germany and won key victo- the works of Raphael, and Michelangelo ries during the Thirty Years’ War. On his Buonarroti. While a young man he worked death in battle in 1632 his daughter Chris- as a festival manager, in which he designed tina became the queen of Sweden. Chris- decorations and processions for festivals at tina converted to Catholicism and abdi- the courts of Florence, where he won the cated the throne of Sweden in 1654, patronage of Cosimo de’ Medici, the Duke passing the monarchy to her cousin, of Florence. A skilled painter, he completed Charles X, a member of the Wittelsbach portraits of the Medici as well as paintings dynasty of Germany. This event brought for the Hall of Cosimo I at the Palazzo the Swedish Vasa dynasty to an end. Vecchio in Florence and the Sala Regia in By the Peace of Westphalia, which the Vatican in Rome. He has a stronger ended the Thirty Years’ War in 1648, Swe- reputation as an architect; Vasari helped to den had gained territory on the southern design the famous Villa Giulia in Rome shores of the Baltic Sea—land that had for Pope Julius III and palaces in the towns long been claimed by the kings of Poland. of Arezzo and Pisa. His major architec- In 1655 two large columns of Swedish tural work, however, was the design of the

316 Greenhaven Encyclopedia of The Renaissance Venice

Uffizi gallery in Florence, formerly the some Venetians and non-Italians. Vasari’s government offices (Uffizi) of Tuscany. In book, which coined the term Rinascita, or this work he took inspiration from the de- Renaissance, provides many valuable in- sign of the Vatican by Donato Bramante sights for modern historians of the Re- and by Michelangelo’s Laurentian Library naissance, although he worked in an anti- in Florence. Vasari designed a loggia, or quated style that combined historical covered passageway, in the Piazza Grande speculation and fiction with facts as he of Arezzo, where he also worked on the knew them. His book provided inspiration Church of Santi Fiora e Lucilla. He reno- for many authors and poets, including vated the Churches of Santa Croce and Honore de , George Eliot, and Rob- Santa Maria Novella in Florence, replacing ert Browning, who treated the themes of medieval features of the churches with a struggling artists and their works, but unified design inspired by classical Roman more importantly established a foundation architecture. His many commissions al- for the modern field of art history. lowed him to prosper and become a lead- SEE ALSO: Florence; Medici, Cosimo de’; ing citizen of Arezzo, where he designed Michelangelo Buonarroti and decorated a mansion and where he at- tained the post of gonfaloniere, or mayor. In Florence he founded the Academy of Venice Design with Cosimo de’ Medici and Mich- A city of northeastern Italy that was a elangelo; this institution survives to the leading center of artistic innovation present day as the Academy of Fine Arts through the Italian Renaissance. Venice was of Florence. founded in the fifth century by Romans A tireless traveler, Vasari developed on fleeing an invasion of the Lombards, bar- his wide-ranging journeys a keen instinct barians who were overrunning northern for judging works of art and especially Italy. The settlers built their shelters on a paintings. From his wanderings he gath- series of low-lying islands that rose above ered notes and anecdotes that he worked a surrounding lagoon, protected from the into his Lives, which was first published in tides of the Adriatic Sea by a series of bar- 1550 and was expanded for a new edition rier islands. A doge, or duke, ruled the is- in 1568 and illustrated with woodcut por- land settlements, which remained part of traits. The book begins with an introduc- the Eastern Roman (Byzantine) Empire tion on the history of painting, sculpture, until Venice emerged as an independent and architecture in Italy and then covers city-state in the tenth century. The city ex- the lives of men who revived these arts in tended its control to Dalmatia, the coast- the Middle Ages: the painters Cimabue and land along the eastern fringe of the Adri- Giotto, the sculptors of the city of Pisa, atic Sea, and began to send expeditions to and the architect Arnolofo di Cambio. the east. During the —medieval Vasari was close to Michelangelo and re- campaigns to wrest the city of Jerusalem serves his highest praise for this artist, and the Holy Land from the Muslims— whose works he sees as the culmination of Venice established trading routes with sev- the revival of the art of the classical age. eral ports in the eastern Mediterranean. For the second edition Vasari included a Venetian merchants such as Marco Polo wider range of painters who lived outside voyaged via the Silk Road and other routes of his favored city of Florence, including as far as China and other points in East

Greenhaven Encyclopedia of The Renaissance 317 Venice

The Doge’s Palace in modern Venice. BRAND XPICTURES/ROYALTY FREE.

Asia. Venetian merchants grew wealthy ern Europe. Venetian power and wealth through the control of eastern spices and also posed a threat to the Papacy; the other rare goods in high demand by the popes also sought authority over cities of aristocrats and royalty of Europe. The city the northern Italian plains and the Catho- extended its boundaries by annexing lic Church frowned on the tolerance that Padua and other cities on the Italian main- allowed religious dissent within Venice it- land, as well as land along the Adriatic self. In 1508 Pope Julius II formed the coast. League of Cambrai with France, Spain, and In the late fourteenth century, Venice the Holy Roman Empire to challenge Ve- bested its most important rival, the Italian netian might. The league failed in its mis- city of Genoa, in the , sion, as Venice recaptured all of the main- which ended in 1380. After this key event, land territories it had lost and emerged in Venice emerged during the Renaissance as the mid-sixteenth century as the strongest one of the wealthiest states in Europe. Rep- state in Italy. resentatives of the Venetian doge and its The Venetian republic was founded on ruling Council of Ten traveled throughout the authority of the doge—which eventu- Europe, playing an important role in the ally became a largely ceremonial office— diplomatic conflicts of the age. A fleet of and of the Great Council, a body of sev- more than three thousand ships ranged eral hundred rulers drawn from among the Mediterranean, and Venice had cap- the city’s noble families. The Council ap- tured several mountain passes through the pointed public officials and elected a Sen- Alps in order to control routes to north- ate, which in turn chose the Council of-

318 Greenhaven Encyclopedia of The Renaissance Veronese, Paolo ten, a committee entrusted with the state’s Cyprus and the coast of Dalmatia. In 1797 order and security. An extensive network Venice was conquered by Napoléon of spies and informers rooted out dissent Bonaparte, and granted by the French to and conspiracy within the city, which Austria in the . harshly punished the slightest threat to its This put an official end to Venice’s status oligarchic form of government. as an independent republic. The art and architecture of Venice had Veronese, Paolo their roots in Byzantine style; the Cathe- (1528–1588) dral of Saint Mark raised in the eleventh Italian artist of the “Venetian school” who century is lavishly decorated in marble, is considered one of the most important mosaic, and gilt. Many major artists, in- painters of Venice during the late Italian cluding the Bellini family, Paolo Veronese, Renaissance. Born as Paolo Caliari in Ve- Palladio, Titian, and Tintoretto, had their rona, he was the son of a stonecutter, and homes and workshops in the city, and gained the nickname “Veronese” from his decorated Venetian churches, monasteries, native city. Veronese trained in the work- and public buildings with many of the shop of Antonio Badile. In 1548, he moved most renowned frescoes and canvases of to Mantua, where he took part in the deco- the Renaissance. Venice was also an im- ration of the city’s cathedral. He then ar- portant early center of the printing indus- rived in Venice, where he won many im- try, and laid claim to the busiest publish- portant commissions and where he ing industry in Renaissance Europe. The remained for the rest of his life. As a presses of Venice turned out the first edi- younger artist he was influenced by the tions of classical Greek and Latin authors works of Giulio Romano and later by who played a vital role as a foundation of Titian. the intellectual and artistic life of the Re- Veronese became a master of the diffi- naissance. cult art of fresco painting, in which paint Venice built a huge fleet of merchant is applied to wet plaster, with which it ships at its famous Arsenal, one of the dries. He used brilliant colors and rich de- largest ship works in Europe. But with the tail, and was keenly sensitive to the vary- rise of the Ottoman Empire, which con- ing textures of fabric, stone, and sky. He quered the Byzantine Empire in the middle was also skilled in the arts of perspective, of the fifteenth century, Venice was again foreshortening, and illusionistic painting, contending for control of the eastern all of which became important ingredients Mediterranean. The Ottoman navy cut in the Mannerist style developed in the many of Venice’s important links with the works of the late Italian Renaissance. Many East. Despite the victory of a European al- of his works explore religious and mytho- liance against the Turkish fleet at the Battle logical themes, such as The Temptation of of Lepanto in 1571, Venice began a slow St. Anthony, completed in 1552. For the decline that lasted two centuries. Its mer- Doge’s Palace in Venice he completed a fa- chant empire in the east was being sur- mous ceiling painting, Jupiter Fulminating passed by trade with the New World, the Vices, and other works for the Sala del which its rivals in Europe were exploiting, Consiglio, a major meeting hall of the pal- while the Turks eventually captured all the ace, in 1554. After a fire destroyed a por- Venetian possessions in Greece as well as tion of the palace, Veronese helped to re-

Greenhaven Encyclopedia of The Renaissance 319 Verrocchio, Andrea del construct and redecorate the building with influence in the painting of Venice for two two major works, Venice Ruling with Jus- centuries. tice and Peace and Triumph of Venice.For SEE ALSO: Tintoretto, Jacopo; Titian the architect Andrea Palladio, Veronese painted natural and allegorical scenes on the walls and ceilings of the famous Palla- Verrocchio, Andrea del dian Villa Barbaro. Veronese adopted the (1435–1488) classical building style of Palladio in the Sculptor, goldsmith, and painter renowned backgrounds of several of his large can- for his monumental works in bronze. He vases, many of which depict grand proces- was born as Andrea di Michele di sions, majestic assemblies, and lavish feasts. Francesco di Cioni in Florence and was Over a period of fifteen years, Veronese the son of a brick maker. Historians know completed several important decorative very few details of his youth or his ap- works for the San Sebastiano church in prenticeship as an artist. He joined the Venice. Ceiling paintings illustrate the workshop of Giulio Verrocchi, whose name story of Esther, and employ dramatic fore- he took as his own; he may also have stud- shortening; the choir of the church is ied with Fra Filippo Lippi. Verrocchio was decorated with scenes from the life of Saint commissioned in 1465 by the traders guild Sebastian. Two paintings he did for the or- of Florence to create a work for the church gan shutters of the church change as the of Orsanmichele. The result was his Christ shutters open and close. and St. Thomas (also known as the Doubt- Other famous paintings by Veronese ing of Thomas), which was finally com- include Christ Among the Doctors, St. John pleted in 1483 and which immediately Preaching, and The Supper at Emmaus. The drew the admiration for its dramatic ar- Marriage at Cana is a huge and richly de- rangement and ingenious use of a con- tailed canvas with portraits of Veronese, fined space. Titian, Tintoretto, and Jacopo Bassano, de- Verrocchio enjoyed a high reputation picted as musicians seated at the feet of in Florence and drew many skilled young Christ. Veronese received several commis- painters to his workshop, including Pe- sions to decorate refectories, or dining rugino, Sandro Botticelli, Domenico halls, for Venetian monasteries; these Ghirlandaio, and Leonardo da Vinci. As a works include the Feast of St. Gregory the painter, Verrocchio is best known for his Great and Feast in the House of Simon.But Baptism of Christ, in which he was assisted he drew unwanted attention from the In- by his young apprentice Leonardo da quisition for one of these works: a Last Vinci, who completed a dramatic natural Supper, in which he included clowns, sol- backdrop and the head of an angel. Ver- diers, dwarfs, and other irreverent figures. rocchio also completed an altarpiece for In response to this scolding by the reli- the cathedral of Pistoia, a Crucifixion with gious authorities, he simply changed the Saints, Madonna with Child (the only name of the painting, one of the largest painting that he signed), and Tobias and works of the Renaissance, to Feast in the the Angel. House of Levi. Veronese established a busy He won several important commis- workshop in Venice that survived his death sions from the Medici rulers of Florence, under the management of his brothers and including funerary monuments to Cosimo sons, and which remained an important de’ Medici and monuments to Giovanni,

320 Greenhaven Encyclopedia of The Renaissance Villon, Francois and Piero de’ Medici that were placed in 50 miles (80.5km) of the correct figure. the sacristy of the church of San Lorenzo. Realizing that South America was an en- For the Villa Medici at Careggi, Verrocchio tirely new continent and not an unknown created a sculpture of David, showing the part of Asia or the East Indies, Vespucci young man just after his victory over Go- provided European navigators with a more liath. This work was later sold to the Si- accurate concept of the distances facing gnoria of Florence and displayed in the them in their voyages of exploration. main square of Venice for several centu- An account of these voyages was read ries. Verrocchio also was a skilled sculptor by the German mapmaker Martin Wald- in marble, in which he completed a cel- seemüller, who worked as a mapmaker for ebrated Bust of a Young Woman. His grand- a merchant company of Seville. Wald- est work was the design for an equestrian seemüller came to believe, erroneously, monument of the mercenary Bartolom- that Vespucci had commanded an expedi- meo Colleoni. This work is known for its tion of 1497 that was the first to reach the dynamic motion, in which the horse raises mainland of North America, one year be- one of its legs, boldly preparing for a fore the same feat had been accomplished charge into battle. The statue was cast af- by Christopher Columbus. In 1507 Wald- ter Verrocchio’s death and still rises in the seemüller honored Vespucci by using his Campo San Giovanni e Paolo in Venice. first name as a label for the new continent in his Cosmographiae Introductio, a series SEE ALSO: Botticelli, Sandro; Leonardo da of maps. In the meantime, Vespucci was Vinci; sculpture honored with the title of pilot major, a chief navigator for the king of Spain. He Vespucci, Amerigo died of malaria that he had caught during (1454–1512) his second voyage. Italian navigator whose name was given to SEE ALSO: Columbus, Christopher the New World. Vespucci was a merchant of Florence who was hired by the Medici rulers of the city to work in Seville, Spain. Villon, Francois He supplied essential goods to the expedi- (1431– ?) tions of Christopher Columbus and was French poet, whose entire body of work later taken on as a navigator by Alonso comprises about three thousand lines of Ojeda. In 1499, Ojeda reached South verse but who is considered one the great- America; he and Vespucci separated and est French authors of the fifteenth century. Vespucci sailed south from the Caribbean, Born in Paris, Villon’s given name was becoming the first European to reach the Francois de Montcorbier or Francois des mouth of the Amazon River. In 1502 Ves- Loges. He was taken into the household of pucci joined a second expedition to the Guillaume de Villon, the canon of Saint New World, this one sponsored by Portu- le Betourne, who educated him. gal and which reached Guanabara Bay, the Villon attended the University of Paris, present site of Rio de Janeiro, and the Rio earning the degree of master of arts in de la Plata, which separates Argentina and 1452. Uruguay. Vespucci developed a new system In 1455 Villon killed a priest in a street for computing longitude and calculated brawl and fled Paris. He joined a roving the circumference of the earth to within band of thieves and highwaymen known

Greenhaven Encyclopedia of The Renaissance 321 Virgil as the coquillards, who were a common romantic poets of the nineteenth century threat on the chaotic byways of France in made his permanent reputation as one of the years after the Hundred Years’ War. He the great poets of French literature. was granted leniency by the Paris city offi- cials in the next year, when he completed Virgil the Lais, forty stanzas of eight lines each, in which he describes his turbulent life (70 B.C.–19 B.C.) and satirically details a legacy for his Ancient Latin poet of Italy whose epic The friends, enemies, and acquaintances. This Aeneid described the mythological found- work is also known as the Little Testament. ing of Rome, and whose works provided In 1461 he completed the Grand Testa- the writers of the Renaissance with their ment, a much longer work that includes most respected poetic model from the clas- two thousand lines in various forms and sical world. Born as Publius Vergilius presents a grand spectacle of personages Maro, a descendant of barbarian Celts, he of the medieval French world in which the was raised in a small town near Verona, poet moved. The Grand Testament includes the son of a laborer who managed to give Villon’s most famous poem, “Ballade of his son a good education. As a young man the Ladies of Yesteryear.” In 1462 Villon Virgil made his way to the capital, where was arrested and imprisoned in the Chat- he studied rhetoric and philosophy. Al- elet fortress in Paris for the burglary at the though trained to practice law, he was too College de Navarre in 1446, for which he bashful to make a good impression as a was again granted a pardon on condition speaker, an essential ingredient for a suc- that he make restitution for the crime. cessful public career in ancient Rome. In- When he took part in another street brawl, stead he turned to books, study, and the he was sentenced to death; on appeal his writing of poetry. hanging was stayed by an edict of the Paris When his family’s farm was confiscated Parlement. Some time after sentence was by the Roman government as a reward for passed he composed the “Ballade of the its victorious soldiers, the emperor Augus- Hanged,” in which he describes in vivid tus intervened and returned the property. detail his fate as an executed criminal. He In thanks for this action, Virgil wrote the was sentenced to ten years of exile from Eclogues, a group of ten poems that cel- Paris; after this event he disappeared, and ebrate nature and the serene life of shep- historians know nothing of his where- herds and the countryside. In the four abouts for the remainder of his life. books of the Georgics, Virgil describes in Villon’scareerasanoutlawprevented great detail the life and the labor of farm- him from winning any patronage from the ers, modeling his writings on the Works court or the nobility. His poetry is in- and Days of , an ancient Greek poet. tensely personal, full of satire and a bitter, The Aeneid, an imposing monument grotesque sense of humor, describing his of ancient literature, was written by Virgil life in his own words, and owing nothing on a commission from Augustus for a his- to the traditional themes of chivalry and torical work that would celebrate his own religion that were standard for medieval accomplishments in establishing the new poets and prose authors. His works were empire of Rome. The poem describes the collected and edited by Clement Marot, voyages and the battles of the hero Aeneas, and the discovery of Villon’s poetry by the a Trojan who wanders the Mediterranean

322 Greenhaven Encyclopedia of The Renaissance Visconti dynasty in search of a new home for his defeated aroused opposition in northern Italy, and companions. Virgil based the twelve books the Visconti lands came under frequent at- of his epic on the Iliad and the Odyssey of tack by rivals fearing the establishment of Homer.Hebeganworkin30B.C. and con- a Visconti kingdom stretching across tinued for the last eleven years of his life, northern Italy. leaving the work unfinished at his death in Galeazzo II (1320–1378), the son of 19 B.C. Although he ordered the entire Stefano Visconti, fought with his brother poem to be burned, Augustus instead had Bernabo against the d’Este and Gonzaga the poem published in 17 B.C. The Aeneid was soon acclaimed as one of the great clans, defeating his rivals at the Battle of works of Roman literature, an honor it Casorate. He shared the Visconti realm maintained through the Renaissance and with Bernabo after the death of Matteo II still holds today. Visconti. A patron of artists and writers, The poem was well known to the notably Petrarch, he founded the Univer- manuscript copyists of medieval Europe, sity of Pavia and extended his family’s in- where the Aeneid was often used as a book fluence by marrying his daughter Violante of divination. Dante Alighieri, in The Di- to a prince of England and his son Gian vine Comedy, made Virgil his own guide to Galeazzo to Isabella, the daughter of the the circles of Hell and Purgatory. Virgil king of France. In 1362, he moved to Pa- was studied in universities and was a sub- via, allowing his brother Bernabo to rule ject of debate and commentary by schol- in Milan, where he contended with the ars, philosophers, and poets, who held up- powerful cities of Florence and Venice as The Aeneid as a model of classical clarity well as with the pope. and perfection of form. Gian Galeazzo Visconti (1351–1402) Visconti dynasty combined the Pavia and Milan realms un- der his authority and brought the Visconti A noble family of northern Italy who ruled domain to the height of its wealth, power, the duchy of Milan and whose members and prestige. He added the March of Tre- were important patrons of the early Re- viso to the realm in 1387 and also con- naissance in that important city. In the twelfth century the clan was granted the quered Pisa, Siena, Bologna, and the duchy title of viscount, which they adopted as of , employing skilled mercenary the family name. Oddone Visconti, the captains as well as his own skillful diplo- archbishop of Milan, became ruler of the macy to avoid open warfare with the coa- city by ousting the rival clan litions that were constantly forming against in 1277. His successor, Matteo I Visconti, him. Through the payment of a large sum controlled Milan with the backing of the of money, he was invested as hereditary Holy Roman Emperor, but the opposition ruler of Milan by the Holy Roman Em- of the Guelph (papal) faction forced him pire, an event that brought about the in- to surrender his title in favor of his son dependence of northern Italy from control Galeazzo I Visconti in 1322. Luchino Vis- by the emperors. Gian Galeazzo’s dream of conti (1292–1349) added Tuscany, Pied- founding a hereditary Visconti kingdom mont, and a small canton of Switzerland was cut short by his death from the plague. to the Visconti domains. The rapidly grow- After his death the Visconti territories ing power and territory of the Visconti passed to Giovanni Maria Visconti, whose

Greenhaven Encyclopedia of The Renaissance 323 Vitruvius rule was so violent and corrupt that he the book to find a wider audience in was assassinated in 1412. The last Visconti southern Europe. The first printed edition duke, Filippo Maria Visconti, died in 1447, was brought out in Rome by Fra Giovanni after which Milan came under the rule of Sulpitius in 1486; an illustrated edition his son-in-law, Francesco Sforza. appeared in 1511, and translations in Ital- ian were first published in 1521. Vitruvius SEE ALSO: Petrarch; Sforza dynasty was translated into German, French, En- glish, and Spanish by the end of the six- Vitruvius teenth century. (ca. 80 B.C.–ca. 25 B.C.) Vitruvius admired the classical archi- Roman architect, engineer, and author tecture of Greece and saw his own time as whose treatise On Architecture—written as adecadentperiodinwhicharchitectswere a guidebook for Roman builders—was forgetting the Greek tradition of harmony widely influential during the Renaissance. and proportion. Written in about 40 B.C., Vitruvius was born in the town of Formiae On Architecture is divided into ten books as Marcus Vitruvius Pollio. He may have and covers the design of buildings and served in the Roman army of Julius Cae- landscapes, engineering, town planning, sar, working to design fortifications and and the proportions of the human body. siege engines in Spain and Gaul (modern Vitruvius held the qualities of strength, France). He flourished during the time of utility, and beauty to be necessary in all the emperor Augustus, his patron, and to structures, which took their ideal propor- whom he dedicated his work. Historians tions from that of the body. As the only know of only one building designed by architectural book to survive the fall of him: a basilica in the town of Fano, which the Roman Empire, On Architecture be- has disappeared completely. came the most important source of infor- On Architecture was one of the classi- mation for Renaissance architects looking cal works to survive the Middle Ages to revive classical forms in their churches, through the manuscript copying carried palaces, public buildings, monuments, and out in isolated monasteries, where the an- design of public spaces. Leon Battista Al- cient works were preserved from the vio- berti based his important work on archi- lence and chaos of the time. One of these tecture, De Re Aedificatoria, largely on the manuscript copies was discovered in 1414 work of Vitruvius. by the Italian scholar Poggio Bracciolini at the abbey of Saint Gallen in Switzerland. SEE ALSO: Alberti, Leon Battista; architec- The new technology of printing allowed ture; Bracciolini, Poggio

324 Greenhaven Encyclopedia of The Renaissance William I of Orange After a key victory in 1572, the rebels (1533–1584) organized a parliament and declared Will- iam their stadtholder, or governor. In 1579 A Dutch noble who founded the dynasty several northern provinces declared the of Orange-Nassau and led the revolt in the Union of Utrecht, and in 1581 the union Netherlands against rule by Spain. Born in officially declared its independence from Nassau, a small principality in northern the king of Spain. In 1584 he was assassi- Germany, he was the son of Count Will- nated by a Catholic partisan, Balthasar iam of Nassau, who had converted to Gerard, in the town of Delft. Lutheranism. At the age of eleven he in- herited the title of Prince of Orange. Al- SEE ALSO: Netherlands; Philip II though he now owned extensive proper- ties in the Low Countries, he was too witchcraft young to exercise any authority, and his In the Middle Ages, any practice of magic domain was governed by the Habsburg outside the realm of Christian doctrine emperor Charles V as regent. He trained was seen as the work of the Devil and pun- as a cavalry officer and at a young age was ished as witchcraft. Heretics and witches given command of a unit in the Habsburg were routinely tried and tortured in order armies. On the abdication of Charles V, he to force their confessions. A common me- was made governor of Holland and Bur- dieval practice was to bind suspects with gundy by Philip II. ropes and throw them into lakes and riv- William’s reluctance to speak out on ers. If they floated to the surface, they were the brewing political and religious turmoil considered “rejected” by the water and thus in the Low Countries earned him the nick- guilty as charged. If they remained sub- name of “William the Silent.” Nevertheless, merged or drowned, they were declared he strongly opposed Habsburg domina- innocent of witchcraft. Those found guilty tion of the nobility and favored the free were burned at the stake by civil authori- exercise of religion for Protestants as well ties working at the behest of religious as Catholics. He eventually emerged as a courts and inquisitions. leading opponent of Spain’s brutal occu- During the sixteenth century, the per- pation. He retreated to his native Nassau, secution of witches reached its peak in Eu- joined the revolt against the Spanish, and rope. The Renaissance wave of witch trials organized naval and ground forces to carry began with a bull issued by Pope Innocent out commando raids on Spanish outposts. VIII in 1484, which acknowledged the William won several victories against the presence of witchcraft, contrary to previ- Spanish armies, and his personal flag was ous church doctrine. According to the adopted by the Dutch as the banner of church, witches regularly consorted with their resistance movement. the devil and conspired to undermine

Greenhaven Encyclopedia of The Renaissance 325 Wolsey, Thomas

was splitting these regions into two hostile religious factions. In France, a member of the court of King Charles IX announced that ten thousand witches were at his com- mand, which set off a rampant anti-witch hysteria in which thousands of people were accused by friends and family. In Scotland, a witch panic was set off by King James VI (later King James I of England, the first of the Stuart dynasty). Having traveled to Denmark to marry his bride Princess Anne of Denmark, James and his party were beset by a furious storm. The captain of his ship blamed the storm on witchcraft, to which several Dan- ish women willingly confessed. Back in Scotland, James authorized the torture of suspected witches. Several dozen suspects were burned at the stake before the perse- cutions died down at the end of the 1500s. Nevertheless, witchcraft remained a capital offense in Scotland until 1735. The title page of “Malleus maleficarum” or “Hammer of Witches,” the Inquisition’s 1519 SEE ALSO: Catholicism; James I manual on detecting and dealing with witchcraft. SPECIAL COLLECTIONS LIBRARY, THE Wolsey, Thomas UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN. (1475–1530) English churchman and statesman who church authority. The pope commissioned was chaplain to Henry VII and Henry VIII. Born the son of a butcher in Ipswich, he two German monks, Heinrich Kramer and was educated at Oxford, where he served Jacob Sprenger, to prepare a report on as a master of Magdalen College. Ordained witchcraft. The result was Malleus Malefi- a priest in 1498, he was appointed as the carum, or The Hammer of Witches, which rector of Limington parish in Dorset. In helped its readers learn to recognize the 1503 he became a chaplain to Sir Richard tell-tale signs and marks of a witch, de- Nanfan, an English governor of Calais who scribed the sexual perversions, murders, introduced Wolsey to the royal court. He spell-casting, and other wrongdoing, and became the royal chaplain to King Henry demanded that Christians actively search VII, who sent him as a diplomat to Scot- out and destroy witches. land and the Netherlands. At the church’s prompting, witches After Henry VIII came to the throne were rounded up by the hundreds and in 1509, Wolsey won an appointment as burned publicly. The witch hysteria was the royal almoner, who was responsible for especially strong in Germany and Switzer- distributing alms to the poor. He orga- land, even as the Protestant Reformation nized an invasion force for an assault on

326 Greenhaven Encyclopedia of The Renaissance Wolsey, Thomas

France in 1513 and in the next year ar- the Holy Roman Emperor, against France. ranged a truce between England and He fell out of favor with the English popu- France. He was appointed bishop of Lin- lace by levying heavy taxes and forcing coln in 1514, archbishop of York in the loans of money to pay for English military same year. Pope Leo X named him a car- campaigns. More dangerously, he lost the dinal in 1515. Henry appointed Cardinal support of the king after failing to per- Wolsey as the lord chancellor of England suade the pope to grant Henry an annul- in 1515; in this post Wolsey directed for- ment of his marriage to Catherine of Ara- eign policy as well as the affairs of En- gon in 1529. This event lost Wolsey most gland on behalf of the king, who took little of his titles and offices that had brought interest in the bothersome day-to-day de- him the wealth and power that made him tails of managing a kingdom. Wolsey ar- the focus of widespread jealousy and re- ranged a general truce in Europe in 1518 sentment. In 1530, he was placed under and also brought the kings of France and arrest for treason after letters he had sent England together at the famous meeting to the king of France were discovered. on the Field of the Cloth of Gold in 1520. While on his way to face trial before the Wolsey failed in his attempt to make En- king, he fell ill and died in the town of gland the arbiter of disputes on the conti- Leicester. nent, however, and in 1522 advised the king to make an alliance with Charles V, SEE ALSO: Henry VIII; More, Sir Thomas

Greenhaven Encyclopedia of The Renaissance 327

Xavier, Francis India and the East Indies in 1542. His per- (1506–1552) suasive speaking and preaching gained Missionary who converted thousands to converts at Goa, and he successfully estab- Christianity in India, the East Indies, and lished Christian missions along the coasts the Far East. Born Francisco de Jasso y Az- of India and in the Malay Archipelago. In pilcueta to a noble family of Navarre, he 1549 he arrived at Kagoshima, Japan, was the son of a counselor to the king of where he became the first to introduce Navarre. He studied at the University of Christianity. Xavier set up several missions Paris, where in 1534 became one of the in Japan before returning to India in 1551. seven founding members of the Jesuit Or- He left with a Portuguese embassy for der founded by Ignatius of Loyola. Xavier China and in 1552 died on the island of traveled to Venice in 1536 and was or- Changcheun while seeking entry to China, dained a priest in 1537. He worked for then ruled by a Ming dynasty emperor. several years to establish Jesuit institutions Xavier’s body was collected and laid to rest in Rome and in 1540 was recruited into a at a Christian church in Goa, which be- Portuguese mission to Goa, India. The came a popular shrine and place of pil- Christianizing mission of the Jesuits was grimage for Christians throughout Asia. well suited to accompany the voyages to He was canonized along with Ignatius the Indies by Portuguese explorers, who Loyola in 1622; Xavier eventually became saw as their duty not only the establish- the patron saint of India, the Philippines, ment of trading posts and colonies but the Japan, China, New Zealand, and of all harvest of souls for the greater glory of Christian missionaries. the Christian church. Appointed a papal nuncio, or representative, Xavier left for SEE ALSO: Loyola, Saint Ignatius

Greenhaven Encyclopedia of The Renaissance 329

Zwingli, Huldrych Bible, and not the church, provided the (1484–1531) authority for all questions of Christian doctrine. Many priests of the city took up Swiss church reformer, a contemporary of his cause, which he set out in the Sixty- Martin Luther who established the Re- Seven Articles in 1523. After witnessing a formed branch of the Protestant move- public debate between Zwingli and a rep- ment. The son of a village magistrate, resentative of the pope, the city fathers Zwingli was born in the village of followed his reforming impulse, ordering Wildhaus in eastern Switzerland. He re- all priests in the city to comply with ceived an education in the classics at the Zwingli’s instruction and in 1524 remov- universities of Basel and Vienna, and was ing the statues, relics, musical instruments, ordained as a priest in 1506, when he be- and works of art that were now deemed came pastor of the town of Glarus. He idolatrous from the city’s churches. In the served as a chaplain to Swiss mercenaries next year Zwingli published his major in Italy and in 1516 became vicar of Ein- written work, The Commentary on True siedeln, an important Benedictine monas- and False Religion. tery where a large library gave Zwingli op- portunity for study and research. Soon Zwingli believed, like Martin Luther, in after this appointment he began preaching the key Protestant doctrine of justification reform of the Catholic Church. Zwingli by faith alone. But he differed with Luther found no foundation for the Papacy in the in the question of the presence of Christ books of the Bible and increasingly viewed in the bread and wine of Mass—with the Catholic Church as a corrupt and Luther holding that Christ is actually decadent institution. present, and Zwingli that the bread and In 1519 Zwingli was appointed vicar wine are only symbolic representations of to the Grossmunster church in Zurich. Christ’s body and blood. The two reform- Having studied the New Testament trans- ers debated the question at the famous lation of Desiderius Erasmus, he devel- Marburg Colloquy of 1529. The disagree- oped his own reformist doctrine, and be- ment created a rift in the Protestant move- gan preaching criticisms of important ment between Lutheranism and Zwingli’s Catholic institutions, such as monasticism Reformed branch. and the selling of indulgences (remissions In Zurich, the more radical branch of of sin). He saw the Catholic Mass as a pa- Anabaptists emerged to challenge Zwingli’s gan blasphemy on true Christianity; he re- authority, while the “forest cantons” of jected the notion of purgatory, the venera- Switzerland that remained loyal to the tion of saints, the practice of fasting during Catholic Church took up arms against the Lent, and the Catholic stricture of priestly Protestants. In 1531 Zwingli was mortally celibacy. In 1522, he declared that the wounded at the Battle of Kappel. His body

Greenhaven Encyclopedia of The Renaissance 331 Zwingli, Huldrych was quartered and burned on a manure ment gave way to the new doctrines pile by his enemies, who were determined preached by John Calvin. that no relics of him would remain to in- spire veneration by his followers. In the SEE ALSO: Luther, Martin; Calvin John; years that followed, the Zwinglian move- Reformation, Protestant

332 Greenhaven Encyclopedia of The Renaissance Chronology

The following are representative of the freestanding nude statue sculpted since the many significant events of the Renaissance time of ancient Rome. that has occurred throughout history: 1442 King Alfonso V of Aragon conquers 1096 Christians launch the first Crusade and reunites Sicily and southern Italy into against the Muslims. By the end of the a single kingdom. First Crusade on 1099, Crusaders had es- 1453 Led by sultan Mehmed II, the Otto- tablished several feudal states in the Near man Turks conquer Constantinople, the East. capital of the Byzantine Empire. 1233 Pope Gregory IX establishes the me- 1454 German printer Johannes Guten- dieval Inquisition by assembling a formal berg pioneers a new system of movable tribunal with the power to seek out and type for book printing. punish heretics. 1455 The English houses of York and Tu- 1275 Venetian Marco Polo travels to dor begin the War of the Roses. China, where he remains for almost twenty 1487 Religious scholars and legal authori- years. During the Renaissance, Polo’s vari- ties in Germany compile the Malleus ma- ous writings were the primary source of leficarum (the “Hammer of Witches”), a Western information about the East. text that explored ideas about witchcraft c. 1300 Immanuel of Rome composes his and argued strongly for its vigorous pros- Notebooks, which contained thirty-eight ecution. sonnets in Hebrew. 1492 Italian navigator Christopher Co- 1306 Italian poet Dante Alighieri begins lumbus makes his first voyage to the New writing his three-part work The Divine World, establishing a small settlement on Comedy. Hispaniola called La Navidad. 1337 England and France begin the Hun- 1503 Giuliano della Rovere is elected dred Years’ War over control of the French pope. Taking the name Julius II, Giuliano throne. became known as “the warrior pope” for his involvement in several wars involving 1347–1350 Bubonic plague, more com- church lands. monly known as “The Black Death,” sweeps through Europe. 1506 Pope Julius II decides to rebuild Saint Peter’s Church. The project will 1364 The University of Cracow is founded eventually take over eighty-four years to in Poland. complete and involve many famous artists, 1412 JoanofArcisbornintheFrench architects’ and sculpters, including Donato village of Domremy. Bramante, Raphael, and Michelangelo. 1421 Sultan Mehmed II restores the Ot- 1512 Michaelangelo completes the ceiling toman Empire. of the Sistine Chapel at the Vatican in 1432 Donatello creates his most famous Rome. work, a bronze statue of David, the first 1517 German priest Martin Luther posts

Greenhaven Encyclopedia of The Renaissance 333 Chronology his famous Ninety-Five Theses on the door 1572 Danish astronomer Tycho Brahe of the castle church in Wittenberg, signal- discovers a new star. ing the beginning the Protestant Reforma- 1572 Over three thousand men, women, tion. and children are killed in Paris during the 1519 Spanish conquistador Hernan Saint Bartholomew’s Day Massacre. Cortés is selected to lead an expedition to 1588 The massive Spanish Armada is de- the mainland of North America. feated by the English fleet, marking a high 1525 German peasants resist the expan- point in Queen Elizabeth I’s reign and the sion of nobles’ economic rights in what is beginning of England’s maritime domi- often referred to as “The Peasants’ War”. nance. 1527 Armies of the Holy Roman Emperor c. 1590s Operas—or full-length musical Charles V sack Rome. dramas—begin to appear on Italian stages. The first operas were heavily influenced by 1530 The Medici family is formally classic Greek mythology. granted lordship of Florence, Italy. 1594 William Shakespeare joins the Lord 1534 King Henry VII is declared supreme Chamberlain’s Men, an acting company head of the Church of England. that performed primarily at a London 1535 French explorer Jacques Cartier sails playhouse known as the Theatre. up the St. Lawrence River—gateway to the 1595 The Edict of Nantes grants religious Great lakes—in an attempt to find a north- and civil liberties to the Huguenots of erly route to the Spice Islands. France. 1540 Spanish priest Ignatius of Loyola 1601 English architect Inigo Jones is ap- founds the Society of Jesuits. pointed official surveyor at the court of 1545–1563 The Council of Trent is held King James I. in northern Italy. This body of the Catho- 1606 Ben Jonson’s dark comedic play lic Church convened to make decisions Volpone,orThe Fox is first produced for about religious doctrine; define ceremo- the stage. nial procedures; and oppose the spread of 1610 Italian physicist and astronomer Ga- the Protestant Reformation. lileo Galilei discovers Io, Europa, and Cal- c. 1547 Puritanism begins to emerge in listo, three of Jupiter’s moons. England. 1611 King James I of England approves a 1550s Italian architect Andrea Palladio new English translation of the Bible. popularizes the villa design style. 1612 Painter Artemisia Gentileschi moves 1558 Elizabeth I ascends to the English to Florence and becomes the first woman throne, beginning a forty-five-year reign as accepted into the prestigious Florentine queen. Academy of Design. 1559 Pope Paul IV places Machiavelli’s 1614 Scottish mathematician John Napier political treatise The Prince on the Index discovers logarithms. of Prohibited Books. 1618 Johannes Kepler publishes his third 1562 The begin. law of planetary motion. 1570 Flemish mapmaker Abraham Ortel 1624 Peter Paul Rubens paints his self- publishes the first world atlas. portrait.

334 Greenhaven Encyclopedia of The Renaissance Chronology

1642 The English Civil War begins. the Holy Roman Empire and the House of 1657 The Habsburg dynasty effectively Habsburg. ends with the signing of the Peace of West- 1667 Poet John Milton writes his epic phalia, which reduced the power of both work Paradise Lost.

Greenhaven Encyclopedia of The Renaissance 335

For Further Research

Jacob Burckhardt, The Civilization of the Press, 1989. Renaissance in Italy. New York: Barnes Paul F. Grendler, The Universities of the & Noble, 1992. Italian Renaissance. Baltimore: Johns Peter , The Renaissance: Studies in Hopkins University Press, 2002. European History. London: Palgrave Paul F. Grendler, ed., The Renaissance: An Macmillan, 1997. Encyclopedia for Students.NewYork: J.H. , ed., The Cambridge History of Charles Scribner’s Sons, 2004. Political Thought, 1450–1700. Cam- Paul F. Grendler et al., eds., Encyclopedia bridge, England: Cambridge University of the Renaissance. 6 vols. New York: Press, 1991. Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1999. Ernst Cassirer Paul Oskar Kristeller, and J.R. Hale, The Civilization of Europe in the John Herman Randall Jr., The Renais- Renaissance. New York: Maxwell Mac- sance Philosophy of Man. Chicago: Uni- millan International, 1994. versity of Chicago Press, 1948. Arturo B. Fallico and Herman Shapiro, J.R. Hale, ed., A Concise Encyclopedia of eds., Renaissance Philosophy: The Italian the Italian Renaissance. Oxford, En- Philosphers: Selected Readings from Pe- gland: , 1981. trarch to Bruno. New York: Modern A. Rupert Hall, The Revolution in Science, Library, 1967. 1500–1750.3rded.LondonandNew Brian Copenhaver, and Charles B. York: Longman, 1983. Schmitt, Renaissance Philosophy.Ox- Denys Hay, The Italian Renaissance in Its ford, England: Oxford University Press, Historical Background. Cambridge, En- 1992. gland: Cambridge University Press, Vincent Cronin, The Flowering of the Re- 1977. naissance. New York: Dutton, 1969. Denys Hay and John E. Law, Italy in the Robert Reinhold Ergang, The Renaissance. Age of the Renaissance, 1380–1530.Lon- Princeton, NJ: Van Nostrand, 1967. don and New York: Oxford University Press, 1989. Wallace Ferguson, Europe in Transition, 1300–1520. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, Rudolf Hirsch, Printing, Selling and Read- 1962. ing, 1450–1550. Wiesbaden, Germany: Harrassowitz, 1967. Wallace Ferguson, The Renaissance in His- torical Thought: Five Centuries of Inter- L. Jardine, Worldly Goods: A New History pretation. New York: AMS, 1948. of the Renaissance. New York: Nan A. Talese, 1996. Paul F. Grendler, Schooling in Renaissance Italy: Literacy and Learning, 1300–1600. De Lamar Jensen, Renaissance Europe. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Lexington, MA: DC Heath, 1981.

Greenhaven Encyclopedia of The Renaissance 337 For Further Research

Paul Johnson, The Renaissance: A Short Modern Italy: A Religious and Artistic History. New York: Modern Library, Renaissance. Philadelphia: University of 2000. Pennsylvania Press, 1994.

Thomas DaCosta Kaufmann, The Mastery Garrett Mattingly, Renaissance Diplomacy. of Nature: Aspects of Art, Science, and New York: Russell & Russell, 1970. Humanism in the Renaissance. Princ- eton, NJ: Princeton University Press, I.D. McFarlane, Renaissance France, 1470– 1993. 1589. New York; Barnes & Noble, 1974.

Margaret L. King and Albert Rabil Jr., John Paoletti and Gary Radke, ArtinRe- eds., Her Immaculate Hand: Selected naissance Italy. 3rd ed. Upper Saddle Works by and About the Women Hu- River, NJ: Pearson & Prentice-Hall, manists of Quattrocento Italy. Bingham- 2005. ton, NY: Medieval & Renaissance Texts & Studies, 1992. J.H. Plumb, The Horizon Book of the Re- naissance. New York: American Heri- A.J. Krailsheimer, ed., The Continental tage, 1961. Renaissance 1500–1600. Middlesex, En- gland: Penguin, 1971. Albert Rabil, ed., Renaissance Humanism: Jill Kraye, The Cambridge Companion to Foundations, Forms, and Legacy. Phila- Renaissance Humanism. Cambridge, delphia: University of Pennsylvania England: Cambridge University Press, Press, 1988. 1996. Han Rachum, The Renaissance: An Illus- Paul Oskar Kristeller, Renaissance Thought: trated Encyclopedia. London, England: The Classic, Scholastic, and Humanist Octopus, 1979. Strains. New York, 1961. P.A. Ramsey, ed., Rome in the Renaissance: John Lynch, Spain under the Habsburgs. The City and the Myth. Binghamton, Vol. 1, Empire and Absolutism, 1516– NY: Center for Medieval and Early Re- 1598. Oxford, England: Oxford Univer- naissance Studies, 1982. sity Press, 1965. John Larner, Italy in the Age of Dante and Aldo Scaglione, Knights at Court: Courtli- Petrarch: 1216–1380. London and New ness, Chivalry, & Courtesy from Otton- York: Longman, 1980. ian Germany to the Italian Renaissance. Berkeley: University of California Press, Joan Marie Lechner, Renaissance Concepts 1991. of the Commonplaces. New York: Pag- eant, 1962. Westport, CT: Greenwood, Charles B. Schmitt et al., eds., The Cam- 1974. bridge History of Renaissance Philoso- phy. Cambridge, England: Cambridge Robert Mandrou, From Humanism to Sci- University Press, 1988. ence 1480–1700. Middlesex, England: Penguin, 1978. Jerrold E. Seigel, Rhetoric and Philosophy E. Ann Matter and John Coakley, eds., in Renaissance Humanism: The Union of Creative Women in Medieval and Early Eloquence and Wisdom, Petrarch to

338 Greenhaven Encyclopedia of The Renaissance For Further Research

Valla. Princeton, NJ: Princeton Univer- Sixteenth Century. Cambridge, England: sity Press, 1968. Cambridge University Press, 1985. Jeffrey Chipps Smith, The Northern Re- Roberto Weiss, The Renaissance Discovery naissance. London: Phaidon, 2004. of Classical Antiquity. Oxford, England: James Snyder, Northern Renaissance Art: Basil Blackwell, 1969. Painting, Sculpture, the Graphic Arts W.P.D. Wightman, Science and the Renais- from 1350 to 1575. Englewood Cliffs, sance: An Introduction to the Study of NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1985. the Emergence of the Sciences in the Six- John Stephens, The Italian Renaissance: teenth Century. Edinburgh and London: The Origins of Intellectual and Artistic Oliver, 1962. Change Before the Reformation.London David Wilkins, History of Italian Renais- and New York: Longman, 1990. sance Art. 6th ed. New York: Prentice Jane S. Turner, ed., Encyclopedia of Italian Hall, 2006. Renaissance and Mannerist Art. 2 vols. Jonathan Zophy, A Short History of Re- New York: Grove’s Dictionaries, 2000. naissance and Reformation Europe: A. Wear, R. K. French, and I. M. Lonie, Dances Over Fire and Water.NewYork: eds., The Medical Renaissance of the Prentice-Hall, 2002.

Greenhaven Encyclopedia of The Renaissance 339

Index

Aragon, 24, 35, 123, 145, 222 Florentine, 126, 127, 238, 280, A Archidoxis (Paracelsus), 242 295, 308 Academies, 19–20, 54, 76, 112, 126, Architecture, 15, 16, 21, 27–29, 36, international, 212, 307 160, 317 56, 261 Medici family, 203–204, 205, Academy of Design, 54, 317 classical, 41, 70, 175 206, 308 Academy of Geneva, 63 See also individual architects Baptism of Christ (Verrocchio/ Academy of Plato, 19, 205–206, and buildings Leonardo da Vinci), 187, 320 258 Arena Chapel, 143 Baptistery of Florence, 56, 103, Act in Restraint of Appeals, 95 Ariosto, Ludovico, 29–30, 101, 107, 127, 247, 265, 285, 311 Act of Succession, 219 125, 144, 223 Barocci, Federico, 38–39 Act of Supremacy, 95, 158 Aristotle, 14, 30–31, 258, 294 Baroque period Act of Union, 284 astronomical theories, 87, 137, art, 16, 64–65, 89, 140, 199, Adages (Erasmus), 115 138 239, 269, 306 Adoration of the Magi (Leonardo Art, 12–17, 70 music, 58, 218 da Vinci), 187 Baroque, 16, 64–65, 89, 140, Barres, Joao de, 261 The Aeneid (Virgil), 26, 77, 234, 199, 239, 269, 306 Bartolommeo, Fra, 39–40, 100, 270 283, 294, 299, 322–323 classical, 41, 223 Basel Compact, 44 Aetia (Callimachus), 62 humanism in, 21, 47, 109, 142, Basilica architecture, 28 Afonso V (king, Portugal), 35 238 Basilica of Santa Maria del Fiore, Agincourt, Battle of, 313 See also Classicism; Painting; 56, 57 Agnadello, Battle of, 147, 176 and individual artists and Basilica of Santo Spirito, 56–57 Agricola, Rudolf, 20 works Battiferra degli Ammannati, Laura, Alberti, Leon Battista, 20–21, 41, The Art of Love (Ovid), 235 40 144, 198, 247, 273, 324 Ascham, Roger, 31, 113, 114 The Battle of San Romano Alberti, Lorenzo, 20, 27 Assumption of the Virgin (Titian), (Uccello), 247 Alchemy, 21–22 304 Belgium, 228 Alexander V (pope), 146, 162 Astrology, 32–33, 34, 126, 230–231 Bellini, Gentile, 40, 41, 65–66, 142, Alexander VI (pope), 22–24, 45– Astronomy, 14, 16, 33–34, 154, 242 304 47, 176, 241, 281, 286 See also Aristotle; Brahe, Tycho; Bellini, Giovanni, 41, 108, 109, 125 Alexander of Macedon, 30 Copernicus, Nicolaus; Galilei, Bellini, Jacopo, 41–42 Alfonsine Tables, 33 Galileo; Kepler, Johannes; Bellini family, 198, 319 Alfonso II of Aragon, 123, 124 Ptolemy; Telescopes Benedict XIII (pope), 92 Alfonso V of Aragon (the Atlas (Mercator), 233 Bentivoglio, Giovanni II, 42, 176 Magnanimous), 24, 47, 123, 225 De Augmentis Scientiarum (Bacon), Bernini, Pietro, 226 Alhambra palace, 145 38 Bible Alighieri, Dante, 24–26, 40, 43, 49, Augsburg Confession, 102, 211 Gutenberg, 151 189, 323 Aurispa, Giovanni, 34, 78, 125 King James version, 116, 171 The Almagest (Ptolemy), 33, 204 Austria, 34–35, 91, 153, 154, 161, translations of, 69, 297 Almagro, Diego, de, 256–257 271 Biologists, 16 Almanacs, 32, 230, 231 Auto-da-fé (act of faith), 166, 307 See also Medicine; Science Ameto (Boccaccio), 43 Averroes, 30 Biondi, Flavio, 57 Ammannati, Bartolomeo, 40 Aviz, House of, 35–36, 156 The Birth of Venus (Botticelli), 49 Anatomy, 208, 238 Aztec empire, 90 Black Death, 43, 126, 249, 257, 313 Andrew of Anjou (king, Hungary), Blood, circulation of, 208 173 Boccaccio, Giovanni, 26, 42–44, Angevin dynasty, 75, 123, 225 B 128, 189, 222 Anguissola, Sofonisba, 26 Babylonian Captivity. See Great Decameron, 12, 43, 202, 257 Anjou dynasty, 24, 160, 173 Schism Bohemia, 44–45, 162, 271, 302–303 Anne of Brittany, 26–27, 75 Bacchus (Caravaggio), 65 Habsburg rule, 35, 153, 154, Anne of Cleves, 95, 158 Bach, Johann Sebastian, 220, 239 161, 205, 275–276 The Annunciation (Fra Angelico), Bacon, Francis, 37–38, 115, 309 Boleyn, Anne, 45, 113, 158, 219, 131 Balassi, Balint, 161 308, 309 Antipopes, 78, 92, 93, 117, 229 Balboa, Vasco Núñez de. See Bologna (Italy), 32, 42, 168 Apollonius of Rhodes, 62 Núñez de Balboa, Vasco Bologna, Giovanni, 285 Arabs. See Muslims Banking, 14, 135, 190, 245 Bonacolsi family, 199

Greenhaven Encyclopedia of The Renaissance 341 Index

Bonaparte, Napoléon, 141, 190, Byzantine style, 143, 146 Charles I (king, England), 175, 216 241, 319 Charles III (duke, Bourbon), 279 Bonatti, Guido, 32 Charles III (king, Naples), 225 Bonfire of the Vanities, 281 C Charles IV (Holy Roman TheBook of Hours (Fouquet), 130 Caboto, Giovanni (John Cabot), 61, Emperor), 44 The Book of the City of Ladies (de 118 Charles V (Holy Roman Emperor), Pisan), 98 Cabral, Pedro Alvares, 118, 200 73–74, 124, 134, 168, 196 Book of the Courtier (Castiglione), Calculus, 204 abdication, 153, 325 67–68, 107 Calixtus III (pope), 23, 45, 123 descendants, 201, 249 Books, banned. See Index of For- Callimachus, 61–62 fight against Protestantism, 54, bidden Books Calvin, John, 62–63, 148, 180, 201, 102, 192, 219–220, 244, 245 Borgia, Cesare, 23–24, 45–46, 47, 240, 302, 332 invasion of Italy, 67, 157, 201, 195, 241, 286 Camoes, Luis Vaz de, 63–64 279, 291 Borgia, Lucrezia, 23, 46–47, 286 Campidoglio (Rome), 29 New Laws, 183–184 Borgia family, 22–24, 45–47, 185 Campoldino, Battle of, 24–25 patronage of artists, 109, 305 Bosch, Hieronymus, 47–48, 55, 227 Cantiones Sacrae (Byrd), 59 realm, 35, 228 Bosworth Field, Battle of, 48, 114, Canzoniere (Petrarch), 249 See also Italian Wars 308 Capetian dynasty, 50, 313 Charles VII (king, France), 173– Botticelli, Sandro, 14, 48–50, 128, Caravaggio, Michelangelo da, 64– 174, 213 206 65, 140, 223, 226, 274 Charles VIII (king, France), 15, influences on, 203, 223, 227, Caravels, 117, 156, 261, 290 74–75, 287 320 Cardano, Geronimo, 204 conquests, 23, 27, 123, 214 Bourbon dynasty, 50–51, 132–133, Carpaccio, Vittore, 65–66 invasion of Italy, 131, 169, 176, 155, 314 Carracks, 290 214, 225, 252, 281, 313 See also France; Spain Cartier, Jacques, 66–67, 119, 133, Charles IX (king, France), 313 Bracciolini, Poggio, 11, 51–52, 77, 134 Charles of Durazzo, 173 128, 160, 324 Castagno, Andrea del, 67, 198 Chateau de Chambord, 132 Brahe, Tycho, 33–34, 44, 52, 154, Castiglione, Baldassare, 67–68, 107 Christ on the Mount of Olives 179, 204, 276 Castile, 35, 145, 222 (Correggio), 89 Bramante, Donato, 52–54, 187, Castracani, Castruccio, 190 Christianity, 12, 15, 49, 240 215–216 Cathars, 165 art, 223, 238 influence of, 97, 270, 273, 317 Cathedral of San Martino (Lucca), conversions to, 145, 222 patrons, 23, 177, 287 190 humanism and, 116, 159, 160, Brancacci chapel frescoes, 203 Catherine of Aragon, 45, 95, 157, 271–272 Brandt, Hennig, 22 219, 308 Neoplatonism and, 226–227 Brenz, Johannes, 54 Catherine of Siena, Saint, 68 See also Catholicism; Protes- Brittany, 26–27, 75, 313 Catholic League, 155, 209, 302 tantism Bronzino, Agnolo, 54 Catholicism, 13–14, 19, 68–70, 76, Church architecture, 28 Brotherhood of Our Lady, 47 78, 116, 271 See also individual churches Brotherhood of the Rosary, 86 doctrines, 63, 87–88, 207 Church of England, 104, 112, 113, Brueghel, Pieter (the Elder), 16, English, 59, 113, 114 216, 219 47, 54–55, 227, 275 French, 50, 69, 132, 185, 267, establishment, 15, 45, 95, 114, Brueghel family, 54–56 313 157–158, 272, 309 Brunelleschi, Filippo, 56–57, 127 martyrs, 79, 219 Cicero, 111, 112, 249, 280 architecture of, 16, 27, 28, 128, See also Eastern Orthodox Cities, 13, 28–29, 75–77 159 Church; Eastern Schism; City-states, Italian, 168–169, 213, influence of, 202, 203, 265 Great Schism; Reformation, 313 use of perspective, 15, 21, 247 Catholic; Russian Orthodox Classes, social, 13, 75, 79–81 Bruni, Leonardo, 31, 57 Church Classical period, 16, 206 Bruno, Giordano, 58, 172, 226, 227 Ceiling painting, 198–199 architecture and art, 27–29, 41, Bubonic plague. See Black Death See also Sistine Chapel 70, 175 Buccaneers. See Piracy Cellini, Benvenuto, 70–71, 134, 285 literature, 11–12, 34, 77–78, Burgundy, 73–74, 133, 204, 205, Celtis, Conradus, 35 128, 169, 280, 288 227, 313, 325 Cereta, Laura, 71 See also Greece, ancient; My- Buxtorf, Johannes, 172 Cervantes, Miguel de, 71–73, 189 thology; Rome, ancient Byrd, William, 58–59, 115 Cesi, Federico, 19 Clement VI (pope), 173 Byzantine Empire, 225, 240, 241, Chapel Royal, 58, 59 Clement VII (pope), 78, 146, 153, 276 Charity, 85, 86, 192 207, 208, 215 overthrow, 78, 121, 210, 222, Charles (count, Angouleme), 13, French alliance, 157, 279 233, 319 201 Henry VIII and, 45, 157, 219

342 Greenhaven Encyclopedia of The Renaissance Index

Clitherow, Margaret, 79 mation, Catholic; Reformation, Dissection, 207, 208 Clothing, 75, 79–81, 107 Protestant, fight against The Divine Comedy (Alighieri), 24, Clouet, Francois, 81, 133 Courtesans, 81, 93–94, 107, 134– 26, 43, 49, 323 Clouet, Jean, 133, 158 135 Doctor Faustus (Marlowe), 202 Coelho, Goncalo, 118 Courtiers, 67–68, 107 Doctors, 207–208, 242 Cola di Rienzo, 11 Cranach, Lucas, 94–95 Don Quixote (Cervantes), 71–73 Colet, John, 114 Creation of Adam (Michelangelo Donatello, 102–103, 127, 128, 225 Colleoni, Bartolomeo, 81 Buonarroti), 237 influence of, 67, 198, 202, 203, Colloquia (Erasmus), 112 Cromwell, Oliver, 216 265, 284–285 Colonies, 244, 308 Cromwell, Thomas, 95, 158 Donation of Pepin, 241 English, 115, 171, 267, 268 Crucifixion (Mantegna), 199 Donne, John, 103–104 French, 66, 156, 308 Crusades, 121, 221, 299 Dornach, Battle of, 205 Portuguese, 35–36, 64, 124, Dowland, John, 105 157, 222, 261–262, 292 D Drake, Sir Francis, 30, 105–106, Spanish, 74, 84, 89–91, 119, 114, 253, 293, 309 124, 167, 183–184, 222, 251, Da Gama, Vasco, 97, 118, 196, 200 Duarte I (the Philosopher, king, 256–257 Da Sangallo, Antonio (the Portugal), 35 Colonna, Vittoria, 82, 215 Younger), 28, 97–98 Dufay, Guillaume, 227 Columbus, Christopher, 82–84, Dante Meeting Manfred in Purga- Duomo (Brunelleschi), 27, 128 167, 168 tory (Signorelli), 25 Dürer, Albrecht, 15, 35, 108–109, voyages, 118, 123–124, 196, D’Aragona, Tullia, 106–107 254 261, 290, 307, 321 D’Avalos, Francesco, 82 Combat of Carnival and Lent David (Donatello), 103 E (Brueghel, Pieter, elder), 55 David (Michelangelo Buonarroti), Commedia dell’arte, 84–85, 301 213, 214, 285 Earth-centered astronomical Communications, 76, 238, 262, 311 Davis, John, 119 theory, 33–34, 52, 87, 137, 160, Concini, Concino, 209 De Gournay, Marie le Jars, 98 179 Concordat of Vienna, 153, 185, De Pisan, Christine, 98 , 276 229 De Poitiers, Diane, 99, 208–209 Eastern Schism, 121, 240 Confraternities, 76, 85–86 De Soto, Hernando, 99–100 Economy, 13–15, 63, 77, 204, 212 Congregation for the Doctrine of De Vega, Lope, 100 See also Banking; Manufactur- the Faith, 165, 166 Death of the Miser (Bosch), 48 ing; Trade Congregation of the Holy Office, Death of the Virgin (Caravaggio), Edict of Beaulieu, 155 166, 244, 245 65 Edict of Nantes, 50, 51, 111, 156 Consistory of Geneva, 63 Decameron (Boccaccio), 12, 43, Edict of Worms, 102 Constantinople, 240 202, 257 Edicts of Faith and Grace, 166 fall of, 121, 145, 210, 222, 233, Decree of Alhambra, 145, 168, 306 Education, 30, 111–112, 128, 139, 256 Degli Atti, Isotta, 198 272 Copernicus, Nicolaus, 86–87, 165, Del Cano, Sebastian, 119 See also Universities 228, 271 Del Sartro, Andrea, 100–101, 134, The Education of a Christian Prince astronomical theories, 16, 33– 203, 253, 316 (Erasmus), 116 34, 52, 58, 69, 137–138, 179 Della Porta, Giambattista, 19 Edward IV (king, England), 48 De Copia Verborum (Erasmus), 112 Denmark, 297, 302, 303 Edward VI (king, England), 112, Corneille, Pierre, 301 Desau Bridge, Battle of, 303 113, 114, 147, 309 Coronado, Francisco, 119 Descartes, René, 204 Elcano, Juan Sebastian, 197 Correggio, 39, 88–89 D’Este, House of, 101–102, 125, Elegy of Lady Fiammetta Corsairs, 77, 253 323 (Boccaccio), 42 Cortes, Hernán, 89–91, 119 D’Este, Isabella, 101, 107, 125, 144, Elizabeth I (queen, England), 31, Corvinus, Matthias (king, 199, 248 45, 80, 112–114, 180, 243 Hungary), 15, 91, 161 Di Verona, Stefano, 254 defeat of Spanish Armada, 250, Council of Basel, 91–92, 117, 228, Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief 293 229, 255, 256 World Systems (Galilei), 138 Francis Bacon and, 37 Council of Blood, 124 Dialogues on the Infinity of Love Francis Drake and, 105, 106 Council of Constance, 44, 92, 146, (d’Aragona), 107 reign of, 16, 309 163 Dias, Bartolomeo, 118 Walter Raleigh and, 268 Council of Ferrara/Florence, 92 Diet of Augsburg, 102, 211 Elyot, Thomas, 114 Council of Pisa, 146, 162 Diet of Worms, 74, 102, 186, 191, England, 20, 29, 76, 80, 114–115, Council of Trent, 70, 74, 92–93, 192, 283 172 241, 243–245, 271, 273 DiscourseontheFirstTenBooksof Catholicism in, 59, 113, 114 Counter-Reformation. See Refor- Livy (Machiavelli), 195–196 civil wars, 48, 175, 216, 308

Greenhaven Encyclopedia of The Renaissance 343 Index

colonies, 115, 171, 267, 268 Emperor), 161, 250 257, 301, 313–314, 326 explorations, 61, 105–106, 118– Ferdinand I (king, Naples), 23, 24, Catholicism in, 50, 69, 132, 119, 154–155 123, 206 185, 267, 313 music, 114–115, 221 Ferdinand II (Holy Roman colonies, 66, 156, 308 Protestantism in, 59, 157–158, Emperor), 154, 302–303 explorations, 66, 119, 133, 134 219 Ferdinand II of Aragon (Ferdinand invasion of Italy, 153, 176, 273, Renaissance in, 15, 16, 288 V of Castile), 123–124, 145, 172 279, 318 theater, 288–289, 302 descendants, 73, 174 Protestantism in, 50–51, 132, trade, 307, 308 marriage, 16, 123, 157, 167, 174 193, 209, 272 war with Spain, 105–106, 113, support for Columbus, 83–84, Thirty Years’ War, 302–303 115 118 See also Huguenots; Hundred See also Church of England; See also Spanish Inquisition Years’ War; Italian Wars; Paris Hundred Years’ War; and in- Fernando, Alvarez de Toledo, 124– (France) dividual kings and queens 125 Francis I (Francois, king, France), Enlightenment, 88, 292 Ferrara (Italy), 112, 125, 241 27, 133–134, 155, 282, 313 Epistolae Familiares (Cereta), 71 Fiametta Amoroso (Boccaccio), 42 alliances, 185, 234, 296 Epitome of Copernican Astronomy Fibonacci, Leonardo, 203 patronage of artists, 15, 132 (Kepler), 179 Ficino, Marsilio, 126, 128, 160, 260 wars of, 99, 153, 157 The Equality of Men and Women Academy of Plato, 19, 185, See also Italian Wars (de Gournay), 98 205–206 Franco, Veronica (courtesan), 94, Erasmus, Desiderius, 115–117, 160, Neoplatonism, 227, 259 134–135 292 Field of the Cloth of Gold, 134, Franks, 241 influence of, 14, 159, 283, 331 327 Frederick III (Holy Roman patrons, 114, 201 Filocolo (Boccaccio), 42 Emperor), 35, 153, 229 Protestantism and, 163, 192, Filostrato (Boccaccio), 42–43 The Free Seas (Grotius), 148 271 First Blast of the Trumpet Against French (language), 12, 274 works of, 112, 158 the Monstrous Regiment of French Revolution, 50, 51 Essays (Bacon), 38 Women (Knox), 180 Fresco painting, 319 Essays (Montaigne), 217 First Book of Tuscan Works Frizer, Ingram, 202 Essex, Earl of, 37, 268 (Battiferra degli Ammannati), 40 Frobisher, Martin, 119 Estates General, 209 Flagellants, 126 Fugger, Jakob, 14, 135 Eugenius IV (pope), 91, 92, 117, The Flagellation (Piero della Fust, Johann, 151 286 Francesca), 252 Europe, modern, 16–17 Flemish school G See also individual European music, 220, 227 countries painting, 47, 314 Galen, 207, 208 Explorations, 117–119, 211–212, Florence (Italy), 12, 79, 126–128, Galilei, Galileo, 16, 19, 137–138, 290, 307, 308 279 260 English, 61, 105–106, 115, 118– academies, 19–20, 54, 126, 317 astronomical theories, 34, 69, 119, 154–155 architecture and art, 14, 28, 104, 179, 204 French, 66, 119, 133, 134 56–57, 128 condemnation of, 160, 166, 271 Portuguese, 82, 97, 117–119, banking, 245, 280, 308 influences on, 31, 88, 228 156–157, 196–197, 200, 290, humanism in, 126, 128, 206 Galindo, Beatriz, 138–139 308, 321 patronage of artists, 238 Galleons, 290 Spanish, 83–84, 99–100, 118– Renaissance in, 21, 52 The Garden of Earthly Delights 119, 123–124, 196, 261 republic of, 76, 168, 195, 281– (Bosch), 47–48 Expressionist style, 147 282, 295 Gargantua (Rabelais), 267 wars of, 117, 214, 215, 252 Genoa, 77, 307, 318 F Flow My Tears (Dowland), 105 Gentileschi, Artemisia, 139–140 Fontana, Lavinia, 128 Germany, 77–78, 80, 173, 263, 297, Fabriano, Gentile da, 254, 255 Fonte, Moderata, 129 307, 326 The Faerie Queene (Spenser), 115, Fonte Gaia (Siena), 265 Catholicism in, 271 268, 293, 294 Fornovo, Battle of, 75, 144, 199 Protestantism in, 102, 185–186, Farnese, Alessandro, 122, 201 Fortifications, 129, 190 192, 210, 246, 272 Farnese Palace, 28, 97, 244 Foscari, Francesco, 129–130 See also Luther, Martin; Thirty Fawkes, Guy, 171 Foscari, Jacopo, 130 Years’ War Feast of St. Herod (Donatello), 103 Foundling Hospital (Florence), 56 Gesualdo, Carlo, 140, 185, 221 Fedele, Cassandra, 122 Fouquet, Jean, 130 Ghent Altarpiece (van Eyck), 315 Felix V (antipope), 92, 117, 229 Fra Angelico, 128, 130–131 Ghettoes, 76, 140–141, 172–173 Ferdinand I (Holy Roman France, 16, 20, 29, 131–133, 172, Ghibelline faction, 25, 168, 291

344 Greenhaven Encyclopedia of The Renaissance Index

Ghiberti, Lorenzo, 102–103, 127, Holbein, Hans (the Younger), 114, 128, 265, 285, 311 H 158–159 Ghirlandaio, Domenico, 141–142, Habsburg dynasty, 135, 153–154, Holland, 148, 228, 325 190, 206, 213, 320 168, 200, 296 See also Netherlands Giorgione, 142, 304 fight against Protestantism, 15, Holy League, 153, 157, 176, 188– Giotto di Bondone, 12, 70, 142– 201, 325 189 144, 225 France and, 51, 309, 313 Holy Roman Empire, 44, 283, 318, Globe Theatre, 288–289, 302 territory, 34–35, 36, 161, 204– 323 La Gloria (Titian), 305–306 205, 222, 228, 234 invasion of Italy, 75, 213, 240, Gnomons, 307 Thirty Years’ War, 44, 276, 302– 279 Goito, Battle of, 145 303 Papacy and, 69, 101, 168, 169 Golden Horde. See Tatar dynasty Haec Sancta (Council of See also Habsburg dynasty; Gonzaga, Federigo, 200 Constance), 92 Sack of Rome Gonzaga, Francesco, 107, 199 Hakluyt, Richard, 154–155 Howard, Catherine, 158, 242 Gonzaga, Gianfrancesco, 144, 200 Handbook of the Militant Christian Hudson, Henry, 119 Gonzaga, House of, 144–145, 199– (Erasmus), 115 Huguenots, 50, 63, 111, 155–156, 200, 255, 323 Hanseatic League, 297 209, 272, 313 Hardy, Alexandre, 301 Gonzaga, Ludovico, 144, 145, 200 See also France, Protestantism Harmony of the World (Kepler), Gothic style, 28, 143, 203, 240, in 179 265, 284, 297 Humanism, 15–16, 114, 159–160, Harvey, William, 208 254 Granada (Sultanate), 123, 145–146, Hawkins, Sir John, 105, 106, 114 in art, 12–13, 21, 47, 109, 142, 167, 222 Heliocentric theory of astronomy, 238 Grand Testament (Villon), 322 33–34, 52, 58, 86–88, 137–138, Christianity and, 116, 159, 160, Gravity, 22, 34, 179 179 271–272 Great Northern War, 298 Henri II (king, France), 99, 132, in education, 111–112, 312 Great Passion (Dürer), 108 208–209, 313 Florentine, 126, 128, 206 Great Schism, 15, 51, 68, 146, 162, Henri III (king, France), 122, 155, Italian, 19, 169, 198 173 156, 209, 313 in literature, 16, 112, 189 origins, 69, 78 Henri IV (king, France), 50–51, origins, 57, 189 resolution, 91, 93, 229 111, 122, 133, 155–156, 209, 313– spread of, 75, 206 Greco, El, 146–147 314 Hundred Years’ War, 121, 212, 257, Henry IV (king, Castile), 167 Greece, ancient 313 Henry VII (Holy Roman architecture, 27, 175 end of, 26, 114, 131, 174 Emperor), 25 literature, 12, 77–78, 112, 160, Hungary, 91, 160–161, 233, 271, Henry VII (king, England), 48, 61, 185, 198, 301, 319 296 114, 219 mythology, 226, 235 Habsburg rule, 35, 205, 234, Henry VIII (king, England), 124, philosophy, 226–227 275 157–158 scholarship, 14, 16, 19 Hunyadi, Janos, 161 patronage of artists, 31, 114, Greek cross, 28 Hus, Jan, 44, 69, 91–92, 162–163, 158 Gregory XI (pope), 68, 146 240, 272 wives, 45, 95, 158, 242–243, Gregory XII (pope), 92 Hutten, Ulrich von, 163 308–309 Grey, Lady Jane, 147 See also Church of England; Gritti, Andrea, 147 Edward VI (king, England); I Grotius, Hugo, 147–149 Elizabeth I (queen, England); Gruet, Jacques, 63 Mary Tudor (queen, England) Iambi (Callimachus), 62 Grünewald, Matthias, 149 Henry of Guise, 155, 156 In Praise of Folly (Erasmus), 116, Guelph faction, 24–25, 101, 168, Henrythe Navigator, 35, 118, 156– 158 291 157, 261 Incan Empire, 257 Guicciardini, Francesco, 149–150 Heptameron (Marguerite of Index of Forbidden Books, 69, 88, Guilds, 76, 86, 127 Navarre), 202 116, 165, 244, 271, 272, 273 Gunpowder Plot, 59, 171 Hermes Trismegitus, 22, 58 Indulgences, sale of, 14, 23, 163, Gustav I Vasa (king, Sweden), 297 The History of Italy (Guicciardini), 185, 192, 240, 271 Gustavus Adolphus (king, 150 Martin Luther’s opposition to, Sweden), 297, 303, 316 History of the Florentine People 15, 86, 272 Gutenberg, Johannes, 32, 150–151, (Bruni), 57 De Indus (The Law of Prizes, 262 History of the Reformation in Scot- Grotius), 148 See also Printing land (Knox), 180–181 Industrial age, 63, 119 Hohenzollern dynasty, 263 See also Manufacturing

Greenhaven Encyclopedia of The Renaissance 345 Index

Innocent VIII (pope), 225, 251, Jerusalem Liberated (Tasso), 299, Lasso, Orlando di, 184–185 324 300 The Last Judgment (Michelangelo Inquisition, 34, 69, 76, 126, 138, Jesuits. See Society of Jesus Buonarroti), 215, 244, 247 165–166, 271, 273 Jews, 171–173 Last Supper (Leonardo da Vinci), See also Congregation of the conversion of, 145, 166, 168 188, 287 Holy Office; Spanish Inquisi- expulsion of, 123, 200 Latin (language), 12, 78, 112, 319 tion ghettoes, 76–77, 140–141, 244 Laurentian Library, 206, 215, 317 Institutes of the Christian Religion Luther’s writings on, 192–193 League of Cambrai, 176, 318 (Calvin), 62 Joan I (queen, Naples), 173, 225 League of Cognac, 134, 157, 279 Institutio Oratoria (Quintilian), Joan II (queen, Naples), 24 League of Evangelical Union, 302 111 Joan of Arc, 173–174, 313 The Legend of St. Ursula De inventione dialectica (On Dia- Joanna of Castile (the Mad, queen, (Carpaccio), 66 lectical Invention, Agricola), 20 Spain), 73, 124, 168, 174, 228 The Legend of the True Cross (Piero Isabella of Castile, 145, 167–168, Jodelle, Estienne, 301 della Francesca), 252 172 Johann Frederick I (elector), 94 Leibniz, Gottfried Wilhelm, 204 descendants, 73, 124, 174 John I (king, Portugal), 261 Leo X (pope), 13, 102, 185–186, marriage, 16, 123, 157 John II (king, Portugal), 35, 36, 83, 207 support for Columbus, 83–84, 118, 200 Leonardo da Vinci, 13, 53, 160, 118 John of Saxony, 219–220, 283 186–188, 208 See also Spanish Inquisition John XXII (pope), 92, 163 influence of, 16, 88, 100, 142, Islamic scholars. See Muslims John of Austria, 189 270, 274 Istanbul (Turkey). See Constanti- Jones, Inigo, 29, 174–175 influences on, 14, 141, 203, nople Jonson, Ben, 15, 302, 309 223, 320 Italian (language), 12, 26 Judith and Her Maidservant with patrons, 101, 107, 125, 132, Italian Wars, 73–75, 79–80, 124, the Head of Holfernes 134, 144, 287 131–132, 214, 313 (Gentileschi), 139–140 use of perspective, 15, 247 origins of, 125, 205, 207, 213, Judith and Holphernes (Donatello), Lepanto, Battle of, 122, 154, 188– 281 284–285 189, 234, 250, 304, 319 See also Pavia, Battle of Julius II (pope), 175–177, 318 Letters to the God of Love (de Italy, 19–20, 81, 86, 166, 168–169, conquests, 42, 46, 115–116, 241 Pisan), 98 241, 321 patronage of artists, 13, 53, Libavius, Andreas, 22 architecture and art, 28–29, 291 214–215 Library of Alexandria, 61–62 Habsburg Empire, 35, 201 Library of Corvina, 161 Holy Roman Empire, 240, 282, K Lilly, William (astrologer), 33 323 Lily, William (author), 114 humanism in, 19, 169, 198 Kalmar Union, 297 Linaiuoli Altarpiece (Fra Angelico), Jews in, 140–141, 172–173, 244 Kepler, Johannes, 33, 52, 179–180, 131 music, 221, 301 228 Lippi, Fra Filippo, 128, 206 Renaissance in, 11–17 astronomical theories, 34, 88, Literature, classical, 11–12, 16, 112, theater, 84–85, 301 204 160, 280, 288 trade, 307, 308 patrons, 44, 154, 276 revival, 34, 77–78, 128, 169 See also Sack of Rome; and Kiev (Russia), 276 See also Humanism, in litera- individual Italian cities Knight’s Revolt, 163 ture Ivan III (the Great, tsar, Russia), Knox, John, 180–181, 284 Lives (Vasari), 317 276 Kyd, Thomas, 302 Logic, 30 Ivan IV (the Terrible, tsar, Russia), Louis I (king, Hungary), 160–161, 276–277 173 L Louis II (king, Hungary), 161 J Labe, Louise, 183 Louis III (prince, Anjou), 24 The Ladies’ Grievance (de Louis XII (king, France), 27, 124, Jacquerie rebellion, 313 Gournay), 98 133, 176, 287, 313 James I of England (James VI of Ladies’ Peace. See Treaty of Camb- Louis XIII (king, France), 51, 156, Scotland), 114, 171, 283, 284, rai 209–210 309, 326 Lady in Her Bath (Clouet), 81 Louis XIV (king, France), 51, 111 Francis Bacon and, 37 Lais (Villon), 322 Louis XV (king, France), 51 Walter Raleigh and, 268–269 Lancaster, House of, 48, 114 Lovati, Lovato dei, 189 Jan II Kazimierz (king, Poland), Land of Cockaigne (Brueghel, Pi- Low Countries, 77, 133, 227, 272, 316 eter, elder), 55 302–303, 307 Janissaries, 234, 296 Las Casas, Bartolomée de, 183– rebellion in, 250, 271, 292–293, Jean of Anjou, 123 184, 292 325

346 Greenhaven Encyclopedia of The Renaissance Index

See also Netherlands Marguerite of Navarre, 201–202, 146, 274, 303, 305, 316–317 Lower classes, clothing, 80–81 282 influences on, 67, 141, 143, Loyola, Saint Ignatius, 166, 189– Marlowe, Christopher, 15, 202, 188, 203, 266 190, 271 302, 309 patrons, 23, 70, 128, 206, 244 Lucca (Italy), 79, 168, 190 Martin V (pope), 92, 146 sculpture, 214, 285 Luther, Martin, 44, 69, 114, 186, Mary, Queen of Scots, 113, 171, See also Sistine Chapel 190–193, 240, 246 284, 309 Microscopes, 208 Catholic opposition to, 74, 93, Mary of Burgundy, 200, 204 Middle Ages, 12, 57, 76, 159, 257, 102, 271 Mary of Guise, 180 260, 307 doctrines, 15, 62, 86, 116, 151, Mary Tudor (queen, England), architecture and art, 27, 28, 47, 272, 331 113, 114, 147, 243, 250, 308, 309 223, 238, 284, 285 followers, 54, 94, 109, 163, 210– Masaccio, 143, 202–203 confraternities, 85–86 211, 283 influence of, 12, 48, 67, 70, Italy during, 11, 168, 241 Lutzen, Battle of, 297, 303 128, 130 literature, 235, 262 Luxembourg Palace, 209 Massacre of the Innocents music, 220 Lyceum (Aristotle), 30 (Brueghel, Pieter, elder), 55 philosophy, 226–227, 251, 258, Mathematics, 16, 21, 179, 203–204, 271–272 247, 252 warfare, 129, 212 M Maximilian I (Holy Roman Middle class, 13, 79, 86, 111, 263, Emperor), 73, 153, 200, 204–205, 308 Machiavelli, Niccolo, 14, 46, 150, 287 Milan (Italy), 32, 76 190, 195–196, 212 Medicean Academy, 185 conquest of, 131, 133, 134, 169 Madonna del Sacco (del Sartro), Medici, Allesandro de’, 295 republic of, 287, 297 101 Medici, Cosimo de’, 12, 206, 287, rulers, 168, 303–304 Madonna Enthroned (Giotto di 291 wars, 117, 134, 157 Bondone), 143 patronage of artists, 19, 54, Milton, John, 15, 216–217, 235 Madonna of Loreto (Caravaggio), 126, 128, 150, 251, 316, 317 Mocenigo, Giovanni, 58 65 Medici, Giuliano de’, 206, 245 Mohacs, Battle of, 161, 222, 233, Madonna of the Rocks (Leonardo Medici, Lorenzo de’, 126, 141, 186, 296 da Vinci), 187–188 205–207, 245, 260, 281 Molière, 301 Madrigals, 185, 221 patronage of artists, 13, 213– Mona Lisa (Leonardo da Vinci), Magellan, Ferdinand, 106, 119, 214, 252 134, 186, 188, 270 196–197 Medici family, 168, 195, 205–207, Montaigne, Michel de, 13, 217 Magpie on the Gallows (Brueghel, 245–246, 260, 295 Montaperti, Battle of, 291 Pieter, elder), 55 banking, 14, 127, 203–204, 308 Montefeltro, Federigo da, 52, 217– Malatesta, Sigismondo Pandolfo, exiles, 150, 185, 208, 215 218 197–198, 218, 252 patronage of artists, 48–49, 160 Monteverdi, Claudio, 144, 218, Malleus Maleficarum (Hammer of Medicine, 14, 16, 207–208, 241– 221, 301 the Witches), 326 242, 258 Moors. See Muslims Mamluk dynasty, 221, 234 See also Plague More, Sir Thomas, 14, 160, 218– Mannerist style, 16–17, 29, 285 Médicis, Catherine de, 32, 50, 99, 219, 259, 271, 292 in painting, 54, 128, 238–239, 132, 155, 208–209, 231 Henry VIII and, 114, 158, 159 306, 319 Médicis, Marie de, 209–210, 275 Morgan, Henry, 254 Mantegna, Andrea, 41, 198–199 Mehmed II (sultan), 121, 210, 233 Morley, Thomas, 114–115 influence of, 53, 88, 108 Melanchthon, Philipp, 31, 32, 102, Moscow (Russia), 276 patrons, 107, 125, 144, 145 210–211 Mudejars, 146 Mantua (Italy), 32, 112, 144, 145, Memling, Hans, 211 Mughal Empire, 221–222 199–200 Mercator, Gerardus, 211–212, 233 Mühlberg, Battle of, 94, 124, 153, Manuel I (king, Portugal), 35–36, Mercenaries, 212–213, 313 219–220, 283, 305 118, 196, 200 Merchant class, 13, 77, 86, 140, Müller, Johann (Regiomontanus), Manueline style, 36, 261 211, 317–318 204 Manufacturing, 14, 63, 76–77, 119, Merchant of Venice (Shakespeare), Muntzer, Thomas, 246 307 172 Murad II (sultan), 210 See also Printing; Textile indus- Metamorphoses (Ovid), 77, 234 Museum (Alexandria), 61 try Mexico, 89, 90 Music, 114–115, 220–221, 227, Mapmaking, 211–212, 307 Michelangelo Buonarroti, 13, 100, 239, 301 Marburg Colloquy, 331 139, 213–216 Baroque, 58, 218 Margaret of Austria, 200–201, 205, architecture, 29, 53–54, 97, 273 Muslims, 145–146, 172, 221–222, 282 classical concepts, 14, 223, 227 292 Margaret of Parma, 201 influence of, 16, 26, 88–89, 140, conversion of, 145, 168, 222

Greenhaven Encyclopedia of The Renaissance 347 Index

scholarship, 12, 30, 203, 204 On Noble Customs (Vergerio), 111– Parnassus (Raphael), 269 See also Ottoman Empire 112 Parr, Catherine, 158, 242–243 Mysterium arcanum, 242 On the Laws of War and Peace Paul III (pope), 243–244, 271, 273 Mythology, 222–223, 226, 235, 238, (Grotius), 148–149 Paul IV (pope), 165, 244–245 265, 288 On the Revolutions (Copernicus), Pavia, Battle of, 82, 99, 124, 132, 87, 88 153, 157 Operas, 218, 221, 301 See also Treaty of Cambrai N Opus Paramirum (Paracelsus), 242 Pazzi Conspiracy, 206, 245–246 Oration on the Dignity of Man Naples (Italy), 42, 50, 140, 225–226 Peace of Alais, 111 (Pico della Mirandola), 160 Peace of Augsburg, 74, 102, 153, conquests, 23–24, 75, 123–124, Order of Aviz, 35 245, 302 169, 176, 279 Order of Discalced Sisters, 300, Peace of Lodi, 145, 198, 287 See also Papal States 301 Peace of Madrid, 74 Nation-states, 70 Order of Teutonic Knights, 263 Peace of Prague, 303 See also City-states, Italian; Re- Ordonez, Bartolomé, 225 Peace of Saint Germain, 209 publics Orellana, Francisco de, 119 Peace of Westphalia, 303, 316 Native Americans, 183–184, 244, L’Orfeo (Monteverdi), 218, 221 Peasant Dance;Peasant Wedding 292 Orisini family, 23, 206 Feast (Brueghel, Pieter, elder), 55 Naturalis Historia (Natural History, Orlando Furioso (Ariosto), 29, 107 Peasants War, 192, 246 Pliny the Elder), 259–260 Os Lusiades (Camoes), 63, 64 Penitential Brothers of Spain, 126 Navarre, 50, 73 Ottoman Empire, 147, 198, 222, Perseus Holding the Head of Me- Neapolitan style, 225 233–234, 253, 256, 296–297 dusa (Cellini), 71 Neoplatonism, 19, 49, 109, 126, conquests, 12, 77, 121, 145, Perspective, 15, 130, 188, 246–247, 205–206, 226–227, 258 161, 222, 319 284 Netherlands, 15–16, 78, 201, 204– defeat of, 154, 167, 189, 250, in architecture, 27, 56 205, 227–228, 250, 325 261 in painting, 21, 67, 198, 203, See also Flemish school; Hol- Ovid, 40, 77, 89, 189, 222, 234–235 238–239, 252, 306, 311, 319 land; Low Countries Oxford Calculators, 203 Perugino, 247–248, 270, 320 Nevsky, Alexander, 276 Peter the Great (tsar, Russia), 277 New Atlantis (Bacon), 38 Petrarch, 11, 77, 159–160, 189, New Laws (Charles V), 183–184 P 222, 248–249 New Spain. See Mexico Padua (Italy), 14, 189, 198, 208, 318 influence of, 40, 43, 128, 295 Newton, Sir Isaac, 22, 34, 204, 228, Paganism, 12, 49, 222–223, 238, Petrucci family, 291 260 265 Philip I (the Handsome, king, Nicholas V (pope), 78, 229, 273 Painting, 21, 47, 225, 237–239, Spain), 73, 174, 228 Nicholas of Cusa, 228 305, 314–315 Philip II (king, Spain), 26, 153– Nicopolis, Battle of, 161, 233 See also Ceiling painting; 154, 249–251 Ninety-five Theses, 102, 192, 283 Fresco painting; Oil painting; conquests, 36, 262 Ninfale Fiesolano (Boccaccio), 43 Perspective fight against Protestantism, Nobles, 13, 14, 76, 112, 140, 263 Palazzo Caprini, 53 271, 292, 300 Nogarola, Isotta, 229–230 Palestrina, Giovanni Pierluigi da, wars, 74, 106, 113, 115, 124, Normandy, 313 221, 239 245 Normans, 225 Palladio, Andrea, 27, 175, 239–240, Philosopher’s stone, 22 Nostradamus, 32, 230–231 319, 320 Philosophy, 237–238, 242 Novara, Battle of, 287 Pantagruel (Rabelais), 267 ancient, 14, 226–227 Novgorod (Russia), 276 Papacy, 68–70, 91, 240–241 medieval, 12, 226–227, 251, Núñez de Balboa, Vasco, 256 Holy Roman Empire and, 101, 258–259, 271–272 168, 169 natural, 30–31, 88, 115 O rejection of, 62, 165, 192, 271, new, 69, 109 272, 331 See also Humanism Oath of Supremacy, 104 threats to, 15, 256, 280, 281, Physicians, 207–208, 242 Ockeghem, Johannes, 220, 227 318 Physicists, 16 Of Learned Ignorance (Nicholas of See also Antipopes; Great Picardy (France), 205 Cusa), 228 Schism Piccinino, Jacopo, 123 Oil painting, 16, 238, 315 Papal States, 168, 173, 241, 245, Piccolomini, Enea Silvio, 35, 153 Ojeda, Alonso, 321 273 Pico della Mirandola, Giovanni, On Anatomical Procedures (Galen), Paracelsus, 241–242 128, 172, 185, 206, 251–252, 281 208 Paradise Lost (Milton), 216–217 philosophy of, 12, 33, 160, 227, On Architecture (Vitruvius), 27, Pare, Ambroise, 207 259 324 Paris (France), 76, 122, 133, 209 De Pictura (Alberti), 21

348 Greenhaven Encyclopedia of The Renaissance Index

Piero della Francesca, 52, 247, 252 Protestantism, 44, 62, 80–81, 116, reformers Piero di Cosimo, 252–253 228, 297 Reformed Church, 272, 331 La Pieta (Michelangelo English, 15, 59, 157–158, 219 Religion, 34, 128 Buonarroti), 214 French, 50–51, 132, 193 science and, 38, 87–88, 109, Pinakes (Lists, Callimachus), 61 German, 102, 185–186, 192, 160 Piracy, 77, 234, 253–254 210, 246, 272, 302–303 See also individual religions Pirckheimer, Willibald, 254 See also Church of England; Renaissance Pisanello, 225, 254–255 Huguenots; Reformation, Italian, 11–17 Pius II (pope), 123, 160, 198, 218, Protestant origin of term, 28, 317 255–256 Prussia, 263 The Republic (Plato), 258–259 Pius IV (pope), 93 Prutenic Tables, 33, 34 Republics, 13, 17 Pizarro, Francisco, 99, 119, 256– Przemyslid dynasty, 44 See also City-states, Italian; Flo- 257 Ptiscus, Bartholomaeus, 204 rence (Italy), republic of; Mi- Plague, 43, 126, 249, 257–258, 313 Ptolemy, 32 lan (Italy), republic of; Plato, 14, 222, 258–259 astronomical theories, 16, 33, Nation-states See also Neoplatonism 87, 137, 138, 179 The Resurrection of Lazarus Plays. See Marlowe, Christopher; maps, 212, 254 (Caravaggio), 65 Operas; Shakespeare, William; Ptolemy I (pharaoh, Egypt), 61 Revolt of the Comuneros, 174 Theater Publishing, freedom of, 216 Rheticus, George, 88 Pleiade group, 273, 274 See also Printing Riario, Girolamo, 286 Pliny the Elder, 259–260, 314 Puritans, 63, 171, 302 Richard III (king, England), 48, Plotinus, 226, 227 114, 308 Poitiers, Diane de, 208–209, 223 Q Richelieu, Cardinal Armand-Jean, Poland, 263, 271, 315–316 149, 210, 301 Politics, 13–14, 76, 86 Quercia, Jacopo della, 190, 265– Rococo period, 89 Poliziano, Angelo, 77, 128, 141, 266, 285, 291 Roman Inquisition. See Congrega- 260 Quintilian, 111 tion of the Holy Office Polyphonic music, 220, 221, 239 Romanov dynasty, 277 Porlinari, Beatrice, 25, 26 Rome (Italy), 272–273 Porphyry, 226 R Jews in, 141, 244 Porta Magna, 265–266 Rabelais, Francois, 160, 201, 223, restoration of, 11–12, 13, 29, Portugal, 166, 172, 260–262 267 177, 229, 244 colonies, 35–36, 64, 124, 157, Racine, Jean, 301 See also Sack of Rome 167–168, 222, 261–262, 292 Raleigh, Sir Walter, 267–269 Rome, ancient, 196, 265 epic poem of, 63, 64 Raphael, 53, 67, 68, 226, 269–271 architecture, 27, 175, 240 explorations, 82, 97, 117–119, influence of, 39, 88, 100, 273, fall of, 168, 169, 225, 241 156–157, 196–197, 200, 290, 274, 305, 316 literature, 77–78, 160, 185, 198, 308, 321 influences on, 188, 248 249, 301 wars, 148, 251 patrons, 23, 107, 125, 144, 185 Ronsard, Pierre de, 201, 223, 273– Prague (Bohemia), 44, 154, 162, De Re Aedificatoria (Leon Alberti), 274 276, 302 21 Rubens, Peter Paul, 209, 274–275 Predestination, 62, 63 Reconquista, 167 Rudolf II (Holy Roman Emperor), Presbyterian Church, 180, 284 Reformation, Catholic, 39, 85, 201, 154, 179, 275–276 Prez, Josquin des, 133, 220, 227 240–241, 243–246, 272–273, 301 Rudolff, Christoph, 204 Primavera (Botticelli), 49 architecture and art, 28, 128 Rudolphine Tables, 34, 179 The Prince (Machiavelli), 46, 195 See also Catholicism; Index of Russia, 234, 276–277, 298 Princes, 13, 16–17, 76 Forbidden Books; Inquisition; Russian Orthodox Church, 276 Printing, 12–13, 150–151, 204, 238, Thirty Years’ War 262–263 Reformation, Protestant, 15, 76, S classical scholarship and, 31, 86, 159, 240, 271–272 77–78, 222, 319 fight against, 69–70, 74, 93, Sack of Rome, 74, 98, 153, 169, 177, Protestant Reformation and, 166, 189–190, 243–245, 300– 273, 279 186, 272 301, 313 Sacred and Profane Love (Titian), Privateers, 253–254 origins, 92, 102, 151, 162, 190– 305 The Procession of the True Cross in 193, 283 Sacred Congregation of the Index, the Piazza San Marco (Gentile spread of, 54, 185, 186, 246, 165 Bellini), 40 273 Safavid dynasty, 221 Proclus, 226 See also Church of England; Saint Batholomew’s Day Massacre, Le Propheties (Nostradamus), 230 Protestantism; Thirty Years’ 50, 155, 209, 313 Prostitutes. See Courtesans War; and individual Protestant Saint Peter’s Basilica, 53, 97, 177,

Greenhaven Encyclopedia of The Renaissance 349 Index

215–216, 273 Sigismund (Holy Roman Sweden, 297–298, 302–303, 315– Salinas, Battle of, 256–257 Emperor), 92, 144, 161, 163, 228 316 Salutati, Coluccio, 280 Sigismund III Vasa (king, Sweden), Switzerland, 212, 272, 326 Sardinia, 241 316 Symphonies, 221 Savonarola, Girolamo, 127–128, Signorelli, Luca, 25 Syngramma Suevicum (Brenz), 54 207, 214, 230, 253, 280–282 Silk Road, 97, 117, 307, 317 followers, 39, 50, 251, 252 Siloé, Diego de, 225 T Savoy (France), 282 Simony, 272 Savoy, Louise of, 133, 201, 282–283 Sistine Chapel, 49, 143, 177, 185, Tallis, Thomas, 58, 59, 115 Saxony (Germany), 283 238, 247–248, 273 Tamburlaine the Great (Marlowe), Scheiner, Christoph, 34 See also Michelangelo Buonar- 202 Schiacciato technique, 103 roti Tartaglia, Niccolo, 204 Schmalkaldic League, 54, 74, 153, Sixtus IV (pope), 78, 166, 175, Tasso, Torquato, 125, 294, 299–300 219–220, 244, 283 176, 206, 218, 245, 273, 306 Tatar dynasty, 276 Schoeffer, Peter, 151 Sixtus V (pope), 273 Taxation, 13, 14, 77 Scholars/scholarship, 11–12, 14, Sixtus VI (pope), 32 Tears of St. Peter (Lasso), 185 19–20, 271–272 Sixty-Seven Articles, 331 Technology. See Manufacturing; See also Humanism; Muslims, Slavery, 156–157, 183–184, 229, Printing scholarship 291–292 Telescopes, 16, 34, 88, 137–138, The School of Athens (Raphael), Society of Jesus, 189–190, 244, 179, 204 270 271, 272, 329 The Tempest (Giorgione), 142 School of Fontainebleau, 133 Socrates, 258 Tempietto chapel, 53 Science, 15–16, 30, 38, 87–88, 109, Spain, 16, 50, 76–77, 80, 133, 308, Temple of San Francesco, 21, 198 160 318 The Temptation of St. Anthony Scientific investigation, 16, 69, 115, colonies, 74, 89–91, 167–168, (Bosch), 48 137, 207, 260 183–184, 222, 251, 256–257 Tenebrism, 65 religion and, 38, 128, 160 conquests, 226, 228, 325 Teresa of Avila, Saint, 166, 300–301 Scotland, 171, 180–181, 283–284, explorations, 83–84, 99–100, Tetrabiblios (Ptolemy), 32 326 118–119, 123–124, 196, 261 Textile industry, 79, 126, 190 Sculpture, 203, 284–285 expulsion of Jews, 172, 306 Theater, 84–85, 115, 288–289, 301– Scutage, 212 theater, 301–302 302 Sea Beggars, 124–125 unification, 16, 123, 157, 167, Thirty Years’ War, 15, 77, 263, 297, The Secret of the Universe (Kepler), 174, 222 302–303, 316 179 wars, 105–106, 113, 115, 262, origins, 44, 154, 246, 272, 276 Self-Portrait (Dürer), 108 303 Time of Troubles (Russia), 277 Sepúlveda, Juan Ginés de, 184 See also Italian Wars Tintoretto, Jacopo, 146, 190, 303– Servetus, Michael, 63 Spanish Armada, 253, 271, 290, 304, 319 Seymour, Jane, 45, 95, 158, 309 292–293 Tithes, 14, 69, 240 Sforza, Caterina, 285–286 defeat, 106, 113, 115, 154, 250– Titian, 142, 223, 303, 304–306 Sforza, Francesco, 145, 197, 286– 251, 309 influence of, 146, 319 287, 324 Spanish Inquisition, 123, 166, 168, patrons, 101, 107, 125, 144 Sforza, Giovanni, 46–47 172, 306–307 Torquemada, Tomás de, 306–307 Sforza, Ludovico, 53, 75, 101, 287– See also Inquisition Toscanelli, Paolo, 307 288 The Spanish Tragedy (Kyd), 302 The Tower of Babel (Brueghel, Pi- Sforza, Polissena, 197, 198 Spenser, Edmund, 15, 115, 235, eter, elder), 55 Sforza family, 168, 218, 285–288 268, 293–294 Town planning, 28–29 Sfumato technique, 187, 270 Spice Islands, 66, 83, 84, 97, 118– See also Cities Shakespeare, William, 172, 288– 119, 196, 197 Toxophilus (Ascham), 31 289, 302, 309 Sprenger, Jacob, 86 Trade, 63, 76–77, 119, 190, 203– iinfluence of, 15, 216 Stampa, Gaspara, 294–295 204, 307–308 iinfluences on, 43, 223, 235 De Stella Nova (Brahe), 52 Florentine, 238, 280 The Shepherd’s Calendar (Spenser), Stifel, Michael, 204 gold, 145, 156–157 293 Stonehenge, 175 international, 14, 200, 261 The Ship of Fools (Bosch), 48 Strozzi family, 291, 295 Portuguese, 35–36 Ships and shipbuilding, 117, 156, Stuart dynasty, 114, 171, 283, 284, spice, 118, 135, 222, 318 261, 289–291 309 See also Slavery See also Spanish Armada Suleiman (sultan), 233, 296–297 Transportation, 76, 238, 307 Sicily, 50, 168, 225, 226, 241 Surgeons, 207–208 See also Explorations; Ships Sickingen, Franz von, 163 Swabia (Germany), 153, 302 and shipbuilding Siena (Italy), 168, 291 Swabian War, 246, 254 Treaty of Arras, 174

350 Greenhaven Encyclopedia of The Renaissance Index

Treaty of Augsburg, 220 Urbino (Italy), 241 The Vision of St. John the Evange- Treaty of Basel, 205 Utopia (More), 219, 259 list on Patmos (Correggio), 89 Treaty of Cambrai, 74, 134, 201, The Vision of Trondalys (Bosch), 48 282 Vitruvius, 21, 27, 160, 169, 175, Treaty of Campo Formio, 319 V 240, 324 Treaty of Cateau-Cambrésis, 226, Valois dynasty, 133, 155, 208–209, Vladimir I (tsar, Russia), 276 250 225, 313–314 Vladislav II (king, Hungary), 161 Treaty of Crepy, 134 Van der Weyden, Rogier, 211, 314 Treaty of Lubeck, 303 Van Eyck, Jan, 16, 211, 227, 238, W Treaty of Madrid, 134 314–315 Treaty of Oliwa, 316 Van Hemessen, Catherine, 315 Waldseemüller, Martin, 321 War of Chioggia, 318 Treaty of Senlis, 205 De Varlerate Fortunae (Bracciolini), War of Religion, 155–156, 209, Treaty of Tordesillas, 118, 124, 168, 52 217, 313 196, 261 Vasa, House of, 315–316 War of the Roses, 48, 308 Treaty of Verger, 26 Vasari, Giorgio, 226, 254, 316–317 War of the Spanish Succession, 51 Treaty of Westminster, 124 Vatican City, 241 Warfare, 77, 129, 148–149, 212– Treaty of Westphalia, 297 Vatican Library, 78, 185, 229, 273 213, 290 Trigonometry, 204 Vega, Lope de, 301 See also specific battles and wars The Triumph of Death (Brueghel, Velázquez de Cuéllar, Diego, 89, 90 Wettin dynasty, 283 Pieter, elder), 55 Veleslavina, Daniel, 44 White Mountain, Battle of, 303 Troja, Battle of, 123 Venice (Italy), 14, 76, 81, 221, 317– Widman, Johann, 204 Truce of Ulm, 303 319 William I of Orange, 325 The True Law of Free Monarchy alliances, 279, 287 Wishart, George, 180 (James I), 171 art and architecture, 41, 66, Witchcraft, 63, 325–326 Tudor dynasty, 16, 48, 114, 308– 305, 319 Wolsey, Thomas, 219, 326–327 309 ghetto, 140–141, 172–173 Women Turks, 78, 91, 140, 147 printing industry, 151, 319 artists, 26, 128, 140, 315 See also Ottoman Empire trade, 147, 168, 307, 317–319 equality of, 98, 129, 139, 180, Tuscany (Italy), 241, 245, 291 wars, 77, 117, 125, 176 183 Twelve Articles, 246 Verantius, Faustus, 161 The Worth of Women (Fonte), 129 Two New Sciences (Galilei), 138 Vergerio, Pietro Paolo, 111–112 Veronese, Paolo, 319–320 Writers. See Literature Verrazano, Giovanni da, 119, 133 Wyatt, Sir Thomas, 113 U Verrocchio, Andrea del, 48, 186– Wyclif, John, 162 187, 203, 206, 247, 285, 320–321 Uccello, Paolo, 198, 247, 254, 255, Vesalius Andreas, 208 X 311 Vespucci, Amerigo, 118, 141, 321 Uffizi gallery, 317 Vienna (Austria), 35, 222, 234, 296 Xavier, Francis, 329 Union of Arras, 122 View of Toledo (Greco), 147 Union of Utrecht, 122, 324 Vikings, 83 United Provinces. See Netherlands Villon, Francois, 321–322 Y Universities, 14, 44, 283, 311–312 Virgil, 40, 199, 222 York, House of, 48, 114 University of Bologna, 14, 312 The Aeneid, 26, 77, 234, 283, University of Padua, 14, 198, 208 294, 299, 322–323 University of Paris, 311 The Virgin of the Rocks (Leonardo Z University of Prague, 44 da Vinci), 247 Zwingli, Huldrych, 159, 163, 240, Urban VI (pope), 68, 78, 146, 173 Visconti dynasty, 168, 323–324 246, 272, 331–332

Greenhaven Encyclopedia of The Renaissance 351 About the Author

Tom Streissguth has written more than 70 books of nonfiction for young people. His titles include Life Among the Vikings, Women of the French Revolution, Encyclopedia of the Middle Ages, and Eyewitness History: The Roaring Twenties. He has worked as an editor, journalist, and teacher, and has traveled widely in Europe, the Middle East, and Asia. He cur- rently lives in Florida.

352 Greenhaven Encyclopedia of The Renaissance About the Consulting Editor

Konrad Eisenbichler teaches Renaissance Studies at the University of Toronto. A past Director of the Centre for Reformation and Renaissance Studies (1990–2000), he has published widely and extensively on a vari- ety of subjects in early modern studies, from Michelangelo to Savon- arola, from teenagers to widows, from confraternities to theatre. His book, The Boys of the Archangel Raphael. A Youth Confraternity in Flo- rence, 1411–1785 (Toronto, 1998) won the Howard R. Marraro Prize awarded by the American Catholic Historical Association.

Greenhaven Encyclopedia of The Renaissance 353