Study of Early in Hadoti or Harauti Plateau in South‐Eastern , : New Perspectives

Shaik Saleem1

1. Department of , Krantiguru Shyamji Krishna Verma Kachchh University, Bhuj – 370 001, Gujarat, India (Email: [email protected])

Received: 03 September 2014; Accepted: 29 September 2014; Revised: 24 October 2014 Heritage: Journal of Multidisciplinary Studies in Archaeology 2 (2014): 742‐771

Abstract: Upper Palaeolithic and cultures were prolifically associated with rock in natural and rock shelters across many parts of India. The study of such paintings throws on the ‐ways of prehistoric people, provides information on their thoughts and beliefs, , religion and rituals, material culture, , economy and also about the fauna and flora that was exploited and revered in the past. Rock paintings depicted in different styles, superimpositions, colours and covered with patina suggests that these caves and rock shelters were occupied by Late hominids for a long time and the antiquity of such paintings goes back to at least 30,000 BP. This paper reports and describes recent discoveries of in Hadoti Plateau in south‐eastern Rajasthan, India and is an attempt to discuss about the origin, antiquity and the importance of chronometric dating in India in the wake of the recent developments that have taken place in the scientific study of rock art in India especially and in global context as .

Keywords: Rock Art, Hadoti, Rajasthan, Palaeolithic, Mesolithic, , Absolute Dating

Introduction In India, prehistoric rock paintings were discovered as early as 1867, but knowledge about their precise antiquity is not known yet (Mathpal 1984, 1992). Since then, due to the efforts of the scholars namely V. S. Wakankar, Y. Mathpal, E. Neumayer, D. H. Gordon, G. Kumar, S. K. Pandey and G. S. Tyagi etc., useful information on various aspects of Indian rock art was brought to light and published. On the basis of the study of superimpositions, theme, , subject matter, patina, colour and context of the rock paintings, one can suggest a provisional and relative chronological sequence for Indian rock art until the paintings and other art forms can be dated directly. In the study of prehistoric rock art, it is essential to observe the stylistic features, superimpositions and colour of the paintings. The earliest paintings are often in a highly fragmented state and are covered with thick patina, in such conditions it is very difficult to study the subject matter in the rock paintings. Dating rock paintings is the most challenging part of the study of rock art research in India (as well as in other regions), but it is the most crucial aspect as well. Some of the rock paintings were dated to the later Saleem 2014: 742‐771 period and a few have been assigned to the Historical period. According to Bednarik (1994) efforts have been made to directly date rock art, but estimating the precise ages of individual paintings remain as one of the most challenging tasks in South Asian archaeology.

In 1957, V.S. Wakankar discovered hundreds of painted rock shelters around Bhimbetka in central India and started a broad survey of painted rock shelters in the country (Wakankar 1992). Later, V.S. Wakankar and V.N. Misra respectively carried out excavations in the rock shelters at Bhimbetka and revealed stratified cultural sequences from the Lower Palaeolithic to Historical periods (Wakankar 1975). Excavations here have also revealed one kind of were exposed on the floor of a rock and their stratigraphic position in the Acheulian deposits suggests that they were carved during the Lower Palaeolithic period. According to Bednarik (1994; Bednarik et al.1991), these petroglyphs are the oldest form of rock art in the world (Fig. 1). In India, most prehistoric paintings occur on rock faces or walls and ceiling portions of rock shelters and unlike many well‐known European sites, paintings are rarely found deep within caves.

Non‐chronometric Antiquity of Rock Art in India A large number of cupule marks were found on the surface along with Acheulian and Middle Palaeolithic artifacts in the rock shelters of Daraki‐Chattan near in the Chambal valley which provisionally suggests that they belong to the Acheulian and Middle Palaeolithic periods (Kumar 2006).

Upper Palaeolithic Period in India and Associated Art The dispute about the antiquity of Indian rock paintings has prevailed for several decades. According to Wakankar, some of the rock paintings in colour belong to the Upper Palaeolithic period. The reason behind this is the faceted green earth (called terra verte) that was found in Upper Palaeolithic levels in the excavations of one of the rock shelters (III A‐28) at Bhimbetka. Based on this initial find, Wakankar (1975; 1983) suggested that these paintings at Bhimbetka and similar ones elsewhere were the earliest ones. According to Tyagi (1992), the rock paintings in green colour were sometime found overlapping with red paintings, and stressed more importance of style of the paintings instead of their colour.

However, the colour of rock paintings in India cannot always be considered as a definitive criterion to determine a reliable chronological framework. In the past, rock paintings in green and were distinguished from the younger paintings due to a very high degree of craftsmanship and a characteristic uniformity. The earliest paintings are well executed as seen by the quality of the application of the in a fine and well controlled manner, which led to some suggesting the beginning of rock art in India. On the basis of thematic analysis, the Upper Palaeolithic rock paintings can be classified into two phases, i.e., pre‐figurative or non‐iconic and figurative or iconic (Tyagi 1992).

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Figure 1: Bhimbetka Figure 2: Bori East

Figure 3: Patne Figure 4: Patne

Opinions among scholars differ in many aspects regarding the antiquity of the intricate pattern designs found in the rock art sites of Indian Sub‐continent. The intricate pattern designs found in rock shelters are extremely fragmentary and almost merged with the surface of the rock (Fig. 2). This might have led Mathpal (1984: 207) and Neumayer (1983: 14) to consider them as the earliest rock paintings. According to Wakankar and Brooks (1976: 31, 81; Wakankar 1984a: 50), the ‘S’ type dynamic dancing figures painted in green and dark red belongs to earliest group of the rockk paintings. Kumar (1981: 279), who found a few more ‘S’ shaped dancing human figures has assigned these to the Upper Palaeolithic period (30,000‐12,000 B.P). Despite recent research, the precise chronological bracket of the Upper Palaeolithic period in India is also yet to be established, thus adding to the confusion about the antiquity of the associated rock art. G.S. Tyagi has also observed that in a number of rock shelters, intricate pattern designs were executed on the surface of rocks and they were not superimposed on any of the earlier paintings. Interestingly, the ‘S’ type dynamic dancing human figures painted in green were found superimposed on some of the intricate pattern designs painted in red ochre, but were poorly preserved and could not be identified (Tyagi 1988: 50). The ‘S’ shaped dancing human figures painted in green and dark red ochre were found superimposed on those in red ochre and were

744 Saleem 2014: 742‐771 discovered in rock shelters of Ladi‐Ki‐Karar, Cheel Dant, Kathotiya and Firengi. They are poorly preserved and thus could not be photographed properly. On the basis of his study, Tyagi (1992) also supports the theory that was proposed by Wakankar and Brooks (1976), that the ‘S’ shaped dynamic dancing human figures in green colour can be assigned to the Upper Palaeolithic, but they are probably not the earliest rock paintings in India. The earliest rock paintings (presumed from their position under the other paintings) are in a highly fragmented or poorly‐preserved state and are covered with thick patina, and in such conditions it is very difficult to make out the precise subject matter of the paintings.

In the initial stages of rock art studies, the beauty and the intricacy of the splendid spiral intricate pattern designs might have convinced experts to consider that these were painted to decorate the rock shelters or the body of animal figures (Mathpal 1984). But, according to Tyagi, the spiral intricate pattern designs have meaning beyond just being decorative. The emergence of the spiral pattern designs in a developed style without any stylistic changes, led scholars to consider them as an intriguing aspect of this kind of rock art (Tyagi 1988). On the basis of the study of rock paintings, G.S. Tyagi, who re‐examined rock paintings thoroughly in the Betwa source region, i.e., in the semi‐circular ranges of the Vindhyas passing through Raisen, Sehore and Bhopal districts and the comparative study of the paintings with those found in the rock shelters of Gupha Masir, first indicated that the simple geometric designs engraved on ostrich eggshells of the period, were also represented in the form of pictographs on rock walls (Tyagi 1992). Depiction of a serpent figure decorated with intricate pattern designs in red ochre covering both ends and the central part of a , was found at Kathotiya. The intricate pattern designs found filled in on the body portion of the serpent figure probably developed into the tradition depicting intricate spiral patterns. According to Woodhouse (c.f. Tyagi 1992), these intricate spiral patterns are the result of a “trance experience” of the shamans, and were painted when the rock artist was in a trance or hallucination or that these designs were painted by the shaman. According to Prof. W. Davis (c.f. Tyagi 1992) these designs were painted when the artist was under the influence of physically stressful conditions and their close association with the animals and a part of their belief system, which is an important vision of hunters, shamans or artists of a particular community. However, the absence of ethnographic parallels in India makes it difficult to prove this proposition (Tyagi 1992).

Other Forms of Art During the Upper Palaeolithic Period Engravings on ostrich eggshells (Sali 1978; 1980; 1984) and carvings on bones at Patne and Bhimbetka respectively, suggested for the first time, the existence of mobiliary art in India during the Upper Palaeolithic period. Unfortunately, the number of datable art objects found so far is small and not a single art object has designs comparable to the designs found in rock art. An ostrich eggshell found in the Upper Palaeolithic levels at Patne has ‐hatched designs between two parallel lines (Fig. 3) and was found in association with stone . Another fragment of an eggshell there was also carved

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with a similar design and can be somewhat helpful in diagnostic attribution of mobiliary art or applied art in India at this time as such designs are absent in younger contexts. Beads made on ostrich eggshells were also found in the late Upper Palaeolithic levels (Fig. 4) at Patne (Sali 1978). Likewise, two small circular beads made on ostrich eggshells were found around the neck of a skeleton in the Upper Palaeolithic deposit in rock shelter IIIA‐28 at Bhimbetka (Fig. 5) (Wakankar 1976).

In total, 11 engraved ostrich eggshells have been found so far. Among these, Ramnagar yielded six, Chandresal and Bhopal one each and the three from Patne. Apart from the rock paintings, interesting evidences of art objects such as engraved ostrich eggshells and beads, shell and bones have also been found in different parts of the country. However, the authenticity of engravings found on ostrich eggshells reported from Bhopal, Ramnagar, and Chandresal were questioned by several scholars (Bednarik 1993: 24; 1993a: 359; Neumayer 1990: 27) but have been dated between 40,000 and 25,000 BP (Kumar et al. 1988).

Recently, a bead site was discovered by Mishra (et al 2004) at Khaparkheda in the Narmada valley and the excavation of an Upper Palaeolithic site (Billa Surgam III) in the Kurnool district of Andhra Pradesh yielded barrel‐shaped bone beads and a pendant made of grooved animal tooth (Murty and Reddy 1975). The excavation in the Muchchatla Chintamanu Gavi, another Upper Paleolithic cave‐site in the same district of Andhra Pradesh, yielded a with a large number of charred bones and has given a preliminary TL date of c.19, 000 years BP. A bead made of bone was also found at this site (Murty 1974). A carved bone 8 cm long, ~1.5‐2.5 cm broad and ~1 cm in thickness, was found in the cemented gravel, i.e., layer 3 of the Lohanda Nala in the Belan valley, which also yielded an Upper Palaeolithic and . Based on association of fresh water shells, a C14 date of 25,000 BP (Fig. 6) was obtained (Misra 1977: 49).

Additional evidence of portable art comes from Chandravati, Rajasthan, in the form of an engraved chert core which suggests the artistic skill of Mesolithic artists. It was made on a chert nodule and a spiral rhomboid pattern consisting of two intertwining spiraling arms, was engraved on the patinated cortex of the semi‐rectangular chert nodule. The study of the engraved chert core suggests that the design was engraved on the nodule before it was used as a core (Sonawane 1992; 1995‐96; Bednarik 1993) (Fig. 7). Similar spiral rhomboid pattern designs were also found depicted on the walls of rock shelters in the Mahadeo Hills, Cheel Dant, Bhimbetka, Kathotia and several other rock art sites in Central India. These were considered to be those of the pre‐figurative phase. Interestingly, Upper Palaeolithic rock paintings of Mezin, a site in Crimea, Southern Russia represents similar designs drawn on the body portion of female figurines and ivory bracelets of the period (Clark 1977).

According to Wakankar (1978) the design that was engraved on an ostrich eggshell was probably part of a peacock design that was engraved on a bowl or a food/water

746 Saleem 2014: 742‐771 container. The designs engraved on ostrich eggshells can be compared with those depicted in rock paintings. These simple cross‐hatched designs were found in rock paintings of prehistoric, proto‐historic and historical periods. Moreover, rock paintings of birds such as ostriches were depicted at some rock art sites such as Kathotia and Firengi, but could not be identified conclusively. For example, the depiction of a large bird at Kathotia has four toes on each foot instead of two toes as ostriches have. Another depiction of a large bird which resembles an ostrich was depicted without toes, and has two lines on its head which are not specifically helpful in identifying them as ostriches (Neumayer 1990). Birds resembling ostriches were also depicted in the rock shelters of Bazaar‐cave at Pachmarhi in Mahadeo Hills (Gupta 1967) (Fig. 8). These were depicted in a group and were painted in white colour. But again due to the poor preservation of these paintings, it is difficult to confidently identify them as those of ostriches and these bird figures have fingers whereas the Ostriches have toes (Neumayer 1990).

Figure 5: Figure 6: Figure 7: Figure 8: Figure 9: Bhimbetka Lohanda Nala Chandravati Firengi Central India

The study of rock paintings found in various countries suggests that the rock paintings of the pre‐figurative phase precede those of the figurative phase in many instances (Tyagi 1992). Depictions in the pre‐figurative phase such as the intricate spiral designs with variations, geometric motifs, concentric circles, and intermediate forms were drawn in a restricted range of elements. The above mentioned curvilinear motifs are the basic characteristics of all forms of archaic rock art (Bednarik 1994b). This can be applied to the rock paintings of the pre‐figurative phase as well, which forms the most conspicuous of the rock paintings of this kind found so far in India (Neumayer 1993: 43). In several paintings the intricate pattern designs identified as ‘Labyrinthine’ were designed as rhombic meanders and honey‐comb patterns with different designs. Similar depictions cover a large space of the rock shelter surfaces, and in many rock shelters they were not superimposed by the earlier paintings (Tyagi 1992: 304‐306).

Chronologically, the symbolic motifs of the pre‐figurative or non‐iconic phase were followed by those of the figurative or iconic phase. The paintings of the pre‐figurative phase such as the ‘S’ shaped dynamic dancing human figures in green colour were found superimposed on the intricate designs of earlier paintings drawn in red. The ‘S’ shaped dynamic dancing human figures of the earliest phase were transformed into perfect ‘S’ shapes during the figurative phase, and the paintings of this style do not

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depict any other activities except dancing and scenes. They are known for their vigorous dynamism which is not found in rock paintings of later periods. This is a striking feature of the paintings of the figurative phase. In this regard, the depiction of an ostrich in green colour, at a rock art site in central India, was first noticed by S.K. Pandey (in Tyagi 1992) and may prove the authenticity of the earliest style. Intricate pattern designs were also depicted on the body portion of some animal figures. Among other designs, the spiral rhomboid design was repeatedly depicted on huge , elephant, and which are generally uncommon, and were identified as ‘deified animals’ (Misra 1986) (Fig. 9). Even during the Mesolithic period the tradition of depicting animal figures filled in with intricate pattern designs on their bodies was continued to some extent, making it to difficult to chronologically distinguish between such paintings.

Mesolithic Rock Art Rock paintings of the Mesolithic period found in India reflect greater uniformity in style and show a remarkable difference between the depiction of human and animal forms. Animals were depicted naturalistically, while were depicted as stick‐ like figures in a stylistic form. The latter were sometimes shown wearing masks or elaborate head dresses. Paintings of human females and those of animals were depicted as being quite bulky with body decorations of intricate pattern designs such as spiral or honey‐comb patterns, suggesting broad continuity of an earlier tradition (Tyagi 1992). Variability in the style of the rock paintings both chronologically and regionally is an important feature in Indian rock art.

Thus far, assigning relative ages to rock paintings in the Indian Subcontinent has mainly depended on their style, subject matter, superimpositions, theme, patina and general comparative studies. The majority of these paintings are known from India and the study of associated motifs and animal figures are also helpful in general reconstructions of environmental conditions in the past (Sathe 2007).

In the absence of absolute dating of rock paintings, one can establish a relative chronological sequence for Indian rock paintings based on the afore‐mentioned criteria. This has helped to provisionally assign and organize the various rock paintings to the Upper Paleolithic, Mesolithic, Neolithic/ and Historical periods. A few sites in India have yielded archaeological evidence belonging to all of these periods, one reason being the lengthy duration and adaptation of microlithic well upto the last two centuries. For example, excavations conducted by Pandey (1970) in the rock shelters of Putli Karar in Raisen District of have yielded heavily patinated non‐geometric and geometric , Chalcolithic and other crude , and the ceramic assemblages of Northern Polished ware, Black Polished ware including implements. Similarly, excavations conducted in the rock shelters of Raisen, Kharwai, Shyamala Hills in Bhopal, Shahad Karar, Bhimbetka and Pachmarhi have yielded similar material and have helped to establish a broad chronological sequence for the rock paintings found in central India.

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Study Area – Harauti Plateau The Hadoti or Harauti Plateau, located in south‐eastern Rajasthan, is comprised of Bundi, Kota, Baran, Jhalawar Districts and the eastern part of Bhilwara District (Fig. 10). In this zone, a large number of researchers have explored and documented numerous rock art shelters and paintings including the Archaeological Survey of India, Sharma (1991), Pancholi and Shrivastava, Kumar (1981, 1983, 1992, Kumar (et al 1988, 1992), Sharma (1998) and Wakankar (1983, 1984b). The most recent work was carried out by Abbas (2006; 2007‐08; 2011(in press) and Saleem (2008; 2013 in press; 2014 in press).

Figure 10: Study Area ‐ Hadoti Plateau, SE Rajasthan

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Early Rock Art of Harauti Plateau The study of early rock paintings found in the Harauti Plateau suggests that the rock paintings of iconic and non‐iconic categories were started from the beginning of rock art and continued up to the Historical period. But the study of rock paintings found in various parts of the world suggests the beginning of the pre‐figurative phase onwards, as reflected by the globally‐shared intricate as well as geometric pattern designs. In the study area, depictions of intricate pattern designs were found at Chapria, Hathitol and Ramtol. At Chapria, an intricate pattern design is drawn on the wall portion of a rock shelter in red ocher. On the basis of style, this design was painted during the initial stages of rock art and it can be dated to the non‐iconic category and suggests the initial or possibly the earliest efforts in the rock art in the region. They were drawn on the original surface of the wall (Fig. 11) and it is superimposed by younger rock paintings of the later phases. Other intricate pattern designs found at Ramtol (Fig. 12) and Hathitol (Fig. 44) were drawn during the early phase and suggest about the initial efforts whereas the geometric pattern design at Bhimlat (Fig. 13) was drawn during creative phase of the Mesolithic period which was represented by the depictions of the animal figures profusely decorated with similar kind of designs found in the rock art sites of India.

Study of the animal figures in life‐size proportions and in naturalistic outlines found in the Hadoti Plateau suggests that they were drawn right from the beginning of rock art. The body portion of the animal figures was sometimes decorated with or without intricate or geometric pattern designs. Similar depictions of animal figures were found at many rock art sites such as Golpur, Chamalia Nala, Gopichand ka Chaja, Chapria and so forth in the Harauti Plateau. At some of these sites, the body portion of the animal figures was not decorated with any designs and sometimes they were superimposed by those of later phases. Depictions of wild ass figures were also drawn with dark red ochre in naturalistic outlines. These may represent the first known depictions of wild ass figures in Indian rock art as they have not been reported elsewhere. These animal figures were superimposed by a humped bull figure. All these animal figures were drawn without any decorations in their body portions. Based on style, the wild ass possibly belongs to the earliest iconic category whereas the superimposed humped bull figure probably belongs to the agriculturists and cattle‐ keepers phase (Fig. 14).

Depiction of a wild boar is drawn in a single outline and painted in dark red ochre. It was painted naturalistically with a thin brush according to the body proportions of the animals. The on the mane of the wild boar is shown as erected and the canine teeth are also shown protruding from its mouth. The style used in the depiction of this wild boar figure possibly suggests the skill in the early stages of animal figure depiction (the body portion of this animal figure is without any decorations). It is superimposed by a deer figure which is also drawn in dark red ochre and in single outlines with a thick brush and it is superimposed on an animal figure which resembles a fox. There is a depiction of another wild boar painted in a similar manner and superimposed by

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Figure 11: Chapria Figure 12: Ramtol Figure 13: Bhimlat

Figure 14: Golpur Figure 15: Golpur Figure 16: Chamalia Nala

Figure 17: Figure 18: Figure 19: Chamalia Nala Gopichand ka Chhaja Chapria

Figure 20: Bakan Figure 21: Dolamari ka Tol Figure 22: Bakan

Figure 23: Dolamari ka Tol Figure 24: Chattaneshwar Figure 25: Golpur

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another deer figure, the former again suggesting an initial stage of animal style (Fig. 15). Depictions of a lion, wolf (Fig. 16) and a deer (Fig. 17) were painted in red ochre and they were also drawn in naturalistic outlines were found at Chamalia Nala in of Rajasthan. Their style suggests that they were drawn during early stages of the depiction of animal figures in this region. These animal figures are covered with patina and they were not superimposed by any other figures.

There are also life‐size depictions of a Nilgai ( Bull) figure in naturalistic outlines and painted in red ochre. The body portion of this animal figure is left blank without filling any decorations. The back portion of this animal figure is faded. It has horn‐like projections over the head. It is painted on the wall portion of a rock shelter. Similar animal figures were drawn during the earliest phase of rock paintings and it was found at Gopichand Ka Chhaja (Fig. 18). Similar depictions of Nilgai (Blue Bull) figures are also found at rock art sites such as Bakan and Golpur in Harauti Plateau.

Depictions of Monkey (langur‐(Seinnopithecus entellus) figures were drawn in naturalistic outlines and they were painted in red ochre were found in one of the rock shelters at Chapria. They were shown in moving posture. The style of the Monkey figures suggests about the early efforts of the prehistoric rock painters (Fig. 29). During the subsequent stages of rock art the size of the animal figures was reduced, but remained naturalistic. But the body portion of the animal figures was decorated with intricate as well as geometric pattern designs. Similar depictions of animal figures in naturalistic outlines and the body portion decorated with intricate or geometric pattern designs were found at rock art sites namely Bakan, Dolamari ka Tol and Bhimlat. Sometimes these animal figures were found superimposed by the rock paintings of the subsequent periods. Similar depictions of superimpositions were found at few rock art sites namely Bakan (Fig. 20) and Dolamari ka Tol (Fig. 21). Similar depictions of animal figures, aquatic and bird figures drawn during the creative phase of the Mesolithic period, where one can find similar depictions drawn profusely and were found at many rock art sites in central India such as Bhimbetka, Kathotia, Firengi, etc.

Depictions of bird figures such as a vulture and a bird similar to that of an Emu were found at two rock art sites namely Bakan and Dolamari ka Tol respectively. Depiction of a vulture figure was drawn naturalistically and it was painted in bright red ochre. Body portion of this bird figure was decorated with a design consisting of lines was shown as flying was found at Bakan (Fig. 22). Similar depictions of bird figures were drawn during the creative phase of Mesolithic period. Depiction of an unidentified bird figure is partly drawn in outlines as well as in flat wash. Legs of this figure are clearly visible but they are slender when they are compared to the body portion of this figure. It is similar to that of an Emu bird (Fig. 23). The head and neck portion of this figure are drawn in flat wash and the body portion is bulky and decorated with geometric pattern designs. It was probably drawn during the creative phase of Mesolithic period. Similar depiction of a bird figure was also found at rock art sites namely Kalakui and Tipatia in Kota District of Rajasthan and it was claimed as that of

752 Saleem 2014: 742‐771 an Ostrich (Jagat Narayan et al 2005). Depictions of aquatic creatures drawn during the creative phase of Mesolithic period were also found. They were found at two rock art sites namely Chattaneshwar and Golpur. Depiction of a fish figure was found on the ceiling portion of a rock shelter was found at Chattaneshwar. The body portion of this figure is decorated with geometric pattern design and it was drawn in naturalistic outlines (Fig. 24). Depiction of a tortoise figure was found at Golpur, a rock art site in . The body portion of this figure is decorated with a design consisting of wavy lines. Similar depictions of paintings were drawn during the creative phase of Mesolithic period (Fig. 25).

During the late Mesolithic phase the body portion of the animal figures was further reduced but remained in naturalistic outlines. The Body portion of the animal figures was decorated with line, wavy, horizontal drawings and a few were decorated with geometric pattern designs. Similar depictions of animal figures were found at various rock art sites such as Gopichand ka Chaja (Fig. 26), Golpur (Fig. 27), Dolamari Ka Tol (Fig. 28) etc are located in Harauti Plateau. But during the late Mesolithic phase depictions of animal figures at sometimes were drawn in life‐size proportions. Similar depictions of animal figures were found at few rock art sites namely, Bhimlat (Fig. 13), Dolamari Ka Tol (Fig. 28), Gararda (Fig.29) and Chattaneshwar (Fig. 37).

Depictions of animal figures in x‐ray style were drawn during the Mesolithic period onwards and continued right up to the Historical period. During the Mesolithic period depictions of animal figures in x‐ray style were shown with internal organs such as intestines, lungs, heart and similar depictions of x‐ray style animal figures were shown along with the calves inside the womb of the animals. X‐ray paintings found in Indian rock art are similar to those found in Australia (Morewood in Tyagi 1992; 312). The x‐ ray paintings were found superimposed on the paintings of earlier phase without any gradual evolution, and can be assigned to the later phases of Mesolithic period. An x‐ ray depiction of a deer figure is drawn in two colours, i.e., bi‐chrome painting was found at Gararda in Bundi District of Rajasthan. The outlines of this animal figure were drawn in white colour. The internal organs such as the intestines of the deer were shown inside the body of this animal figure and the remaining portion is filled in with red ochre. It was drawn during the late Mesolithic phase and covered with patina (Fig. 29).

Depictions of stick‐shaped and square‐shaped human figures were also drawn right from the beginning of rock art and they were drawn with different sized brushes. They were painted in red ochre. The study of the early rock paintings of Hadoti Plateau has also revealed small , hair and plant fibres embedded in the rock paintings and the scientific study of such kind of pigment binders can be carried out in order to generate the chronometric dates for the rock paintings as well as to know about the other pigment binders (Saleem 2014 in press). These stick‐shaped figures were shown without holding any weapons. Similar depictions of stick‐shaped human figures without holding any weapons were drawn during the earliest phase of rock paintings

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of the iconic or figurative category (Fig. 30). Depictions of stick‐shaped human figures were painted in dark red ochre. These stick‐shaped human figures are shown in moving postures. They were drawn with a medium‐sized brush. The mouth portion of these stick‐shaped human figures is similar to that of a bird and they are similar to those of masked stick shaped human figures found in the rock art sites of central India and they probably belong to a single community of the hunter‐gatherers. A stick‐like object (probably a ) is shown near the waist of all these human figures. They are partly faded and covered with patina. All these stick‐shaped human figures were painted on the rock surface and they are not superimposed by any other rock paintings. These stick‐shaped human figures were painted in a cavity portion of a rock shelter. These stick‐shaped human figures were drawn during the earliest phase of rock paintings and similar depictions of stick shaped human figures were found at Nalda (Fig. 31). A stick‐shaped human figure is painted in dark red ochre. It is covered with patina. This stick‐shaped human figure is shown as holding a stick‐like object in one hand. It was drawn on the wall portion of a rock shelter at Chattaneshwar. It was drawn with a thick brush. It was probably drawn during the earliest phase of rock paintings. The stick‐shaped human figure is shown as wearing a langoti, a one piece‐ cloth around the waist, is indicated by a small line drawn in between the legs of this stick‐shaped human figure (Fig. 32).

Depiction of a fruit‐collection scene is painted on the wall surface of a rock shelter was found at Dolamari Ka Tol. Three stick‐shaped human figures and a tree‐like depiction with branches are painted in red ochre. These two stick‐shaped human figures are drawn with a thin brush and they are shown as carrying round‐shaped objects similar to fruits are shown in moving postures. Among these two stick‐shaped human figures one is shown as holding a ‐like object in one hand and a fruit in the other and they are partly faded and covered with patina. Among these two stick‐shaped human figures one is partly faded due to the seepage of rain‐water. A tree‐like depiction is drawn with a thin brush and it is also shown as having branches. Another depiction of a stick‐shaped human figure which is similar to that of a female in shown with an upraised hand is shown in sitting posture and the body portion of this female figure is shown a little bulky when it is compared with those of the male stick‐shaped human figures. It is partly faded and covered with patina. Depictions of fruit and honey‐ collection scenes were found at rock art sites such as Bhimbetka, Kharwai, etc in central India. All these stick‐shaped human figures were drawn during the early Mesolithic phase (Fig. 33). A square‐shaped human figure is drawn in outlines and it was painted in red ochre. The square‐shaped human figure is shown as carrying a round‐shaped object similar to that of a fruit. This figure is drawn with a thin brush. Similar depictions of human figures shown as carrying round‐shaped objects or fruits suggests about their subsistence pattern was found in one of the rock shelters at Gararda (Fig. 39).

Depictions of two stick‐shaped human figures were painted in dark red ochre and they were shown as embracing which suggests a love‐making scene. These stick‐shaped

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Figure 26: Figure 27: Figure 28: Gopichand ka Chhaja Golpur Dolamari ka Tol

Figure 29: Gararda Figure 30: Bhadkiya Figure 31: Nalda

Figure 32: Chattaneshwar Figure 33: Dolamari ka Tol Figure 34: Chattaneshwar

Figure 35: Chattaneshwar Figure 36: Chattaneshwar Figure 37: Chattaneshwar

Figure 38: Bhimlat Figure 39: Gararda Figure 40: Cable Nagar

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Figure 41: Nalda Figure 42: Cable Nagar Figure 43: Hathitol human figures were drawn with a thick brush. Depictions of female figures are drawn very less and identifying the female figures in the prehistoric rock paintings is difficult unless they are shown with the physical features as a few of them were found in the rock art sites of central India. Because the physical features of female figures were not drawn clearly. These stick‐shaped human figures in love‐making posture were drawn during the Mesolithic period (Figs. 34 and 35) whereas the stick‐shaped human figures found in the rock shelters of Cable Nagar were shown in dancing postures (Fig. 41) whereas the square shaped human figures found at Nalda were shown in dancing postures (Fig. 44). Petroglyphs were found on the floor of rock shelters at Chattaneshwar and at Cable Nagar in Kota District. These petroglyphs were prepared in the form of a design (Figs. 36 and 42). Similar petroglyphs in the form of a design were not found at any other rock art site in India.

Figure 44: Nalda Figure 45: Gopichand Ka Chhaja

A big painted panel consisting of stags, a serpent and eight square‐shaped human figures in a row were drawn in outlines and they were painted in dark red ochre. This painted panel was drawn on the ceiling portion of a rock shelter was found at Chattaneshwar. In this painted panel two stags with long horns were drawn in outlines and the body portion of these animal figures was decorated with geometric pattern designs. Similar depictions of deer figures were drawn during the creative phase of the Mesolithic period. A serpent figure was drawn in outlines and the body

756 Saleem 2014: 742‐771 portion of this serpent figure is left blank without filling any decorations and it was painted in dark red ochre. It was drawn in between the two stags and eight square‐ shaped human figures. The serpent figure is more than one meter long. Depictions of serpent figures were drawn during the prehistoric times. According to A.K. Ghosh (in Tyagi 1992), “depictions of serpents suggests about the pacification or totem or worship of the serpents during the prehistoric period”. Eight square‐shaped human figures in silhouette form were drawn in outlines. These square‐shaped human figures are shown as standing in a row and their hands were shown as joined together. At both ends the human figures are shown as holding bow and and also shown as wearing similar dress may suggest that they belong to single community. These square‐shaped human figures belong to the schematic category of Mesolithic rock paintings (Fig. 37). Depiction of a square‐shaped hunter figure was drawn in double outlines and it was painted in red ochre. The hunter is shown as wearing a masked head‐dress and holding a bow and an in his right hand and a net‐like object in the other hand. Similar depictions of human figures were drawn during the creative phase of the rock art of Mesolithic period (Fig. 38). The differences in their head dresses as well as clothes may suggest that they belong to different communities. But the depictions of ‘S’ shaped human figures were only found at Gopichand Ka Chhaja a rock art site located in Bhilwara Distirct and they were shown in a twisted form (Fig. 45).

Discussion In India, prehistoric people occupied the rock shelters right from the Lower Palaeolithic period onwards. These rock shelters were often painted with human and animal figures and intricate pattern designs, which help us to understand various aspects of their life‐ways.

Rock Art of Hadoti or Harauti Plateau This paper is mainly focused on the study of the early rock art in the Harauti Plateau, south‐eastern Rajasthan which is comprised of Bundi, Kota, Baran, Jhalawar and eastern part of Bhilwara Districts. The study of the rock paintings found in the study area, i.e., Harauti plateau, suggests that the depiction of the rock paintings of the Non‐ iconic as well as iconic categories were started right from the beginning of rock art. Studies of the rock paintings in terms of style, theme, subject matter, superimposition, patina, colour, etc were taken into consideration to establish a relative chronological sequence for the rock paintings found in this region, and for a better understanding of prehistoric life‐ways.

The Distribution of Rock Shelters and Sites The rock shelters were located either on the river banks or on hill tops. Sometimes rock shelters were found in the river beds as well. Microliths were found scattered on the floor of rock shelters at Kukarjhar, Amjhari Nala, Bhimlat, Bardha Locality No 2 and Bijoliya.

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Chronology The study of intricate as well as geometric pattern designs found in the rock shelters of Ramtol, Hathitol and Chapria in the Hadoti Plateau suggests that they were drawn irregularly and the early efforts of prehistoric artists and also suggests that they were drawn during the initial stages of rock paintings of the Non‐iconic category. But in the study of rock art in India it is an accepted fact that the rock paintings of non‐iconic category precede those of iconic category. But the careful study of rock paintings of both categories suggests that there is a possibility for the beginning of both non‐iconic and iconic rock paintings at the same time. Because the prehistoric people have lived in different kinds of eco‐systems and they know very well about the kind of intricate or geometric pattern designs on the body portion of various types of animals and serpents. Depictions of the animal figures such as those of bovids, equids, cervids, lions, , different types of deer and serpents/snakes, langurs (monkey), Nilgai or Blue bull, hyaenas, etc in naturalistic outlines and/or in life‐size proportions were shown without any decorations on their body portion as they have no designs on their body portion. But in the subsequent periods the body portion of these animals were decorated with various kinds of intricate and geometric pattern designs. But the prehistoric people who might have encountered different kinds of serpents/snakes and observed different kinds of intricate and geometric pattern designs on those creatures, and this reason might have led to draw such kind of designs, and that might have been the reason why serpent/snake figures were drawn to a lesser extent. Such kind of serpent figures can be seen at Kathotia, Sagar, etc in central India were assigned as the earliest whereas the serpent figure found at Cheel Dant was assigned to the later style, and the serpent figure found at Chattaneshwar in Hadoti Plateau in south‐eastern Rajasthan was also assigned to the later style. But a few animal figures in naturalistic as well as in life‐size proportions were found at number of rock art sites in the Hadoti Plateau and such kind of animal and human figures are helpful to establish a chronological sequence were found at Golpur, Chapria and Gopichand Ka Chhaja.

In recent years, scholars like V.S. Wakankar, Y. Mathpal, G.S. Tyagi, Giriraj Kumar, N. Chandramouli and Sadashib Pradhan have attempted to establish a chronological sequence to rock art in India. The study of style, superimposition, colour, patina, theme, subject matter, etc of the rock paintings were taken into consideration to establish a chronological sequence. Thus, study of style and superimposition of the rock paintings are very important. On the basis of the study of the rock paintings found in India and elsewhere, they were mainly classified into two categories‐ those which are of the Non‐Iconic and those of the Iconic. Intricate patterns (rhombic meanders, loops, knots and honey‐comb pattern designs), were drawn during the earliest phase of the rock paintings whereas those of stick‐shaped human figures and the animal figures in naturalistic outlines as well as in life size proportions were drawn during the Iconic phase of rock paintings. However, this is not a rigid distinction and the ‘S’ shaped and stick‐shaped human figures and animal figures were also drawn during the earliest phase of rock paintings. A very little about the meaning of the

758 Saleem 2014: 742‐771 intricate pattern designs is known; and some scholars opined that they were drawn under the influences of hallucination (Prof. W. Davis in Tyagi 1992). Although, the present study also suggests Tyagi’s (1992) observation that during the prehistoric period people might have encountered serpents with different markings on their body and thus began drawing the intricate pattern designs. This is probably the reason why prehistoric artists drew serpents to a lesser extent. Later they were developed into intricate pattern designs and the prehistoric people started to draw the intricate pattern designs.

The present study suggests that the depictions of different types of ‘S’ shaped and stick‐shaped as well the square shaped human figures shown as wearing different types of head‐dresses, costumes, etc found in the Harauti Plateau and elsewhere in central India were painted by different communities who occupied the rock shelters in different parts of Indian Sub‐continent. This can be attested by the study of different tribal communities in the country who wear different types of head‐dresses, costumes, etc and might have been a reason why different types of stylistic as well as regional variations appear in the study of Indian rock art (Saleem 2014 in press).

Another aspect which has been overlooked in the study of stone assemblages as well as rock art in India is that the beautiful bifaces, as well as other artifacts found at number of Acheulian sites in India and the discovery of crystals found in Acheulian levels of Singi Talav (Bednarik 2006) and faceted ochre nodules with striation marks found at locality V of Hunsgi (Paddayya 1982 and 1984:365) suggests the aesthetic sense qualities or cognitive perception of the hominins and their struggle for survival in the hostile environment which might have kept them wandering and the prehistoric people have kept occupying rock shelters seasonally in different parts of the Indian Sub‐continent. But the improved capacity of the brain in the modern humans and the leisure time they used to get due to the technological such as the production of microlithic artifacts as well as the and the prolonged association with the fauna and flora in their surrounding environments might have led to observe different types of designs on the body of different animals, birds, reptiles, etc and eventually these aspects might have led to the beginning of the rock art in India which mainly represents the animals and hunting scenes in which different types of human figures shown as hunting and dancing scenes as well as honey and fruit collection scenes, and many other aspects in their life which were found at number of rock art sites in India as well as in other parts of the world (Saleem 2014 in press). Their continuous association in different kinds of environmental settings has enabled them to identify different kinds of flora and fauna which can be domesticated, and eventually led to the beginning of food production, animal and establishment of permanent settled life in the Indian Sub‐continent.

The study of rock art in Hadoti Plateau suggests that during the initial stages of depiction of rock paintings of non‐iconic category, the prehistoric artists were not able to execute them properly, which might have led to draw some of the intricate or

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geometric pattern designs irregularly or it may depend on the prehistoric artist’s skill to execute them skilfully. A study of the style and execution of the intricate and geometric pattern designs suggests that they were drawn according to a plan. In course of a long time span artists mastered in the execution of intricate pattern designs which were later very well executed.

A study of intricate as well as geometric pattern designs found in the rock shelters of Ramtol, Chapria, Nalda, Banganga, Chamalia Nala, Gopichand Ka Chaja, Chattaneshwar and Hathitol (Fig. 43) suggests that a few of them such as those at Ramtol, Hathitol and Chapria were drawn during the earliest phase of non‐iconic category rock paintings. Such designs found at Ramtol, Hathitol and Chapria were drawn irregularly and suggests early efforts of prehistoric artists and also suggests that they were drawn during the initial stages of rock art of Non‐iconic category.

Disputes arose on the nature and chronology of ‘S’ shaped human figures painted in green and which were shown in dancing postures. Excavations conducted at rock shelter III A‐28 at Bhimbetka yielded a green patch, terra verta in the Upper Palaeolithic levels. On this basis Wakankar assigned these ‘S’ shaped human figures in dancing postures to the Upper Palaeolithic period (Wakankar 1975). According to G.S. Tyagi who studied rock paintings in the Betwa Basin source region, these figures do not belong to the Upper Palaeolithic period. Tyagi suggests that the intricate pattern designs were drawn during the earliest phase of rock paintings (Tyagi1992). Depictions of the ‘S’ stick‐shaped human figures were found superimposed on an intricate pattern design which was painted in red ochre was found in one of the rock shelters of Jaora and thus need not be as old as they are considered to be. Thus, G.S. Tyagi suggests that the colour of rock paintings can never be considered as a safe criterion to date them. The availability of the different colour nodules used as raw material by prehistoric artists needs to be considered carefully before interpreting paintings chronologically.

Main Characteristics of Rock Art in Hadoti Plateau Stick‐shaped Human Figures: Depictions of ‘S’ shaped and stick‐shaped human figures were drawn during the initial stage of the rock paintings as well as in the subsequent periods and they were drawn with different sized brushes. Stick‐shaped human figures in ‘S’ shape were drawn during the early phase. These were drawn with a thin brush and the body portion of these figures was shown in elastically twisted forms. The stick‐shaped human figures were shown in dancing as well as in hunting scenes. Similar depictions of stick‐shaped human figures were found at many rock art sites such as Gopichand Ka Chhaja, Rav ka Chatkya, Dolamari Ka Tol, Nalda in the Harauti plateau and they are similar to those found at many rock art sites in central India. The study of the depictions of ‘S’ shaped and stick‐shaped human figures found in the study area suggests that there were various stages in the depiction of these human figures. During the initial stages they were drawn with thin brushes. During the early phase they were shown engaged in different activities such as dancing, hunting and fruit and honey‐collection scenes. Similar depictions of stick‐shaped

760 Saleem 2014: 742‐771 human figures were found at Gararda, Bhadkiya and Dolamari Ka Tol. These rock art sites are located in Bundi District, Rajasthan. Stick‐shaped human figures were also shown without any weapons were found at Bhadkiya, a rock art site located in Bundi District, which suggests dancing postures. Similar depictions of stick‐shaped human figures were shown without holding any weapon. Evidence for dancing can be seen in depictions of stick‐shaped human figures found at Bhadkiya, Cable Nagar and Nalda. At Dolamari Ka Tol, they were shown in a fruit‐collection scene. Similar depictions of stick‐shaped human figures shown in fruit‐collection scenes were found at few rock art sites in central India and they were assigned to the early Mesolithic phase. Depiction of stick‐shaped human figures was continued during the later phase of the Mesolithic period. However, during this phase, these stick‐shaped human figures were painted with thick brushes and were sometimes shown as equipped with bow and arrows. Similar depictions of stick‐shaped human figures were found in the rock shelters of Hathitol, Chattaneshwar and Rav Ka Chatkya. Depictions of these stick‐shaped human figures can be dated on the basis of the style of the animal figures shown in the hunting scenes. Depictions of stick‐shaped human figures found at Hathitol, Chattaneshwar, Nalda and Rav Ka Chatkya can be dated to the later phases of Mesolithic period. Those at Hathitol, Nalda, Chattaneshwar and Rav Ka Chatkya were shown as moving in a particular direction. This is because animal figures shown in these hunting scenes were drawn in small proportions, and the stick‐shaped human figures were also shown as armed with small sized bows and multi‐barbed arrows. The present work also highlights the importance that has to be given to the depictions of animal figures shown either in the hunting scenes or alone. The study of the stick‐shaped human figures found in association with the animal figures in naturalistic outlines as well as in life‐size proportions can help assign these figures to later phases of the Mesolithic. Similarly the use of thick brushes is characteristic of the later Mesolithic. But the depictions of ‘S’ shaped human figures found in the rock art sites of central India were only found at Gopichand Ka Chhaja (Fig. 45) in Harauti Plateau whereas the stick‐ shaped human figures in dancing postures were found at Nalda (Fig. 31) and Cable Nagar (Fig. 40). Depiction of a boat figure was found in the rock shelters of Nalda (Fig. 41).

Human and Animal Figures as Chronological Indicators Depiction of Human Figures Figures in conventional form were drawn during the Mesolithic period. These human figures were shown in stick‐shape as well as in square‐shape forms with different types of head dresses as well as clothes which may suggest that they belong to different communities or tribes. In this form the human figures were shown as wearing different types of masks such as those of birds and different types of head‐gears. Similar depictions of human figures were found at Nalda, Bhimlat, Chattaneshwar and Gararda in the rock art sites located in the Hadoti plateau. These human figures were shown in the form of when they were shown in hunting scenes. However, the depiction of stick‐shaped human figures was continued even during the late

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Mesolithic phase. Stick‐shaped human figures found in the rock shelters of Rav Ka Chatkya and Chattaneshwar were shown holding a small sized bow. Similar depictions of stick‐shaped human figures shown as holding small bows and the associated animal figures can help assign them to the later phases of Mesolithic period. The present study also suggests that square‐shaped human figures were always shown associated with animal figures, but they were drawn right from the beginning of iconic category of rock paintings. Depictions of stick‐shaped human figures wearing bird‐like masks were shown moving in a particular direction, with a stick‐like object tied around their waist as seen at Nalda.

Depiction of the square‐shaped human figure found at Gararda has upraised hands and carries a round object (probably a fruit) on his right shoulder. The square‐shaped human figure found at Bhimlat was shown as holding a net or a trap in the right hand and a bow and arrow in the left hand. The square‐shaped human figure found at Bhimlat was shown as holding a very small bow, whereas the stick‐shaped human figures drawn during the early Mesolithic phase were shown as holding long bows and sometimes taller than the archers. Similar depictions of stick‐shaped human figures shown as holding a long bow were drawn during the early Mesolithic phase. During the late Mesolithic phase the size of the bow was reduced and it can be seen clearly in those depictions found at Bhimlat and Chattaneshwar. Depictions of square‐ shaped human figures were found at Chattaneshwar and among these square‐shaped human figures one figure was shown aiming at a deer figure with a bow in small size and an arrow. These square‐shaped human figures were shown in association with animal figures drawn during the late Mesolithic phase. A painted panel found in rock shelters of Chattaneshwar has eight square‐shaped human figures, a snake, two deer figures and an intricate pattern design. In this panel the square‐shaped human figures were holding a bow which is long, and the deer figures were decorated with line and dot designs. The study of the style of the animal figures suggests that they were drawn during the creative phase of Mesolithic period when the depictions of animal figures were profusely decorated with various line designs. Another square‐shaped human figure found at Chattaneshwar was shown as aiming at a wild ass and equipped with a small sized bow. Another square‐shaped human figure shown as holding a small bow was also found at Chattaneshwar. All these square‐shaped human figures, serpent, deer and intricate patterns were drawn during the creative phase of the Mesolithic period, when animal figures decorated with various designs were drawn profusely. The study of square‐shaped human figures found at Gararda, Rav Ka Chatkya, Chattaneshwar and Bhimlat suggests that they were always found in association with the animal figures drawn in small proportions; and that they were drawn during the later phases of Mesolithic period. Activities such as dancing, hunting, love‐making and fruit and honey‐collection scenes abound in Mesolithic rock art in the study region. Depictions of stick‐shaped human figures found at Chattaneshwar were shown in a love‐making posture. Depictions of stick‐shaped and square‐shaped human figures were often shown together were found in the rock shelters of Rav ka Chatkya and

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Nalda. But the depictions of ‘S’ shaped human figures were only found at Gopichand Ka Chhaja (Fig. 45) a rock art site in the Hadoti Plateau.

Animal Figures Study of the animal figures found in the rock art sites of Hadoti Plateau suggests that they were drawn right from the beginning of rock art. During the earliest phase of depiction of animal figures, the body portion was left blank without any decorations filled in. These animal figures were drawn in naturalistic outlines according to the proportions of these animals. Deer noted at Chamalia Nala, those of langur or monkeys at Chapria and Kukarjhar, deer and nilgai (Blue Bull) at Gopichand Ka Chhaja and wild boar and wild ass figures found at Golpur suggests early efforts of prehistoric artists during the earliest phase of depictions of animal figures. Similar depictions of animal figures were found in the rock shelters of Chamalia Nala in Kota District, Gopichand Ka Chhaja in Bhilwara District and Golpur, Kukarjhar and Chapria in Bundi District in Rajasthan.

The study of the style of animal figures found at Chamalia Nala, Gopichand Ka Chhaja, Kukarjhar, Chapria and Golpur suggests that these prehistoric artists were in the initial stages of depicting the animal figures. The body of the animal figures found at Chamalia Nala, Gopichand Ka Chhaja, Chapria, Kukarjhar and Golpur were left blank without any decorations. Later depictions of animal figures were drawn in naturalistic outlines as well as in life size proportions, with their body portions also decorated with intricate pattern designs. These animal figures were drawn right from the beginning of rock art. Similar depictions of animal figures in naturalistic outlines and in life size proportions were found at various rock art sites located in Harauti Plateau such as Bakan, Gararda, Bhimlat, Dolamari Ka Tol, Chattaneshwar and Gopichand Ka Chhaja. Depictions of animal figures drawn without body decorations and those decorated with intricate pattern designs were drawn during the early Mesolithic phase. During the late Mesolithic phase, the size of animal figures was further reduced and the body was decorated with various line drawings. Such depictions of animal figures were found at various rock art sites located in Harauti Plateau such as Dolamari Ka Tol, Hai Ki Dhar, Bakan, Banganga, Bhimlat, Bijoliya, Gararda, Golpur, Gopichand Ka Chhaja, Kalatol, Khamloi, Dolamari ka Tol and Nalda. Animal figures drawn during the late Mesolithic phase were drawn in outlines and sometimes their body was left blank without any decorations. Sometimes such depictions of animal figures were shown with an arrow stuck in their neck. Similar depictions of animal figures were found in the rock shelters of Cable Nagar. Depictions of animal figures in X‐ray style began during the late Mesolithic phase onwards and continued until the Historical period. Similar depictions of animal figures were also found at Gararda. These rock art sites are located in the Harauti Plateau. During the Mesolithic period, depictions of animal figures in X‐ray style were shown with internal organs such as intestines, lungs, heart, etc., whereas during subsequent periods, these animal figures were shown as having calves in their womb. Depiction of a deer figure

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found in the rock shelters of Gararda was shown with internal organs and similar depictions of animal figures were drawn during the late Mesolithic phase.

A unique depiction is that of a head of a deer drawn in naturalistic outlines and painted in red ochre. It was found at Dolarmari Ka Tol. The depiction of the head of an animal of Equus sp. drawn in naturalistic outlines was found at Chattaneshwar. Such depictions have not been found so far at any rock art site in India. Depiction of a square‐shaped human figure equipped with a small bow and arrow was shown as attacking a wild ass was found at Chattaneshwar. The wild ass and heads of equids are unique in Indian rock art. The present study also suggests that the depictions of composite animal figures were not found in the rock art sites located in the Harauti Plateau. Deer figures joined together were found at Bhimlat and these animal figures were drawn during the creative phase of Mesolithic period. Aquatic creatures such as fish and tortoise were also painted. Depictions of tortoise were found at Golpur and Chattaneshwar. A tortoise figure found at Golpur was drawn during the early Mesolithic phase. Fish and a tortoise were noted at Chattaneshwar decorated with intricate patterns drawn during the late Mesolithic phase. A unique feature is the absence of depictions of musical instruments in the Harauti Plateau paintings as compared to those of Central India.

Chronological Implications of the Use of Green Colour According to Tyagi (1992) “the colour of rock paintings can never be considered as a safe criterion to date them”. The availability of the different colour nodules used as raw material by prehistoric artists needs to be considered carefully before interpreting paintings chronologically. In this context, study of the rock paintings found in the Harauti plateau also suggests that the colour of rock paintings can never be considered as a safe criterion to date the rock paintings to any cultural phase. The present paper also supports the inferences made by G.S. Tyagi. Rock paintings in green, were found at three rock art sites namely Kavarpura, Ramtol and Nalda in Bundi District and at Chattaneshwar in Kota District in Rajasthan. The study of the microlithic assemblages found at these two sites suggests that some of the microliths were on chert and jasper. Chert and jasper can be ground in order to prepare used in rock art. Depictions of human as well as animal figures in green were found at Kavarpura, Ramtol and Nalda. These rock art sites are located in Bundi District, Rajasthan. A study of the depictions of animal figures found at Kavarpura suggests that they were drawn during the Chalcolithic period. Depictions of animal as well as human figures found in the rock shelters of Ramtol and Nalda were also drawn during the Chalcolithic period. Depictions of animal figures painted in green were also found at Chattaneshwar and Cable Nagar. These rock art sites are located in Kota District in Rajasthan. The study of the style of the rock paintings in green found in the rock shelters of Kavarpura, Ramtol, Nalda, Cable Nagar and Chattaneshwar suggests that they were drawn during the Chalcolithic period. This discovery suggests that the rock paintings in green were not drawn during the earliest phase of rock art. The use of green depends on the availability of raw material to prepare the pigment. The present study also emphasizes

764 Saleem 2014: 742‐771 the importance that has to be given to the study of the style and superimposition of rock paintings rather than giving importance to their colour, in order to build up a chronological framework. Different coloured nodules available in the vicinity of the rock art sites were utilized to prepare the pigments.

Comparative Studies A comparison of rock paintings in the Harauti Plateau with others found in Central and Western India suggests similarities in their style and content. Thus, stick‐shaped human figures and animal figures in naturalistic outlines as well as in life‐size proportions are similar to those seen in rock art elsewhere in India.

Present study attempts to give a comprehensive account of the early rock art of the Harauti Plateau, Rajasthan, and is the first detailed study of the same. It is hoped that in , excavations at some of the key sites mentioned in this work, along with efforts to date the rock art will help to build a better understanding of the development of rock art in this region.

Absolute Dating So far in India only four attempts were put forward to date the pigments of the rock paintings in order to know about the contents of the pigments and to establish absolute dates by employing scientifically advanced dating methods. For the first time in India the efforts put forward by Agrawal and Kharakwal (1994) have revealed the contents of the pigments, but the efforts put in order to generate the absolute dates remained unsuccessful.

A. K. Sharma who excavated the painted rock shelters of Jhiri, a rock art site in Madhya Pradesh tried to date the rock paintings scientifically by collecting the rock painting’s pigment (Sharma 1996). Although he succeeded in getting information about the organic contents of the pigments, getting the results of absolute dates for the rock paintings of Jhiri yet remained awaited (1996).

Third attempt to date the rock paintings scientifically, were made by Bednarik et al. (2005) and Kumar et al. (2005). In order to generate the absolute dates of the rock paintings their team has collected pigment samples from three rock art sites in central India. The three rock art sites from where Bednarik’s team has collected pigment samples are located in Madhya Pradesh:

Bhimbetka: Oldest date from Bhimbetka (AS‐122) is 5190±310 years BP‐ pigment sample was collected from rock painting in white colour.

Another date from Bhimbetka (AS‐144) is 1100±60 years BP‐ sample pigment was collected from painting in white colour.

Jamjori (J‐52): Pigment sample was collected from rock painting in white colour and the date is 1720±310 years B.P.

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Hathitol (Shelter B): Pigment sample collected from rock painting in white colour and it was dated to 4810±40 years BP and pigment collected from painting in red colour was dated to 2780±40 years BP.

Jwalapuram, Locality 9: Another effort in generating the absolute dates for a in honeycomb pattern design found in one of the rock shelters at Jwalapuram, Locality 9 was successfully carried out by Tacon et al. (2013) and this effort has given an absolute date of 5000 years BP.

Conclusion: Need of the Hour The rock art of Africa, Australia and were successfully dated to Palaeolithic period by employing the newly developed dating techniques Gomes et al (2013), (Lorblanchet et al 1990), Loy et al (1990), Rowe (2004), Russ et al (1990), Valladas et al (1990, 1992), etc whereas the study of rock art in India in terms of scientific studies is still far behind in the aspect even after above mentioned attempts. The earlier attempts by Agrawal and Kharakwal (1994), Sharma (1996), Bednarik et al (2005) and Tacon et al (2013) to generate the absolute dates are although satisfactory, it is essential to collect the pigment samples from the intricate as well as stick‐shaped human figures in green colour and or in red ochre as well as animal figures in different styles. Because, still it is a question and controversy about the origin and in particular regarding the antiquity of the rock paintings in India, but the reason behind the origin of rock art is not studied adequately.

The recent excavations carried out in the caves and rock shelters of Africa have yielded microliths, pigment processing activities and the dating of the sediments in which the microliths found suggests that they were manufactured around C 74,000 to 1,00,000 years BP (Marean 2010) and (Henshilwood et al. 2003; Henshilwood et al. 2011; Henshilwood 2013; Henshilwood and Lombard 2013; Henshilwood and van Niekerk (2012). Whereas the recent archaeological work carried out by Clarkson (et al 2009) at Jwalapuram Locality 9 in Kurnool district of Andhra Pradesh and Mishra (et al 2013) in Narmada river valley in Madhya Pradesh, India suggests that the microlithic culture can be dated to Circa 35,000 and 45,000 years BP respectively. Study of the rock paintings and the engraved art objects suggests about the cognitive development of the sapiens whereas the recent efforts to date the rock paintings in India was although initially successful, the question about the antiquity of the earliest rock paintings still remains a debate.

Acknowledgements I am extremely thankful to the Indian Rock Art Research Centre a division of the Indian Institute of Research in Numismatic studies (near Nasik‐Anjaneri, , India) and Dr. Riza Abbas for allowing me to join their field project and for the use of related data in my doctoral dissertation and subsequent publications. I am also thankful to Dr. Shanti Pappu and Dr. Kumar Akhilesh for all their suggestions, help, encouragement and continued support during my research. Finally, I am thankful to

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Dr. Parth Chauhan for his constant encouragement to publish this paper on the study of early rock art of Harauti Plateau.

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