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Pain Management in Acute Fracture Care

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Pain Management in Acute Fracture Care Current Concept Review Pain Management in Acute Fracture Care Ishaan Swarup, MD and Nirav K. Pandya, MD Department of Orthopedic Surgery, University of California San Francisco Benioff Children’s Hospitals, Oakland, CA Abstract: The management of pediatric and adolescent pain continues to evolve. Similar to the adult population, pain in children is a complex process modulated by both physiologic and psychological factors. It is essential for the orthopaedic clinician who manages pain in the acute setting to understand the medical aspects of pain control in the larger context of the opioid crisis which has changed the manner in which pain management is delivered. An under- standing of options for delivering analgesia is particularly important in the setting of acute fracture management. Utilization of anti-inflammatory medications, diversion techniques, and regional anesthesia are integral to manage- ment in the emergency room, preoperatively, intraoperatively, and postoperatively. A multi-faceted approach is essential to achieve successful pain management. Key Concepts: • Recent operational delays in fracture care delivery (in order to test for COVID-19) have necessitated increased attention to pediatric pain management. • The opioid crisis is a complex problem that affects both the parents and the child. • A comprehensive analgesic strategy should be used for this population in the emergency room, intraoperatively and postoperatively. • Compartment syndrome manifests differently in pediatric patients, and analgesic modalities should be chosen which do not mask its development. Introduction population in the setting of a national opioid crisis. An A significant amount of orthopaedic literature has con- understanding of pediatric pain presentation can guide centrated on indications for treatment and surgical tech- the clinician in regard to pain management in the emer- niques, and patient satisfaction (both short- and long- gency room, pre-operatively, intraoperatively, and post- term) is largely tied to management of pain. At the same operatively. Multiple analgesic modalities will be re- time, providers must be judicious in their utilization of viewed, with a particular concentration on regional anes- pain medications in the context of the opioid cri- thesia and non-opioid options. sis. Most recently, the management of pain in pediatric and adolescent patients who suffer acute fractures con- Recent Challenges tinues to evolve; for instance, COVID-19 has shifted the Raitio et al. examined pediatric orthopaedic trauma vol- type of trauma which is seen and speed with which it is ume in Finland during the COVID-19 pandemic and 1 treated. noted a 32% drop in lower limb trauma. In Italy, Bax- ter et al. reported a 33% drop in overall pediatric The purpose of this paper is to review pain management trauma admissions, yet saw a concurrent increase in su- strategies for acute fracture care in the pediatric pracondylar humerus injuries due to fall from play Copyright @ 2021 JPOSNA 1 www.jposna.org JPOSNA Volume 3, Number 1, February 2021 structures.2 Similarly, Memeo et al. saw a 22% in- involve opioid-related drugs. The impact on the pedi- crease in pediatric fractures (particularly the upper atric population is multidimensional; in a household with limb), even with a 78% overall decrease in pediatric addicted family members, children may ingest the medi- emergency room visits.3 In the United States, Bram et cations (accidentally or intentionally) leading to morbid- al. found a 2.5-fold decrease in pediatric fracture vol- ity and mortality, misuse can occur in pregnancy (which ume with a shift toward home-based and/or bicycle can affect development after birth), parenting may be trauma as opposed to sports injuries.4 This lack of impaired leading to lack of supervision and/or attach- physical activity, particularly sports,2 is most pro- ment, financial resources may be strained, and/or risk of nounced amongst adolescents.5 There has also been an foster care placement may be increased.14. The over-pre- increased incidence of fractures occurring due to non- scription of opioids to children after their own proce- accidental trauma.6. Orthopaedic clinicians must be vig- dures may play a role in fueling the crisis by increasing ilant in identifying presentations/fracture patterns that the circulation of opioids outside of the hospital setting. raise suspicion of non-accidental injuries. Delamerced et al. found that the majority of injured pa- tients were overprescribed opioids which were subse- In addition, the speed with which care is delivered has quently stored in unsecure locations with no plan to dis- slowed as a negative COVID test is required in many in- pose of unused doses.15 Patient and provider education stitutions prior to intervention and magnifies established (with utilization of prescription databases) can avoid delays in analgesic administration to pediatric patients overprescription and decrease utilization. Examples of with long bone fractures that existed before the pan- combined pediatric/adult strategies include provision of 7 demic. Beyond immobilization, the following can pro- drug disposal strategies at the time of discharge for un- vide prolonged pain relief in the setting of treatment de- used medications.16 lay: intravenous pain medications, distraction modalities, and regional anesthetic techniques. Pain management Many believe the seeds of this crisis were planted in strategies in the context of COVID-19 treatment delays 2001 when the Joint Commission’s Pain Management 12 have nicely expanded beyond ketamine and fentanyl. A Standards helped to popularize pain as the “5th vital multi-modal/multi-team approach that integrates safe sign.”17 For many providers, this represented a turning clinical practices with prolonged analgesia is critical in point in the management of pain with increasing utiliza- the current healthcare climate. Turner et al. examined 81 tion of opioid medications. In response, the Joint Com- pediatric patients who received ultrasound guided femo- mission in 2011 recommended that other nonprescrip- ral nerve blocks and found they had longer duration and tion-based strategies should play a role in pain manage- improved quality of analgesia compared to those receiv- ment, including physical therapy, relaxation therapy, and 8 ing systemic medication alone. Other studies have used cognitive behavioral therapy.17 As a follow-up in 2016, 9 regional anesthesia (hematoma blocks, forearm nerve the Joint Commission identified three areas to concen- 10 11 blocks, infraclavicular blocks for forearm fractures ) trate on in order to allow for judicious pain management and found excellent pain relief with less utilization of practices: acute pain in the hospital, chronic pain, and ED time and resources. recognition, management, and/or referral for patients with addiction. The Opioid Crisis According to the CDC,13 from 1999–2018, nearly Multiple strategies have been utilized to decrease opioid 750,000 individuals died from a drug overdose, with usage in the adult population. Ballreich et al. modeled 70,000 deaths in 2018 alone. Drug overdose repre- mitigation strategies and found that projected mortality sents the leading cause of injury-related death in the decreases were 0.3% with prescribing reductions, 15.4% United States, and nearly 66% percent of deaths with naloxone distribution, and 25.3% with addiction Copyright @ 2021 JPOSNA 2 www.jposna.org JPOSNA Volume 3, Number 1, February 2021 treatment expansion.18 Yet, a continual reflection on im- Children with concurrent developmental conditions plemented strategies is critical as per Chen et al. who and/or neuromuscular conditions (autism/anxiety/devel- found that the current broad range of interventions (such opmental delay/neurological disorders) are at risk for as prescription monitoring programs) would only lead to pain-related complications as a result of difficulties in a 2.3% decrease in overdose mortality.19 If there is a assessing the presence and severity of pain. For example, concern for either drug-seeking behavior by the parent patients with neuromuscular conditions such as cerebral (i.e., asking for refills of pain medication when the pa- palsy may experience acute pain after trauma and/or sur- tient is not in pain) and/or signs of physical/emotional gical intervention due to muscle spasms as opposed to abuse, child protective services as well as social work bone pain. As result, anti-spasmodic medications are in- should be involved.20 tegral in the management of acute pain in patients with these diagnoses. Limited research in this area further Pain in Pediatric Patients complicates this problem.25. In patients less than 6 years of age, pain is largely ex- Although beyond the scope of this paper on acute fracture pressed in a non-verbal manner.21. For many children, management, the incidence of complex regional pain syn- pain can manifest in the form of fear, anxiety, and be- drome as well as chronic pain is increasing in the pediatric havioral changes. Furthermore, as with adults, pediatric population.26-28 Management of these patients both in the patients can experience varying types of pain, including preoperative and postoperative setting is optimized using acute, prolonged, and chronic pain.21 This is critically a multi-disciplinary team approach of physical therapists, important for the orthopaedic surgeon caring for this psychologists, anesthesiologists, pediatric rehabilitation, population in order to aid in pain management.
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