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Breaking the : How Broke the Axis Intelligence Barrier

​Senior Division Paper Ashlee Harriman Student-Generated Words: 2125 1

History of Cryptology

Military have been used throughout history to communicate strategies and logistics secretly. The Allied forces were determined to break the German called the Enigma Code in order to gain the upper hand and end the war. In 1939, and his team at

Park began construction of the machine designed to decode the German messages. The

discovery of a German Cipher machine on a German U-Boat turned the tide of the war, as the

allies were now able to figure out Germany’s plans and end the war.

The concept of Cryptology began as a way of inscriptions of the occult, the book of

Jeremiah (which usedATBASH Cipher), directions to make “glaze” for pottery, and government communication. It was not until the invention of the or even the Ceaser Cipher that secret ciphers were used by ancient militaries.1 It was also estimated that in the 8th Century, Khalil ibn

Ahmad al-Farahidi wrote Kitab al Muamma or The Secret Language Book. This Arabic book explains the author’s method of cryptology in Greek that begins with “In the name of Allah '' (in

Arabic) and uses different combinations of words for the Byzantine emperor. This was the beginning of and was a method used by those involved in the breaking of the

Enigma code, yet this book is now lost.2

1 Morris. "CME Cryptologogy Timeline." Chart. CME Cryptology Timeline. Accessed ​ December 12, 2019. http://pi.math.cornell.edu/~morris/135/timeline.html. ​ ​ 2 "Kitab Al-Muammar." Clever Geek. Accessed November 12, 2019. ​ https://clever-geek.github.io/articles/4725816/index.html. 2

Between the time of the Kitab al Muammar and Leon Bastilla Albert’s , authors wrote their own ciphers and opinions on them, such as Roger Bacon. Cryptology became political in Ghaznavid, a conquered Persian dynasty, and an earlier cipher disk created by

Gabrieli di Lavinde (that was commissioned by Clement VII). The later Cipher disk was invented by the previously mentioned Leon Bastilla Alberti. This cipher disk became the inspiration of what is known to be Captain Midnight Decoder Badges (and rings), 3 kid toys that were used to promote a radio show based on as well as pins for the Little Anne's

Secret Society. 4

In 1553, Giovan Batista Belaso created what we know as the Vigenere, a cipher using a passphrase, which was falsely credited and coined by Blaise de Vigenere in 1585 (32 years after

Belaso invented it).5 This cipher was used by the Confederacy in the Civil War, while the Union used flag signals, and was cracked by the use of the , published by the namesake, in 1861. Thomas Jefferson and a mathematics professor, Dr. Robert

Patterso, designed column transposition and the earliest form of M-138, a strip cipher used by the US navy during the course of World War II. A second version of M-138 was made by

Captain Parker Hitt in 1913 and the strip form was converted back to wheel form in 1916 by

Major Joseph O. Mauborgne who later produced the M-94, that he had produced by the Signal

3 Morris. "CME Cryptologogy Timeline." Chart. CME Cryptology Timeline. Accessed ​ December 12, 2019. http://pi.math.cornell.edu/~morris/135/timeline.html. ​ ​ 4 Oldradioshows, ed. "Code-o-graphs Ready! It's Time for Captain Midnight." Old Radio Shows. ​ Org. Accessed November 12, 2019. https://www.oldradioshows.org/2011/03/code-o-graphs-ready-it%E2%80%99s-time-for-captain- /.

5 Morris. "CME Cryptologogy Timeline." Chart. CME Cryptology Timeline. Accessed ​ December 12, 2019. http://pi.math.cornell.edu/~morris/135/timeline.html. ​ ​

3

Corps and had a stronger combination.6 In 1915, the was invented by two Dutch naval officers, Theo van Hengel and RPC Sprengler. 7

During World War I, there were three important codes. The most famous are the

Zimmermann Telegram, most known as the diplomatic telegram to Mexico and the Cherokee code talkers. In 1917, the Zimmermann Telegram, named after the German Foreign Minister,

Arthur Zimmermann was to be sent to Mexico to offer their efforts against the US. Of course, the American people were aware, but it was the British SIGINT, , who deciphered it. The earliest Native American code talkers were the Cherokee, who preceded the

Navajo code talkers. These code talkers, from both wars, used a language that was only used within the tribes but were not understood by the other party. These were later turned to the

Enigma machine as technology advanced and Germany found better ways to encrypt secret military codes.

World War II Begins

Between 1919 and 1933, during the same time as cryptology became advertising for children’s toys that promoted radio shows, Little Orphan Annie and Captain Midnight, Germany became the Weimar Republic. The Weimar Republic was made in the town of Weimar by the assembly of Germany’s people after Germany’s last great emperor Kaiser Wilhelm II was abdicated. They suffered from an economic depression, a domino effect that was set by the

6 Morris. "CME Cryptologogy Timeline." Chart. CME Cryptology Timeline. Accessed ​ December 12, 2019. http://pi.math.cornell.edu/~morris/135/timeline.html. ​ ​

7 Crypto Museum. "Enigma History." Crypto Museum. Last modified March 14, 2012. Accessed ​ November 29, 2019. https://www.cryptomuseum.com/crypto/enigma/hist.htm. 4

Treaty of Versailles (which then caused hyperinflation and then the depression). The middle class in Germany suffered a terrible economic crisis and people began to look for a leader within extremist parties with the fear of Communists in mind, the Nazi party. In 1932, the Nazi party was the largest party in the German parliament and Adolf Hitler became Chancellor a year later, then Fuhrer (the german word for leader and guide) in the following year. Yet it wasn’t until

Germany invaded without declaring war that World War II started.8

The

The Enigma machine was invented by Arthur Scherbius and his company, Scherbius & ​ Ritter. The first model, a print enigma machine called Die Handelsmaschine (or the trading ​ machine) was manufactured by another company called Gewerkschaft Securitas. Another model was manufactured by Chiffriermaschinen Aktiengesellschaft in 1920. There were other models ​ ​ ​ of the printing Enigma, the last (Enigma H29) being sold to the Hungarian Army in 1929. In

1924, the Enigmas got a new version called Gluhlampenmaschine or glow lamp machine). These lines of models are named in alphabetical order. These earlier models had a counter machine, called the Zahlwerk Enigma. The German army was interested in the machine since 1926, but remodeled Enigma D (the commercial machine) and renamed it to Enigma I, and only issued it to only for the (or what is now called ). To prevent the German manufacturers from being bombed by the allies, they had different companies producing the

8 The Wiemer Holocaust Libary. "The Weimer Republic." The Holocaust Explained. Accessed ​ November 12, 2019. https://www.theholocaustexplained.org/the-nazi-rise-to-power/the-weimar-republic/. This site explains Germany before and during Hitler's rise to power.

5 military model. These companies were the Heimsoeth und Rinke. The Enigma I is the model that the cryptanalysts at decoded, which was used in the war.9

Enigma Functions

The Enigma Machine resembles a giant on the outside, and to a normal eye and might even seem to function the same. The way it works within the machine is different.

There are three rotors, each has a letter and a different output than what was typed on the keyboard. The board lights up to show the encrypted output and the first of the three rotors click.

After 26 positions the second rotor clicks then the third goes. The third has seventeen-thousand different combinations before the process starts again. There was also a “plugboard” that sits between the rotor and the inputs and outputs that swapped pairs of letters. Earlier machines had six combinations with the plugboard while later models have ten combinations and a fourth rotor. The reflector is what made the code change.10

The Biuro Szyfrów Cracks the Code

In the , The Polish , aka the Biuro Szyfrów, cracked the code with three brilliant mathematicians named , Jerzy Różycki, and .

These three men were doing research for Poland, as Poland was afraid of an invasion from

Germany. Through their research, Zygalski made sheets that were used to exploit a weakness

9 Crypto Museum. "Enigma History." Crypto Museum. Last modified March 14, 2012. Accessed ​ November 29, 2019. https://www.cryptomuseum.com/crypto/enigma/hist.htm. 10 "The Enigma Cipher." Count on. Accessed November 12, 2019. ​ http://www.counton.org/explorer/codebreaking/enigma-cipher.p as well as Hern, Alex. "How ​ Did the Enigma Machine Work?" The Guardian. Last modified November 14, 2014. Accessed March 2, 2020. 6 that was in the commercial Enigma a decade prior. The Bureau then shared this information with

Bletchley Park.11

During the exact same time, there were two spies named Rodolphe Lemoine (His birth name was Rudolf Stallmann) and Hans-Thilo Schmidt was getting information for the French, regarding the Enigma Machine under different code names and false identities. Lemoine, also known as Rex, was a very intimidating man who worked for the French Cipher Bureau (called

Deuxieme Bureau), working undercover at a casino and was suspected to be a German spy by the French. He recruited Hans-Thilo Schmidt, Asche, who was a freelancer working for the German Army’s Cipher Office. Schmidt was not a fan of the Nazi party, so he decided to spy for the French to get information on the Enigma Machine in Hitler’s inner circle. With their help along with Dilwyn Knox, a world war I code breaker who was trying to crack the Enigma code, breaking the commercial Enigma, Enigma K, there were ways to get into the Enigma-I and later was a part of Bletchley Park. He attended a meeting with the Deuxieme Bureau and afterward, the Biuro Szyfrow destroyed their info and equipment and moved to France. 12

11 "Marian Rejewski." . Accessed November 12, 2019. ​ https://www.nsa.gov/About-Us/Current-Leadership/Article-View/Article/1621548/marian-rejews ki/. As well as Hedenmalm, Haken. "Codebreakers: Arne Beurling and the Swedish Crypto ​ Program during World War II." The Mathematical Intelligencer 28, no. 1 (November 13, 2008). ​ ​ Accessed November 4, 2019. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02987005. 12 "Enigma before Bletchley: the German spies who betrayed Hitler." History Extra, July 23, ​ ​ ​ 2016. Accessed September 17, 2019. https://www.historyextra.com/period/second-world-war/enigma-before-bletchley-the-german-spi es-who-betrayed-hitler/. 7

The Battle For The Atlantic

To get to Enigma-I, the Allies needed to access a machine and they found one on U-boat

(or ), U599. U599 was first located above water 70 miles from the Nile Delta, which was located at the bottom of Egypt. The HMS Petard, along with the HMS Pakenham,

Dulverton, Hurworth, and Hero went to search for the submarine and once found, attacked it

with the Wellesley. The U559 was then forced to come to the water surface after hours of

combat.13 A search party consisting of a 16-year-old cook, Tommy Brown and Able Seaman

Colin Grazier, and Lieutenant Anthony (Tony) Fasson found the Enigma machine. It was Fasson who swam off from the HMS Petard first and was later followed by the other two men who went to the sinking U-boat and found documents in the captain's cabin. Two of the men, Fasson and

Grazier died while Tommy Brown was killed by a house fire after the fact.14 If it wasn’t for the heroic actions and finding the Enigma machine, the events at Bletchley Park were not possible.

Alan Turing

Before contributing to the breaking of the Enigma code, Alan Turing was born in

Paddington, . Julius Turing, his father, was involved in the British Empire’s control over

India while his mother, Ethel Sara Turing, was from Angelo- Irish heritage and was born in

India. Alan Turing was shown to be a genius when it came to numbers and puzzles and was first

13 The Guardian. “The Boarding of U-559 changed the war- now both sides tell their story.” ​ ​ Last modified October 20, 2017. Accessed October 10, 2019.

14 The Guardian. "Tyneside honors the teenage cook who helped to break the Nazis' Enigma ​ ​ code." November 25, 2011. Accessed December 1, 2019. https://www.theguardian.com/uk/the-northerner/2011/nov/25/tommy-brown-north-shields-tynesi de-george-medal-enigma.

8 recognized by the headmistress of the day school he went to at the age of six, St Michaels. While attending Sherborne, a public charter school in England, his natural gift in math and science wasn’t noted well with the teachers. He completed advanced math problems, without even studying “elementary calculus. At the age of 16, he was able to expand Albert Einstein's questions for Newton’s laws of motion. He later went on and graduated from King’s College in

1934, becoming a Fellow of the college a year later.15

Bletchley Park

In 1938, the British government acquired a mansion on the railway between Oxford and

Cambridge, about 50 miles north of London, and based the Government Code and Cipher School within the mansion.16 There were different Huts or area-based groups. Huts 3 and 6 focused on

Wehrmacht, the army, and the ( air force) while Hut 11 took care of the or the German army. 17 Alan Turing was the head of where he had his own office and

15 "Alan Mathison Turing." Find A Grave. Last modified December 10, 2005. Accessed ​ September 17, 2019. https://www.findagrave.com/memorial/12651680/alan-mathison-turing.

16 Crypto Museum. "Enigma History." Crypto Museum. Last modified March 14, 2012. Accessed ​ November 29, 2019. https://www.cryptomuseum.com/crypto/enigma/hist.htm. 17 Bletchley Park. "Codebreaker's huts." Bletchley Park. ​ https://bletchleypark.org.uk/visit-us/what-to-see/codebreaking-huts 9 created the Bombe machine in Hut 11,18 which was built by the British Tabulating Company. In

1940, Alan Turing along with other codebreakers were able to use the Bombe to finally break the Enigma code, some sources say required six, with the Enigma’s coding ring, also called the

Ringstellung. There were other projects as well such as Colossus as well, made by an engineer by the name of , which was used to decode the Lorenz SZ-42, another machine that was used in World War II. The Bombe and Colossus shortened the time to decode both axis machines.19 These projects were kept as government secrets, up until 1970, and the machines developed into what is known as the today.

Legacy

After his success at Bletchley Park, in 1950, Alan Turing developed what was known as the Turing Machine, a machine that was used to experiment with what is now known as AI (or

Artificial Intelligence) communication and behavior, which was called the Turing test and used for modern technology today with the Loebner Prize. On March 31, 1952, he was convicted for being with another man ( which at the time being “gay” was rather frowned upon) and two years later, died from cyanide poisoning from an apple and was deemed a suicide. He was considered a national hero in England, receiving honors such as being pardoned in 2013 for the conviction mentioned previously and later appeared on the 50 euro. 20 If it wasn’t for the code-breaking

18 Bletchley Park staff. "Hut 8." Bletchley Park. Accessed March 3, 2020. ​ https://bletchleypark.org.uk/visit-us/what-to-see/hut-8. 19 Computer History Museum, Timeline of Computer History 1944 ​ https://www.computerhistory.org/timeline/1944/

20 Nicola, Davis. The Guardian. The father of modern computing: Alan Turing’s Legacy ​ ​ ​ https://www.theguardian.com/science/2019/jul/15/alan-turing-father-of-modern-computing-50-p ound-note as well as "." History versus Hollywood. Accessed November 12, ​ 2019. http://www.historyvshollywood.com/reelfaces/imitation-game/. 10

efforts, the war would have not ended and our lives would have been different than they are

today.

The Enigma Machine broke barriers because it was the first code to have been broken

during the war (as many others were broken after wars) as well as it broke many barriers the axis

military put up with their strategies in the war with the intelligence of both the air force and the

army.

Bibliography ​

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15

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16

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18

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