CHAPTER 8 Multiview Drawings 377 Media

Chapter

Multiview Drawings 8

OBJECTIVES As lines, so loves oblique, may well

After completing this chapter, you will be able to: Themselves in every angle greet; But ours, so truly parallel, 1. Explain orthographic and multiview projection. 2. Identify frontal, horizontal, and profile planes. Though infinite, can never meet. 3. Identify the six principal views and the three space Andrew Marvell dimensions. 4. Apply standard line practices to multiview drawings. 5. Create a multiview drawing using hand tools or CAD. 6. Identify normal, inclined, and oblique planes in multiview drawings. 7. Represent lines, curves, surfaces, holes, fillets, rounds, chamfers, runouts, and ellipses in multiview drawings. 8. Apply visualization by solids and surfaces to multiview drawings. 9. Explain the importance of multiview drawings. 10. Identify limiting elements, hidden features, and intersections of two planes in multiview drawings.

INTRODUCTION

Chapter 8 introduces the theory, techniques, and standards of multiview drawings, which are a standard method for representing engineering designs. The chapter describes how to create one-, two-, and three-view drawings with traditional tools and CAD. Also described are standard practices for representing edges, curves, holes, tangencies, and fillets and rounds. The foundation of multiview drawings is orthographic projection, based on parallel lines of sight and mutually perpendicular views.

375 Figure 8.1 Projection Methods Projections Projection techniques developed along two lines: parallel and perspective.

Perspective or Central Parallel Projections Projections

Orthographic Linear Aerial Oblique Projections Perspectives Perspectives Projections

Axonometric Multiview Projections Projections Half Depth Cabinet One-Point Projection Perspective q g b Isometric a oc a = b = c oq = or = og Full Aerial Perspective Depth Object features appear r Two-Point Cavalier less focused at a distance g Perspective Projection

q b Dimetric ≠ a oc a = b c oq = or ≠ og Depth Varies Three-point General r Perspective g Projection q b Trimetric ≠ ≠ a o c a b c The Attributes of Each Projection Method oq ≠ or ≠ og

One principal Lines of plane parallel r Projection Method Application Sight to plane of projection

Linear Perspective Converging; Sometimes Single view T -One-Point inclined to pictorial -Two-Point plane of -Three-Point projection T Oblique Projection Parallel; Always Single view -Cavalier inclined to pictorial F -Cabinet plane of RS FRS -General projection Third-angle projection Orthographic Projection F Axonometric Parallel; Never Single view RS -Isometric normal to pictorial -Dimetric plane of RS F -Trimetric projection

Multiview Projection Parallel; For all Multiview T -Third Angle normal to principal drawings T (preferrred) plane of views -First Angle projection First-angle projection

8.1 PROJECTION THEORY methods are based on projection theory, which has taken Engineering and technical graphics are dependent on pro- many years to evolve the rules used today. jection methods. The two projection methods primarily Projection theory comprises the principles used to used are perspective and parallel. (Figure 8.1) Both represent graphically 3-D objects and structures on 2-D CHAPTER 8 Multiview Drawings 377 media. An example of one of the methods developed to All projection theory is based on two variables: line of accomplish this task is shown in Figure 8.2, which is a sight and plane of projection. These variables are de- pictorial drawing with shades and shadows to give the scribed briefly in the following paragraphs. impression of three dimensions. 8.1.1 Line of Sight (LOS) Drawing more than one face of an object by rotating the object relative to your line of sight helps in understanding the 3-D form. (Figure 8.3) A line of sight (LOS) is an imaginary ray of light between an observer’s eye and an object. In perspective projection, all lines of sight start at a single point (Figure 8.4); in parallel projection, all lines of sight are parallel (Figure 8.5).

8.1.2 Plane of Projection A plane of projection (i.e., an image or picture plane) is an imaginary flat plane upon which the image created by the lines of sight is projected. The image is produced by connecting the points where the lines of sight pierce the Figure 8.2 Pictorial Illustration projection plane. (See Figure 8.5.) In effect, the 3-D ob- This is a computer-generated pictorial illustration with shades ject is transformed into a 2-D representation (also called and shadows. These rendering techniques help enhance the 3-D a projection). The paper or computer screen on which a quality of the image. (Courtesy of SDRC.) sketch or drawing is created is a plane of projection.

Parallel lines of sight

OO rthographicRTH O GR APH IC R evolvedREV OLVED

TTIPPEDipped forw FO ardR WA RD (Plane Paperof projection)

Figure 8.3 Changing Viewpoint Changing the position of the object relative to the line of sight creates different views of the same object. 378 PART 2 Fundamentals of Technical Graphics

Nonparallel lines of sight radiating from a point

View picture of planeobject projected onto

Picture plane (paper or com

puter screen)

Observer (Station point) One viewpoint

Figure 8.4 Perspective Projection Radiating lines of sight produce a perspective projection.

Parallel lines of sight

View picture of planeobject projected onto

Picture plane (paper or com

puter screen)

Observer (Station point) Infinite viewpoint

Figure 8.5 Parallel Projection Parallel lines of sight produce a parallel projection.

8.1.3 Parallel versus Perspective Projection requires that the object be positioned at infinity and If the distance from the observer to the object is infinite viewed from multiple points on an imaginary line paral- (or essentially so), then the projectors (i.e., projection lel to the object. If the distance from the observer to the lines) are parallel and the drawing is classified as a paral- object is finite, then the projectors are not parallel and the lel projection. (See Figure 8.5.) Parallel projection drawing is classified as a perspective projection. (See CHAPTER 8 Multiview Drawings 379

Figure 8.4.) Perspective projection requires that the ob- show all three dimensions of an object in one view or ject be positioned at a finite distance and viewed from a multiviews that show only two dimensions of an object single point (station point). in a single view. (Figure 8.6) Perspective projections mimic what the human eye sees; however, perspective drawings are difficult to create. Parallel projections are less realistic, but they are 8.2 MULTIVIEW PROJECTION PLANES easier to draw. This chapter will focus on parallel projection. Perspective drawings are covered in Chapter 10. Multiview projection is an orthographic projection for Orthographic projection is a parallel projection which the object is behind the plane of projection, and the technique in which the plane of projection is positioned object is oriented such that only two of its dimensions are between the observer and the object and is perpendicular shown. (Figure 8.7) As the parallel lines of sight pierce to the parallel lines of sight. The orthographic projection the projection plane, the features of the part are outlined. technique can produce either pictorial drawings that Multiview drawings employ multiview projection techniques. In multiview drawings, generally three views of an object are drawn, and the features and dimensions in each view accurately represent those of the object. Each view is a 2-D flat image, as shown in Figure 8.8. The views are defined according to the positions of the planes of projection with respect to the object.

8.2.1 Frontal Plane of Projection Isometric MultiviewOblique The front view of an object shows the width and height Figure 8.6 Parallel Projection dimensions. The views in Figures 8.7 and 8.8 are front Parallel projection techniques can be used to create multiview views. The frontal plane of projection is the plane onto or pictorial drawings. which the front view of a multiview drawing is projected.

Plane of Plane of projection projection (frontal) (frontal)

Depth

Lines of sight perpendicular to plane Front of projection Projectors perpendicular to view plane Object’s depth is not represented (A) (B)

Figure 8.7 Orthographic Projection Orthographic projection is used to create this front multiview drawing by projecting details onto a projection plane that is parallel to the view of the object selected as the front. 380 PART 2 Fundamentals of Technical Graphics

Industry Application

CAD and Stereolithography Speed Solenoid Design

When Peter Paul Electronics faced the need to quickly re- cause the sleeve sits inside the coil, which is the heart of design a humidifier solenoid valve, Senior Design Engi- the solenoid valve. In addition, a plunger that causes air neer Thomas J. Pellegatto naturally turned his CAD-KEY- or fluid to flow in the valve rises inside the sleeve. based system loose on the physical parameters of the According to Pellegatto, the simplest method for new valve. But that wasn’t enough. The design required reducing cost and complexity of the critical sleeve lower-cost manufacturing technology as well as dimen- assembly was to use the coil’s bobbin to replace the sional and mechanical design changes. sleeve and house the plunger. Working directly with engi- Existing valves from the company feature an all-steel neers at DuPont, designers selected a thermoplastic sleeve, consisting of a flange nut, tube, and end stop, all named Rynite to eliminate misalignment and the need for of which are staked together for welding. A weld bead se- welding the new assembly. The CAD system fed Peter cures the end stop to the tube at the top edge and joins Paul’s internal model shop with the data to develop bob- the tube and threaded portion of the flange nut at the bot- bin prototypes from the thermoplastic. In addition, de- tom. Alignment of these components becomes critical be- signers decided to mold the formerly metallic mounting bracket as part of the plastic housing. Once designs were finalized, Pellegatto sent the CAD file to a local stereolithography shop, which built demon- stration models using a 3D Systems unit. Two copies each of three molded components—the bobbin, valve body, and overmolded housing—were produced for about $3,000. Finally, after sample parts were approved by the customer, hard tooling was developed using re- vised CAD files. This venture into “desktop manufacturing” saved enormous amounts of design cycle time, according to Pellegatto.

Redesign and simplification of the solenoid valve coil and sleeve assembly (left) is easily compared with the coil-on- bobbin assembly. The extended and molded one-piece The three components created in plastic include the bobbin eliminates the use of two machined parts, two welds, overmolded valve housing with integral bracket (red), the and one quality operation while providing an improved bobbin on which the coil is wound, and the valve body with magnetic circuit, reduced weight, and lower cost. which the solenoid valve is connected (blue).

Source: “CAD and Stereolithography Speed Solenoid Design,” Machine Design, August 13, 1993, p. 80. Photos courtesy of Thomas J. Pellegatto, Senior Design Engineer, Peter Paul Electronics Co. Inc., New Britain, CT 06050–1180. CHAPTER 8 Multiview Drawings 381

8.2.2 Horizontal Plane of Projection 8.2.4 Orientation of Views from Projection Planes The top view of an object shows the width and depth di- The views projected onto the three planes are mensions. (Figure 8.9) The top view is projected onto the shown together in Figure 8.11. The top view is always horizontal plane of projection, which is a plane sus- positioned above and aligned with the front view, and the pended above and parallel to the top of the object. right side view is always positioned to the right of and aligned with the front view, as shown in the figure. 8.2.3 Profile Plane of Projection

The side view of an object shows the depth and height di- 8.3 ADVANTAGES OF MULTIVIEW DRAWINGS mensions. In multiview drawings, the right side view is the standard side view used. The right side view is pro- In order to produce a new product, it is necessary to jected onto the right profile plane of projection, which know its true dimensions, and true dimensions are not is a plane that is parallel to the right side of the object. adequately represented in most pictorial drawings. To (Figure 8.10) illustrate, the photograph in Figure 8.12 is a pictorial perspective image. The image distorts true distances, which are essential in manufacturing and construction. Figure 8.13 demonstrates how a perspective projection distorts measurements. Note that the two width dimensions in the front view of the block appear different in length; equal distances do not appear equal on a perspective drawing. Height In the pictorial drawings in Figure 8.14, angles are also distorted. In the isometric view, right angles are not shown as 90 degrees. In the oblique view, only the front surfaces and surfaces parallel to the front surface show true right angles. In isometric drawings, circular holes ap- Width pear as ellipses; in oblique drawings, circles also appear as ellipses, except on the front plane and surfaces parallel Figure 8.8 Single View to the front surface. Changing the position of the object A single view, in this case the front view, drawn on paper or computer screen makes the 3-D object appear 2-D; one will minimize the distortion of some surfaces, but not all. dimension, in this case the depth dimension, cannot be Since engineering and technology depend on exact represented since it is perpendicular to the paper. size and shape descriptions for designs, the best approach

Plane of Line of Width projection sight (horizontal)

To p vie w Depth

Top View

Perpendicular to plane

Figure 8.9 Top View A top view of the object is created by projecting onto the horizontal plane of projection. 382 PART 2 Fundamentals of Technical Graphics

Figure 8.10 Profile View Depth A right side view of the object is created by projecting onto the profile plane of projection.

Plane(profile) of projection

Height

Line of sight

Perpendicular to plane R side view Right side view

Top view

WIDTH

Front view Right side view

Figure 8.11 Multiview Drawing of an Object Lines of sight Lines of sight For this object three views are created: front, top, and right Front Side side. The views are aligned so that common dimensions are shared between views. WIDTH 0 1 2 34 2

HL SP SP 12345

WIDTH Front Side What you see What you see

Figure 8.13 Distorted Dimensions Perspective drawings distort true dimensions.

Figure 8.12 Perspective Image The photograph shows the road in perspective, which is how cameras capture images. Notice how the telephone poles appear shorter and closer together off in the distance. (Photo courtesy of Anna Anderson.) CHAPTER 8 Multiview Drawings 383 is to use the parallel projection technique called ortho- 8.4 THE SIX PRINCIPAL VIEWS graphic projection to create views that show only two of the three dimensions (width, height, depth). If the object The plane of projection can be oriented to produce an in- is correctly positioned relative to the projection planes, finite number of views of an object. However, some the dimensions of features will be represented in true size views are more important than others. These principal in one or more of the views. (Figure 8.15) Multiview views are the six mutually perpendicular views that are drawings provide the most accurate description of three- produced by six mutually perpendicular planes of projec- dimensional objects and structures for engineering, man- tion. If you imagine suspending an object in a glass box ufacturing, and construction requirements. with major surfaces of the object positioned so that they In the computer world, 3-D models replace the multi- are parallel to the sides of the box, the six sides of the view drawing. These models are interpreted directly from the database, without the use of dimensioned drawings. (Figure 8.16) See Chapter 7.

Right angle does 3 not measure 90°

3 4 2

1 4

Right angle does not Figure 8.16 CAD Data Used Directly by Machine Tool ° Isometric measure 90 Oblique This computer-numeric-control (CNC) machine tool can interpret and process 3-D CAD data for use in manufacturing, Figure 8.14 Distorted Angles to create dimensionally accurate parts. (Courtesy of Intergraph Angular dimensions are distorted on pictorial drawings. Corporation.)

38 19 3 X ø 5

R 9.5

4 ø 10 ø 14 R 9.5

R 7

8 11.1

Figure 8.15 Multiview Drawing Multiview drawings produce true-size features, which can be used for dimensionally accurate representations. 384 PART 2 Fundamentals of Technical Graphics

Multiple parallel lines of sight

H O R IZ O N TA L P H LA N E F TO P V IE W WIDTH

F P DEPTH

HEIGHT

FRONT VIEW SIDE VIEW RIGHT

Observer at infinity FRONT AL PLANE PROFILE PLANE

Figure 8.17 Object Suspended in a Glass Box, Producing the Six Principal Views Each view is perpendicular to and aligned with the adjacent views. box become projection planes showing the six views. ing the lines of sight 90 degrees in an appropriate di- (Figure 8.17) The six principal views are front, top, left rection from the front view. With CAD, the front view side, right side, bottom, and rear. To draw these views on is the one created by looking down the Z axis (in the 2-D media, that is, a piece of paper or a computer moni- negative Z viewing direction), perpendicular to the X tor, imagine putting hinges on all sides of the front glass and Y axes. plane and on one edge of the left profile plane. Then cut The top view shows what becomes the top of the ob- along all the other corners, and flatten out the box to cre- ject once the position of the front view is established. ate a six-view drawing, as shown in Figure 8.18. With CAD, the top view is created by looking down the The following descriptions are based on the X, Y, Y axis (in the negative Y viewing direction), perpendicu- and Z coordinate system. In CAD, width can be as- lar to the Z and X axes. signed the X axis, height assigned the Y axis, and The right side view shows what becomes the right depth assigned the Z axis. This is not universally true side of the object once the position of the front view is for all CAD systems but is used as a standard in this established. With CAD, the right side view is created by text. CAD Reference 8.1 looking down the X axis from the right (in the negative X The front view is the one that shows the most fea- viewing direction), perpendicular to the Z and Y axes. tures or characteristics. All other views are based on The left side view shows what becomes the left side the orientation chosen for the front view. Also, all of the object once the position of the front view is estab- other views, except the rear view, are formed by rotat- lished. The left side view is a mirror image of the right CHAPTER 8 Multiview Drawings 385

F P

Horizontal plane

Top view H

WIDTH F

DEPTH F P HEIGHT

Front view

R side view

Frontal plane

Profile plane

Top

DEPTH DEPTH Z WIDTH EQUAL EQUAL X H F WIDTH

HEIGHT PFFPPF

Y Y Y Y L sideRear Front R side X Z X F Z X H Z DEPTH DEPTH

Bottom

Figure 8.18 Unfolding the Glass Box to Produce a Six-View Drawing 386 PART 2 Fundamentals of Technical Graphics side view, except that hidden lines may be different. Practice Exercise 8.1 With CAD, the left side view is created by looking down Hold an object at arm’s length or lay it on a flat surface. the X axis from the left (in the positive X viewing direc- Close one eye, then view the object such that your line of tion), perpendicular to the Z and X axes. sight is perpendicular to a major feature, such as a flat side. The rear view shows what becomes the rear of the Concentrate on the outside edges of the object and sketch what you see. Move your line of sight 90 degrees, or rotate object once the front view is established. The rear view is the object 90 degrees, and sketch what you see. This at 90 degrees to the left side view and is a mirror image process will show you the basic procedure necessary to cre- of the front view, except that hidden lines may be differ- ate the six principal views. ent. With CAD, the rear view is created by looking down the Z axis from behind the object (in the positive Z viewing direction), perpendicular to the Y and X axes. 8.4.1 Conventional View Placement The bottom view shows what becomes the bottom of The three-view multiview drawing is the standard used in the object once the front view is established. The bottom engineering and technology, because many times the view is a mirror image of the top view, except that hid- other three principal views are mirror images and do not den lines may be different. With CAD, the bottom view add to the knowledge about the object. The standard is created by looking down the Y axis from below the ob- views used in a three-view drawing are the top, front, and ject (positive Y viewing direction), perpendicular to the right side views, arranged as shown in Figure 8.19. The Z and X axes. width dimensions are aligned between the front and top The concept of laying the views flat by “unfolding the views, using vertical projection lines. The height dimen- glass box,” as shown in Figure 8.18, forms the basis for sions are aligned between the front and profile views, two important multiview drawing standards: using horizontal projection lines. Because of the relative 1. Alignment of views. positioning of the three views, the depth dimension can- 2. Fold lines. not be aligned using projection lines. Instead, the depth dimension is measured in either the top or right side view The top, front, and bottom views are all aligned vertically and transferred to the other view, using either a scale, and share the same width dimension. The rear, left side, miter line, compass, or dividers. (Figure 8.20) front, and right side views are all aligned horizontally The arrangement of the views may only vary as and share the same height dimension. shown in Figure 8.21. The right side view can be placed Fold lines are the imaginary hinged edges of the glass adjacent to the top view because both views share the box. The fold line between the top and front views is la- depth dimension. Note that the side view is rotated so beled H/F, for horizontal/frontal projection planes; the that the depth dimension in the two views is aligned. fold line between the front and each profile view is labeled F/P, for frontal/horizontal projection planes. The distance from a point in a side view to the F/P fold line is 8.4.2 First- and Third-Angle Projection the same as the distance from the corresponding point in Figure 8.22A shows the standard arrangement of all six the top view to the H/F fold line. Conceptually, then, the views of an object, as practiced in the United States and fold lines are edge-on views of reference planes. Nor- Canada. The ANSI standard third-angle symbol shown mally, fold lines or reference planes are not shown in en- in the figure commonly appears on technical drawings gineering drawings. However, they are very important to denote that the drawing was done following third- for auxiliary views and spatial geometry construction, angle projection conventions. Europe uses the first- covered in Chapters 11 and 12. CAD Reference 8.2 angle projection and a different symbol, as shown in CHAPTER 8 Multiview Drawings 387

Figure 8.22B. To understand the difference between (Figure 8.24) Familiarity with both first- and third- first- and third-angle projection, refer to Figure 8.23, angle projection is valuable because of the global nature which shows the orthogonal planes. Orthographic pro- of business in our era. As an example, Figure 8.25 jection can be described using these planes. If the first shows an engineering drawing produced in the United quadrant is used for a multiview drawing, the results States for a German-owned company, using first-angle will be very different from those of the third quadrant. projection.

Projection line TOP RIGHT SIDE

DEPTH (Z) DEPTH Projection line

WIDTH DEPTH (X) (Z)

Central view HEIGHT (Y)

Multiple parallel Related views projectors

Figure 8.19 Three Space Dimensions The three space dimensions are width, height, and depth. A single view on a multiview drawing will only reveal two of the FRONT three space dimensions. The 3-D CAD systems use X, Y, and Z to represent the three dimensions. Figure 8.21 Alternate View Arrangement In this view arrangement, the top view is considered the central view.

MITER LINE

45° 01

(A) Scale (B) Dividers (C) Miter Line

Figure 8.20 Transferring Depth Dimensions from the Top View to the Right Side View, Using Dividers, a Scale, or a 45-Degree Triangle and a Miter Line 388 PART 2 Fundamentals of Technical Graphics

TOP

REAR LEFT RIGHTFRONT

BOTTOM

(A) U.S. Standard

BOTTOM

RIGHT FRONT LEFT REAR

TOP

(B) European Standard

Figure 8.22 Standard Arrangement of the Six Principal Views for Third- and First-Angle Projection Third- and first-angle drawings are designated by the standard symbol shown in the lower right corner of parts (A) and (B). The symbol represents how the front and right-side views of a truncated cone would appear in each standard. CHAPTER 8 Multiview Drawings 389

PROFILE PLANE the hole in the block is an example of a feature shown in one view and aligned on parallel projectors in the adjacent view. Principles of Orthographic Projection Rule 1: Alignment of Features PLANE AL Every point or feature in one view must be aligned on a SECOND FRONT Q parallel projector in any adjacent view. UADRANT The distance between the views is not fixed, and it can QUADRANTFIRST vary according to the space available on the paper and the number of dimensions to be shown. THIRD PLANE Q AL UADRANT HORIZONT 8.4.4 Related Views FOUR Q UADRANTTH Two views that are adjacent to the same view are called PROFILE PLANE related views; in related views, distances between common features are equal. In Figure 8.26, for example, the distance between surface 1 and surface 2 is the same in the top view as it is in the right side view; therefore, the Figure 8.23 The Principal Projection Planes and top and right side views are related views. The front and Quadrants Used to Create First- and Third-Angle right side views in the figure are also related views, rela- Projection Drawings tive to the top view. These planes are used to create the six principal views of first- and third-angle projection drawings. Principles of Orthographic Projection Rule 2: Distances in Related Views Distances between any two points of a feature in related views must be equal.

8.4.3 Adjacent Views 8.4.5 Central View Adjacent views are two orthographic views placed next The view from which adjacent views are aligned is the to each other such that the dimension they share in com- central view. In Figure 8.26, the front view is the central mon is aligned, using parallel projectors. The top and view. In Figure 8.21, the top view is the central view. front views share the width dimension; therefore, the top Distances and features are projected or measured from view is placed directly above the front view, and vertical the central view to the adjacent views. parallel projectors are used to ensure alignment of the shared width dimension. The right side and front views 8.4.6 Line Conventions share the height dimension; therefore, the right side view is placed directly to the right of the front view, and hori- The alphabet of lines is discussed in detail in Chapter zontal parallel projectors are used to ensure alignment of 3, Section 3.4, and illustrated in Figure 8.27. The tech- the shared height dimension. niques for drawing lines are described in detail in Sec- The manner in which adjacent views are positioned tion 3.5. illustrates the first rule of orthographic projection: Because hidden lines and center lines are critical ele- Every point or feature in one view must be aligned on a ments in multiview drawings, they are briefly discussed parallel projector in any adjacent view. In Figure 8.26, again in the following sections. CAD Reference 8.3 390 PART 2 Fundamentals of Technical Graphics

PLANE AL ONT FR

Third-Angle Projection RIGHT PLANE PROFILE L ( U.S. ) A PLANE T N

RIZO 2nd HO 1st RIGHT 3rd PLANE PROFILE AL PLANE 4th First-Angle Projection ( Europe ) HORIZONT

PLANE AL ONT FR

VIEW VIEW OP T FRONT

SIDE

RIGHTVIEW

RIGHT SIDE VIEW

VIEW

FRONT P VIEW TO

(A) Third-Angle Projection (B) First-Angle Projection

Figure 8.24 Pictorial Comparison between First- and Third-Angle Projection Techniques Placing the object in the third quadrant puts the projection planes between the viewer and the object. When placed in the first quadrant, the object is between the viewer and the projection planes. Figure 8.25 First-Angle Projection Engineering Drawing Produced in the United States for a European Company (Courtesy of Buehler Products, Inc.)

TOP

Figure 8.26 Alignment of Views Three-view drawings are aligned horizontally and vertically on Related views engineering drawings. In this view arrangement, the front view is the central view. Also notice that surfaces 1 and 2 are the Vertical same distance apart in the related views: top and right side. 2 parallel Equal projectors

2 2

1 1

RIGHT SIDEFRONT Horizontal Central view parallel projectors 392 PART 2 Fundamentals of Technical Graphics

.6 mm VISIBLE LINE

HIDDEN (DASHED) LINE .3 mm

.3 mm CENTER LINE Dimension line

1.25 .3 mm Cutting plane line

DIMENSION & EXTENSION LINES 2 Visible line

.3 mm PHANTOM LINE Extension line

.6 mm 2 Hidden (dashed) line

.6 mm

CUTTING PLANE LINES

.3 mm CONSTRUCTION LINE

.3 mm SECTION LINES

Construction line Center line

Figure 8.27 Alphabet of Lines ANSI standard lines used on technical drawings are of a specific type and thickness.

Hidden Lines In multiview drawings, hidden features dashed parallel lines in the top and front views represent are represented as dashed lines, using ANSI standard line the limiting elements of the hole drilled through the ob- types. (See Figure 8.27) ject but not visible in these views. The hole is visible in Dashed lines are used to represent such hidden fea- the right side view. The single vertical dashed line in the tures as: front view represents the hidden edge view of surface C. Surface C is visible in the side view and is on edge in the Holes—to locate the limiting elements. top and front views. Surfaces—to locate the edge view of the surface. Most CAD systems may not follow a standard prac- Change of planes—to locate the position of the tice for representing hidden lines. The user must decide if change of plane or corner. the drawn hidden lines effectively communicate the de- For example, Figure 8.28 shows dashed lines repre- sired information. CAD Reference 8.4 senting hidden features in the front and top views. The CHAPTER 8 Multiview Drawings 393

Small dashes cross at the center C

SURFACE C Extends past edge of object 8mm or 3/8"

A C

1 C B

Figure 8.28 Hidden Features The dashed lines on this drawing indicate hidden features. The vertical dashed line in the front view shows the location of Figure 8.29 Center Lines plane C. The horizontal dashed lines in the front and top views show the location of the hole. Center lines are used for symmetrical objects, such as cylinders. Center lines should extend past the edge of the object by 8 mm or c′′.

Center Lines Center lines are alternating long and are examples of such objects. For example, a cone short thin dashes and are used for the axes of symmetri- can be described with a front and a top view. A cal parts and features, such as cylinders and drilled profile view would be the same as the front view. (Figure holes (Figure 8.29), for bolt circles (Figure 8.30D), and 8.32) CAD Reference 8.7 for paths of motion (Figure 8.30E). Center lines should not terminate at another line or extend between views Three-View Drawings The majority of objects require (Figure 8.30C). Very short, unbroken center lines may three views to completely describe the objects. The fol- be used to represent the axes of very small holes (Fig- lowing steps describe the basics for setting up and devel- ure 8.30C). oping a three-view multiview drawing of a simple part. Some CAD systems have difficulty representing center lines using standard practices. This is especially true of the center lines for circles. Other CAD systems auto- Creating a Three-View Drawing matically draw the center lines to standards. CAD Reference 8.5 Step 1. In Figure 8.33, the isometric view of the part represents the part in its natural position; it appears to be rest- ing on its largest surface area. The front, right side, and One- and Two-View Drawings Some objects can be ade- top views are selected such that the fewest hidden lines quately described with only one view. (Figure 8.31) A would appear on the views. sphere can be drawn with one view because all views Step 2. The spacing of the views is determined by the total will be a circle. A cylinder or cube can be described width, height, and depth of the object. Views are carefully with one view if a note is added to describe the missing spaced to center the drawing within the working area of feature or dimension. Other applications include a thin the drawing sheet. Also, the distance between views can vary, but enough space should be left so that dimensions gasket or a printed circuit board. One-view drawings are can be placed between the views. A good rule of thumb used in electrical, civil, and construction engineering. is to allow about 1.5′′ (36 mm) between views. For this CAD Reference 8.6 example, use an object with a width of 4′′, height of 3′′, Other objects can be adequately described with and a depth of 3′′. To determine the total amount of two views. Cylindrical, conical, and pyramidal shapes space necessary to draw the front and side views in 394 PART 2 Fundamentals of Technical Graphics

SPACE

CENTER LINE IN LONGITUDINAL VIEW FOR HOLES

(A) (B)

TOO SMALL TO BREAK THE CENTER LINE

BOLT CIRCLE

NO SPACE

SPACE SPACE

PATH OF MOTION

(E)

Figure 8.30 Standard Center Line Drawing Practices for Various Applications CHAPTER 8 Multiview Drawings 395

THK LENGTH DIAMETER LENGTH

WIDTH O.D. I.D. O.D. I.D.

THICKNESS=X.X

Washer PC BoardBushingSphere Plot Plan

Figure 8.31 One-View Drawings Applications for one-view drawings include some simple cylindrical shapes, spheres, thin parts, and map drawings.

R1 W L W2

R3 O.D. I.D. ø1

R2 ø1 W1

Cylindrical parts Cams

H ø

Conical parts

Figure 8.32 Two-View Drawings Applications for two-view drawings include cylindrical and conical shapes. 396 PART 2 Fundamentals of Technical Graphics

TO using construction lines. Details that cannot be projected P directly must be measured and transferred or projected using a miter line. For example, dividers can be used to measure and transfer details from the top view to the right side view. (Figure 8.34D) A miter line can also be constructed by drawing a 45-degree line from the intersection of the top and side view and drawing the projection lines as shown in Figure 8.34C. Step 5. Locate and lightly draw hidden lines in each view. For this example, hidden lines are used to represent the limiting elements of the holes. Step 6. Following the alphabet of lines, darken all object lines by doing all horizontal, then all vertical, and finally all inclined lines, in that order. Darken all hidden and RIGHT ONT SIDE center lines. Lighten or erase any construction lines that FR can be easily seen when the drawing is held at arm’s length. The same basic procedures can be used with 2-D Figure 8.33 Selecting the Views for a Multiview Drawing CAD. However, construction lines do not have to be The object should be oriented in its natural position, and views erased. Instead, they can be placed on a separate layer, chosen should best describe the features. then turned off. CAD Reference 8.8

8.4.7 Multiviews from 3-D CAD Models The computer screen can be used as a projection plane alignment, add the width (4′′) of the front view and the depth (3′′) of the side view. Then add 1.5′′ to give 8.5′′ as displaying the 2-D image of a 3-D CAD model. The user the total amount of space needed for the front and side can control the line of sight and the type of projection views and the space between. If the horizontal space on (parallel or perspective). Most 3-D CAD software pro- the paper is 10′′, subtract 8.5′′ to get 1.5′′; divide the re- grams have automated the task of creating multiview sult by 2 to get 0.75′′, which is the space left on either drawings from 3-D models. With these CAD systems, side of the two views together. These distances are the 3-D model of the object is created first. (See Figure marked across the paper, as shown in Figure 8.34A. 8.33.) Most CAD programs have predefined viewpoints In a similar manner, the vertical positioning is determined by adding the height of the front view (3′′) that correspond to the six principal views. (Figure 8.35) to the depth of the top view (3′′) and then adding The views that will best represent the object in multiview 1.5′′ for the space between the views. The result is are selected, the viewpoint is changed, a CAD command 7.5′′. The 7.5′′ is subtracted from the working area of converts the projection of the 3-D model into a 2-D 9′′; the result is divided by 2 to get 0.75′′, which is the drawing, and the first view is created. (Figure 8.36) This distance across the top and bottom of the sheet. (Fig- view is then saved as a block or symbol. The second ure 8.34B) view is created by changing the viewpoint again and then Step 3. Using techniques described previously in this text, converting the new projection to a 2-D drawing of the locate the center lines in each view, and lightly draw the arc and circles. (Figure 8.34C) object. (Figure 8.37) These steps are repeated for as many views as are necessary for the multiview drawing. Step 4. Locate other details, and lightly draw horizontal, vertical, and inclined lines in each view. Normally, the After the required number of 2-D views are created, front view is constructed first because it has the most de- the views are arranged on a new drawing by retrieving tails. These details are then projected to the other views the blocks or symbols created earlier. Care must be taken CHAPTER 8 Multiview Drawings 397

10.00 .75 4.00 1.50 3.00

.75

TOP 3.00 VIEW

9.00

1.50

3.00 FRONT RIGHT SIDE VIEW VIEW

(A) (B)

Dividers used to transfer depth dimensions between the top and right side views Miter Line

Figure 8.34 Steps to Center and Create a Three-View Multiview Drawing on an A-Size Sheet 398 PART 2 Fundamentals of Technical Graphics

Figure 8.35 Predefined Multiviews on a CAD System REVISIONS DRAWING NO.: DATE:

TITLE: DRAWN BY:

SHEET OF

Figure 8.36 Changing the Viewpoint on a 3-D CAD Model to Create a Front View This view is captured, then placed in a title block and border line.

REVISIONS DRAWING NO.: DATE:

TITLE: DRAWN BY:

SHEET OF

Figure 8.37 Changing the Viewpoint on the 3-D Model to Create a Right Side View This view is captured, then placed in a title block and border line. 399 400 PART 2 Fundamentals of Technical Graphics

REVISIONS DRAWING NO.: DATE:

TITLE: DRAWN BY:

SHEET OF

Figure 8.38 Creating a Multiview Drawing of the 3-D Model The previously captured views are brought together with a standard border and title block to create the final drawing.

to bring the views in at the proper scale and correct align- (Figure 8.39) This will create views with a mini- ment. The views must then be edited to change solid mum number of hidden lines. Figure 8.40 shows lines to hidden lines and to add center lines. Other an example of poor positioning: the surfaces of changes may be required so that the views are drawn to the object are not parallel to the glass planes, re- accepted standards. (Figure 8.38) CAD Reference 8.9 sulting in many more hidden lines. 2. Define the front view. The front view should show the object in its natural or assembled state 8.5 VIEW SELECTION and be the most descriptive view. (Figure 8.41) For example, the front view of an automobile Before a multiview drawing is created, the views must be would show the automobile in its natural position, selected. Four basic decisions must be made to determine on its wheels. the best views: 3. Determine the minimum number of views needed 1. Determine the best position of the object. The ob- to completely describe the object so it can be project must be positioned within the imaginary glass duced. For our example, three views are required box such that the surfaces of major features are ei- to completely describe the object. (Figure 8.42) ther perpendicular or parallel to the glass planes. 4. Once the front view is selected, determine which other views will have the fewest number HORIZONT

AL PLANE

TO P VIEW

SIDE FRONT RIGHT VIEW VIEW

FR NE ONT PLA AL PLANE ILE OF PR

Figure 8.39 Good Orientation Suspend the object in the glass box such that major surfaces are parallel or perpendicular to the sides of the box (projection planes).

H O R IZ O N TA L P LA N E

TO P V IE W

No!

FR ONT SIDE VIEW RIGHT VIEW

FRONT AL PLANE OFILE PLANE PR

Figure 8.40 Poor Orientation Suspending the object in the glass box such that surfaces are not parallel to the sides produces views with many hidden lines. 401 402 PART 2 Fundamentals of Technical Graphics

of hidden lines. In Figure 8.43, the right side view is selected over the left side view because it has fewer hidden lines.

Practice Exercise 8.2 Using any of the objects in Figure 8.94 in the back of this Natural Position chapter, generate three multiview sketches. Each sketch should use a different view of the object as the front view. What features of the object become hidden or visible as you change the front view?

8.6 FUNDAMENTAL VIEWS OF EDGES AND PLANES

Unnatural Position No! In multiview drawings, there are fundamental views for edges and planes. These fundamental views show the Figure 8.41 Natural Position edges or planes in true size, not foreshortened, so that true Always attempt to draw objects in their natural position. measurements of distances, angles, and areas can be made.

NO!

Figure 8.42 Minimum Number of Views Select the minimum number of views needed to completely describe an object. Eliminate views that are mirror images of other views. CHAPTER 8 Multiview Drawings 403

No!

Figure 8.43 Most Descriptive Views Select those views which are the most descriptive and have the fewest hidden lines. In this example, the right side view has fewer hidden lines than the left side view.

8.6.1 Edges (Lines) is inclined and foreshortened in the top and right side An edge is the intersection of two planes and is repre- view, but is true length in the front view because it is sented as a line on multiview drawings. A normal line, parallel to the frontal plane of projection. or true-length line, is an edge that is parallel to a plane An oblique line is not parallel to any principal plane of projection and thus perpendicular to the line of sight. of projection; therefore, it never appears as a point or in In Figure 8.44, edge 1–2 in the top and right side views is true length in any of the six principal views. Instead, an a normal edge. oblique edge will be foreshortened in every view and will Principles of Orthographic Projection Rule 3: always appear as an inclined line. Line 1–2 in Figure True Length and Size 8.45 is an oblique edge. Features are true length or true size when the lines of sight are perpendicular to the feature. Principles of Orthographic Projection Rule 4: Foreshortening An edge appears as a point in a plane of projection to Features are foreshortened when the lines of sight are not which it is perpendicular. Edge 1–2 is a point in the perpendicular to the feature. front view of Figure 8.44. The edge appears as a point because it is parallel to the line of sight used to create 8.6.2 Principal Planes the front view. An inclined line is parallel to a plane of projection A principal plane is parallel to one of the principal but inclined to the adjacent planes, and it appears fore- planes of projection and is therefore perpendicular to shortened in the adjacent planes. In Figure 8.44, line 3–4 the line of sight. A principal plane or surface will be 404 PART 2 Fundamentals of Technical Graphics

TO P VIEW w ie HORIZONT Top V Line of sight AL pendicular to PLANE per line 1–2 2 iew Front V 1 2 Line of sight allel to line 3 par 1–2 4

3 4 W VIE NT RO F FR RIGHT SIDE ONT AL PLANE VIEW 1 TOP OFILE PLANE PR

1,2 1 2 3 3

4 4

FRONT RIGHT SIDE

Figure 8.44 Fundamental Views of Edges Determine the fundamental views of edges on a multiview drawing by the position of the object relative to the current line of sight and the relationship of the object to the planes of the glass box.

true size and shape in the view where it is parallel to the tation is an important characteristic in multiview draw- projection plane and will appear as a horizontal or verti- ings. Principal planes are categorized by the view in cal line in the adjacent views. In Figure 8.46, surface A which the plane appears true size and shape: frontal, is parallel to the frontal projection plane and is there- horizontal, or profile. fore a principal plane. Because surface A appears true A frontal plane is parallel to the front plane of pro- size and shape in the front view, it is sometimes re- jection and is true size and shape in the front view. A ferred to as a normal plane. In this figure, surface A frontal plane appears as a horizontal edge in the top view appears as a horizontal edge in the top view and as a and a vertical edge in the profile views. In Figure 8.46, vertical edge in the right side view. This edge represen- surface A is a frontal plane. CHAPTER 8 Multiview Drawings 405

HORIZONT

AL PLANE

FR ONT AL PLANE OFILE PLANE PR

1 1

Figure 8.45 Oblique Line Oblique line 1–2 is not parallel to any of the principal planes of projection of the glass box.

8.6.3 Inclined Planes A horizontal plane is parallel to the horizontal planes of projection and is true size and shape in the top (and An inclined plane is perpendicular to one plane of pro- bottom) view. A horizontal plane appears as a horizontal jection and inclined to adjacent planes and cannot be edge in the front and side views. In Figure 8.46, surface viewed in true size and shape in any of the principal B is a horizontal plane. views. An inclined plane appears as an edge in the view A profile plane is parallel to the profile (right or left where it is perpendicular to the projection plane and as a side) planes of projection and is true size and shape in the foreshortened surface in the adjacent views. In Figure profile views. A profile plane appears as a vertical edge 8.46, plane D is an inclined surface. To view an inclined in the front and top views. In Figure 8.46, surface C is a plane in its true size and shape, create an auxiliary view, profile plane. as described in Chapter 11. 406 PART 2 Fundamentals of Technical Graphics

H O R IZ O N B TA L P LA N E D

TO P V IE E W

A E D A C E E C

FR ONT SIDE VIEW RIGHT VIEW

FRONT AL PLANE OFILE PLANE PR

Edge View of C BD

Edge View of A TOP Edge View of B

Edge View of B Edge View of D

Edge D View of A A E E

RIGHT SIDEFRONT

Figure 8.46 Fundamental Views of Surfaces Surface A is parallel to the frontal plane of projection. Surface B is parallel to the horizontal plane of projection. Surface C is parallel to the profile plane of projection. Surface D is an inclined plane and is on edge in one of the principal views (the front view). Surface E is an oblique plane and is neither parallel nor on edge in any of the principal planes of projection. CHAPTER 8 Multiview Drawings 407

8.6.4 Oblique Planes 8.7.1 Points An oblique plane is not parallel to all the principal A point represents a specific position in space and has no planes of projection. In Figure 8.46, plane E is an oblique width, height, or depth. A point can represent surface. An oblique surface does not appear in its true size and shape, or as an edge, in any of the principal The end view of a line. views; instead, an oblique plane always appears as a fore- The intersection of two lines. shortened plane in the principal views. A secondary aux- A specific position in space. iliary view must be constructed, or the object must be ro- Even though a point does not have width, height, or tated, in order to create a normal view of an oblique depth, its position must still be marked. On technical plane. (See Chapter 12.) drawings, a point marker is a small symmetrical cross. (See Chapter 6.) Practice Exercise 8.3 Using stiff cardboard, cut out the following shapes: 8.7.2 Planes • Rectangle. A plane can be viewed from an infinite number of van- • Circle. tage points. A plane surface will always project as either • Trapezoid. a line or an area. Areas are represented in true size or are • Irregular shape with at least six sides, at least two of which foreshortened and will always be similar in configuration are parallel to each other. (same number of vertices and edges) from one view to Sketch the following multiviews of each shape: another, unless viewed as an edge. For example, surface • The line of sight perpendicular to the face. B in Figure 8.48 is always an irregular four-sided poly- • Rotated 45 degrees about the vertical axis. gon with two parallel sides (a trapezoid), in all the princi- • Rotated 90 degrees about the vertical axis. pal views. Since surface B is seen as a foreshortened area in the three views, it is an oblique plane. • Rotated 45 degrees about the horizontal axis. • Rotated 90 degrees about the horizontal axis. Principles of Orthographic Projection Rule 5: • Rotated 45 degrees about both the vertical and horizontal Configuration of Planes axes. Areas that are the same feature will always be similar in Which views represent true-size projections of the surface? configuration from one view to the next, unless viewed on In what views is the surface inclined, oblique, or on edge? edge. What is the shape of a circle when it is foreshortened? For the inclined projections, how many primary dimensions of In contrast, area C in Figure 8.48 is similar in shape in the surface appear smaller than they are in true-size projec- two of the orthographic views and is on edge in the third. tion? What is the relationship between the foreshortened di- Surface C is a regular rectangle, with parallel sides la- mension and the axis of rotation? Identify the parallel edges beled 3, 4, 5, and 6. Sides 3–6 and 4–5 are parallel in of the surface in the true-size projection. Do these edges both the top view and the right side view. Also, lines 3–4 stay parallel in the other views? Are these edges always and 5–6 are parallel in both views. Parallel features will seen in true length? always be parallel, regardless of the viewpoint.

Principles of Orthographic Projection Rule 6: 8.7 MULTIVIEW REPRESENTATIONS Parallel Features Parallel features will always appear parallel in all views. Three-dimensional solid objects are represented on 2-D A plane appears as an edge view or line when it is par- media as points, lines, and planes. The solid geometric allel to the line of sight in the current view. In the front primitives are transformed into 2-D geometric view of Figure 8.48, surfaces A and D are shown as edges. primitives. Being able to identify 2-D primitives and the 3-D primitive solids they represent is important in visual- Principles of Orthographic Projection Rule 7: izing and creating multiview drawings. Figure 8.47 Edge Views shows multiview drawings of common geometric solids. Surfaces that are parallel to the lines of sight will appear on edge and are represented as a line. 408 PART 2 Fundamentals of Technical Graphics

Rectangular prism Cone Sphere

Pyramid Cylinder Prism and cube

Truncated cone Partial sphere Prism and partial cylinder

Prism and negative Prism and cylinder cylinder (hole)

Figure 8.47 Multiview Drawings of Solid Primitive Shapes Understanding and recognizing these shapes will help you understand their application in technical drawings. Notice that the cone, sphere, and cylinder are adequately represented with fewer than three views. CHAPTER 8 Multiview Drawings 409

TO P VIEW

iew p V To 2 Top V Line of sight PERPENDICULARLine of sight to ie INCLINEDace C to w surf A surf 3 ace D 2 1 G 6 B G C A iew 4 Front V to H 5 F Line of sight D B PARALLELace C E E surf 3 4 ONT FR F VIEW RIG w HT SID D ie VIEW C ont V Fr to E Line of sight 1 6 5 PARALLELace D H surf TOP

A A 1,2 6,3 6,1 2 G 3 B C B G D D C 4 5 5,4 H E H E F F

FRONT RIGHT SIDE

Figure 8.48 Rule of Configuration of Planes Surface B is an example of the Rule of Configuration of Planes. The edges of surface C, 3–4 and 5–6, are examples of the Rule of Parallel Features.

A foreshortened plane is neither parallel nor perpen- slowly, the plane will become more foreshortened until it dis- dicular to the line of sight. There are two types of fore- appears from your line of sight and appears as a line or shortened planes, oblique and inclined, as described in edge. This exercise demonstrates how a flat plane can be represented on paper in true size, foreshortened, or as a line. Sections 8.6.3 and 8.6.4. Surface B is foreshortened in all views of Figure 8.48.

8.7.3 Change of Planes (Corners) Practice Exercise 8.4 A change of planes, or corner, occurs when two nonpar- Hold an object that has at least one flat surface (plane) at allel surfaces meet, forming a corner, line, or edge. (Fig- arm’s length. Close one eye, and rotate the object so that your line of sight is perpendicular to the flat surface. What ure 8.48 Line 3–4) Whenever there is a change in plane, you see is a true-size view of the plane. Slowly rotate the ob- a line must be drawn to represent that change. The lines ject while focusing on the flat plane. Notice that the flat plane are drawn as solid or continuous if visible in the current begins to foreshorten. As you continue to rotate the object view or dashed if they are hidden. 410 PART 2 Fundamentals of Technical Graphics

8.7.4 Angles size. For example, in Figure 8.49A, the 135-degree angle is measured as 135 degrees in the front view, An angle is represented in true size when it is in a nor- which is parallel to the plane containing the angle. In mal plane. If an angle is not in a normal plane, then Figure 8.49B, the angle is measured as less than true the angle will appear either larger or smaller than true size in the front view because the plane containing the angle is not parallel to the frontal plane and is foreshortened. Right angles can be measured as 90° in a foreshortened plane if one line is true length. (Figure 8.49C)

8.7.5 Curved Surfaces Curved surfaces are used to round the ends of parts and to show drilled holes and cylindrical features. Cones, cylinders, and spheres are examples of geometric primi- FORESHORTENED SURFACE tives that are represented as curved surfaces on technical drawings.

135° Only the far outside boundary, or limiting ele- NOT ° ment, of a curved surface is represented in multiview TRUE 90 TRUE drawings. For example, the curved surfaces of the cone SIZE SURFACE ANGLE and cylinder in Figure 8.50 are represented as lines in the

(A) (B) (C) front and side views. Note that the bases of the cone and cylinder are represented as circles when they are posi- Figure 8.49 Angles tioned perpendicular to the line of sight. Angles other than 90 degrees can only be measured in views where the surface that contains the angle is perpendicular to the line of sight. A 90-degree angle can be measured in a foreshortened surface if one edge is true length.

Area Area

Limiting Limiting elements elements Axis Axis (Center line) (Center line)

Area Area Cone Cylinder

Figure 8.50 Limiting Elements In technical drawings, a cone is represented as a circle in one view and a triangle in the other. The sides of the triangle represent limiting elements of the cone. A cylinder is represented as a circle in one view and a rectangle in the other. CHAPTER 8 Multiview Drawings 411

FRONT FRONT

No line indicates Line indicates no tangency tangency

Figure 8.51 Tangent Partial Cylinder Figure 8.52 Nontangent Partial Cylinder A rounded-end, or partial, cylinder is represented as an arc when the line of sight is parallel to the axis of the partial cylinder. No When the transition of a rounded end to another feature is not line is drawn at the place where the partial cylinder becomes tangent, a line is used at the point of intersection. tangent to another feature, such as the vertical face of the side.

Practice Exercise 8.5 True length Minor axis (foreshortened) Hold a 12-ounce can of soda at arm’s length so that your center lines Ellipse line of sight is perpendicular to the axis of the can. Close one eye; the outline of the view should be a rectangle. The two short sides are edge views of the circles representing the top and bottom of the can. The two long sides represent the limiting elements of the curved surface. Hold the can at Major axis arm’s length such that your line of sight is perpendicular to (true length) the top or bottom. Close one eye; the outline should look like a circle. Cylinder viewed at Cylinder viewed at 90° to its top 45° to its top Partial cylinders result in other types of multiview surface surface representations. For example, the rounded end of the ob- Figure 8.53 Elliptical Representation of a Circle ject in Figure 8.51 is represented as an arc in the front An elliptical view of a circle is created when the circle is view. In the adjacent views, it is a rectangle because the viewed at an oblique angle. curve is tangent to the sides of the object. If the curve were not tangent to the sides, then a line representing a change of planes would be needed in the profile and top views. (Figure 8.52) (Figure 8.54) However, when the view is tilted, one of An ellipse is used to represent a hole or circular fea- the center lines is foreshortened and becomes the minor ture that is viewed at an angle other than perpendicular axis of an ellipse. The center line that remains true or parallel. Such features include handles, wheels, length becomes the major axis of the ellipse. As the clock faces, and ends of cans and bottles. Figure 8.53 viewing angle relative to the circle increases, the length shows the end of a cylinder, viewed first with a perpen- of the minor axis is further foreshortened. (Figure 8.54) dicular line of sight and then with a line of sight at 45 Ellipses are also produced by planes intersecting right degrees. For the perpendicular view, the center lines circular cones and circular cylinders, as described in are true length, and the figure is represented as a circle. Section 6.6. 412 PART 2 Fundamentals of Technical Graphics

Edge of circle Minor Diameter Major Diameter

Line of sight 90° Line of sight 80° Foreshortened 80°

(A) What you see: TRUE SIZE (B) What you see: ELLIPSE

Minor Diameter Major Diameter Minor Diameter Major Diameter

Line of sight 45° Fore- Line of sight 30° shortened Fore- 45° 30° shortened

Figure 8.54 Viewing Angles for Ellipses The size or exposure of an ellipse is determined by the angle of the line of sight relative to the circle.

8.7.6 Holes large diameter and the small diameter of the hole. Fig- ure 8.55F shows a threaded hole, with two hidden lines Figure 8.55 shows how to represent most types of main the front view and a solid and a hidden line in the chined holes. A through hole, that is, a hole that goes all top view. the way through an object, is represented in one view as two parallel hidden lines for the limiting elements and is shown as a circle in the adjacent view. (Figure 8.55A) A 8.7.7 Fillets, Rounds, Finished Surfaces, and Chamfers blind hole, that is, one that is not drilled all the way through the material, is represented as shown in Figure A fillet is a rounded interior corner, normally found on 8.55B. The bottom of a drilled hole is pointed because all cast, forged, or plastic parts. A round is a rounded exte- drills used to make such holes are pointed. The depth of rior corner, normally found on cast, forged, or plastic the blind hole is measured to the flat, as shown, then 30- parts. A fillet or round can indicate that both intersecting degree lines are added to represent the drill tip. surfaces are not machine finished. (Figure 8.56) A fillet A drilled and counterbored hole is shown in Figure or round is shown as a small arc. 8.55C. Counterbored holes are used to allow the With CAD, corners are initially drawn square, then heads of bolts to be flush with or below the surface of fillets and rounds are added using a FILLET command. the part. A drilled and countersunk hole is shown in CAD Reference 8.10 Figure 8.55D. Countersunk holes are commonly used Fillets and rounds eliminate sharp corners on objects; for flathead fasteners. Normally, the countersink is rep- therefore, there is no true change of planes at these places resented by drawing 45-degree lines. A spotfaced hole on the object. However, on technical drawings, only cor- is shown in Figure 8.55E. A spotfaced hole provides a ners, edge views of planes, and limiting elements are rep- place for the heads of fasteners to rest, to create a resented. Therefore, at times it is necessary to add lines smooth surface on cast parts. For countersunk, counter- to represent rounded corners for a clearer representation bored, and spotfaced holes, a line must be drawn to of an object. (Figure 8.57) In adjacent views, lines are represent the change of planes that occurs between the added to the filleted and rounded corners by projecting CHAPTER 8 Multiview Drawings 413

ø 29 (Drill diameter) ø 22.17 (Diameter) ø 19 (Diameter) 22.23 29 (Depth) ø 29 (Counterbore diameter) 14 (Counterbore depth)

Dia C bore dia

C bore depth

Depth 30°

Drill diameter

(A) Through hole (B) Blind hole (C) Drilled and counterbored hole

ø 14 ø 16 (Drill diameter) (Drill diameter) ø 32 (Spotface diameter) ø .25 - 20 UNC 2B Vø 29 × 82° (Countersink diameter an angle drawn at 90°) Thread note

Csk angle S face dia. Csk dia. Dia.

Depth of spotface usually not given

Drill diameter

(D) Drilled and countersunk hole (E) Drilled and spotfaced hole (F) Threaded hole

Missing Lines

(G) No! (H) No!

Figure 8.55 Representation of Various Types of Machined Holes 414 PART 2 Fundamentals of Technical Graphics Rough

Round Rough Fillet Rough

Rough Fillet

Removed rough Removed rough surface surface Sharp Sharp Round corner corner Finished Finished Rough Finished

Figure 8.56 Representation of Fillets and Rounds Fillets and rounds indicate that surfaces of metal objects have not been machine finished; therefore, there are rounded corners.

Projected to adjacent view to locate line

Figure 8.57 Representing Fillet and Rounded Corners Lines tangent to a fillet or round are constructed and then extended, to create a sharp corner. The location of the sharp corner is projected to the adjacent view to determine where to place representative lines indicating a change of planes. CHAPTER 8 Multiview Drawings 415

No!No!

Yes!Yes!

Figure 8.58 Examples of Representations of Fillet and Rounded Corners Lines are added to parts with fillets and rounds, for clarity. Lines are used in the top views of these parts to represent changes of planes that have fillets or rounds at the corners.

60° 60° 3 1 3 16 8 16 3 Edge view of 8 finished surface

Finish marks

Figure 8.59 Finish Mark Symbols Finish marks are placed on engineering drawings to indicate machine-finished surfaces.

from the place where the two surfaces would intersect if can be internal or external and are specified by a linear the fillets or rounds were not used. (Figure 8.58) This is a and an angular dimension. With CAD, chamfers are conventional practice used to give more realistic repre- added automatically to square corners using a CHAM- sentation of the object in a multiview drawing. FER command. CAD Reference 8.11 When a surface is to be machined to a finish, a finish mark in the form of a small v is drawn on the edge view 8.7.8 Runouts of the surface to be machined, that is, the finished surface. Figure 8.59 shows different methods of represent- A runout is a special method of representing filleted sur- ing finish marks and the dimensions used to draw them. faces that are tangent to cylinders. (Figure 8.61) A runout A chamfer is a beveled corner used on the openings is drawn starting at the point of tangency, using a radius of holes and the ends of cylindrical parts, to eliminate equal to that of the filleted surface with a curvature of ap- sharp corners. (Figure 8.60) Chamfers are represented as proximately one-eighth the circumference of a circle. Ex- lines or circles to show the change of plane. Chamfers amples of runout uses in technical drawings are shown in 416 PART 2 Fundamentals of Technical Graphics

Figure 8.62. If a very small round intersects a cylindrical surface, the runouts curve away from each other. (Figure 8.62A) If a large round intersects a cylindrical surface, the runouts curve toward each other. (Figure 8.62C) CAD Reference 8.12

8.7.9 Elliptical Surfaces If a right circular cylinder is cut at an acute angle to the axis, an ellipse is created in one of the multiviews. (Fig- ure 8.63) The major and minor diameters can be projected into the view that shows the top of the cylinder as an ellipse. The ellipse can then be constructed using the methods described in Section 6.6.3. (Figure 8.64)

Internal Chamfer External Chamfer

Figure 8.60 Examples of Internal and External Chamfers Chamfers are used to break sharp corners on ends of cylinders and holes.

Point of tangency

A Detail A

Line

No fillets No fillets No fillets No fillets No line Runout No line Runout

Fillets Fillets Fillets Fillets

Figure 8.61 Runouts Runouts are used to represent corners with fillets that intersect cylinders. Notice the difference in the point of tangency with and without the fillets. CHAPTER 8 Multiview Drawings 417

Flat Flat Rounded Rounded

(A) (B) (C) (D)

Flat Rounded Flat

(E) (F) (G)

(H) (I) (J) (K) (L)

Figure 8.62 Examples of Runouts in Multiview Drawings 418 PART 2 Fundamentals of Technical Graphics

MAJOR DIAMETER

MINOR 1 DIAMETER 2 3

4 1 1 2 2 3 3

4 4

Figure 8.63 Right Circular Cylinder Cut to Create an Ellipse An ellipse is created when a cylinder is cut at an acute angle to Figure 8.64 Creating an Ellipse by Plotting Points the axis. One method of drawing an ellipse is to plot points on the curve and transfer those points to the adjacent views.

8.7.10 Irregular or Space Curves Irregular or space curves are drawn by plotting points along the curve in one view and then transferring or projecting those points to the adjacent views. (Figure 8.65) The intersections of projected points locate the path of the space curve, which is drawn using an irregular curve. With CAD, a SPLINE command is used to 1 2 draw the curve. 3 4 5 8.7.11 Intersecting Cylinders 6 7 When two dissimilar shapes meet, a line of intersec- 8 tion usually results. The conventional practices for 9 10 1 representing intersecting surfaces on multiview draw- 1 ings are demonstrated in Figure 8.66, which shows 2 2 3 3 two cylinders intersecting. When one of the intersect- 4 4 5 5 ing cylinders is small, true projection is disregarded. 6 6 (Figure 8.66A) When one cylinder is slightly smaller 7 7 8 8 than the other, some construction is required. (Figure 9 9 8.66B) When both cylinders are of the same diameter, 10 10 the intersecting surface is drawn as straight lines. (Fig- ure 8.66C) Figure 8.65 Plotting Points to Create a Space Curve CHAPTER 8 Multiview Drawings 419

No curve r = R

(A) (B) (C)

Figure 8.66 Representing the Intersection of Two Cylinders Representation of the intersection of two cylinders varies according to the relative sizes of the cylinders.

Tangent no line

(A) (B) (C)

Figure 8.67 Representing the Intersection between a Cylinder and a Prism Representation of the intersection between a cylinder and a prism depends on the size of the prism relative to the cylinder.

8.7.12 Cylinders Intersecting Prisms and Holes 8.8 MULTIVIEW DRAWING VISUALIZATION Figure 8.67 shows cylinders intersecting with prisms. read Large prisms are represented using true projection (Fig- With sufficient practice, it is possible to learn to ure 8.67B and C); small prisms are not (Figure 8.67A). 2-D engineering drawings, such as the multiview draw- Figure 8.68 shows cylinders intersected with piercing ings in Figure 8.69, and to develop mental 3-D images holes. Large holes and slots are represented using true of the objects. Reading a drawing means being able to projection (Figure 8.68B and D); small holes and slots look at a two- or three-view multiview drawing and are not (Figure 8.68A and C). form a clear mental image of the three-dimensional object. A corollary skill is the ability to create a multiview 420 PART 2 Fundamentals of Technical Graphics

(A) Small Hole (B) Large Hole

Figure 8.68 Representing the Intersection between a Cylinder and a Hole Representation of the intersection between a cylinder and a hole or slot depends on the size of the hole or slot relative to the cylinder.

drawing from a pictorial view of an object. Going from Styrofoam. The two basic techniques for creating these pictorial to multiview and multiview to pictorial is an models are cutting the 3-D form out of a rectangular important process performed every day by technologists. shape (Figure 8.70) and using analysis of solids (Figure The following sections describe various techniques for 8.71) to divide the object into its basic geometric primi- improving your ability to visualize multiview drawings. tives and then combining these shapes. (See Section 8.8.8 Additional information on visualizing 3-D objects is for more information on analysis of solids.) found in Chapter 5.

Practice Exercise 8.6 8.8.1 Projection Studies Figure 8.70 shows the steps for creating a physical model One technique that will improve multiview drawing visu- from a rectangular block of modeling clay, based on a multiview drawing. alization skills is the study of completed multiviews of various objects, such as those in Figure 8.69. Study each Step 1. Create a rectangular piece of clay that is propor- object for orientation, view selection, projection of visi- tional to the width, height, and depth dimensions shown ble and hidden features, tangent features, holes and on the multiview drawing. rounded surfaces, inclined and oblique surfaces, and Step 2. Score the surface of the clay with the point of the dashed line usage. knife to indicate the positions of the features. Step 3. Remove the amount of clay necessary to leave the required L-shape shown in the side view. 8.8.2 Physical Model Construction Step 4. Cut along the angled line to remove the last piece of clay. The creation of physical models can be useful in learning Step 5. Sketch a multiview drawing of the piece of clay. to visualize objects in multiview drawings. Typically, Repeat these steps to create other 3-D geometric these models are created from modeling clay, wax, or forms. CHAPTER 8 Multiview Drawings 421

(A)(B) (C) (D)

(E) (F) (G) (H)

(I) (J) (K) (L)

(M) (N) (O) (P)

(Q) (R) (S) (T)

(U) (V) (W) (X)

Figure 8.69 Examples of the Standard Representations of Various Geometric Forms 422 PART 2 Fundamentals of Technical Graphics

Orthographic (A) (B)

Figure 8.70 Creating a Real Model Using Styrofoam or modeling clay and a knife, model simple 3-D objects to aid the visualization process.

8.8.3 Adjacent Areas Given the top view of an object, as shown in Figure 8.72, sketch isometric views of several possible 3-D forms. Figure 8.73 shows just four of the solutions possible and demonstrates the importance of understanding adjacent areas when reading multiview drawings. Adjacent areas are surfaces that reside next to each other. The boundary between the surfaces is represented as a line indicating a change in planes. No two adjacent areas can lie in the same plane. Adjacent areas represent 1. Surfaces at different levels. Figure 8.71 Analysis of Solids 2. Inclined or oblique surfaces. A complex object can be visualized by decomposing it into 3. Cylindrical surfaces. simpler geometric forms. 4. A combination of the above. CHAPTER 8 Multiview Drawings 423

Going back to Figure 8.72, the lines separating sur- tion of planes, and Rule 6, parallel features.) Similar faces A, B, and C represent three different surfaces at dif- shape or configuration is useful in visualizing or creating ferent heights. Surface A may be higher or lower than multiview drawings of objects with inclined or oblique surfaces B and C; surface A may also be inclined or surfaces. For example, if an inclined surface has four cylindrical. This ambiguity emphasizes the importance of edges with opposite edges parallel, then that surface will using more than one orthographic view to represent an appear with four sides with opposite edges parallel in any object clearly. orthographic view, unless viewing the surface on edge. By remembering this rule you can visually check the accuracy of an orthographic drawing by comparing the 8.8.4 Similar Shapes configuration and number of sides of surfaces from view One visualization technique involves identifying those to view. Figure 8.74 shows objects with shaded surfaces views in which a surface has a similar configuration and that can be described by their shapes. In Figure 8.74A, number of sides. (See Section 8.7.2, Rule 5, configura- the shaded surface is L-shaped and appears similar in the top and front views, but is an edge in the right side view. In Figure 8.74B, the shaded surface is U-shaped and is B ? A

Top Isometric

? ?

Front Right side

Figure 8.72 Adjacent Areas Figure 8.73 Possible Solutions to Figure 8.72 Given the top view, make isometric sketches of possible 3-D objects.

(A) (B) (C) (D)

Figure 8.74 Similar-Shaped Surfaces Similar-shaped surfaces will retain their basic configuration in all views, unless viewed on edge. Notice that the number of edges of a face remains constant in all the views and that edges parallel in one view will remain parallel in other views. 424 PART 2 Fundamentals of Technical Graphics

1 configured similarly in the front and top views. In Figure 8.74C, the shaded surface is T-shaped in the top and front views. In Figure 8.74D, the shaded surface has 4 eight sides in both the front and top views.

3 6 5 8.8.5 Surface Labeling 2 When multiview drawings are created from a given pic- 7 torial view, surfaces are labeled to check the accuracy of the solution. The surfaces are labeled in the pictorial 9 8 view and then in each multiview, using the pictorial view as a guide. Figure 8.75 is the pictorial view of an object, with the visible surfaces labeled with a number; for example, the inclined surface is number 5, the oblique surface is number 8, and the hole is number 4. The multi- 5 view drawing is then created, the visible surfaces in each view are labeled, and the results are checked against the 7 pictorial.

1 8 8.8.6 Missing Lines Another way of becoming more proficient at reading and 1 1 drawing multiviews is by solving missing-line problems. 3 Figure 8.76 is a multiview drawing with at least one line 4 4 missing. Study each view, then add any missing lines to the incomplete views. Lines may be missing in more than 5 6 one of the views. It may be helpful to create a rough iso- 3 5 6 7 7 metric sketch of the object when trying to determine the 2 location of missing lines. 2 8 8 9 9

Figure 8.75 Surface Labeling To check the accuracy of multiview drawings, surfaces can be labeled and compared with those in the pictorial view.

A A

Missing feature Completed multiview

Figure 8.76 Missing-Line Problems One way to improve your proficiency is to solve missing-line problems. A combination of holistic visualization skills and systematic analysis is used to identify missing features. CHAPTER 8 Multiview Drawings 425

8 8.8.7 Vertex Labeling 9 7 It is often helpful to label the vertices of the isometric 10 view as a check for the multiview drawing. In the isomet- 12 ric view in Figure 8.77, the vertices, including hidden 6 11 14 ones, are labeled with numbers, then the corresponding 3 5 vertices in the multiviews are numbered. In the multi- 13 4 views, hidden vertices are lettered to the right of the 2 numbered visible vertices. For example, the vertices of surface A are numbered 1, 2, 3, and 4. In the front view, 1 A surface A appears on edge, and vertices 1 and 4 are in Top view front of vertices 3 and 2. Therefore, in the front view, the 8,14 7,6 3,2 vertices of surface A are labeled 4, 3 and 1, 2.

A 8.8.8 Analysis by Solids 910 A common technique for analyzing multiview drawings is analysis by solids, in which objects are decomposed 12,13 11,5 4,1 into solid geometric primitives such as cylinders, negative cylinders (holes), square and rectangular prisms, 9,8 10,7 10,9 7,8 cones, spheres, etc. These primitives are shown in Figure 8.47 earlier in this chapter. Their importance in the un- 11,12 12 11 derstanding and visualization of multiview drawings can- 4,3 not be overemphasized. 4,5 3,6 5,6 A A Figure 8.78 is a multiview drawing of a 3-D object. Important features are labeled in each view. Planes are 13,14 1,2 1,13 2,14 labeled with a P subscript, holes (negative cylinders) with Front view Right side an H subscript, and cylinders (positive) with a C subscript.

Figure 8.77 Numbering the Isometric Pictorial and the Multiviews to Help Visualize an Object Analysis by Solids

Step 1. Examine all three views as a whole and then each view in detail. In the top view is a rectangular shape la-

beled AP and three circles labeled GH, HC, and IH. On the left end of the rectangular area are dashed lines representing hidden features. These hidden features are la- Locating Missing Lines in an beled D , E , and F . Incomplete Multiview Drawing P C H

Step 2. In the front view is an L-shaped feature labeled BP. Step 1. Study the three given views in Figure 8.76. At opposite ends of the L-shaped area are dashed lines

Step 2. Use analysis by solids or analysis by surfaces, as representing hidden features and labeled GH and FH. On described earlier in this text, to create a mental image of top of the L-shaped area is a rectangular feature with the 3-D form. dashed lines representing more hidden features. The Step 3. If necessary, create a rough isometric sketch of the rectangular feature is labeled Hc and the hidden feature object to determine the missing lines. is labeled IH. Step 4. From every corner of the object, sketch construc- Step 3. In the right side view are two rectangular areas, tion lines between the views. Because each projected and a U-shaped area with a circular feature. The rectan- corner should align with a feature in the adjacent view, gular feature adjacent to and above the U-shaped area is this technique may reveal missing details. For the fig- labeled CP and has hidden lines labeled GH. The rectan- ure, corner A in the right side view does not align with gular feature above CP is labeled HC and contains dashed any feature in the front view, thus revealing the location lines labeled IH. The U-shaped area is labeled DP, and the of the missing line. arc is labeled EC. The circular feature in the U-shaped area is labeled FH. 426 PART 2 Fundamentals of Technical Graphics

HC A P I H

C P

EC G H D P B P

I H I H Z A P Z A P HC H G H C

C P B P C P

D P D P G H FH B P

EC F EC H

Figure 8.78 Visualizing a Multiview Drawing Using Analysis by Solids

This general examination of the views reveals some area HC is a cylinder because it appears as a circle in important information about the 3-D form of the object. one view and as a rectangle in the other two views. Adjacent views are compared with each other, and paral- Step 7. The circle I in the top view is aligned with dashed lel projectors are drawn between adjacent views to help H lines I in the front view and is inside cylinder H . This in- further analysis of the object. H C dicates that circle IH in the top view is a negative cylinder Step 4. In the top view, rectangular area AP extends the full (hole) centered within cylinder HC. The dashed line la- width of the drawing, can only be aligned with area BP in beled Z in the front and right side views shows the depth the front view, and appears as an edge in the front and of the negative cylinder IH. right side views. Area B in the front view is aligned with P Step 8. In the top view, the dashed lines at the left end of area C in the right side view. B appears as a vertical P P rectangular area A represent one or more feature(s) edge in the right side view and a horizontal edge in the P below the main body of the part. Hidden line D in the top top view. The conclusion is that areas A , B , and C are P P P P view is aligned with visible line D in the front view, and top, front, and right side views, respectively, of a rectan- P dashed lines F in the top view are directly above dashed gular prism, which is the main body of the part. H lines FH in the front view. Area EC in the top view is

Step 5. Circular area GH in the top view is aligned with the aligned with area EC in the front view. So the features hid-

hidden lines labeled GH in the front view. Because these den in the top view must be DP and EC in the front view.

hidden lines go from top to bottom in the front view, it is DP and EC in the front view are aligned with DP and EC in concluded that the circle represents a hole. This can be the right side view. The right side view appears to be the

verified by the dashed lines GH in the right side view. most descriptive view of these features. In this view, area

EC is a partial cylinder represented by arc EC. The side Step 6. In the front view, rectangular area HC projects above the main body of the part; therefore, it should be view also reveals that dashed lines FH in the top and front visible in the top view. This rectangular area is in align- views represent the diameter of hole FH. Therefore, area DP and partial cylinder EC are a U-shaped feature with a ment with circular area HC in the top view and with rectan- hole whose width is revealed in the front and top views. gular area HC in the right side view. The conclusion is that CHAPTER 8 Multiview Drawings 427

TO VIEWP

I H

H C

C P G E C H

D P F B H P RIGHT ONT FR SIDE VIEW VIEW

Figure 8.79 A Pictorial View of the Multiview Drawing in Figure 8.78, Revealing Its Three-Dimensional Form

Analysis by solids should result in a clear mental image of the 3-D form represented in a 2-D multiview drawing. B Figure 8.79 is a pictorial view of the object in the multiview drawing, and it should be similar to the mental image A created after following the preceding eight steps.

8.8.9 Analysis by Surfaces Figure 8.79 lends itself to analysis by solids because there are no inclined or oblique surfaces. With inclined D and oblique surfaces, such as those shown in Figure 8.80, analysis by surfaces may be more useful. E C F Analysis by Surfaces

Step 1. Examine all three views in Figure 8.80. There are no circular or elliptical features; therefore, all the areas Figure 8.80 Visualizing a Multiview Drawing Using Analysis by Surfaces must be bounded by planar surfaces. In the top view, areas A and B are separated by lines; therefore, they are not in the same plane. The same is true for areas C and D are the same feature. Similarly, areas A and C are D in the front view and areas E and F in the right side aligned and are similar in shape, so they could be the view. The reason for this is that no two contiguous (adja- same feature. However, before accepting these two pos- cent) areas can lie in the same plane. If they were in the sibilities, the side view must be considered. same plane, a line would not be drawn to separate them. Step 3. Area D aligns with area F, but they are not similar This is an example of Rule 8. in shape; area F is three-sided and area D is six-sided. Step 2. The lines of projection between the top and front Therefore, areas D and F are not the same feature. In the views indicate that area B corresponds to area D. Areas right side view, area D must be represented as an edge B and D are also similar in shape in that they both have view separating areas E and F; therefore, area D is the in- six sides, thus reinforcing the possibility that areas B and clined plane in the right side view. Area C aligns with 428 PART 2 Fundamentals of Technical Graphics

B = D F

E A

B = D C

F D E D = B C A A F

C E C E F

Figure 8.82 A Pictorial View of Figure 8.80, Revealing Its Figure 8.81 Conclusions Drawn about Figure 8.80 Three-Dimensional Form

area E, but they are not similar in shape; area C is four- sided, and area E is three-sided. In the right side view, area C must be represented as an edge view and is the vertical line on the left side of the view. Step 4. Areas E and F are not represented in the top or front views; therefore, areas E and F are edge views in the front and top views. (Figure 8.81) Because areas E and F are visible in the right side view, they are at the right end of the front and top views. Therefore, they must be located at the right end of the object. Center line Break line Step 5. Based on alignment and similarity of shape, surfaces B and D must be the same surface. Figure 8.83 A Partial View Used on a Symmetrical Object Step 6. Area A in the top view is an edge view represented The partial view is created along a center line or a break line. as a horizontal line in the front and side views. Area C in the front view is a horizontal edge view in the top view and a vertical edge view in the right side view. Areas A and C are therefore not the same. 8.9.1 Partial Views Figure 8.82 is a pictorial view of the object. Areas B A partial view shows only what is necessary to com- and D are the same inclined plane, area A is a horizontal pletely describe the object. Partial views are used for sym- plane, and areas C, E, and F are vertical planes. metrical objects, for some types of auxiliary views, and Principles of Orthographic Projection Rule 8: for saving time when creating some types of multiview Contiguous Areas drawings. A break line (shown as a jagged line) or center No two contiguous areas can lie in the same plane. line for symmetrical objects may be used to limit the partial view. (Figure 8.83) If a break line is used, it is placed where it will not coincide with a visible or hidden line. 8.9 ANSI STANDARDS FOR Partial views are used to eliminate excessive hidden MULTIVIEW DRAWINGS lines that would make reading and visualizing a drawing difficult. At times it may be necessary to supplement a Standards form the common language used by engineers partial view with another view. For example, in Figure and technologists for communicating information. The 8.84, two partial profile views are used to describe the standard view representations developed by ANSI for mul- object better. What has been left off in the profile views tiview drawings are described in the following paragraphs. are details located behind the views. CHAPTER 8 Multiview Drawings 429

8.9.2 Revolution Conventions jection of a plate with a bolt circle. Notice that the profile view becomes difficult to read because of so many At times, a normal multiview drawing will result in hidden lines. As shown in Figure 8.86, revolution con- views that are difficult to visualize and read. This is espe- ventions dictate that only two of the bolt circle holes cially true of objects with ribs, arms, or holes that are not must be represented in the profile view. These two bolt aligned with horizontal and vertical center lines. Figure circle holes are aligned with the vertical center line in 8.85 shows an object with ribs and holes that are equally the front view and are then represented in that position spaced, with the two bottom holes not aligned with the in the profile view. center line of the object. True projection produces an Figure 8.87 shows another example of revolution awkward profile view that is difficult to draw because all conventions. The inclined arms in the figure result in a but one rib are foreshortened. (Figure 8.85A) ANSI stan- foreshortened profile view, which is difficult and time dard revolution conventions allow the profile view to be consuming to draw. Revolution conventions allow the drawn as shown in Figure 8.85B. You must visualize the arms to be shown in alignment with the vertical center object as if the ribs are revolved into alignment with the line of the front view to create the profile view shown in vertical center line in the front view. This will produce a the figure. profile view that is easier to visualize and draw. Objects similar to those described in the preceding Revolution conventions can also be used on parts paragraphs are frequently represented as section views. that have bolt circles. Figure 8.86 shows the true pro- When revolution techniques are used with section views, the drawings are called aligned sections. (See Chapter 14.) Revolution conventions were developed before CAD. With the advent of 3-D CAD and the ability to extract views automatically, it is possible to create a true-projection view, such as that shown in Figure 8.87, quickly and easily. You are cautioned that, even though a view can be automatically produced by a CAD system, this does not Figure 8.84 Use of Two Partial Profile Views to Describe necessarily mean that the view will be easy to visualize an Object and Eliminate Hidden Lines by the user.

(A) True projection (B) Preferred

Figure 8.85 Revolution Convention Used to Simplify the Representation of Ribs and Webs 430 PART 2 Fundamentals of Technical Graphics

True projection True projection Preferred Preferred

Figure 8.86 Revolution Convention Used on Objects with Figure 8.87 Revolution Convention Used to Simplify the Bolt Circles to Eliminate Hidden Lines and Improve Representation of Arms Visualization

Practice Exercise 8.7 In Figures 8.85 through 8.87, a new revolved view was created to replace a true projection in the profile view. This was A done in order to represent the features of the object more clearly. Sketch new front views as if the new profile views represented true projections. View A Scale - 4/1

8.9.3 Removed Views Figure 8.88 A Scaled Removed View (View A) At times, it is important to highlight or enlarge part of a multiview. A new view is drawn that is not in alignment with one of the principal views, but is removed Rule 1: Every point or feature in one view must be and placed at a convenient location on the drawing aligned on a parallel projector in any adjacent sheet. A removed view is a complete or partial ortho- view. graphic view that shows some details more clearly. A Rule 2: Distances between any two points of a fea- new viewing plane is used to define the line of sight ture in related views must be equal. used to create the removed view, and both the viewing Rule 3: Features are true length or true size when the plane and the removed view are labeled, as shown in lines of sight are perpendicular to the feature. Figure 8.88. Rule 4: Features are foreshortened when the lines of sight are not perpendicular to the feature. Rule 5: Areas that are the same feature will always 8.10 SUMMARY be similar in configuration from one view to the next, unless viewed as an edge. Multiview drawings are an important part of technical graphics. Creating multiview drawings takes a high de- Rule 6: Parallel features will always appear parallel gree of visualization skill and considerable practice. Mul- in all views. tiview drawings are created by closely following ortho- Rule 7: Surfaces that are parallel to the lines of sight graphic projection techniques and ANSI standards. The will appear as lines or edge views. rules of orthographic projection are listed here for your Rule 8: No two contiguous areas can lie in the same reference. plane. CHAPTER 8 Multiview Drawings 431

Questions for Review

1. Define orthographic projection. 6. Define fold lines. 2. How is orthographic projection different from 7. List the space dimensions found on a front view, perspective projection? Use a sketch to highlight top view, and profile view. the differences. 8. Define a normal plane. 3. Define multiview drawings. Make a simple multi- 9. Define an inclined plane. view sketch of an object. 10. Define an oblique plane. 4. Define frontal, horizontal, and profile planes. 11. List the eight rules of orthographic projection. 5. List the six principal views.

Problems

Number each visible surface in each of the multi- Integrated Design Communications Problem views to correspond to the numbers given in the Gear reducer assignment 6 pictorial view. Each member of the team will take his or her assigned part(s) and the design sketches created earlier and will begin to cre- 8.3 (Figure 8.91) Given the front view shown in the fig- ate multiview drawings of those parts, using hand tools or ure, design at least six different solutions. Sketch your CAD. If 3-D models were created earlier and the CAD soft- solutions in pictorial and in front and side views. ware is capable, extract the multiviews from the models, as 8.4 (Figure 8.92) Given the two views of a multiview described in this chapter. When creating the multiviews, re- drawing of an object, sketch or draw the given member to choose the most descriptive views and to leave views, freehand or using instruments or CAD, and enough space between the views to add dimensions later. then add the missing view. As an additional exercise, create a pictorial sketch of the object. 8.1 (Figure 8.89) Draw or sketch the front, top, and 8.5 (Figure 8.93) Given three incomplete views of a right side views of the object shown in the pictor- multiview drawing of an object, sketch or draw the ial. Number each visible surface in each of the given views, freehand or using instruments or multiviews to correspond to the numbers given in CAD, and then add the missing line or lines. As an the pictorial view. additional exercise, create a pictorial sketch of the 8.2 (Figure 8.90) Draw or sketch the front, top, and object. right side views of the object shown in the pictorial.

3 6 4

14 4 15 3

2 13 12 7 16 2 11 12 26 7 6 1 8 18

10 1 16 19 17 8 13 9 5 22 20 21 24 15 11 17 9 14 25 10 23

Figure 8.89 Solid Object for Problems 8.1, 8.11, and 8.12 Figure 8.90 Solid Object for Problem 8.2 432 PART 2 Fundamentals of Technical Graphics

f. Same as (e), except raise the cylinder along the line of sight of the top view. g. Same as (a), except remove a square feature rather than a round hole. Compare this with the views in (a). h. Same as (a), except place the center 2 squares to the right. Enlarge the drill to a diameter of 5 squares; 7 squares; 9 squares. i. Find the midpoints of the top and right side edges of the front view. Draw a line connecting these points and project it along the line of sight for the front view to create a cutting EXAMPLE plane. Remove this corner of the cube. j. Same as (i), except rotate the cutting plane to ° ° ° ° Figure 8.91 Front View for Problem 8.3 be 15 , 30 , 60 , and 75 to the horizontal. Compare the dimensions of the inclined surface projections at each of these angles (including the original 45° angle). 8.6 (Figure 8.94) Sketch, or draw with instruments or k. Same as (i), except move the cutting plane to- CAD, multiviews of the objects shown in the ward the lower left corner of the front view, in pictorials. 2-square increments. When is the inclined sur- 8.7 (Figures 8.95 through 8.184) Sketch, draw with face the largest? instruments or CAD, or create 3-D CAD models l. Same as (i), except the cutting plane is defined for the parts shown. by the midpoints of the top and right side 8.8 On square grid paper, sketch a series of multi- edges of the front view and the midpoint of the views of a cube, at least eight squares on a side. top edge of the right side view. Visualize the following modifications to the cube m. Same as (l), except move the cutting plane in and draw the resulting multiviews: 2-square increments toward the opposite cor- a. Looking at the front view, drill a hole 3 ner of the cube. squares in diameter and parallel to the line of 8.9 Same as 8.8 (a through k), except use a cylinder 8 sight. squares in diameter, 8 squares deep, and seen in b. Take the result of (a) and drill another hole 2 its circular form in the front view. squares in diameter to the right of the first 8.10 Using any of the objects shown in the exercises in hole. the back of this chapter, decompose the objects c. Take the result of (a) and drill another hole 3 into primitive geometric shapes. Color code these squares in diameter above the first hole. shapes to show whether they represent positive d. Take the result of (a) and drill a hole 5 squares material added to the object or negative material in diameter in the same location as the first removed from it. This can be done by: hole, but only half-way through the cube. e. Instead of drilling a 3-square diameter hole • Drawing isometric pictorial sketches of the through the object, create a cylinder projecting objects. 2 squares out of the cube and parallel to the • Overdrawing on top of photocopies of the line of sight of the front view. Compare this drawings. with the views in (a). • Tracing over the drawings. CHAPTER 8 Multiview Drawings 433

(1) (2) (3)

(4) (5) (6)

(7) (8) (9)

(10) (11) (12)

Figure 8.92 Two-View Drawings of Several Objects for Problem 8.4 434 PART 2 Fundamentals of Technical Graphics

(13) (14) (15)

(16) (17) (18)

(19) (20) (21)

(22) (23) (24)

Figure 8.92 Continued CHAPTER 8 Multiview Drawings 435

(25) (26) (27)

(28) (29) (30)

(31) (32) (33)

(34) (35) (36)

Figure 8.92 Continued 436 PART 2 Fundamentals of Technical Graphics

(1) (2) (3)

(4) (5) (6)

(7) (8) (9)

(10) (11) (12)

Figure 8.93 Three Incomplete Views of a Multiview Drawing of an Object for Problem 8.5 CHAPTER 8 Multiview Drawings 437

(13) (14) (15)

(16) (17) (18)

(19) (20) (21)

(22) (23) (24)

Figure 8.93 Continued 438 PART 2 Fundamentals of Technical Graphics

(1) (2) (3)

(4) (5) (6)

(7) (8) (9)

(10) (11) (12)

Figure 8.94 Pictorials of Several Objects for Problems 8.6 and 8.13 CHAPTER 8 Multiview Drawings 439

(13) (14) (15)

(16) (17) (18)

(19) (20) (21)

(22) (24)(23)

Figure 8.94 Continued 440 PART 2 Fundamentals of Technical Graphics

(25) (26) (27)

(28) (29) (30)

(31) (32) (33)

(34) (35) (36)

Figure 8.94 Continued CHAPTER 8 Multiview Drawings 441

3.00 1.00 2.00

7 6.00 5.00 .00 4.50 2.00 0 .5 1

2.00 ø 2.00

1.50

2X 4.00 ø .75 .50 1.00 2.00

5 .50 4.50 .7 3.50 1.00 .50

Figure 8.96 Wedge Support

Figure 8.95 Tool Block

.25 60° .570

.160 ø .25 40°

.125

.125 R .1875 R .340 R .560 ø 1.00

.0918 Figure 8.98 Ratchet Stop

Figure 8.97 Ratchet

8.11 Using either a photocopy or a tracing of the object surface in all three views. Label it the same as in Figure 8.89, color, number, or letter each face you did in the pictorial. Then, pick another sur- (surface) of the object. Pick a surface that will be face that shares an edge with the one you just seen in its true size and shape in the front view sketched, and sketch the new surface in the three and sketch its representation in the three primary views. Repeat the process until you have sketched multiviews. Use projection lines to align the all the faces contiguous with the original one. 442 PART 2 Fundamentals of Technical Graphics

How many of these faces are contiguous with each other? How many are also seen in their true 4.50 .75 size and shape in the front view? In other views? .375 ø .313 1.000 8.12 Using the object in Figure 8.89, identify the nor-

R .063 mal, inclined, and oblique planar surfaces. Either .062 letter, number, or color code the surfaces on a R 1.118 5° 1.00 tracing paper copy or a photocopy of the pictorial. R .844 .50 R .906 .375 THICK a. Create a multiview of the object and identify the same surfaces in all three views. In which 45° views are individual surfaces seen in their true Figure 8.99 Lever size and shape? In which views are individual surfaces foreshortened? (Which dimension is foreshortened?) In which views are individual features seen as edges? b. ø .458 For the inclined surfaces, identify which edges show up as normal or non-normal (angled) edges on normal surfaces. How does the in- .02 X 45 clined surface appear in the view where a non- ° normal edge is present? c. For the oblique surfaces, are there any normal R .315 edges? Is there any view in which any of these surfaces are seen as edges? ø .144 .255 d. Visualize a view which would allow an in- .780 clined or oblique surface to be seen in its true

.25 size and shape, and try to sketch that view. What happens to the surfaces which were normal in the principal views? R .59 8.13 Using any of the objects from Figure 8.94, sketch

.750 them on tracing paper or make a photocopy. Sketch .06 .375 cutting planes which would divide all or part of .630 .06 each object into symmetrical halves. Sketch multiviews of each half of each object.

Figure 8.100 Coupling CHAPTER 8 Multiview Drawings 443

ø 3.50 4.625 ø 7.00 2.375 ø 4.00 4.00 ø 2.00 ø

ø 1.50

3.50

6.50

9.50 .70 R .50 ° 2.125 5X .03 X 45 Figure 8.102 Half Pin

Figure 8.101 Retainer

.406 ø 1.000 ø .531 ° P TA .031 CHAMFER .063 X 45 ø .750 ø .3125-18 ø .563

.188

ø .531 .625 .018 Thick ø .250 R .438 R .125 1 .1 NECK ø .447-MINIMUM 9 0

.6 8 8 .9 3 8

Figure 8.104 Latch Nut

Figure 8.103 Timing Knob

R .250 R .750 2X ø .6250 .125

.125 108 IUS .4034 ° AD D R EN 3.4375 2.250 B

5.00 2.00 .500 1.50 76°

1.6425 .75

4.50 6.00 .500 8.00 ø

1.500 3.00 1.50 3.00

Figure 8.105 Top Bracket Figure 8.106 Snubber 444 PART 2 Fundamentals of Technical Graphics

ø .5000 ø 1.2498 ø .4370 ø 2.250

ø .3748 .50 00 ø 1.3123 X 0.0156 RAISED F

ACE .1875 .1457

ø .375 .3750 1.6250

4 59 0.3

1.0000 44 .0625 X 45 .73 0 14 ø .3 °

ø .250 Figure 8.108 Spacer °

.125 x 45

Figure 8.107 Dial Extension

2X ø 2 0 .6 0

7 1 0 0 .0 0 0 .0 0

6 8 .0 0

70.00 3 2 .0 1 0 9 5 .0 7 0 ø .3 R 6.40 50 0 .5 4.0 Sø ø .0 63 .469 1 0 6 .0 0

80 15.80 .43 2 0 .0 ø 0 .3 .3 26 180.00 1 13 3 3 3 4 0 1 .2 .0 13 .3 0 0 .3 ø .0 R 6 3 50 METRIC .00 ø .5 R 5 ø .3 2 X 75 1.2 .3 -2 75 4

Figure 8.109 Motor Plate Figure 8.110 Handle

ø 1.8125 Sø 2.3783 Sø 2.0000

60 °

1.1250

R 1.00 .500 R .8148

60 ° .3660 .6250

1.00 R .2500

Figure 8.111 Release CHAPTER 8 Multiview Drawings 445

Figure 8.112 Evaporator CENTRAL AXIS TUBE CENTRAL AXIS #6 #3

#2 Central axis tube height = 11.000" Central axis tube I.D. = 7.250" Central axis tube O.D. = 8.000" Central axis tube flange dia = 10.000" #7 Central axis tube flange width = .500" All flange diameters = tube diameter + 1.5" All flange widths = .500" All tube I.D.'s = Tube diameter - .500"

#5 #4 #1

Angle of elevation Length of tube from end of Elevation from base Azimuth angle from tube Offset distance from Outer diameter of Tube # from the base of flange to apparent intersection (on the central axis) #1 (around central axis) central axis tube the part with central axis 1 4.000" 0° 0.000" 0° 14.000" 3.000" 2 7.000" 180° 0.000" 0° 11.000" 2.500" 3 7.000" 110° 0.000" 30° 9.250" 3.500" 4 4.000" 70° 2.000" -45° 9.500" 1.750" 5 2.750" 310° 0.500" -10° 5.000" 1.750" 6 9.125" 310° 0.750" 0° 5.500" 1.750" 7 4.625" 205° 0.125" 0° 6.000" 1.750" 8 4.500" 230° 0.250" -30° 7.500" 1.750"

8.7813 Figure 8.114 L-Slide 9.5000

.3438 A

.7409 2.3594

ø 1.1 356

R 1.7500 A Sø 2.0 00

.0592 .1250 R .2500 1.6917

ø .300 .4377

.2191 8.2482

R .2500

1.961

1 .8567

1.7134

R .3125 1.2317 .21 .4 .7 1 1.9688 .1 88 3 1 .0 .808 562 75 87 00 0 .2813 00 2 ø .4 2 T .75 IN EET ø .8 NE H-P ø .5000 7 .0 R A ITC ° 5 62 ND H A ø 1 .1 5 X RO NG .00 30 45° OT LE 0 3 X CH DIA 90° .9732 30° AM ME CH FER TE .1639 AM AT RS .0781 FE B AS 2.0625 OFFSET 60 R A OT SH 1.7399 ø T T TOM OW 3X OP N .1092 OUND CENTRAL AXIS 1.5787 AR .0312 R .3750 .5244 .4062 Figure 8.113 Swivel 5° .8438 .2171 .0312

.6188 35° .4544 .0168

.1362 .4801 .8688 .8794

SECTION A-A 446 PART 2 Fundamentals of Technical Graphics

.8 X 45° Figure 8.115 Manifold 3.6 ø 1.2

.6 5.0 3 .3 C 3.2 4 L .5

R 2 2.2 .1 3 2.4 .4 3.0

2 4.8 .2

.8 .8 4.8

1 3 0 .0 .4 9 6 .0 .7 ø 2.2 1 ø .6 1 3 .0 .6

1 .8 8 ø .2 2X

9 .4 4 5° .7 2.4 1.00

1.6 13.6 21.8 30.0 3.8 33.2

Figure 8.116 Seat Figure 8.117 Propeller

R .37 2.25 ø 84 1.50 ø 52 1.13 5 .50 86 C 2.63 L 1.25 58 ° 1.88 12 120 2X ø .63 .88 R 26 ø 16

4.63

2.88 .25 2.00 15 1.75 ° 1.13 136 32 .75 ø

24 .25 28 6.88

7.38 11 120 5° ø 68

60 5 ø ° 3.25 8X 45 8 X .C. ø 42 B 90

94 METRIC

R .25

3X R 22

ø .19 .50 8 ° .25 2X R 30 45 3X ø .75 20 70

70 82 1.25 54 .13

82 3X ø .62 1.13 24 .06 .25 .13 R 16 84 42 .13 .13 .44 .19 .63 59 .75 150 .13 42 METRIC 1.25 1.38 1.63 16 2.06 2.81 3.00 3.38 Figure 8.118 Cutoff Figure 8.119 Folder CHAPTER 8 Multiview Drawings 447

R 36 ø ø ø .7578 88 52 .6249

3.4375 .035 16 .0613 82

55 .2500 ° .4453 .6250 .1250

35 ° .3835

ø 1.5625 12 20 .8750 ° 1.3750 R 58 R 12 48 .3477

.875 .3750 .3867

.2344 10 .0625 R 14 3X R 49 36 .5000 .1758 120 68 ° 48 ø .6249 .4505 32 ø

1.2500 METRIC .3750 .5189 .6494 .7578 .6250 R .1250

Figure 8.120 Spline Pilot NOTE: ALL CHAMFERED .4688 .5103 EDGES .125 X 45° U.O.S. .1250 FILLETS & ROUNDS R .0625 .2500 .2500 .6250 ø.3461ø.4609 .5000

3.2500 Figure 8.122 Index .20 ø .40 .20 0 Figure 8.121 .05 X 45 ø .6 Sensor 0 0 ° .80 .3 ø 2.0 .20

0 ø 1.2 0 2.0 ø .30

1.20 2.30 1.70 ° 15 R .38

0 1.4 ø .38 .20 1.38 0 4.0 ø ø 2.00 ø 1.75 3.00 .75 22X 3 ø ø .19

15.56 ø 4.63 ø 3.50

R 3.63 R 2.87 Figure 8.123 Slinger 84 R 2.25

5 ø 36 2.7 2.69 ø 288 84 R .5612 R 8 4 BLADES EQ SP .37 11 6 ø 192 R 100 .13 5 1.75 ø 33 1 .7 .75 ø 88 R .96 R 80 176 R 1.12 R 16 R 78 8 BLADES EQ R 104 Figure 8.124 SP Spray Arm 104 104

12 R 12 ø 552 ø 228 ø 128 METRIC ø 290 60 R 20 448 PART 2 Fundamentals of Technical Graphics

R 2.6 Figure 8.125 Arm Support .44 2.36 .94

3.6 TH SIDES .44

TAB ON12.38 BO R .31 R .25

ø 8.0 .38 2X ø

2.25 .94 1.13 .88 .44 .50 2.63 .25

10.8 ø .50 3.6 1.3 .25 4.31

ø 14.8 1 1.0 .50 .25 1.88 .88 68.9 2.38 4.44

45.3

12.8 5.2 14.1 15.7 17.9 5 5.2 11. 18.4 Figure 8.126 Control Back

R 1.8

R 9.2 METRIC

8 R 5

30 5X R ø 28 6 ø 5 80 ø 4X ø 6 19 3 R 5 8 8

90 ° ø 12 8 2 1 ° 72 34 R 4 ø 12 5X 16 24 22 ø R 1 3 1 2 63

66 80 88 METRIC ø 52 ø 44 METRIC Figure 8.128 Gear Index

Figure 8.127 Inlet 8 1.3

ø 1.50 3.38 4X ø ø 2.26 .50

1.13

4.63

2.00

8 2.38 1.8 ø .63

R 1.13

7.50 R .25 2.38 4.13

.63

1.25 1.63 .63

Figure 8.129 Speed Spacer Figure 8.130 Shaft Support CHAPTER 8 Multiview Drawings 449

ø ø .6 .6 2 3

.6 .7 3 1 1 5 .0 1 .7 0 .7 6 5 1 .0 0 .50

.3 8 1 1.00 .7 5 .8 8

1 .2 .5 1.50 5 0 1.37 .50 .50

R .2 1.38 5 3.50 .8 8 1.62

Figure 8.131 Stop Base Figure 8.132 Tool Holder

18 .63 2X ø ø 1.00 .50 37 68 R 16 ° 17 20 1.00 1.25 1 1.75 .63 42 2 1.38 R 9 2.50

13 1.13

R 2 2.00 ø 1.00 16 19 R 15 2.24 1.50 R 21

2.25 ø 1.00 METRIC 2.00 15 ø ° 13 ø 12 R .25 17 3.75

° ø .50 82 .87 X Figure 8.133 CNC Clamp 3 ø 1.6 .30 R 2.25 ø .75 1.63 1.13

.60 1.60 .40 Figure 8.134 Pen Block 1.10 R 1.50 .90

.90 R 3.30 R .50

2X .50 ø .63

.40 2.50 8.90 2.00 2X ø .40 1.00 .75 3.29 1.00 ø .60 6.30 2X ø 2.10 ø .75 .50 1.00 CL

ø .80 1.90 .88 ø 1.80 2.50 1.13 1.00 1.00 1.75 .50 2.00 5.00 .88 2.00

.30 .80 1.75 3.25

.63 ø 1.30 .94

2.00 ø 1.75 3.10 FILLETS & ROUNDS R .13

Figure 8.135 Index Support Figure 8.136 Cover Guide 450 PART 2 Fundamentals of Technical Graphics

ø R .375 .500 2 .2 .313 5 0 .875 .500 R .750 .375 .437 1.375 1.375 R 30° .938 .250

2X ø 1 .1 .50 2 5

2X ø

.625 1.50 .188

.500 .750 2.250 .188 3.000 .625 .50 0 .563

4X R .25 Figure 8.138 Bearing Block

Figure 8.137 Dial Bracket

ø .625 ø .90

ø 1.26 1.000 .50 .53 .30 ø .40 .437 .10 .41 .12 R 1.438 .32 2.21 .50 1.250 .43 .40 R .937 60° ø .30 .375 .563 1.813

3X R .250 .563 1.05 .563 1.26

3.18 3X .41 ø 1.000 1.07 .250 .90 4.26 .49 .313 .66 .56 .625

.2505 1.063 1.44 .250

Figure 8.139 Pulley Support Figure 8.140 Centering Clip

522 6 BLADES EQ SP 1.18 438 ø .75 393 R 84 R .18

ø 1.00

R 21 R .375

.50

CL 1.00 120 R 45 .25 SR 48 2

R 153 R .50 111 1.00 R 237 195 1.00 .275 .50 R 30 .25 2.50 4.00 336 1.125 174 .275 2.00

189 ø .25 METRIC

Figure 8.141 Impeller Figure 8.142 Adjustable Guide CHAPTER 8 Multiview Drawings 451

Figure 8.143 Auger Support

.690 1.750 1.060 1.625

.125 4.08 .760 .375

.250 R .250 .45 R .75

1.50 1.625 1.000 2X ø .375

.625 1.750 2X R .50 1.500 1.00 .67 .094 2.40 .500 1.77 .750 2.625

.50 2.000

2.00 3.375 .375 .500 .750

.625 2.74 .50

.67

3.74

2.00

2.45 Figure 8.144 Pump Base FILLETS & ROUNDS R .13

Figure 8.145 Bar Hinge Figure 8.146 Dryer Clip

.375 1 ø 2.1 4X 2.33 ø .30

1.08 3.00 1.42 1.75 1.42 4X R .14 .51 2.40 .325 .63 .95 .50 1.37 .48 .73 R .50 .30 ø 2.38 .95 CENTERED .30

R .25

2.12 .63 R .50 2.08 2.30 .48 1.23

.75 R 1.06 2X ø .60 2X ø .50

2.37 .15

1.25 R .50 .40 1.45 ° TYP 2.39 11 1.00 R .75 2.71 1.20 83 3.20 ° .77 .70

.87 1.40 2.40 .50 .45 4.00 95°

R .50 .50 1.1 .12 1 .75 ø .31 2.00 4X 2X R .50 1.21 R 1.5 2.00

2.80

1.00

.57

.625 .70 .54 20° .50 .71 3.80 .57 .20 .53 R .56 .55 1.48 R .60 .60 R .75 .50 1.20 1.40 ° ø .20 ø .30 X 82

R .40 4X R .125

5.00 Figure 8.147 Blade Base 452 PART 2 Fundamentals of Technical Graphics

4X R .250 Figure 8.148 Dryer Tube 4X R 1.750 .1218 3.00 1.50 2.3107 .085 1.375

ø 1.4744 ø .250 2.500 .250 2.2723 4X ø .445 .250 .4913 ø 3.00 117 R 1.1 ø 4.000 .500 ° 40 R 1.1788 8X 8X 45 ø ø .750 .250 4.000 ° R 2.3029 ø 43 4.3578 °

3.7022 R 1.000 R .875 R .550 .1250 .500 ø .750 ø ø 4.8578 3X ° 120 1.000 4.000 3X 5 ° R 1.803 Figure 8.149 Index Adapter .3750 120 °

R .09

ø 5.74 .37 RAISED 2.23 .03 .76

A ø (.52) .04 X 1.7845

° 1) VIEW 2.23 .18 (2.23) (R 1.1 (R .70) .52 2.40 3.89 1.91 VIEW A-A CL .67 .20 A 1 R .13 R 1.1 R 1.12 39° BO R .70 .38 R .56 TH SIDES ø BO R .38 2X TH SIDES .46

R 1.16 ° .90 35 R 1.29 .61 .10 .10 2X ø 3.49 3.01

2.63 .19

.75 .75 R 1.56 .95

ø .80 1.60 .39 .14 R .26 1.70 1.24 25° BO .95 25 2.18 TH SIDES ° 1.57 3.43 4.05 2.78 2.89 58° .36 .55 4X R

R .58

NOTE: ALL FILLETS & ROUNDS Figure 8.150 Connecting Rod .09 U.O.S.

1.03 R ED S AC ø IN SP 1.00 8 F LLY UA .71 EQ ø 1.37 2.00 .50 1.08 1.54 ø 1.08 ø ø 1.37 .31 8° .44 .66 2.00 .54

R .03 .95 .64 .50 .07 .62 1.50 4.36 ø .08

1.00 3.25 ø 2.25

2X .50 ø .50 .75

3.00 .125 .44 . 2.00 1.16 ø ° .C 1.00 4X 1.10 4X 90 ø 3.41 B 1.35 .125 .125 1.60

Figure 8.151 Retaining Cap Figure 8.152 Locating Block Figure 8.153 Spin Drive CHAPTER 8 Multiview Drawings 453

.54 2X OFFSETø 5.00 AR OUND 90 CENTRAL ° .125

ø 1.60 AXIS ø 1.50 .0625 X 19

8X ø .2 5 °

ø 3.00

.50 1.00 8X R .25 ø 1.00 1.12 ø 2.50 ø 7.57 1.50 8X 27 ° ø .11 2.19 .34

Figure 8.155 Spherical Spacer Figure 8.154 Solar Mill

R 36

1 .1 1.63 .24 ø R 394 2X 18 .65 R 9 ø R .53 16 238 1.43 .815 .33 R 18 PROFILE A 1.80 PR 92 OFILE A .20 .90

.57 .33 378

ø .49

.98 1.7 .30 422 METRIC .49 206 .57

R .40 .29

Figure 8.156 Tool Pad Figure 8.157 Air Foil

Figure 8.159 Anchor Base

3.06 ø .94 4.50

1.53 1.59 1.43 .80

.38

.38 125 2X ° ø .91 1.25 .25 1.56 1.30 .26

1.25 4X ø ø .29 .38 1.94 .88 .56 2X R .25 51 .19 ° 99° 2.72 .25 2.69 R .38 ø .62 1.13 ø 1.13

.54 2.50 .37 2.00 4.59 .47 ø .72 1.31 C 1.78 3.47 EN TE 8X R ø ED 2.86 .25 1.19 ø .44 X 82 .56 FILLETS & ROUNDS R .06 ° .47 Fillets and Rounds R .09 Figure 8.158 Locating Base 454 PART 2 Fundamentals of Technical Graphics

ø 1.10 Figure 8.161 Dryer Gear

ø .28 4X ø .28 4X 90 ø 4.60 B 2X R 2.83 ° ø ø 1.50 1.60 .40 .25 .C .

.09

ø .73 5.88 ø 1.38 .19 ø 1.63 ø 5.03 2.00

1.99 5° .74 .62 .25

4X ø .13 5 .50 R 2.00 4° 32 ° ø 6X 5.46 6X 60 ø .75 ø .59 2.52 B °

.C . .88

ø 1.60 2.1 1 Figure 8.160 Evaporator Cover 3.48 .25

4.44 1.74 1.50 2.24

.66

.37

.48

ø .34 ø Figure 8.163 Relay Clip Figure 8.162 Heater Clip .86 .84

4.10 74 °

3.45 ø 1.07

1.43 ø .17 .44 1.34 3.48

° 1.25 .68 ø 10 1.71 5°

ø 6X 3.37 1.07 ø 2.50 .29

ø 2.90 .66

2.61 4.75 45° .59

15 108 .80 .17 ° ° .87 12X .32 12X 30 4X ø 2.55 B ø .72 4X 90 ø .15 R .31 ø 2.55 B .37 X .42 LG ° ° .17 .C . .C .

ø .500 1.500 1 .1 8

1.35

1 .1 R 1 .5 ø 9 1.20 .375

R .39 ø .375 ° 8 1.50 .3125 R .16 16 .10 .73 1.00 R 1.34 R .59 2 ø .4 .500 R .25 1.18 .625 1.37 .49

.79

ø R .39 1.00 1.36 ø 2.56 2.50 ø 2.00 ø 1.57 3X .0625 3X ø .59 120 .125

Figure 8.164 Clip Release Figure 8.165 Caster Mount CHAPTER 8 Multiview Drawings 455

ø 1.375 ø .688 1.250 R .625

1.125 .500 00 .5 .500 ø 1.19 .969 .563 1.000 .500 .750 .313

3 .625 2.000 1 .4 .500

.563 3.500 .750 .938 4.000 1.876 2.250 2.380

Figure 8.166 Slide Base Figure 8.167 Retainer Clip

Figure 8.168 Lens Clip 14° Figure 8.169 Strike Arm

.020 R 7.50 50.50 .250 ø .125 1.50 3.50

.031 .125 .094 .062

.313 .125 1.50 .313 12.00 21.00 .125 13.00 .094 .188 4.00

.031 VIEW A 4.00 5.00 .156 .250

.188 10.00

.203 A 3.5 12.00 .094 ø 5.00 2.500 18.50 METRIC .375 25.00

.375

.250 .063

Figure 8.171 Clamp Down

147.00 127.00 102.0 89.0 43.0

63.50 17.0 25.00 ° 4X R 10.00 8.13 4X ø 4.00 8.30

8.30 9.15

THICKNESS 4 12.0 96.00 10.00 21.0 METRIC 17.0

41.0

9.90 102.0

42.0

Figure 8.170 Offset Plate METRIC 8 ° ø 16.0

4X R 2.0ø 12.0 456 PART 2 Fundamentals of Technical Graphics

ø Figure 8.172 Shelf Stud 1.250

ø .125

.25

1.5625 .7563 1.9423 .500 .5625 .500 .9262 .750 .0254 .4241 .125 R .300 .9565

ø .3741 .687 .500

1.1304

.2969 1.00 58 4.2505 ° R .1878 .5557

3.8602 1.9722 .0486 .125 .100 THICK ø .1875

.4374

Figure 8.173 Manifold Plate

Figure 8.174 Switch Clip

.250 ø 6X 2.500 1.125 .250 R .250 .1 184 1.875

R .1093 .500 R .250

.250 .8604 R .500

6.000

4.000

R .230 .4302 1.000 .3525 R .1872

Figure 8.175 Protector

Figure 8.177 Angled Support R .625 5.500 2.125

2.500 3.000 .125 ø .625 .750 1.000

R 1.000

R .500 3.020

1.000 .500 BEND RADIUS 2.000 ø .25 2X ø .0625 .500 ° .750 70

.500

7.00

.500

.500 8.00

.500 1.50

Figure 8.176 Bearing Plate .75 CHAPTER 8 Multiview Drawings 457

.1715 .12 Figure 8.179 Drive Collar 5 .188 ø .460 .094 .500 VE Sø OO .060 GR ø .563 .025 .156 ø .250 .078

6-32UNC-2B .276 ø .100 .144

.3 13 .1095

° .031 .4 00 0.10 X 45 ø .188

Figure 8.178 Diffuser Knob

Figure 8.181 Burner Cap R 1.413 1.125 ø 1.250 .750 .375 8X ø ø .375 .1875 BO .0625 X 45 .625 TH SIDES

1.661 °

° 2.206 74 .6966 ø 4.500

.5625 .500

6.000 8.000 .500 X .500 NECK

10.143 ø 4.000 .500 4.000 9.000 1.000 .4375

R .0625

Figure 8.180 Pump Base ø .2 5 00 ø .2812

.3749 .2812

ø .5482

.1535

.1266

ø .3750

1.7818 .2812 ø .6633

Figure 8.183 Float Extension

ø .500 1.00 Figure 8.184 Drive Base .500 2.250 ø 1.250

.625

5.00 R .125 .750

2X ø .750

6X ø BO ø .500 TH SIDES.0625 X 45

2X R .625

° .250 Figure 8.182 Grate

1.375 .750 1.625 .250