African Journal of Rural Development, Vol. 5 (3): July-September 2020: pp. 169-187. ISSN 2415-2838 This article is licensed under a Creative Commons license, Attribution 4.0 International (CC BY 4.0)

Gender-based assessment of Science, Technology and Innovation ecosystem in Zambia

A. PHIRI and C. MWAANGA Directorate of Research and Postgraduate Studies, , Great North Road Campus, P.O. Box 80415, Kabwe, Zambia Corresponding Author: phiria498@ gmail.com ABSTRACT In today’s fast changing world, science and technology are fundamental to sustainable socio-economic development of any nation. Sustainable development is anchored on the application of science and technology in the acquisition of knowledge, skills and technology that would build the capacity of the nation to meet its social and economic needs. In Zambia, over 51 percent of the population is female. Despite most of the populations in the sub- Saharan Africa having more women than men, women are underrepresented in almost all spheres of socio economic development. Worse STI, science engineering and technology has continued to record the lowest numbers of women participation. This desktop study involved review of documents from the Ministry of Higher Education, National Science Technology Council, Higher Education Authority, and Ministry of Gender. Careers in Science, Technology and Innovation (STI) and vocational training in Zambia is mostly dominated by males. Careers in engineering, agriculture, and medicine, technology and innovations continue to be male dominated. The Government of Zambia has recognized the importance of gender to promote science. Policies such as the Gender Policy, Higher Education Act, National Policy on Science and Technology, and Education Policy aim at ensuring gender based STI participation. The paper presents a STI analysis using a gender- based assessment of STI ecosystem in Zambia to gain a scientifically based understanding of the status of STI in Zambia upon which capacity development will be premised for now and in future. As of 2018, Zambia had nine public universities, 54 private universities and 29 vocational education and training institutions. The total enrolment in public universities was at 57,034, of which 55% were males and 45% female students. Public universities total enrolment stood at 34, 935 students, 49% males while 51% were females. Training in STI is mostly offered in Government owned learning institutions due to the lack of capacity to buy equipment for science engineering and technology required for training.

Keywords: Gender, Higher education, Science, Technology, Innovation, Technical Education, Zambia

RÉSUMÉ Dans le monde en évolution rapide d’aujourd’hui, la science et la technologie sont essentielles au développement socioéconomique durable de toute nation. Le développement durable repose sur l’application de la science et de la technologie à l’acquisition de connaissances, de compétences et de technologies qui renforceraient la capacité de la nation à répondre

Cite as: Phiri, A. and Mwaanga, C. 2020. Gender-based assessment of Recieved: 28 April 2020 Science, Technology and Innovation ecosystem in Zambia. African Journal Accepted: 31 July 2020 for Rural Development 5 (3): 169-187. Published: 30 September 2020 Gender-based assessment of Science, Technology and Innovation ecosystem in Zambia

à ses besoins sociaux et économiques. En Zambie, plus de 51 pour cent de la population sont des femmes. Bien que la plupart des populations de l’Afrique subsaharienne comptent plus de femmes que d’hommes, les femmes sont sous-représentées dans presque toutes les sphères du développement socio-économique. Pire encore, l’ingénierie scientifique et la technologie ont continué d’enregistrer les plus faibles taux de participation des femmes. Cette étude documentaire comprenait l’examen de documents du ministère de l’Enseignement supérieur, du Conseil national de la technologie scientifique, de l’Autorité de l’enseignement supérieur et du ministère du Genre. Les carrières en science, technologie et innovation (STI) et la formation professionnelle en Zambie sont principalement dominées par les hommes. Les carrières dans l’ingénierie, l’agriculture et la médecine, la technologie et les innovations continuent d’être dominées par les hommes. Le Gouvernement zambien a reconnu l’importance du genre pour la promotion de la science. Des politiques telles que la politique d’égalité des sexes, la loi sur l’enseignement supérieur, la politique nationale sur la science et la technologie et la politique d’éducation visent à garantir une participation sexospécifique aux STI. Le document présente une analyse des STI utilisant une évaluation sexospécifique de l’écosystème des STI en Zambie pour acquérir une compréhension scientifiquement fondée de l’état de la STI en Zambie sur laquelle le renforcement des capacités sera fondé pour maintenant et à l’avenir. En 2018, la Zambie comptait neuf universités publiques, 54 universités privées et 29 établissements d’enseignement et de formation professionnels. Le nombre total d’inscriptions dans les universités publiques était de 57 034, dont 55% d’hommes et 45% d’étudiantes. Le nombre total d’inscriptions dans les universités publiques était de 34 935 étudiants, 49% d’hommes et 51% de femmes. La formation en STI est principalement offerte dans les établissements d’enseignement appartenant au gouvernement en raison du manque de capacités pour acheter l’équipement pour l’ingénierie scientifique et la technologie nécessaire à la formation.

Mots clés: Genre, Enseignement supérieur, Science, Technologie, Innovation, Enseignement technique, Zambie

INTRODUCTION competitiveness (NSTC, 2015). It is a known In the recent past, Science Technology and fact that countries that have industrialised and Innovations (STI) ecosystems have made developed have done so by anchoring their significant contribution in enhancing public industrialisation agenda on the use science, investment in research and development, human technology and innovation (STI). resource training and access to information and communication technology (UNCTAD, 2019). Xua et al. (2018) indicated that an innovation An ecosystem allows the use of knowledge in ecosystem consists of a knowledge ecosystem the production system to create value that no driven by research and development, and single entity could have created alone (Xu et al., a business ecosystem driven by market 2018). The quality and number of a country’s forces. However, this can be achieved by scientists and technologists are an important the integration of all in technology transfer resource for technological development including participation of a broad spectrum of of that country. Scientists, engineers and key stakeholders in research, industries, and technologists transform national economies national development. The use of innovation and societies by conducting research and ecosystems require that specific attention be development work whose output contributes to paid to the application of science, technology industrial development and national economic and innovation in developing nations and

170 PHIRI and MWAANGA sub Saharan Africa in particular if they are surface area of about 752, 000 km2 (MNDP, to achieve what the developed world have 2017; World Bank, 2017). The country is achieved in terms of development. The endowed with abundant natural resources developed world has used science, technology including copper, vast arable land, huge amount and innovations to foster development and of surface water, and forestry resources. The production. Research and development go Zambian economy is predominantly based on hand in hand for increased production. the exploitation of these natural resources. The major economic resource and foreign exchange The use of STI in Africa is generally low due has been copper since the early 1900s. The to limited capacity and technological resources country runs a free market economy where the for implementation of STI. The education means of production are in the hands of the system in Africa has been primarily influenced private sector. In 1991, the country embarked by UNESCO principle of Education for All on privatisation of State owned mining and (EFA) and notion of economic growth (Barret manufacturing industries. However, this was et al., 2019). The focus of EFA is life skills and not a successful transition as most of the twenty first century skills beyond literacy and privatised industries are no longer operational includes problem solving and critical thinking or have closed. through science, technology and innovation for national development. Despite an abundance of natural resources, the country today imports most of its finished In sub-Saharan Africa, the pathways linking products as opposed to local manufactured STI has included the emphasis on Science, products. Poor quality and limited innovation Technology, Engineering and Mathematics has greatly contributed to the preference (STEM) and Information Communication and for imported goods and services instead of Technology (ICT) in the education system. local ones. There is little value addition and This approach is hinged on the realisation of application of technology in the local industry. the importance of STEM as an approach and The Government has however come up with strategy for achieving sustainable national policies and interventions to improve the use of development. science and technology in the country. A major contributing cause of the poor performance Policies and frameworks have been developed of the manufacturing industry has largely consistent with national development visions been due to lack of application of science and but gaps exist between policy and practice technology, which has resulted in industries during implementation. According to Barrret becoming uncompetitive with declining et al. (2019) gaps in achieving STI include productivity (Ministry of Education, 2016; inclusion, equity and equality in the education Higher Education Authority, 2017). sector for science, engineering and technology in terms of access to science and technology Zambia’s development agenda is outlined by different gender, and equipment facilities in realising the Vision 2030. Vision 2030 needed to contribute to national development. (2006-2030) aims to transform Zambia into As such efforts have been made through a prosperous middle income nation by 2030 development of policies to address gender and to create a new Zambia which is a “strong parity, equality and improvement in STEM and and dynamic middle-income industrial nation ICT investments. that provides opportunities for improving the well-being of all, embodying values of Study setting socio economic justice.” The country aspires Zambia is a middle income State located in to build local economic growth through Southern Part of Africa. The country has a the education system that is capable of

171 Gender-based assessment of Science, Technology and Innovation ecosystem in Zambia transforming the natural resources through guidelines by the World Health Organisation investing in science, engineering, technology (WHO) and Ministry of Health, the study investing and entrepreneurship. In order to relied on website and online information to achieve this vision education will need to play gather information and statistics (Table 1). a greater role. Moreover, the growth of the industrial sector hinges on robust application In some cases, emails and phone interviews of Science, Technology and Innovation (STI) were used to access information. National and engineering. policy and legal frameworks were also referred to in the assessment. These included, METHODOLOGY National Science and Technology policy, The study employed desk top review and Higher Education Act, National Gender key stakeholder discussions approach in the Policy, Education Policy, Seventh National compilation and analysis of gender based STI Development Plan and the Vision 2030 paper. ecosystem in Zambia. Key institutions targeted included science and technology based In this paper, data collected for female learning providers including Universities (both participation in higher education and STI private and public), Technical Education and activities to determine the trend was restricted Vocational Training (TEVET) institutions and to the period between 2014 and 2018. For the colleges, the Ministry of Higher Education, other statistics included in this paper the period Higher Education Authority (HEA), and the covered is seven years. Some key informants National Science Technology Council (NSTC). from NSTC and HEA were also consulted on The mapping of institutions used in the analysis the status of STI situation in Zambia, women is presented in Table 1. Due to the COVID-19 participation in decision making, challenges pandemic and restrictions prescribed in the and opportunities.

Table 1. Summary of data collection process

SN Data and information collected Method/activity Source 1 Gender policies, strategies and Literature review Ministry of Higher Education, representation in higher education: Ministry of Gender, TEVETA, challenges and opportunities Zambia Agriculture Research Institute, Peer review articles, Zambia statistics agency, National Council for Scientific Research, UNCATAD Website 2 Percentage of females in decision Secondary data and Ministry of Higher Education and making, higher education organisations, descriptive statics analysis Ministry of Agriculture. Zambia Level of attainment, % of females StatiSTIcs Agency (Labour force enrolled and graduates in STEM surveys, 2014-2020) and Analysis fields, Education expenditure and % of of gender. women participating in STI. 3 Mapping of existing Gender and Documents analysis Annual Reports from the Ministry STI initiatives, main actors and their interviews of Higher Education 2018 Key contribution informants Websites Women participation in STI initiatives 4 Challenges and opportunity for Compilation of secondary Key informants from Ministry of improving gender in STI Future for data and interviews. Higher Education women participation in STI.

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Findings and Science Engineering, Technical and Institutional setup of Science, Technology Vocational Colleges (TEVETA) and with and Innovation in Zambia. Zambia got funding predominantly from the Government her independence in 1964. At the time the and cooperating partners including the UN country’s economy was hinged on copper agencies. Despite this set up funding for production. Subsequently, the country research and development by both Government embarked on implementation of various and private sector has, however, been limited macro-economic and development strategies. and this has greatly contributed to the poor However, from 1964 to 1991, the economic and performance of the application of Science and industrial performance in Zambia deteriorated Technology in national development. There significantly (GRZ, 1996). In an effort to is also a weak linkage between the country’s revamp its economy, the country changed its research institutions, the Government and economic policy framework in 1992 from a industry. Central State controlled to a free market and liberalized economy, with greater emphasis In the higher education sector and university on private sector participation in the economy. education in particular, the Government With many former State owned companies and created the Higher Education Authority (HEA) economy in the hands of the private sector, the in accordance with section 6(h) of the Higher country’s manufacturing sector has collapsed, Education Act No 4 of 2013. The mandate of relying largely on imported goods and services. the authority is to ensure quality and standards in education to increase access to higher The Government has realised that the major education in the country. The Act further ensues contributing factor to the poor performance of that institutions pursue excellence and promote the industry has been the limited application the full realization of the potential of learners of science engineering and technology in the while creating conditions for lifelong learning. utilisation of the country’s resources and wealth. On STI, the Act envisages strengthening the Local industries had become unproductive with effect of academic learning and scientific declining productivity under global trade and research so as to enhance social and economic market environment. The Government has development. realised that sustainable economic development can be achieved through the use of science The Act aspires that higher institutions conduct and technology guided by national policies in critical research necessary and responsive the education and other national development to national needs. Such research will entail related sectors. participation of both males and females. The Act has further provided for an increase in the In 1996, the Government developed the number of universities in Zambia including National Science and Technology Policy to both private and public (Table 1). Having an foster the use of science in the utilisation of increase in number of institutions has its own natural resources and achieving sustainable challenges in ensuring full participation and national development. In Zambia Science and access to higher education for both male and Technology work is carried out largely by female. The cost of tuition fees has been too the National Council for Scientific Research high and not affordable to the majority of (NCSR), private and public universities, line Zambians. Further, operations cost by university ministries principally, Agriculture, Food and management has made universities prefer Fisheries, Environment and Natural Resources, social and humanities programmes to sciences Mines and Minerals Development, Health, and technology including engineering. This

173 Gender-based assessment of Science, Technology and Innovation ecosystem in Zambia is because training in science and technology Vocational Training (TEVET) institutions requires significant investment in laboratory and other collages are under the Ministry of and other equipment. Higher Education. Formerly, Technical and tocational Training (TEVET) was anchored in Zambia Education Framework the Ministry of Education, Science, Vocational The education framework in Zambia is Training and Early Education (MESVTEE). anchored on two main Ministries, the Ministry of General Education (MOGE) and the Ministry Under the Ministry of Higher Education, of Higher Education (MOHE). The Ministry of there are nine public universities, 54 private General Education carters for pupils in early universities and 29 vocational education and child education, (ECE), primary education training institutions. grade 1-7 and secondary education grades 8-12. The mandate of the ministry includes Table 2. Number of Higher Education promoting skills development, science, and Institutions in Zambia technology and innovation education in primary and secondary school in Zambia. The No. Type 2017 2020 education curriculum for primary education and secondary school education is developed by the 1 Public Universities 6 9 Curriculum Development Centre (CDC). The 2 Private Universities 16 54 development of curriculum in science related 3 Colleges of Agriculture 11 15 subjects is not easy and effective as it for the 4 TEVETA Colleges 284 295 non-science subjects. The Zambia Education Total 317 378 Curriculum Framework 2013 identified Source: https://www.agriculture.gov.zm challenges including; limited resources for teaching of science and technology, lack of According to the census of 2018, the total equipment, gender disparities coupled with enrolment in public universities was 57,034, cultural biarses and attitude for female not of which 55% were male and 45% female to participate in science and technology, and students. Public universities total enrolment few female trained teachers as role models for stood at 34, 935 students, 49% and 51% female in science field. (GRZ, 2013). female (Masaiti and Simuyaba, 2018). Further, in 2019, the Ministry of Finance 2019 Annual On the other hand, the Ministry of Higher Economic Report indicated that the total Education was established through Government student population in both public and private Gazzete No. 836 of 2016 to formulate policy universities increased by 5 percent to 99,222 and regulate University Education, Vocational from 94,250 in 2018. Of the total student Education and Training, as well as to promote population, 39,689 were female students. the application of Science, Technology and Innovation for socio-economic development. National Science and Technology Policy Higher education in Zambia refers to any The Government of Zambia developed the structured and systematized learning offered National Science and Technology Policy by formal learning institutions that award in 1996. The mission of the NSTC policy certificates, diplomas, and degrees acquired is to promote and exploit science and after secondary or high school (Mkandawire technology as an instrument for developing and Ilon, 2019). Higher education institutionss an environmentally friendly indigenous includes universities, colleges, institutes, technological capacity in sustainable socio- trades, seminaries, and specialized job training economic development in order to improve the institutions. All the Technical Education and quality of life for Zambia.

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The goals of NSTC policy include:- National Science and Technology Council • enhancing linkages between technology (NSTC) is a statutory body established by the research institutes, the private as well as Science and Technology Act No. 26 of 1997. the public sector in order to encourage The main function or mandate of the Council demand-driven research and development; is to “promote science and technology so • developing and sustaining a national as to improve the quality of life in Zambia”. scientific and technological capacity and The vision of NSTC is to promote the use providing highly skilled human resource of Science, Technology and Innovation for for increased productivity in the economy; industrial development in Zambia. In order • fostering national and international to realise this vision, NSTC has the following linkages for enhanced technology transfer; strategic objectives: and • Facilitating the acquisition, adaptation and Promotion of science, technology and utilization of foreign technology. innovation to increase scientific knowledge, enhance product development, through The actualisation of this policy is done under increased uptake of research results by the supervision of the Ministry of Higher industry, in compliance to STI standards, Education and the implementation by various improved science centres and development of institutions including, National Science science; and strengthen stakeholder linkages Technology Council (NSTC), Universities, to enhance science, technology and innovation Technical Education and Vocational Training sector coordination for national developmental Colleges (TEVET). sectors.

National Science Technology Council. The

Figure 1. Selected African countries with women representation in politics by 2018. Source: Okedele (2020)

175 Gender-based assessment of Science, Technology and Innovation ecosystem in Zambia

Status of STI ecosystem and women there was more than 50% improvement with participation 12 women in cabinet in 2010 and to 25 in 2016. This is an indication that Zambia can do better Women participation in decision making in this area if the quota system is applied. and political arena. In order to foster participation of women in STI, decision The low participation of women in decision making organs, the Government plays a critical making can be attributed to a number of factors role in encouraging gender mainstreaming. such as; Some African countries have adopted the • Low education level quota system with a minimum of 30% of • Low literacy levels and society’s perception women representation in political positions of the role of men and women, as stipulated by the Southern African • Lack of financial resources as most women Development Community (SADC) Protocol in Zambia depend on male counter parts, of 2008 (Okedele, 2020).The Protocol aims • Traditional work burden despite some to provide for the empowerment of women, to of the women being in paid formal eliminate discrimination and achieve gender employment, equality by encouraging and harmonising • Religiously, power and authority is the development and implementation of believed to belong to men hence hindering gender responsive legislation, policies and women from participating in decision programmes and projects. Gender quota system making focus on women engagement into politics and decision making in member (SADC) countries. However, in order to sustain equality in The protocol advocates for the representation decision making, the Zambian Government has of women in parliament to be at least 30%. proposed the inclusion of a minimum of a 30% Women participation has been recognised quota system and proportional representative. and achieved at national policy level in Political parties have been tasked to develop Angola, Mauritius, Mozambique, Namibia and and adopt gender policies and action plans that Zimbabwe whereby an affirmative action has will increase women participation in decision been taken to increase women representation making (GSWLG, 2018). (Figure 1) to a minimum of 30%. In Zambia, the governance system does not follow the Zambian STI development and gender quota system hence women representation has mainstreaming been under represented. According to the Vision 2030 agenda for Zambia, the nation’s ambition to become a By the end of 2018, Rwanda had the highest middle income and industrialised economy, representation of women in parliament at there is need to invest in science and 63.8%, South Africa 41.8%, Mozambique 39.6 technology. In addition, Zambia’s Seventh %, and Angola 36.8% while Zambia had 18% National Development Plan 2017-2021 is representation (Gender Links, 2017: Okekedel, a roadmap which has also recognised the 2020). cardinal role of science, engineering and technology in national development (GRZ, Based on the August 2016 general elections, 2017). The Seventh National Development Zambia is ranked the 4th lowest performing Plan includes strategies to enhance science country in the region with slight improvement and technology by developing programmes in women representation in parliament, 18 in to prioritise research in education institutions 2011 to 25 in 2016 (Figure 2). At cabinet level, to promote productivity, innovation and

176 PHIRI and MWAANGA competiveness in the economy. Additionally, Recognising gender imbalances in Zambia, the there is need to promote research and innovation National Gender Policy was developed. It aims to steer the creation of new products and new at ensuring the attainment of gender equality ways of producing existing products efficiently in the development process by redressing by the industry and agriculture sector. Science the existing gender imbalances including in and technology therefore becomes of paramount education and socio-economic opportunities. It importance. The National Science and also provides for equal opportunities for women Technology Council is one of the key mandated and men to actively participate and contribute to institutions to promote science and technology their fullest ability and equitably so as to benefit development in the country. from national development (GRZ, 2014). The policy is an overall benchmark for gender In the National Science and Technology mainstreaming in national development. The Council of Zambia 2019- 2021 Strategic Plan, decisive intention of this Policy is to create a Zambia aspires to transition from being raw Zambian society which has achieved the Vision material producer and exporter to a value- of ‘A nation where there is gender equity and adding, knowledge-intensive and industrialised equality for sustainable development’. The economy (NSTC, 2019). The adoption of Government has realised the cardinal role of science, engineering and technology plays a Science and technology for girls as opposed to critical role in achieving this aspiration. The the usual trend whereby this has been dominated Government of Zambia has developed many by their male counterpart. The Government has legal frameworks and policies. In general this since built Technical Schools for Girls in each starts with the education policy and higher of the country’s 10 provinces since 2016. education polices.

Elected to Parliamnt 2011-2016 Cabinet Ministers 2011-2016 88 80 80 80 79 75 132 131 126 123 128 131

18 18 18 20 21 25 25 20 20 20 21 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 12

2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 Women Men Women Men

Figure 2. Comparison of numbers of women elected to parliament and serving as cabinet Ministers in Zimbabwe Source: CSO. 2018

177 Gender-based assessment of Science, Technology and Innovation ecosystem in Zambia

STI in Higher Education InSTItuions in school qualification certificates. The trend is not Zambia different at higher levels of education. Howver, The number of tertiary STI education institutions at Postgraduate level, the number of females in Zambia between 2017 and 2020 is presented has been significantly lower (22%) compared in (Table 2). The number of higher education with that of male counterparts (77%) of who institutions in Zambia increased from 317 in graduated with master’s degrees. Most recently 2017 to 378 in 2020. Currentlt, Zambia has in 2019, 26% of females compared with 74% nine public universities, 54 private universities, attained master’s degrees. 15 colleges and schools of agiculture and 295 TEVETA collages. The general enrolment in Gender in STI for Higher Education these institutions is provided in Table 3. The Institutions in Zambia. During the period is the leading pubic 2017 and 2019, Zambia had about 317 and university in the country with a total enrolment 378 STI oriented institutions of higher learning of over 24,676 students segrated by gender as offering sciences, engineering, agricultural and 13,406 males and 11, 270 females, respectively technological courses. as of 2018 (Masaiti and Simuyaba, 2018.) Table 4. Student enrolment by gender and Private universities on the other hand have university Institution (Private Universities) low enrolement but with numbers steadily on the rise (Table 4). It should be obserrved that University Name Male Female Total the number of females in public univerisities Lusaka Apex University 2,834 4,299 7,133 is generally lower than that of their male 3,454 3,295 6,749 counterpart. As for private universities offering DMI St. Eugene University 2,754 2,244 4,998 science and technologym, City University of Science and Technology as well as Africa 2,052 2,027 4,079 Research University have more female students. Zambia Open University 1,595 1,925 3,520 Table 3. Student enrolment by gender and Cavendish University 1,579 1,270 2,849 university institution (Public Universities) Chreso University 636 970 1,606 University Name Male Female Total LIUTEB 766 707 1,473 University of Zambia 13,406 11,270 24,676 434 291 725 8,010 3,650 11,660 Zambia Catholic University 288 419 707 Nkrumah University 4,710 4,173 8,883 City University of Science 371 159 530 Mulungushi University 2,644 2,107 4,751 and Technology 1,442 3,279 4,721 Africa Research University 183 98 281 Mukuba University 1,023 1,320 2,343 Total 31,235 25,799 57034 Trans-African University 132 60 192 Percent 55% 45% Evangelical University 28 28 56

Southern Valley University 17 9 26 Levels of qualification attainment by gender. African ChriSTIan 7 4 11 The levels of attainment in the education system University from seconday to higher education is dorminated Total 17,130 17,805 34,935 by more males than females (Table 5). In 2017, at secondary level, half (32.7%) of females Percent 49% 51% compared to 67.3% of males attained secondary Source: Masaiti and Simuyaba (2018)

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Table 5. Attainment of qualifications from Secodary to Tertiary Education level 2017 -2019

Education Qualification attained 2019 2018 2017 Male Female Male Female Male Female Secondary School Certificate 67% 33% 69.5% 30.5% 67.3% 32.7%

Certificate/diploma 58% 42% 59.3% 40.7% 60.4% 39.6%

Bechelors Degree 62% 38% 67.8% 32.2% 68.2% 31.8%

Master’s Degree 74% 26% 81.8% 18.2% 77.5% 22.5%

Source: CSO. 2017, 2018, and 2019 Labour Force Survey Reports With regards to STEM field’s programmes, females. This imbalance is a reflection of what the enrolments are STIll dominated by male occurs in industries once these graduates. students. As indicated in Figure 3, only 37.3% of the female students were enrolled in Natural In the management of higher education Sciences, Mathematics and Statistics, 25.2% in institutions, women are also underrepresented Information and Communication Technologies at Vice Chancellor and Deputy Vice Chancellor and 29.5% in Engineering, Manufacturing and level. From 2015 to 2020, only 8% and 14% of Construction in 2018. These numbers were women held the position of Vice Chancellor significantly lower compared to those of males. and Deputy Vice Chancellor, respectively, in both private and public universities. This shows the level of women under-representation % of students enrolled 75 70.5 at the higher education level management 62.5 level. The numbers of females graduating in 37.4 25.2 29.5 STEM programmes have not been consistent. Information and Communication Technology (ICT) has been low compared to in natural Natural Sciences, Information And Engineering, sciences, mathematics and statistics. However, Mathematics And Communication Manufacturing Statistics Technologies And Construction engineering, manufacturing and construction has attracted more females, followed by natural Male Female sciences, mathematics, while Information and Communication Technologies attracted the Figure 3. Percentage of females enrolled in lowest. Figure 4 shows the numbers of female STEM fields graduates in (STEM) related fields during the Source: ASTI (2020) period 2014 to 2018 in Zambia. According to the National Gender Policy (2014) access to tertiary education for Higher Education Enrolments by Gender. In females in Zambia stilll remains low due to general terms enrolment between males and limited places available in higher education females at various levels of education differ institutions, high poverty levels and early significantly whether at secondary school, marriages. For instance, in 2011, the combined certificate and diploma, bachelor’s degree and total enrolment of the four Public Universities, postgraduate qualification. Overall, Science, i.e., University of Zambia, Copper blet Technology, Engineering and Mathematical University, Mulungushi and Nkrumah was Sciences (STEM) have very low female 28,448 of which 17,332 males and 11,116 participation. Further, the number of women

179 Gender-based assessment of Science, Technology and Innovation ecosystem in Zambia

who attained Higher Education - Masters 93% for University Education, 51% for Skills and PhD in this field is quite low. Similarly, Development and another 51% for Science, only 14%, 25% and 29% respectively were Technology and Innovation (Figure 5). female. This was not quite the case in fields like education and business-related programs The 2018 budget for the Ministry of Education where females constituted 48% and 49.2% had an approved total budget of K1.9 billion respectively. In technical education sector, (Ministry of General Education, 2018 Annual TEVET institutions admit less than 2% of the Report). The major funded activities in the output from basic and secondary education and ministry included University Education the Government plans to increase it to above (72.6%), STI (6.4%) and 18.3% for skills 15% (AfDB, 2013). development (Figure 5 and Table 6).

Government Investiment in Science Government Investiment in Science Technology and Innovation (STI). The Technology and Innovation (STI). The Government of Zambia plans to increase Government of Zambia plans to increase investiments in science, techonology and investiments in science, techonology and Innovations through budgetary allocation Innovations through budgetary allocation in in the education sector. As an example, the the Development and another 51% for Science, 2016 Higher Education expenditure stood at Technology and Innovation (Figure 5).

Natural Information and sciences,mathematics and Communication statistics Technologies

418 348 141 208 229 116 118 152 46 59

2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018

Engineering, manufacturing and construction

261 256 226 193 144

2014 2015 2016 2017 2018

Figure 4. Total Number of female graduates in STEM fields 2014 -2018 Source: Ministry of Higher Education 2018 180 PHIRI and MWAANGA

in the education sector. As an example, the for females in 2019 (Figure 6). However, the 2016 Higher Education expenditure stood at participation of non professional females or 93% for University Education, 51% for Skills women accounts for over 70% of agriculture Development and another 51% for Science, production labor force in the Zambia. Technology and Innovation (Figure 5). According to the Labour force Survey of The 2018 budget for the Ministry of Education 2014, out of 2,864 skilled employees in the had an approved total budget of K1.9 billion agriculture, forestry and fisheries sectors, (Ministry of General Education, 2018 Annual about 56% employed were women compared Report). The major funded activities in the to 41% men (CSO, 2014). Despite this gender ministry included University Education positive statistic, only a small percentage of (72.6%), STI (6.4%) and 18.3% for skills females are in managerial positions. development (Figure 5 and Table 6). According to Beintema and Di Marcantonio Zambian Labour force in STI. The low (2009), female farmers play a significant participation of females in STI does not only role in African agriculture representing end at tertiary level education but is further between 60 and 80 percent of the labor reflected in the labour market. Science, force. Contrustingly on the scientific front, engineering and technology oriented careers such as in agricultural scientific research and are male dominated. There are however more technology, men dominate. There are few females (52 percent) than males (48 percent) female scientists, professors, and academicians employed in the Agriculture, Forestry and in scientific research and technology. Fisheries Industry (Gender Status Report There is unfortunately limited information 2014). Overall, the number of females working about female’s participation in science and in the fields of STI in Zambia still remains very technology in Zambia. Much of the concern of low below levels. (Figure 6). the policy focus has been on issues of women empowerment, gender based violence and In the agriculture sector, males dominate victim support. Gender diaggregated data are agriculture staffing, trained agriculture needed in various aspects and sectors for sound extension officers, fisheries officers, among policy information. others, constituting 64% compared to 35%

Source: Estimates of Revenue and Expenditure for 1st January to December 2017 (Volume 2) Figure 5. Budgetary allocation for Education Sector 181 Gender-based assessment of Science, Technology and Innovation ecosystem in Zambia

Table 5. 2018 Budgetary Allocation for Ministry of General Education

Source: Ministry of Higher Education 2018 Annual Report

Information Communication and Loans and Scholarship Board (HELSB). The Technology in Zambia board was established through the Act No. 31 In the 21st century, the use information and of 2016 to provide loans and scholarships to communication technology is very critical. students who require financial assistance or Computers and technology are no longer a who are recognised for academic excellence. luxury but a necessity for national development. The criteria of the loan is that the applicant Like in other STI fields, females participation must be admitted to, or registered as a student in ICT in Zambia still lags behind significantly at a higher education institution within Zambia in comparision to men. This is despite that for a course of at least one academic year’s ICT is considered an important mechanism in duration. Further, a student is eligible for delivering the socio-economic needs of both consideration for a scholarship if the student men and women (ZICTA, 2014). The use of satisfies such conditions as the Minister may ICT in socio-economic activities, which seek prescribe by statutory instrument. Before 2016, to encourage and enhance equal participation the Bursaries Committee was responsible of men and women, is crucial in national for offering scholarships to students at development. Although Zambia adopted the the University of Zambia and Copperbelt Information and Communication Technology University. The demand for financial support (ICT) Policy in 2007, which provided for has always been on the increase as indicated mainstreaming of ICT usage in developmental in Table 7. programmes, very few women and girls have adequate access to ICTs especially in rural By 2018, a total of 20,649 loans were awarded areas mainly due to limited ICT literacy and to students in universities, out of which 12,212 funding. Statistics for 2013 indicated that (59%) wnt to males and 8,437 (41%) went to out of a total of 8,240,753 mobile phone females out of over 35,000 applicants (MOHE, subscribers, only 40 percent were women. 2018).

Government effort on mainstreaming STI By 2019, the higher education loans was in Tertiary Education. In the bid to increase restricted to public universities namely, access to higher education including in STI Copperbelt University, Kapasa Makasa, fields in the country, the Government of Zimbia Mulungushi University, Mukuba, Kwame in 2016 established the Higher Education Nkuruma and University of Zambia.

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Figure 6. Percentage of males and females participating in agriculture, science, health and Information Communication and Technology Source: CSO (2019) Challenges of mainstreaming Gender in STI Table 7. Award of students loans in Higher The low participation of women and girls in Education Institutions science and technology in Zambia is of great concern. Some of the identified challenges Year Awards hindering participation of women STI include the following: 2012 3884 2013 4437 Access to tertiary education. The low number 2014 5741 of females accessing tertiary education has 2015 4585 been a challenge. This is depicted in Figure 3 2016 6499 as well participation in STI in Figure 6. 2017 5723 2018 6106 Lack of financial support. Generally a higher percentage of female students drop out from Source: Higher Education Loans and Scholarship the education system compared to their male 2019-2021 Strategic Plan counterpart. According to CSO (2018), 39%

183 Gender-based assessment of Science, Technology and Innovation ecosystem in Zambia females drop out of the education system in have been perceived as male oriented (NSTC, urban areas while in rural area 45 % of female 1996). Further, limited numbers of female role students drop out. This is due to a myrid of models as teachers and lecturers have promoted factors such as, early marriages, preference for this myth about science as a male dominated males by parents and sponsors, and cultural career options. attitudes that women focus on house and family chores rather than career progress. STI Strategies and Gender mainstreaming in Zambia Limited job opportunities for STI graduates. Affirmative action by the Government of Currently Zambia has few manufacturing and Zambia led to the creation of the Ministry of processing industries. This has negatively Gender to promote gender related issues in affected the prospects for employment in development. In promoting science, technology engineering, construction, agriculture and and innovations, the Government of Zambia is energy sectors. A few opportunities are implementing the following strategies: prioritized for male applicants such as work in • Reviewing of educational curricula in rural areas where females would not prefer to schools, colleges and universities to make work in. it gender sensitive for female participation. • Establishment of special funds and Inadequate gender statistics and few role scholarships for female education in the models in STI Careers. Curently women science and technical fields through the representation in parliament stand at 19%, with High Education Loans and Scholarship even fewer women employed as engineers and Board (HELSB) Vice Chancellors in Universities. This in away • Promotion of science and technology has contributed to girls to opt for service based subjects in girls’ schools such as making the careers such teaching, nursing, commerce subjects compulsory, and girls’ technical and hospitality sectors. In addition, there is secondary schools have been created in all inadequate sex disaggregated data to capture provinces of the country. the status of women in various STI fields. Most • Establish and/or strengthen career information is focussed on negative effects of counselling programmes to address Gender based violence rather than the positives problems which hinder girls’ progression on empowerment and improvements in female in Science and Technology. participation. This gives females a perception • Provision of incentives to female teachers of being victims and vulnerable rather than in science and technology and those having the potential to lead and contribute to willing to work in rural areas to work as national development. role models.

Negative attitude of females to science and CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS technology courses and programmes. Female Science, Technology and Inovation plays a students have negative perception about crucial role in meeting the internationally taking courses in mathematics, science and adopted Sustainable Development Goals engineering. Moreover, limited laboratory (SDGs), approved by the United Nations infrastructure, places and programmes implies General Assembly in 2015. In Zambia, STI only few students will be enrolled in science gender ecosystem shows that the participation and technology programmes which invariably of female in science technology and innovation results in fewer places for female students. is still low as in other SADC countries and Pure science classes and technical subjects Africa in general. Starting from the lowest

184 PHIRI and MWAANGA position of secondary school to higher education to provide capacity and status of staff and university level and in political leadership, qualifications in tertiary education. females are grossly underrepresented. • Promote the Science-Policy interface. However, there are on-going efforts through While many policies have been the National Science and Technology Council developed on gender, there is little effort to encourage participation of females in STI. in actualising such interventions on the Also, the Ministry of Higher Education through ground. Government should come up with the Higher Education Loans and Scholarships additional STI instruments to actualize Board encourages participation of females in the needed interventions, for example, STI by sponsoring more female applicants creating small STI pilot projects to solve for science, technology and engineering community problems and to promote programmes. The Government of Zambia the science-policy interface in national has infact developed policies and strategies development. to encourage female participation such as • Create platforms for STI disseminations through constructing girls’ technical schools such as National workshops, seminars, throughout the country and giving incentives conferences and create opportunities for female participation in STI subjects, and for dialogue with the female scientific appointing females into Government positions. community. • Enhance transnational/regional and Recommendations multidisciplinary approach on integrating • The Higher Education Lands and STI in socio-economic development Scholarship Board (HELSB) should come aspects including policy formulation. up with strategies to promote female Additionally, encourage intra-Country applicants secure scholarship and loans scientific cooperation and collaboration in science, technology and engineering across African region and developed programmes. This would increase female world to promote technology transfer and students’ enrolments and number of knowledge exchange. females in tertiary education sector and • Harness regional and and continental labour force. platforms to build capacity in STI in • Gender mapping and statistics in STI Africa. systematically compiled and used to promote quality in Higher Education ACKNOWLEDGEMENT instead of focusing on gender based The authors thank the Regional Universities violence (GBV) which is currently the Forum for Capacity Building in Agriculture main focus of gender mainstreaming. (RUFORUM) for commissioning this paper, Therefore participation of females in with fundinf from TAGDev project funded by Science, Technology, Engineering and the Mastercard foundation. Mathematical Sciences (STEM) and STI should be prioratized. STATEMENT OF NO-CONFLICT ON • Promote more women leadership in INTEREST science and technology and innovation The authors declare that there is no conflict of oriented careers so that women act as role interest in this paper. models for young females, i.e., as Vice Chancellors, Professors, Principals and REFERENCES in Industry, etc. Currently, the census for Africa Development Bank Report (AfDB). staffing in Higher Education is underway 2013. Support to Science and Technology

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