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Islamic 1

The Islamic Golden Age is traditionally dated from the mid-8th to the mid- A.D. (sack of )[1] [2] although it has been extended by one scholar to at least the 15th century.[] During this period, artists, engineers, scholars, poets, , geographers and traders in the Islamic world contributed to agriculture, the arts, , industry, law, , , , , , and technology, both by preserving earlier traditions and by adding inventions and innovations of their own.[3] Howard R. Turner writes: "Muslim artists and , princes and laborers together made a unique culture that has directly and indirectly influenced on every continent."[3]

Foundations

During the Muslim conquests of the 7th and early 9th centuries, armies established the , or Islamic Empire, one of the largest empires in history. The Islamic Golden Age was soon inaugurated by the middle of the 8th century by the ascension of the and the transfer of the capital from to the newly founded city Baghdad. The Abbassids were influenced by Age of the Caliphs Expansion under , 622–632 Expansion the Qur'anic injunctions and such as during the , 632–661 Expansion during the "The ink of the scholar is more holy than the , 661–750 blood of martyrs" stressing the value of knowledge. During this period the became the unrivaled intellectual centre for , philosophy, and education as the Abbasids championed the cause of knowledge. They established the "House of in Baghdad, where scholars, both Muslim and non-Muslim, sought to gather and (ةمكحلا تيب:Wisdom" ( translate all the world's knowledge into Arabic in the Translation Movement. Many classic works of antiquity that would otherwise have been forgotten were translated into Arabic and later in turn translated into Turkish, Sindhi, Persian, Hebrew and . During this period the Muslim world was a cauldron of cultures which collected, synthesized and significantly advanced the knowledge gained from the ancient Mesopotamian, Roman, Chinese, Indian, Persian, Egyptian, North African, Greek and Byzantine . Rival Muslim dynasties such as the Fatimids of and the Umayyads of al-Andalus were also major intellectual centres with cities such as and Córdoba rivaling Baghdad.[4] According to , the Caliphate was the first "truly universal ," which brought together for the first time "peoples as diverse as the Chinese, the Indians, the people of the and , black Africans, and white Europeans."[5]

A major innovation of this period was paper – originally a secret tightly guarded by the Chinese. The art of was obtained from prisoners taken at the Battle of Talas (751), spreading to the islamic cities of Samarkand and Baghdad. The improved upon the Chinese techniques of using mulberry bark by using starch to account for the Muslim preference for pens vs. the Chinese for brushes. By AD 900 there were hundreds of shops employing scribes and binders for in Baghdad and even public began to become established, including the first lending libraries. From here paper-making spread west to Fez and then to al-Andalus and from there to in the 13th century.[6] Much of this learning and development can be linked to topography. Even prior to 's presence, the city of served as a center of trade in Arabia. The tradition of the pilgrimage to Mecca became a center for Islamic Golden Age 2

exchanging ideas and goods. The influence held by Muslim merchants over African-Arabian and Arabian-Asian trade routes was tremendous. As a result, Islamic civilization grew and expanded on the basis of its merchant economy, in contrast to their Christian, Indian and Chinese peers who built societies from an agricultural landholding nobility. Merchants brought goods and their faith to , , South-east Asia, and the kingdoms of Western Africa and returned with new inventions. Merchants used their wealth to invest in textiles and plantations. Aside from traders, Sufi also played a large role in the , by bringing their message to various regions around the world. The principal locations included: Persia, Ancient , and North Africa. Although, the mystics also had a significant influence in parts of Eastern Africa, Ancient Anatolia (), , East Asia and South-east Asia.[7] [8]

Ethics

Many medieval Muslim thinkers pursued humanistic, rational and scientific discourses in their search for knowledge, meaning and values. A wide range of Islamic writings on love, , history and philosophical show that medieval Islamic thought was open to the humanistic ideas of , occasional , skepticism and .[9] [10]

Religious freedom, though was still controlled under Islamic values, helped create cross-cultural networks by attracting Muslim, Christian and Jewish intellectuals and thereby helped spawn the greatest period of philosophical creativity in the Middle Ages from the 8th to 13th centuries.[4] Another the Islamic world flourished during this period was an early emphasis on freedom of speech, as summarized by al-Hashimi (a cousin of Caliph al-Ma'mun) in the following letter to one of the religious opponents he was attempting to convert through reason:[11] a Mughal girl with Parrot, scene from the "Bring forward all the arguments you wish and say whatever you Tuti-Nâma-Manuscript. please and speak your mind freely. Now that you are safe and free to say whatever you please appoint some arbitrator who will impartially judge between us and lean only towards the truth and be free from the empary of passion, and that arbitrator shall be Reason, whereby God makes us responsible for our own rewards and punishments. Herein I have dealt justly with you and have given you full security and am ready to accept whatever decision Reason may give for me or against me. For "There is no compulsion in " (Qur'an 2:256) and I have only invited you to accept our faith willingly and of your own accord and have pointed out the hideousness of your present belief. be upon you and the blessings of God!"

The earliest known treatises dealing with and environmental science, especially pollution, were Arabic treatises written by al-Kindi, al-Razi, Ibn Al-Jazzar, al-Tamimi, al-Masihi, , ibn Ridwan, Abd-el-latif, and Ibn al-Nafis. Their works covered a number of subjects related to pollution such as air pollution, water pollution, soil contamination, municipal solid waste mishandling, and environmental impact assessments of certain localities.[12] Cordoba, al-Andalus also had the first waste containers and waste disposal facilities for litter collection.[13] Islamic Golden Age 3

Institutions

A number of important educational and scientific institutions previously unknown in the ancient world have their origins in the early Islamic world, with the most notable examples being: the public (which replaced healing temples and sleep temples)[14] and ,[15] the public and lending library, the academic degree-granting university, and the astronomical observatory as a research institute[14] (as opposed to a private post as was the case in ancient times).[16]

The first universities which issued diplomas A manuscript written during the Abbasid Era. were the medical university- of the medieval Islamic world, where medical diplomas were issued to students of Islamic medicine who were qualified to be practicing doctors of medicine from the 9th century.[17] The Guinness of World Records recognizes the University of Al Karaouine in Fez, as the oldest degree-granting university in the world with its founding in 859 CE.[18] Al-Azhar University, founded in Cairo, Egypt in the 975 CE, offered a variety of academic degrees, including postgraduate degrees, and is often considered the first full-fledged university. The origins of the doctorate also dates back to the ijazat attadris wa 'l-ifttd ("license to teach and issue legal opinions") in the medieval Madrasahs which taught Islamic law.[19]

By the 10th century, Cordoba had 700 , 60,000 palaces, and 70 libraries, the largest of which had 600,000 books. In the whole al-Andalus, 60,000 treatises, poems, polemics and compilations were published each year.[20] The library of Cairo had two million books,[21] while the library of Tripoli is said to have had as many as three million books before it was destroyed by Crusaders. The number of important and original medieval Arabic works on the mathematical sciences far exceeds the combined total of medieval Latin and Greek works of comparable significance, although only a small fraction of the surviving Arabic scientific works have been studied in modern times.[22] For instance, Jamil Ragep, an of science from McGill University, says that 'less than 5% of the available material has been studied.'[23] Salim Al-Hassani states that 50,000 of the surviving manuscripts have been reviewed and that there are 5 million more manuscripts still awaiting review.[24] A Russian historian O. B. Frolova gives an idea of the numerical quantity of these manuscripts and works always findable: "The results of the Arab scholars' literary activities are reflected in the enormous amount of works (about some hundred thousand) and manuscripts (not less than 5 million) which were current... These figures are so imposing that only the printed epoch presents comparable materials"[25] A number of distinct features of the modern library were introduced in the Islamic world, where libraries not only served as a collection of manuscripts as was the case in ancient libraries, but also as a public library and lending library, a centre for the instruction and spread of sciences and ideas, a place for meetings and discussions, and sometimes as a lodging for scholars or boarding school for pupils. The concept of the library catalogue was also introduced in medieval Islamic libraries, where books were organized into specific genres and categories.[26] Several fundamental institutions may have been adapted from similar legal institutions in Islamic law and , and introduced to England by the Normans after the Norman conquest of England and the , and by Crusaders during the . In particular, the "royal English contract protected by the action of is identified with the Islamic Aqd, the English assize of disseisin is identified with the Islamic Islamic Golden Age 4

Istihqaq, and the English jury is identified with the Islamic Lafif." Other legal institutions introduced in Islamic law include the trust and charitable trust (),[27] [28] the agency and aval (),[29] and the lawsuit and medical peer review.[30] Other English legal institutions such as "the scholastic method, the license to teach," the "law schools known as Inns of Court in England and in Islam" and the "European commenda" (Islamic Qirad) may have also originated from Islamic law. These influences have led some scholars to suggest that Islamic law may have laid the foundations for "the common law as an integrated whole".[19]

Polymaths

Another common feature during the Islamic Golden Age was the large number of Muslim polymath scholars, who were known as "Hakeems", each of whom contributed to a variety of different fields of both religious and secular learning, comparable to the later " Men" (such as Leonardo da Vinci) of the European Renaissance period.[31] [32] During the Islamic Golden Age, polymath scholars with a wide breadth of knowledge in different fields were more common than scholars who specialized in any single field of learning.[31]

Notable medieval Muslim polymaths included al-Biruni, al-Jahiz, An illustration from al-Biruni's Persian book. It shows different phases of the moon. al-Kindi, Ibn Sina (Latinized: Avicenna), al-Idrisi, Ibn Bajjah, , , Ibn Rushd (Latinized: ), al-Suyuti,[33] Jābir ibn Hayyān,[34] ,[35] Ibn al-Haytham (Latinized: Alhazen or Alhacen),[36] Ibn al-Nafis,[37] ,[38] al-Khwarizmi, al-Masudi, al-Muqaddasi, and Nasīr al-Dīn al-Tūsī.[31]

Economy

Age of discovery

The Islamic Empire significantly contributed to globalization during the Islamic Golden Age, when the knowledge, trade and economies from many previously isolated regions and civilizations began integrating due to contacts with Muslim explorers, sailors, scholars, traders, and travelers. Some have called this period the "Pax Islamica" or "Afro-Asiatic age of discovery", in reference to the Southwest Asian and North African traders and explorers (though mostly , some were also Jewish Radhanites) who travelled most of the Old World, and established an early global economy[39] across most of Asia and Africa and much of Europe, Part of the map (1513) showing Europe and the Mediterranean Basin. with their trade networks extending from the Atlantic Ocean and in the west to the Indian Ocean and China Sea in the east.[40] This helped establish the Islamic Empire (including the Rashidun, Umayyad, Abbasid and Fatimid ) as the world's leading extensive economic power throughout the 7th–13th centuries.[39] Several contemporary medieval Arabic reports also suggest that Muslim explorers from al-Andalus and the may have travelled in expeditions across the Atlantic Ocean between the 9th and 14th centuries.[41] Islamic Golden Age 5

Agricultural

The Islamic Golden Age witnessed a fundamental transformation in agriculture known as the "Arab Agricultural Revolution".[42] Muslim traders enabled the diffusion of many crops and farming techniques between different parts of the Islamic world, as well as the adaptation of plants and techniques from beyond the Islamic world. Crops from Africa such as sorghum, crops from China such as citrus fruits, and numerous crops from India such as , cotton, and sugar cane, were distributed throughout Islamic lands which normally would not be able to grow these [43] Barley, oats, and some products made from them crops. Newly adopted crops combined with an increased mechanization of agriculture (see Industrial growth below) which led to major changes in economy, population distribution, vegetation cover,[44] agricultural production and income, population levels, urban growth, the distribution of the labour force, cooking and diet, clothing, and numerous other aspects of life in the Islamic world.[43]

During the Muslim Agricultural Revolution, sugar production was refined and transformed into a large-scale industry by the Arabs, who built the first sugar refineries and sugar plantations. The Arabs and Berbers diffused sugar throughout the Islamic Empire from the 8th century.[2] Muslims introduced cash cropping[45] and a crop rotation system in which land was cropped four or more times in a two-year period. Winter crops were followed by summer ones. In areas where plants of shorter growing season were used, such as spinach and eggplants, the land could be cropped three or more times a year. In parts of Yemen, wheat yielded two harvests a year on the same land, as did rice in .[43] Muslims developed a scientific approach to agriculture based on three major elements; sophisticated systems of crop rotation, highly developed irrigation techniques, and the introduction of a large variety of crops which were studied and catalogued according to the season, type of land and amount of water they require. Numerous detailed encyclopaedias on farming and were produced.

Market economy

Early forms of proto- and free markets were present in the Caliphate,[46] where an early market economy and early form of merchant capitalism was developed between the 8th–12th centuries, which some refer to as "Islamic capitalism".[47] A vigorous monetary economy was created on the basis of the expanding levels of circulation of a stable high-value (the dinar) and the integration of monetary areas that were previously independent. Business techniques and forms of business organisation employed during this time included early contracts, bills of exchange, long-distance international trade, early forms of partnership (mufawada) such as limited partnerships (mudaraba), and early forms of credit, debt, profit, loss, capital (al-mal), capital accumulation Silver of the Umayyad Caliphate, minted [45] (nama al-mal), circulating capital, capital expenditure, revenue, at in AH 111 (730 AD) Islamic Golden Age 6

cheques, promissory notes,[48] trusts (waqf), savings accounts, transactional accounts, pawning, loaning, exchange rates, bankers, changers, ledgers, deposits, assignments, the double-entry bookkeeping system,[49] and lawsuits.[30] Organizational enterprises independent from the state also existed in the medieval Islamic world.[50] [51] Many of these early proto-capitalist concepts were further advanced in medieval Europe from the 13th century onwards.[45]

When civilization [population] increases, the available labor again increases. In turn, luxury again increases in correspondence with the increasing profit, and the customs and needs of luxury increase. Crafts are created to obtain luxury products. The value realized from them increases, and, as a result, profits are again multiplied in the town. Production there is thriving even more than before. And so it goes with the second and third increase. All the additional labor serves luxury and wealth, in contrast to the original labor that served the [52] necessity of life.

Ibn Khaldun on economic growth

[52] Businesses owned by responsible and organized merchants shall eventually surpass those owned by wealthy rulers.

Ibn Khaldun on economic growth and the ideals of

The systems of contract relied upon by merchants was very effective. Merchants would buy and sell on commission, with money loaned to them by wealthy investors, or a joint investment of several merchants, who were often Muslim, Christian and Jewish. Recently, a collection of documents was found in an Egyptian synagogue shedding a very detailed and light on the life of medieval Middle Eastern merchants. Business partnerships would be made for many commercial ventures, and bonds of kinship enabled trade networks to form over huge distances. Networks developed during this time enabled a world in which money could be promised by a in Baghdad and cashed in . Each time items passed through the cities along this extraordinary network, the city imposed a tax, resulting in high prices once reaching the final destination. These innovations made by Muslims and laid the foundations for the modern economic system. Though medieval appears to have been closer to proto-capitalism, some scholars have also found a number of parallels between Islamic economic jurisprudence and , including the Islamic ideas of and . Islamic Golden Age 7

Industrial growth Further information: Muslim Agricultural Revolution: Industrial growth and Inventions in the Muslim world , tidal power, and wind power were used to power mills and factories.[53] Limited use was also made of fossil fuels such as petroleum. The industrial use of watermills in the Islamic world dates back to the 7th century, while horizontal-wheeled and vertical-wheeled water mills were both in widespread use since at least the 9th century. A variety of industrial mills were being employed in the Islamic world, including early fulling mills, gristmills, hullers, sawmills, shipmills, stamp mills, steel mills, sugar mills, tide mills and windmills.

By the , mills operated throughout the Islamic world, from al-Andalus and North Africa to the Middle East and Central Asia.[54] Muslim engineers also invented crankshafts and water turbines, employed gears in mills and water-raising , and pioneered the use of dams as sources of water power, used to provide additional power to watermills and water-raising machines.[2] Such advances Diagram of a hydropowered water-raising made it possible for many industrial tasks that were previously driven from The Book of Knowledge of by manual labour in ancient times to be mechanized and driven by Ingenious Mechanical Devices by Al-Jazari in machinery instead in the medieval Islamic world. The transfer of these 1206. technologies to medieval Europe had an influence on the Industrial Revolution.[55]

Established industries active during this period included astronomical instruments, ceramics, chemicals, distillation technologies, clocks, glass, mechanical hydropowered and wind powered machinery, matting, mosaics, pulp and paper, perfumery, petroleum, pharmaceuticals, rope-making, shipping, shipbuilding, silk, sugar, textiles, water, weapons, and the mining of minerals such as sulphur, ammonia, lead and iron. Knowledge of these industries were later transmitted to medieval Europe, especially during the Latin translations of the . For example, the first glass factories in Europe were founded in the 11th century by Egyptian craftsmen in .[56] The agricultural and handicraft industries also grew during this period.[40] Islamic Golden Age 8

Labor Further information: Muslim Agricultural Revolution – Labour The labour force in the Caliphate were employed from diverse ethnic and religious backgrounds, while both men and women were involved in diverse occupations and economic activities.[57] Women were employed in a wide range of commercial activities and diverse occupations[58] in the primary sector (as farmers for example), secondary sector (as construction workers, dyers, spinners, etc.) and tertiary sector (as investors, doctors, nurses, presidents of guilds, brokers, peddlers, lenders, scholars, etc.).[59] Muslim women also had a monopoly over certain branches of the textile industry.[58]

Slaves occupied an important place in the economic life of Islamic world.[60] [61] Large numbers of slaves were exported from eastern Africa to work in salt mines and labour-intensive plantations; the best evidence for this is the magnitude of the Zanj revolt in Iraq in the 9th century.[62] Slaves were also used for domestic work,[63] service,[64] and civil administration.[65] Central and Eastern European slaves were generally known as Saqaliba (i.e. Slavs), while slaves from Abbasid coins during Central Asia and the Caucasus were often known as .[66] Al-Mu'tamid's reign

Technology

A significant number of inventions were produced by medieval Muslim engineers and inventors, such as Abbas Ibn Firnas, the Banū Mūsā, Taqi al-Din, and most notably al-Jazari. Some of the inventions believed to have come from the Islamic Golden Age include the , coffee, , tooth paste, shampoo, pure distillation, distilled alcohol, uric acid, , alembic, valve, reciprocating suction piston pump, mechanized The programmable automata of al-Jazari. waterclocks, quilting, , bone saw, forceps, surgical catgut, vertical-axle windmill, inoculation, vaccine, fountain pen, cryptanalysis, frequency analysis, three-course meal, stained glass and quartz glass, Persian carpet, and celestial .[67] Islamic Golden Age 9

Urbanization

As urbanization increased, Muslim cities grew unregulated, resulting in narrow winding city streets and neighbourhoods separated by different ethnic backgrounds and religious affiliations. These qualities proved efficient for transporting goods to and from major commercial centres while preserving the privacy valued by Islamic family life. Suburbs lay just outside the walled city, from wealthy residential communities, to working class semi-slums. City garbage dumps were located far from the city, as were clearly defined cemeteries which were often homes for criminals. A place of prayer was found just near one of the main The battle of Baghdad, 1258 gates, for religious festivals and public executions. Similarly, military training grounds were found near a main gate.

Muslim cities also had advanced domestic water systems with sewers, public baths, drinking fountains, piped drinking water supplies,[68] and widespread private and public toilet and bathing facilities.[69] By the 10th century, Cordoba had 700 mosques, 60,000 palaces, and 70 libraries.[20] The demographics of medieval Islamic society varied in some significant aspects from other agricultural societies, including a decline in birth rates as well as a change in . Other traditional agrarian societies are estimated to have had an average life expectancy of 20 to 25 years,[70] while ancient Rome and medieval Europe are estimated at 20 to 30 years.[71] The life expectancy of Islamic society diverged from that of other traditional agrarian societies, with several studies on the lifespans of Islamic scholars concluding that members of this occupational group enjoyed a life expectancy between 69 and 75 years.[72] Such studies have given the following estimates for the average lifespans of religious scholars at various times and places: 72.8 years in the Middle East, 69–75 years in 11th century Islamic Spain,[73] 75 years in 12th century Persia,[74] and 59–72 years in 13th century Persia.[75] However, Maya Shatzmiller considers these religious scholars to be a misleading sample who are not representative of the general population.[76] Conrad I. Lawrence estimates the average lifespan in the early Islamic Caliphate to be above 35 years for the general population.[77] The early Islamic Empire also had the highest literacy rates among pre-modern societies, alongside the city of classical Athens in the 4th century BC,[78] and later, China after the introduction of from the 10th century.[79] One factor for the relatively high literacy rates in the early Islamic Empire was its parent-driven educational marketplace, as the state did not systematically subsidize educational services until the introduction of state funding under Nizam al-Mulk in the 11th century.[80] Another factor was the diffusion of paper from China,[81] which led to an efflorescence of books and written culture in Islamic society, thus papermaking technology transformed Islamic society (and later, the rest of Afro-Eurasia) from an oral to scribal culture, comparable to the later shifts from scribal to typographic culture, and from typographic culture to the Internet.[82] Other factors include the widespread use of paper books in Islamic society (more so than any other previously existing society), the study and memorization of the Qur'an, flourishing commercial activity, and the emergence of the Maktab and Madrasah educational institutions.[83] Islamic Golden Age 10

Sciences The traditional view of Islamic science was that it was chiefly a preserver and transmitter of ancient knowledge.[84] For example, Donald Lach argues that modern science originated in Europe as an amalgam of and Greek learning.[85] These views have been disputed in recent times, with some scholars suggesting that Muslim scientists laid the foundations for modern science,[86] [87] [88] [89] [90] for their development of early scientific methods and an empirical, experimental and quantitative approach to scientific .[91] Some scholars have referred to this period as a "Muslim ",[92] [93] [94] [95] a term which expresses the view that Islam was the driving force behind the Muslim scientific achievements,[96] and should not to be confused with the early modern European Scientific Revolution leading to the rise of modern science.[97] [98] [99] Edward Grant argues that modern science was due to the cumulative efforts of the Hellenic, Islamic and Latin civilizations.[100]

Scientific method Further information: Islamic science: Early scientific methods were developed in the Islamic world, where significant progress in methodology was made, especially in the works of Ibn al-Haytham (Alhazen) in the 11th century, who is considered the pioneer of experimental .[91] [101] The most important development of the scientific method was the use of experimentation and quantification to distinguish between competing scientific theories set within a generally empirical orientation. Ibn al-Haytham (Alhazen) wrote the Book of , in which he significantly reformed the field of optics, empirically proved that vision occurred because of light rays entering the , and invented the camera obscura to demonstrate the physical nature of light rays.[102] [103]

Ibn al-Haytham has also been described as the "first " for his introduction of the scientific method,[104] and his pioneering work on the psychology of visual [105] [106] is considered a precursor to psychophysics and experimental psychology.[107] Mustansiriya University in Baghdad

Peer review

The earliest medical peer review, a process by which a committee of investigate the medical care rendered in order to determine whether accepted standards of care have been met, is found in the Ethics of the written by Ishaq bin Ali al-Rahwi (854–931) of al-Raha in . His work, as well as later Arabic medical manuals, state that a visiting physician must always make duplicate notes of a 's condition on every visit. When the patient was cured or had died, the notes of were examined by a local medical council of other physicians, who would review the practising physician's notes to decide whether his/her performance have met the required standards of medical care. If their reviews were negative, the practicing physician could face a lawsuit from a maltreated patient.[30]

The first scientific peer review, the evaluation of research findings for competence, significance and originality by qualified experts, was described later in the Medical Essays and published by the Royal Society of Edinburgh in 1731. The present-day scientific peer review system evolved from this 18th century process.[108] Islamic Golden Age 11

Astronomy Some have referred to the achievements of the Maragha school and their predecessors and successors in as a "Maragha Revolution", "Maragha School Revolution" or "Scientific Revolution before the Renaissance".[92] Advances in astronomy by the Maragha school and their predecessors and successors include the construction of the first observatory in Baghdad during the reign of Caliph al-Ma'mun,[109] the collection and correction of previous astronomical data, resolving significant problems in the Ptolemaic model, the development of universal ,[110] the invention of numerous other astronomical instruments, the beginning of and celestial after Ja'far Muhammad ibn Mūsā ibn Shākir discovered that the heavenly bodies and were subject to the same physical laws as Earth,[111] the first elaborate experiments related to astronomical phenomena, the use of exacting empirical observations and experimental techniques,[112] the discovery that the celestial spheres are not solid and that the heavens are less dense than the air by Ibn al-Haytham,[113] the separation of natural philosophy from astronomy by Ibn al-Haytham and Ibn al-Shatir,[114] the first non-Ptolemaic models by Ibn al-Haytham and Mo'ayyeduddin Urdi, the rejection of the Ptolemaic model on empirical rather than philosophical grounds by Ibn al-Shatir,[92] the first empirical observational evidence of the Earth's rotation by Nasīr al-Dīn al-Tūsī and Ali al-Qushji, and al-Birjandi's early hypothesis on "circular ."[115] Several Muslim astronomers also considered the possibility of the Earth's rotation on its axis and perhaps a heliocentric solar system.[89] [116] It is known that the Copernican heliocentric model in ' De revolutionibus was adapted from the of Ibn al-Shatir and the Maragha school (including the Tusi-couple) in a heliocentric context,[117] and that his arguments for the Earth's rotation were similar to those of Nasīr al-Dīn al-Tūsī and Ali al-Qushji.[115]

Chemistry

Jābir ibn Hayyān (Geber) is considered a pioneer of ,[118] [119] as he was responsible for introducing an early experimental scientific method within the field, as well as the alembic, still, retort,[67] and the chemical processes of pure distillation, filtration, sublimation,[120] liquefaction, crystallisation, purification, oxidisation and evaporation.[67]

The alchemists' claims about the transmutation of metals were rejected by al-Kindi,[121] followed by Abū Rayhān al-Bīrūnī,[122] Avicenna,[123] and Ibn Khaldun. In his Doubts about , al-Razi was the first to prove both 's theory of classical elements and Galen's theory of false using an experimental method. Nasīr al-Dīn al-Tūsī Tin-glazed Hispano-Moresque ware with lusterware decoration, from Spain circa 1475. stated an early version of the law of conservation of mass, noting that a body of matter is able to change, but is not able to disappear.[124] Alexander von Humboldt and Will Durant consider medieval Muslim chemists to be founders of chemistry.[87] [89] Islamic Golden Age 12

Mathematics

Among the achievements of Muslim mathematicians during this period include the development of and algorithms by the Persian and Islamic mathematician Muhammad ibn Mūsā al-Khwārizmī,[125] [126] the invention of spherical ,[127] the addition of the decimal point notation to the , the invention of all the besides sine, al-Kindi's introduction of cryptanalysis and frequency analysis, al-Karaji's introduction of algebraic calculus and proof by mathematical induction, the development of analytic and the earliest general formula for infinitesimal and integral calculus by Ibn al-Haytham, the beginning of An illustration of patterned tiles, found in dating back over five algebraic geometry by Khayyam, the first refutations of centuries ago. These featured the first Euclidean geometry and the parallel postulate by Nasīr al-Dīn al-Tūsī, patterns and self-similar fractal quasicrystalline the first attempt at a non-Euclidean geometry by Sadr al-Din, the tilings. development of symbolic algebra by Abū al-Hasan ibn Alī al-Qalasādī,[128] and numerous other advances in algebra, , calculus, cryptography, geometry, number theory and trigonometry.

Medicine

Islamic medicine was a genre of medical writing that was influenced by several different medical systems. The works of ancient Greek and Roman physicians , Dioscorides, Soranus, Celsus and Galen had a lasting impact on Islamic medicine.[129] [130] [131] Muslim physicians made many significant contributions to medicine in the fields of , experimental medicine, , , the pharmaceutical sciences, physiology, , etc. They also set up some of the earliest dedicated hospitals,[132] including the first medical schools[133] and psychiatric hospitals.[134] Al-Kindi wrote the , in which he first demonstrated the application of quantification and to medicine and , such as a mathematical scale to quantify the strength of drugs and the determination in advance of the most critical days of a patient's [135] illness. Al-Razi (Rhazes) discovered and smallpox, and in An Arabic manuscript describing the eye, dating his Doubts about Galen, proved Galen's humorism false. back to the 12th century

Abu al-Qasim (Abulcasis) helped lay the foudations for modern surgery,[136] with his Kitab al-Tasrif, in which he invented numerous surgical instruments, including the first instruments unique to women,[137] as well as the surgical uses of catgut and forceps, the ligature, surgical needle, scalpel, curette, retractor, surgical spoon, sound, surgical hook, surgical rod, and specula, and bone saw.[67] Ibn al-Haytham (Alhacen) made important advances in eye surgery, as he correctly explained the process of sight and for the first time in his .[137] Ibn Sina (Avicenna) helped lay the foundations for modern medicine,[138] with , which was responsible for the discovery of contagious disease, introduction of quarantine to limit their spread, introduction of experimental medicine, evidence-based medicine, clinical trials,[139] randomized controlled trials,[140] [141] efficacy tests,[142] [143] and clinical pharmacology,[144] the first descriptions on bacteria and viral organisms,[145] distinction Islamic Golden Age 13

of mediastinitis from pleurisy, contagious nature of , distribution of diseases by water and soil, skin troubles, sexually transmitted diseases, perversions, nervous ailments,[132] use of ice to treat fevers, and separation of medicine from pharmacology.[137] Ibn Zuhr (Avenzoar) was the earliest known experimental .[146] In the 12th century, he was responsible for introducing the experimental method into surgery, as he was the first to employ animal testing in order to experiment with surgical procedures before applying them to human .[147] He also performed the first and postmortem on as well as animals.[148] Ibn al-Nafis laid the foundations for circulatory physiology,[149] as he was the first to describe the [150] and coronary circulation,[151] [152] which form the basis of the , for which he is considered "the greatest physiologist of the Middle Ages."[153] He also described the earliest concept of metabolism,[154] and developed new systems of physiology and psychology to replace the Avicennian and Galenic systems, while discrediting many of their erroneous theories on humorism, pulsation,[155] bones, muscles, intestines, sensory organs, bilious canals, esophagus, stomach, etc.[156] Ibn al-Lubudi rejected the theory of humorism, and discovered that the body and its preservation depend exclusively upon blood, women cannot produce sperm, the movement of arteries are not dependent upon the movement of the heart, the heart is the first organ to form in a fetus' body, and the bones forming the skull can grow into tumors.[157] Ibn Khatima and Ibn al-Khatib discovered that infectious diseases are caused by microorganisms which enter the human body.[158] Mansur ibn Ilyas drew comprehensive diagrams of the body's structural, nervous and circulatory systems.[3]

Physics

The study of began with Ibn al-Haytham,[159] a pioneer of modern optics, who introduced the experimental scientific method and used it to drastically transform the understanding of light and vision in his Book of Optics, which has been ranked alongside 's Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica as one of the most influential books in the ,[160] for initiating a scientific revolution in optics[161] and visual perception.[162]

The experimental scientific method was soon introduced into mechanics by Biruni,[163] and early precursors to Newton's laws of motion were discovered by several Muslim scientists. The law of inertia, known as Newton's first law of motion, and the concept of momentum were discovered by Ibn al-Haytham (Alhacen)[164] [165] and Avicenna.[166] [167] The proportionality between force and acceleration, considered "the fundamental law of classical mechanics" A page of 's manuscript showing his and foreshadowing Newton's second law of motion, was discovered by discovery of the law of refraction (Snell's law). Hibat Abu'l-Barakat al-Baghdaadi,[168] while the concept of reaction, foreshadowing Newton's third law of motion, was discovered by Ibn Bajjah ().[169] Theories foreshadowing Newton's law of universal gravitation were developed by Ja'far Muhammad ibn Mūsā ibn Shākir,[170] Ibn al-Haytham,[171] and al-Khazini.[172] 's mathematical treatment of acceleration and his concept of impetus[173] was enriched by the commentaries of Avicenna[166] and Ibn Bajjah to Aristotle's Physics as well as the Neoplatonic tradition of Alexandria, represented by John Philoponus.[174] Islamic Golden Age 14

Other sciences Many other advances were made by Muslim scientists in biology (anatomy, botany, , physiology and zoology), the earth sciences (, cartography, geodesy, geography and geology), psychology (experimental psychology, , psychophysics and psychotherapy), and the social sciences (, economics, sociology, history and ). Other famous Muslim scientists during the Islamic Golden Age include al-Farabi (a polymath), Biruni (a polymath who was one of the earliest anthropologists and a pioneer of geodesy),[175] Nasīr al-Dīn al-Tūsī (a polymath), and Ibn Khaldun (considered to be a pioneer of several social sciences[176] such as demography,[177] economics,[178] cultural history,[179] historiography[180] and sociology),[181] among others.

Other achievements

Architecture

The Great of Xi'an in China was completed circa 740, and the Great Mosque of in Iraq was completed in 847. The Great Mosque of Samarra combined the architecture of rows of columns supporting a flat base above which a huge spiraling was constructed. The Spanish Muslims began construction of the Great Mosque at Cordoba in 785 marking the beginning of Islamic architecture in Spain and Northern Africa (see ). The mosque is noted for its striking interior arches. reached its peak with the Selimiye Mosque, built by Mimar Sinan in 1575. , Turkey. construction of the , the magnificent palace/fortress of , with its open and breezy interior spaces adorned in red, blue, and gold. The walls are decorated with stylized foliage motifs, Arabic inscriptions, and design work, with walls covered in glazed tiles.

Another distinctive sub-style is the architecture of the Mughal Empire in India in the 15–17th centuries. Blending Islamic and Hindu elements, the emperor Akbar constructed the royal city of Fatehpur Sikri, located 26 miles (42 km) west of Agra, in the late 1500s and his grandson Shah Jahan had constructed the mausoleum of Taj for Mumtaz Mahal in the 1650s, though this time period is well after the Islamic Golden Age. In the Sunni Muslim massive mosques with ornate tiles and were constructed by a series of sultans including the Süleymaniye Mosque , Sultanahmet Mosque, Selimiye Mosque, and Bayezid II Mosque Islamic Golden Age 15

Arts

The golden age of Islamic (and/or Muslim) art lasted from 750 to the 16th century, when ceramics, glass, metalwork, textiles, illuminated manuscripts, and woodwork flourished. Lustrous glazing was an Islamic contribution to ceramics. Islamic luster-painted ceramics were imitated by Italian potters during the Renaissance. Manuscript illumination developed into an important and greatly respected art, and portrait miniature painting flourished in Persia. Calligraphy, an essential aspect of written Arabic, developed in manuscripts and architectural decoration.

Literature

The most well known fiction from the Islamic world was The Book of One Thousand and One Nights (Arabian Nights), which was a An Arabic manuscript from the 13th century compilation of many earlier folk tales told by the Persian Queen depicting (Soqrāt) in discussion with his pupils. . The epic took form in the 10th century and reached its final form by the 14th century; the number and type of tales have varied from one manuscript to another.[182] All Arabian fantasy tales were often called "Arabian Nights" when translated into English, regardless of whether they appeared in The Book of One Thousand and One Nights, in any version, and a number of tales are known in Europe as "Arabian Nights" despite existing in no Arabic manuscript.[182]

This epic has been influential in the West since it was translated in the 18th century, first by Antoine Galland.[183] Many imitations were written, especially in France.[184] Various characters from this epic have themselves become cultural icons in , such as , Sinbad and Ali Baba. However, no medieval Arabic source has been traced for Aladdin, which was incorporated into The Book of One Thousand and One Nights by its French translator, Antoine Galland, who heard it from an Arab Syrian Christian storyteller from . Part of its popularity may have sprung from the increasing historical and geographical knowledge, so that places of which little was known and so marvels were plausible had to be set further "long ago" or farther "far away"; this is a process that continues, and finally culminate in the fantasy world having little connection, if any, to actual times and places. A number of elements from Arabian mythology and Persian mythology are now common in modern fantasy, such as "Ali Baba" by Maxfield Parrish. genies, bahamuts, magic carpets, magic lamps, etc.[184] When L. Frank Baum proposed writing a modern fairy tale that banished stereotypical elements, he included the genie as well as the dwarf and the fairy as stereotypes to go.[185]

Ferdowsi's , the national epic of , is a mythical and heroic retelling of Persian history. Amir Arsalan was also a popular mythical Persian story, which has influenced some modern works of fantasy fiction, such as The Heroic Legend of Arslan. A famous example of and Persian poetry on romance (love) is and Majnun, dating back to the Umayyad era in the 7th century. It is a tragic story of undying love much like the later Romeo and Juliet, which was itself said to have been inspired by a Latin version of Layli and Majnun to an extent.[186] Islamic Golden Age 16

Ibn Tufail (Abubacer) and Ibn al-Nafis were pioneers of the philosophical novel. Ibn Tufail wrote the first fictional Arabic novel (Philosophus Autodidactus) as a response to al-Ghazali's The Incoherence of the Philosophers, and then Ibn al-Nafis also wrote a novel Theologus Autodidactus as a response to Ibn Tufail's Philosophus Autodidactus. Both of these narratives had protagonists (Hayy in Philosophus Autodidactus and Kamil in Theologus Autodidactus) who were autodidactic feral children living in seclusion on a , both being the earliest examples of a desert island story. However, while Hayy lives alone with animals on the desert island for the rest of the story in Philosophus Autodidactus, the story of Kamil extends beyond the desert island setting in Theologus Autodidactus, developing into the earliest known coming of age plot and eventually becoming the first example of a science fiction novel.[154] [187] Theologus Autodidactus, written by the Arabian polymath Ibn al-Nafis (1213–1288), is the first example of a science fiction novel. It deals with various science fiction elements such as , futurology, the end of the world and doomsday, resurrection, and the . Rather than giving supernatural or mythological explnations for these events, Ibn al-Nafis attempted to explain these plot elements using the scientific knowledge of biology, astronomy, cosmology and geology known in his time. His main purpose behind this science fiction work was to explain Islamic religious teachings in terms of science and philosophy through the use of fiction.[188] A Latin translation of Ibn Tufail's work, Philosophus Autodidactus, first appeared in 1671, prepared by the Younger, followed by an English translation by Simon Ockley in 1708, as well as German and Dutch translations. These translations later inspired Defoe to write , regarded as the first novel in English.[189] [190] [191] [192] Philosophus Autodidactus also inspired Robert Boyle to write his own philosophical novel set on an island, The Aspiring Naturalist.[193] The story also anticipated Rousseau's Emile: or, On Education in some ways, and is also similar to Mowgli's story in Rudyard Kipling's The Jungle Book as well as Tarzan's story, in that a baby is abandoned but taken care of and fed by a mother wolf.[194] 's Divine , considered the greatest epic of Italian literature, derived many features of and episodes about the hereafter directly or indirectly from Arabic works on : the Hadith and the Kitab al-Miraj (translated into Latin in 1264 or shortly before[195] as Liber Scale Machometi, "The Book of Muhammad's Ladder") concerning Muhammad's ascension to Heaven, and the spiritual writings of . The Moors also had a noticeable influence on the works of George Peele and William Shakespeare. Some of their works featured Moorish characters, such as Peele's The Battle of Alcazar and Shakespeare's The Merchant of Venice, Titus Andronicus and Othello, which featured a Moorish Othello as its title character. These works are said to have been inspired by several Moorish delegations from Morocco to Elizabethan England at the beginning of the 17th century.[196] Islamic Golden Age 17

Music

A number of musical instruments used in classical are believed to have been derived from Arabic musical instruments: the was derived from the al'ud, the rebec (ancestor of violin) from the , the guitar from qitara, naker from naqareh, adufe from al-duff, alboka from al-buq, anafil from al-nafir, exabeba from al-shabbaba (), atabal (bass ) from al-tabl, atambal from al-tinbal,[197] the , the castanet from kasatan, sonajas de azófar from sunuj al-sufr, the conical bore wind instruments,[198] the xelami from the sulami or fistula (flute or musical pipe),[199] the shawm and dulzaina from the instruments zamr and al-,[200] the gaita from the ghaita, rackett from iraqya or iraqiyya,[201] the and from the ,[202] canon from qanun, geige (violin) from ghichak,[203] and the theorbo from the tarab.[204]

A theory on the origins of the Western Solfège musical notation suggests that it may have also had Arabic origins. It has been argued that the Solfège syllables (do, re, mi, fa, sol, la, ti) may have been derived from the syllables of the Arabic solmization system Durr-i-Mufassal ("Separated Pearls") (dal, ra, mim, fa, sad, lam). This origin theory was first proposed by Meninski in his Thesaurus The Arabic four-stringed was the ancestor of Linguarum Orientalum (1680) and then by Laborde in his Essai sur la the lute and guitar. Musique Ancienne et Moderne (1780).[205] [206] See as well the gifted (Abu l-Hasan ‘Ali Ibn Nafi‘).

Ottoman military bands are thought to be the oldest variety of military marching band in the world. Though they are often known by the Persian-derived word Mehter. The standard instruments employed by a Mehter are: (), the kettledrum (nakare), Frame drum (davul), the (zil), Oboes and , Zurna, the "Boru" (a kind of Trumpet), Triangle (instrument), and the Cevgen (a kind of stick bearing small concealed ). These military bands inspired many Western nations and especially the Orchestra inspiring the works of Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart and Ludwig van Beethoven.

Philosophy

Arab philosophers like al-Kindi (Alkindus) and Ibn Rushd (Averroes) and Persian philosophers like Ibn Sina (Avicenna) played a major role in preserving the works of Aristotle, whose ideas came to dominate the non-religious thought of the Christian and Muslim worlds. They would also absorb ideas from China, and India, adding to them tremendous knowledge from their own studies. Three speculative thinkers, al-Kindi, al-Farabi, and Avicenna (Ibn Sina), fused and Neoplatonism with other ideas introduced through Islam, such as and . This led to Avicenna founding his own Ibn Rushd, founder of the school of school of philosophy, which was influential in both Islamic and philosophy, whose works and commentaries had Christian lands. Avicenna was also a critic of Aristotelian logic and an impact on the rise of secular thought in founder of Avicennian logic, and he developed the concepts of . and , and distinguished between and . Islamic Golden Age 18

From Spain the Arabic philosophic literature was translated into Hebrew, Latin, and Ladino, contributing to the development of modern European philosophy. The Jewish Moses , Muslim sociologist-historian Ibn Khaldun, Carthage citizen Constantine the African who translated Greek medical texts, and the Muslim Al-Khwarzimi's collation of mathematical techniques were important figures of the Golden Age. One of the most influential Muslim philosophers in the West was Averroes (Ibn Rushd), founder of the Averroism school of philosophy, whose works and commentaries had an impact on the rise of secular thought in Western Europe.[207] He also developed the concept of "existence precedes essence".[208] Another influential philosopher who had a significant influence on was Ibn Tufail. His philosophical novel, Hayy ibn Yaqdhan, translated into Latin as Philosophus Autodidactus in 1671, developed the themes of empiricism, tabula rasa, nature versus nurture,[209] condition of possibility, ,[210] and Molyneux's Problem.[211] European scholars and writers influenced by this novel include ,[212] Gottfried Leibniz,[192] Melchisédech Thévenot, , ,[213] George Keith, , the ,[214] and .[193] Al-Ghazali also had an important influence on Jewish thinkers like Maimonides[215] [216] and Christian medieval philosophers such as .[217] However, al-Ghazali also wrote a devastating critique in his The Incoherence of the Philosophers on the speculative theological works of Kindi, Farabi and Ibn Sina. The study of declined in the Muslim world due to this critique, though Ibn Rushd (Averroes) responded strongly in his The Incoherence of the Incoherence to many of the points Ghazali raised. Nevertheless, Avicennism continued to flourish long after and Islamic philosophers continued making advances in philosophy through to the 17th century, when founded his school of and developed the concept of .[218] Other influential Muslim philosophers include al-Jahiz, a pioneer of evolutionary thought and ; Ibn al-Haytham (Alhacen), a pioneer of phenomenology and the philosophy of science and a critic of Aristotelian natural philosophy and Aristotle's concept of place (topos); Biruni, a critic of Aristotelian natural philosophy; Ibn Tufail and Ibn al-Nafis, pioneers of the philosophical novel; Shahab al-Din Suhrawardi, founder of Illuminationist philosophy; Fakhr al-Din al-Razi, a critic of Aristotelian logic and a pioneer of inductive logic; and Ibn Khaldun, a pioneer in the [181] and .

End of the Golden Age

Mongol invasion and Turkic settlement After the Crusades from the West that resulted in the instability of the Islamic world during the 11th century, a new threat came from the East during the 13th century: the Mongol invasions. In 1206, from Central Asia established a powerful . A Mongolian ambassador to the Abbasid Caliph in Baghdad is said to have been murdered, which may have been one of the behind 's sack of Baghdad in 1258. The and Turks from Central Asia conquered most of the Eurasian land mass, including both China in the east and parts of the old Islamic Caliphate and Persian Islamic Khwarezm, as well as Russia and Eastern Europe in the west, and subsequent invasions of the Levant. Later Turkic leaders, such as Timur, though he himself became a Muslim, destroyed many cities, slaughtered thousands of people and did irreparable damage to the ancient irrigation systems of Mesopotamia. These invasions transformed a settled society to a nomadic one. On the other hand, due to the lack of a powerful leader Mongol imperial war banners after the Mongolian invasion and Turkish settlement, some local Islamic Golden Age 19

Turkish kingdoms appeared in the Islamic world and they were in war and fighting against each other for centuries. The most powerful kingdoms among them were the empire of Ottoman Turks, who became Sunni Muslims and the empire of Safavi Turks, who became Shia Muslims. Eventually, they invaded very wide parts of the Islamic world and entered in a competition and a series of bloody wars until the middle of seventeenth century. Traditionalist Muslims at the time, including the polymath Ibn al-Nafis, believed that the Crusades and Mongol invasions were a divine punishment from God against Muslims deviating from the . As a result, the falsafa, some of whom held ideas incompatible with the Sunnah, became targets of criticism from many traditionalist Muslims, though other traditionalists such as Ibn al-Nafis made attempts at reconciling reason with and blur the line between the two.[219] Eventually, the Mongols and Turks that settled in parts of Persia, Central Asia, Russia and Anatolia converted to Islam, and as a result, the Ilkhanate, Golden Horde and Chagatai Khanates became Islamic states. In many instances, Mongols assimilated into various Muslim Iranian or Turkic peoples (for instance, one of the greatest Muslim astronomers of the 15th century, , was a grandson of Timur). By the time the Ottoman Empire rose from the ashes, the Golden Age is considered to have come to an end.

Causes of decline "The achievements of the Arabic speaking peoples between the ninth and twelfth centuries are so great as to baffle our understanding. The decadence of Islam and of Arabic is almost as puzzling in its speed and completeness as their phenomenal rise. Scholars will forever try to explain it as they try to explain the decadence and fall of Rome. Such questions are exceedingly complex and it is impossible to answer them in a simple way." — George Sarton , The Incubation of Western Culture in the Middle East'[220] According to the traditional view of Islamic civilization, which had at the outset been creative and dynamic in dealing with issues, it began to struggle to respond to the challenges and rapid changes it faced from the 12th century onwards, towards the end of the Abbassid rule; despite a brief respite with the new Ottoman rule, the decline apparently continued until its eventual collapse and subsequent stagnation in the 20th century. Some scholars such as M. I. Sanduk believe that the declination began from around the 11th century and still continued after this.[221] Some other scholars have come to question the traditional picture of decline, pointing to a continuing and creative scientific tradition through to the 15th and 16th centuries,[222] [223] with the works of Ibn al-Shatir, Ulugh Beg, Ali Kuşçu, al-Birjandi and Taqi al-Din considered noteworthy examples.[224] [225] This was also the case for other fields, such as medicine, notably the works of Ibn al-Nafis, Mansur ibn Ilyas and Şerafeddin Sabuncuoğlu; mathematics, notably the works of al-Kashi and al-Qalasadi; philosophy, notably Mulla Sadra's transcendent theosophy; and the social sciences, notably Ibn Khaldun's (1370), which itself points out that though science was declining in Iraq, Al-Andalus and Maghreb, it continued to flourish in Persia, Syria and Egypt during his time. Nevertheless, many agree that there was still a decline in scientific activity after the 16th century.[2] Islamic Golden Age 20

Despite a number of attempts by many writers, historical and modern, none seem to agree on the causes of decline. The main views on the causes of decline comprise the following: political mismanagement after the early Caliphs (10th century onwards), foreign involvement by invading forces and colonial powers (11th century Crusades, 13th century Mongol Empire, 15th century , 19th century European colonial empires), and the disruption to the cycle of equity based on Ibn Khaldun's famous model of (the rise and fall of civilizations) which points to the decline being mainly due to Baldwin I was the first ruler of the Crusader state political and economic factors.[2] in North Africa's Islamic civilization collapsed after exhausting its resources in internal fighting and suffering devastation from the invasion of the Arab tribes of Banu Sulaym and Banu Hilal.[226] [227] The ravaged much of the Islamic world in the mid-14th century. Plague epidemics kept returning to the Islamic world up to the 19th century.[228] There was apparently an increasing lack of tolerance of intellectual debate and freedom of thought,[229] with some seminaries systematically forbidding speculative metaphysics, while polemic debates in this field appear to have been abandoned after the 14th century. A significant intellectual shift in is perhaps demonstrated by al-Ghazali's late 11th century polemic work The Incoherence of the Philosophers, which lambasted metaphysical philosophy in favor of the primacy of scripture, and was later criticized in The Incoherence of the Incoherence by Averroes. Institutions of science comprising Islamic universities, libraries (including the ), observatories, and hospitals, were later destroyed by foreign invaders like the Crusaders and particularly the Mongols, and were rarely promoted again in the devastated regions.[230] Not only wasn't new publishing equipment accepted but also wide illiteracy overwhelmed the devastated lands, especially in Mesopotamia. Meanwhile in Persia, due to the Mongol invasions and the plague, the average life expectancy of the scholarly class in Persia had declined from 72 years in 1209 to 57 years by 1242.[75] American economist Timur Kuran has argued that economic development in the Middle East lagged behind that of the West in modern times due to the limitations of Islamic partnership law and inheritance law. These laws restricted the growth of Middle Eastern enterprises, and prevented the development of corporate forms.[231] [232]

See also • Golden age of Jewish culture in Spain • Islamic contributions to Medieval Europe • Latin translations of the 12th century • • Inventions in the Islamic world • Islamic science • Muslim Agricultural Revolution • Timeline of science and technology in the Islamic world • List of Islamic studies scholars • List of Muslim scientists • List of Arab scientists and scholars • Ibn Sina of Medieval Medicine and Sciences • List of Iranian scientists and scholars • Muslim conquests • List of Muslim empires Islamic Golden Age 21

• Global empire

References • Gaudiosi, Monica M. (April 1988), "The Influence of the Islamic Law of Waqf on the Development of the Trust in England: The Case of Merton College", University of Pennsylvania Law Review 136 (4): 1231–1261 • Donald Hill, Islamic Science And , Edinburgh University Press (1993), ISBN 0-7486-0455-3 • Morelon, Régis; Rashed, Roshdi (1996), Encyclopedia of the History of Arabic Science, 3, Routledge, ISBN 0415124107 • Hudson, A. (2003), Equity and Trusts (3rd ed.), London: Cavendish Publishing, ISBN 1-85941-729-9 • George Sarton, The Incubation of Western Culture in the Middle East, A George C. Keiser Foundation Lecture, March 29, 1950, Washington DC, 1951 • Shatzmiller, Maya (1994), Labour in the Medieval Islamic World, Brill Publishers, ISBN 9004098968 Shoja-e-din Shafa [233], After 1400*(رگيد ىدلوت :Shoja-e-din Shafa [233], Rebirth [234] (1995) (Persian Title • (لاس 1400 زا سپ :Years [235] (2000) (Persian Title

External links • "How Greek Science Passed to the Arabs" [236] by De Lacy O'Leary • The Story of Islam's Gift of Paper to the West [237] • Gaston Wiet, Baghdad: Metropolis of the Abbasid Caliphate [238], Chapter 5 • Al-Zahrawi (Albucasis) – A light in the middle ages in Europe [239] – by Sharif Kaf Al- • The Influence of Islamic Philosophy and Ethics on The Development of Medicine During the Islamic Renaissance [240] – by Sharif Kaf Al-Ghazal

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