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First Among Equals: Male-Male Competition

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First Among Equals: Male-Male Competition FIRST AMONG EQUALS: MALE-MALE COMPETITION AMONG THE BARDI OF NORTHWESTERN AUSTRALIA AND ITS IMPLICATIONS FOR HUMAN EVOLUTION by James E. Coxworth A dissertation submitted to the faculty of The University of Utah in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy Department of Anthropology The University of Utah August 2013 Copyright © James E. Coxworth 2013 All Rights Reserved The University of Utah Graduate School STATEMENT OF DISSERTATION APPROVAL The dissertation of James E. Coxworth has been approved by the following supervisory committee members: Kristen Hawkes , Chair May 3, 2013 Date Approved Brian F. Codding , Member May 3, 2013 Date Approved Henry C. Harpending , Member May 3, 2013 Date Approved Richard McElreath , Member May 5, 2013 Date Approved James F. O’Connell , Member May 3, 2013 Date Approved and by Dennis O’Rourke , Chair of the Department of Anthropology and by Donna M. White, Interim Dean of The Graduate School. ABSTRACT In this dissertation, I follow three avenues of inquiry regarding status competition among the Bardi – a group of part-time foragers living in northwestern Australia. The first focuses on how the current array of status-linked behaviors came to be so widely used. After a brief introduction, I present findings from a year-long ethnographic study of Bardi men. I review the recent, postcontact history of the region with special emphasis on venues of status competition. Relying upon comparative and historical evidence as well as theoretical inferences, I detail how two novel status-linked behaviors (i.e., wage labor and dealing with bureaucracy) emerged in the latter half of the twentieth century as well as the effects of religious and governmental interventions on more traditional activities such as big game hunting and gaining cultural knowledge. Describing how these options emerged provides key insights into the contemporary competitive environment in Bardi country, but a comprehensive picture of male competition there requires a sense of how men make use of these behaviors. The third chapter therefore engages the observation that men have many more options for seeking status when compared to other primate males, yet we know relatively little about how men cope with the sometimes-overwhelming array of opportunities. Focusing on whether men constrain their efforts to just a few behaviors or whether they make use of every available opportunity, I find that the most prominent men are known for their success in most, if not all, domains of status competition. In the fourth chapter, my coauthors and I build upon lessons from the Bardi case in reviewing distinctive attributes of men’s competitive behavior. We begin with the observation that, as compared to status seeking among other male primates, men rely less on within-group violence, make use of a wider range of behaviors, and readily incorporate new opportunities into their behavioral repertoire. Through a survey of relevant ethnographic, primatological, and experimental evidence, we tie these characteristics to the uniquely human aptitude for and interest in sharing mental states with others. iv For Dad, who taught me to see the forest. TABLE OF CONTENTS ABSTRACT .................................................................................................................... iii LIST OF FIGURES......................................................................................................... viii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ............................................................................................ ix Chapters 1. AN INTRODUCTION .............................................................................................. 1 1.1 Why is this important? .................................................................................. 1 1.2 What follows ................................................................................................. 5 1.3 A note on terminology................................................................................... 6 2. WHAT NOW? A BRIEF HISTORY OF STATUS SEEKING AMONG THE BARDI................................................................................................................... 8 2.1 Introduction ................................................................................................... 8 2.2 Cultural knowledge ....................................................................................... 13 2.3 Hunting.......................................................................................................... 21 2.4 Wage labor .................................................................................................... 35 2.5 Bureaucracy................................................................................................... 45 2.6 Conclusion..................................................................................................... 54 3. MEN’S BUSINESS: BARDI STATUS IN A CHANGING WORLD..................... 58 3.1 Abstract ......................................................................................................... 58 3.2 Introduction ................................................................................................... 59 3.2.1 Ethnographic context .......................................................................... 65 3.3 Data collection and analysis .......................................................................... 70 3.4 Results ........................................................................................................... 79 3.5 Discussion ..................................................................................................... 80 4. PATHWAYS TO PROMINENCE: THE PROLIFERATION OF VENUES FOR ELICITING DEFERENCE IN GENUS HOMO................................................... 91 4.1 Abstract ......................................................................................................... 91 4.2 Introduction ................................................................................................... 92 4.2.1 A note on terminology ........................................................................ 96 4.3 Deference among nonhuman primates .......................................................... 96 4.4 Deference in Djarindjin .................................................................................101 4.5 Implications of shared intentions ..................................................................105 4.6 Conclusion.....................................................................................................113 5. CONCLUSION .........................................................................................................116 APPENDIX: HIERARCHICAL MODEL OF EXCELLENCE SCORES .....................120 REFERENCES................................................................................................................125 vii LIST OF FIGURES 1.1 Map of Bardi country ................................................................................................ 3 2.1 Self-reported hunting behavior by age ...................................................................... 34 3.1 Nominations as a function of self-reported participation data .................................. 75 3.2 Models of success in two venues .............................................................................. 77 3.3 Scatterplot matrix of nominations in five competitive venues.................................. 78 4.1 Schematic of ESS in aggressive interactions ............................................................111 A.1 Excellence scores across five domains.....................................................................123 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS This project would not have been possible without the support of many. First, of course, is my family. All of the exceptional opportunities in my life I owe to their hard work, generosity, insight, and encouragement. A special thank you to my wife, Jessica, who endured a year of fieldwork without breaking a sweat – metaphorically, at least. Likewise, I owe a tremendous debt to my academic family at the University of Utah. The hours of coursework, consultation, debate, and collaboration shaped me into the scholar I am. I would be remiss if I did not extend a special thanks to my committee and, especially, my advisor Kristen Hawkes. Not only did she coauthor Chapter 4 with Earl Keefe and me, but her work ethic, boundless curiosity, and dedication to scholarship have been an inspiration throughout my graduate career. I look forward to future collaborations. I must extend a heartfelt thank you to the Bardi community, the residents of Djarindjin, and the traditional owners of Bardi country. Thank you to Roma and Todd for allowing us to share Chile Creek with you for the better part of a year; to Nathan Sampi, Kevin Ningella, and Jambo Tigan for helping me gather data without getting too far under people’s skin; to my Bardi family for looking after me in countless ways; to Brian Lee for being an amazing friend. Finally, thanks to the Leakey Foundation for their generous financial support. CHAPTER 1 AN INTRODUCTION 1.1 Why is this important? This project started with a puzzle. So-called “simple” hunter-gatherers are egalitarian, with the only differences between individuals based on age, sex, and personal attributes (Woodburn 1982). Egalitarian foragers can try to persuade their peers to follow a given course of action, but no one has the power to force anyone to do
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