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Home , Atmospheric science, Cyclone Zeus, Meteorology, Naturales quaestiones, Tornado, Waterspout

OCTOBER 2019 A N T O N E S C U E T A L . 889

Theories on and Formation in and Rome

BOGDAN ANTONESCU National Institute of and Development for Optoelectronics, Magurele, Ilfov, Romania, and European Severe Laboratory, Wessling, Germany

DAVID M. SCHULTZ Centre for , School of and Environmental Sciences, University of Manchester, Manchester, United Kingdom

HUGO M. A. M. RICKETTS Centre for Atmospheric Science, School of Earth and Environmental Sciences, and National Centre for Atmospheric Science, University of Manchester, Manchester, United Kingdom

DRAGOS¸ ENE National Institute of Research and Development for Optoelectronics, Magurele, Ilfov, Romania

(Manuscript received 10 May 2019, in final form 7 August 2019)

ABSTRACT

Tornadoes and have long fascinated humankind through their presence in myths and popular beliefs and originally were believed to have causes. The first theories explaining phe- nomena as having natural causes were proposed by ancient Greek natural philosophers. was one of the first natural philosophers to speculate about the formation of tornadoes and waterspouts in Meteorologica (circa 340 BCE). Aristotle believed that tornadoes and waterspouts were associated with the trapped inside the and moving in a circular motion. When the wind escapes the cloud, its descending motion carries the cloud with it, leading to the formation of a typhon (i.e., tornado or waterspout). His theories were adopted and further nuanced by other Greek philosophers such as and Epicurus. Aristotle’s ideas also influenced Roman philosophers such as Lucretius, Seneca, and , who further de- veloped his ideas and also added their own speculations (e.g., tornadoes do not need a parent cloud). Almost ignored, Meteorologica was translated into in the twelfth century, initially from an Arabic version, leading to much greater influence over the next centuries and into the Renaissance. In the seventeenth century, the first book-length studies on tornadoes and waterspouts were published in Italy and France, marking the beginning of theoretical and observational studies on these phenomena in . Even if speculations about tornadoes and waterspouts proposed by Greek and Roman authors were cited after the nineteenth century only as historical pieces, core ideas of modern theories explaining these vortices can be traced back to this early literature.

1. Introduction World War that was characterized by a relative lack of interest on this subject from European researchers In recent years, there has been a revival in the study of and . Despite being an important and European tornadoes and their impact (e.g., Antonescu relevant topic of research, there has been no history of et al. 2017; Taszarek and Gromadzki 2017; Shikhov tornadoes in Europe, except for a few partial at- and Chernokulsky 2018; Brázdil et al. 2019). This re- tempts (e.g., Peltier 1840; Wegener 1917; Hellmann vival followed a period starting at the end of the Second 1917; Antonescu 2017). In this article, these recent efforts are extended back in by examining the Corresponding author: Bogdan Antonescu, bogdan.antonescu@ history of tornadoes in Europe, not from a climatologi- inoe.ro cal perspective (e.g., Groenemeijer and Kühne 2014;

DOI: 10.1175/WCAS-D-19-0057.1 Ó 2019 American Meteorological Society. For information regarding reuse of this content and general copyright information, consult the AMS Copyright Policy (www.ametsoc.org/PUBSReuseLicenses). Unauthenticated | Downloaded 09/24/21 11:27 AM UTC 890 WEATHER, , AND SOCIETY VOLUME 11

Antonescu et al. 2017), but from a history-of-ideas per- spective. Thus, we focus on early theories1 of tornado formation as proposed by Greek and Roman natural philosophers.2 Our aim is not only to document these theories, but to understand their evolution and influ- ence up until the seventeenth century when the first detailed observational studies of tornadoes and wa- terspouts were published in Europe. This article is structured as follows. Section 2 pres- ents the main ideas about the formation of weather phenomena as they appear in mythology and in the early natural theories. The theories on tornadoes and waterspouts proposed by Aristotle and other Greek philosophers are presented in section 3. Sec- tion 4 analyzes how the hypotheses about torna- does and waterspouts proposed by Greek natural philosophers were adopted and developed by Roman poets and philosophers. Section 5 summarizes this article.

2. From mythology to natural theories Weather phenomena have long been objects of fas- cination, , and threat for humankind. Ancient farmers and hunters were strongly dependent on weather conditions, and the ability to anticipate future weather conditions based on signs within would FIG.1.Tornado—Zeus Battling Typhon is an engraving by benefit their existence. Before discussing how two spe- William Blake (1757–1827) after Henry Fuseli (1741–1825), pub- cific types of weather phenomena (i.e., tornadoes and lished in 1795. (The image is provided through the courtesy of the waterspouts) were perceived in the ancient world, we New York Metropolitan Museum from the Elisha Whittelsey Collection, The Elisha Whittelsey Fund, 1966; used under CC0 1.0 need to understand the intellectual environment that led Universal license.) to theories explaining their formation. Thus, we need to look at how weather phenomena appeared in cultural traditions (e.g., mythology) and also at the first hy- (Taub 2003). In the Iliad [circa (c.) 750 BCE] and potheses about the formation of weather phenomena in Odyssey (c. 725 BCE), Homer describes Zeus as being general. able to produce , and , and storms In the mythological works of ancient authors, mete- (Taub 2003, p. 5). Poseidon, the god of the sea, is also orological phenomena (e.g., lightning, , tornadoes, able to control the weather. waterspouts) were the result of divine intervention (Gregory 2006). Both Homer and Hesiod included nu- So he spoke, and he gathered the , stirred merous references to weather in their poems that were up the seaway, wielding his trident in both of his hands; and of all of the he roused up all of the blustering later quoted by other authors writing about gusts, and the sea and the mainland covered and hid in the clouds, while night rushed down from the heaven (Homer 2002, Odyssey 5, 291–294). 1 In this article, the term ‘‘theory’’ is used in its etymological In Theogony (c. 700 BCE), Hesiod described the battle sense as contemplation or speculation (from Ancient Greek q«oría—theor ía) and not in the modern sense as ‘‘a supposition between Zeus and Typhon as a serpentine giant associ- or a system of ideas intended to explain something, especially ated with a destructive windstorm (Fig. 1). one based on general principles independent of the thing to be explained’’ (Oxford English Dictionary, s.v. ‘‘theory,’’ https:// As the lord rushed forward, great Olympus trem- en.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/theory). bled under his immortal feet, and the Earth groaned 2 Before the nineteenth century when the term ‘‘science’’ began in response. The violet-dark sea was enveloped by to be used with its modern meaning, ‘‘natural philosophy’’ was the a conflagration from both of them—of thunder and philosophical study of nature and the physical . lightning, and fire from that monster of and

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winds, and the blazing thunder-bolt (Hesiod 2006, Socrates: Are you deaf? I told you it’s when the clouds Theogony, 841–846). are brimming full of then bang into each other The ancient Greeks did not just attribute the me- and rumble because they’re so compressed. The Clouds teorological phenomena to gods (i.e., nonnatural ex- (Aristophanes 2015, , 373–285). planations), but they were also probably the first to At the beginning of the fourth century BCE, meteo- make regular meteorological observations and to rology (i.e., ‘‘the study of things high in the air’’) was in a propose theories (i.e., natural explanations) about period of decline. Wilson (2013) indicated that the the formation of weather phenomena (Hellmann philosophers from the Milesian school made further 1908). Meteorological phenomena were ripe for hy- research in meteorology unnecessary by simply re- potheses by natural philosophers such as those from jecting the nonnatural explanations as a cause of the Milesian school. This school was founded around weather phenomena. Their speculations were later 650 BCE in Miletus, an ancient Greek city on the just accepted by other thinkers who considered that western coast of Anatolia, today in Turkey. Thales all the explanations for the formation of weather of Miletus (c. 624–c. 546 BCE), a Greek philoso- phenomena were provided and thus the Milesians pher, mathematician, and astronomer, associated focused their speculations on other topics rather than weather with the movement of the stars and meteorology (Wilson 2013,p.19). (Frisinger 1971). Two of his followers, Anaximander (c. 610–c. 546 BCE) and Anaximenes (c. 585–c. 528 BCE), 3. Aristotle’s Meteorologica and the first theories also tried to explain meteorological phenomena using on tornado and waterspout formation natural causes. Anaximander was the first to give a Meteorology was reborn around 340 BCE because of definition of the wind as the flowing of air that hap- Aristotle’s Meteorologica. Meteorologica was the first pens when ‘‘the finest vapors, separated from the air, ‘‘systematic discussion of meteorology’’ (Zinszer 1944). propelledwhenmassedtogether’’(Hippolytus 2016, Aristotle (384–322 BCE), the founder of the Peripatetic book I, 7). He also speculated that thunder was the school (founded around 335 BCE) (Wilson 2013), re- result of the air smashing against clouds and that viewed the main theories existing at that time about lightning resulted from the violent separation of weather phenomena and proposed new theories about clouds by the wind (Frisinger 1977). It seems that rain, clouds, mist (book I, chapter 9); dew, hoar-frost centuries later these natural explanations were still (book I, chapter 10); rain, , hail in relation to hoar- considered contrary to the general view that weather frost (book I, chapter 11); hail (book I, chapter 12); phenomena were associated with gods, as shown winds (book II, chapters 3–6); and thunder and lightning by this dialogue from the comedy The Clouds.The (book II, chapter 9). dialogue, written by Aristophanes (c. 446–c. 386 Aristotle’s theories on ‘‘hurricanes, typhoons, fire- BCE) in 423 BCE, is between Strepsiades, a coun- winds and thunderbolts’’ are described in book III tryman living in Athens, and the rationalist philoso- (chapter 1) of Meteorologica. In building these theo- ries, Aristotle did not discuss any actual events. To our pher Socrates. knowledge, there are no surviving descriptions of tor- Strepsiades: [...] But tell me who makes the thunder nadoes and waterspouts that occurred in ancient then, the sort that gives me the jitters. Greece. The earliest descriptions of tornadoes and wa- Socrates: It’s these who thunder by rolling round. terspouts in Greece are from the eighteenth century Strepsiades: But how, audacious thinker? (Matsangouras et al. 2014). The concept of tornadoes or Socrates: It’s when they’re soaked to the limit waterspouts was introduced by Aristotle without any with water and compelled to move about while reference to previous theories or refutation of previous sagging low all teeming with rain, and then in theories, in contrast to his theory about wind in which this heavy state they collide with one another Aristotle refuted Anaximander’s ideas. Thus, Aristotle and make those sounds of cracking and rumbling. was likely the first natural philosopher to discuss the Strepsiades: But who is it then who compels them to concept of tornadoes or waterspouts and to speculate move, well isn’t it Zeus himself? about their formation. Socrates: Not at all! It’s the swirl of the . To understand the theories about tornadoes and Strepsiades: The swirl? It was lost on me that Zeus waterspouts proposed by Aristotle, we need to in- just doesn’t exist but instead it’s swirl that rules troduce some of the concepts that he employed to ex- the world. But you haven’t yet taught me exactly plain the formation of weather phenomena in general. how the rumble and thunder occurs. Then, we will discuss the terminology used by Aristotle

Unauthenticated | Downloaded 09/24/21 11:27 AM UTC 892 WEATHER, CLIMATE, AND SOCIETY VOLUME 11 and subsequent ancient thinkers who wrote about used in this article. Aristotle also made a distinction tornadoes and waterspouts. between windstorm and typhon (tyuvn^ ),3 both being Aristotle described two types of processes that he associated with wind descending from the cloud, but the called ‘‘exhalations’’ within the terrestrial region, the cloud trails behind the wind in the case of the typhon region below the orbit of the that is composed (Aristotle 1952, Meteorologica, 370b28–31, and the note of four elements—earth, water, air, and fire— by H. D. P. Lee on 234–235). Although the modern arranged in concentric spheres with Earth at the definition of the typhon (or ) is a severe tropical center (Frisinger 1972). According to Aristotle, these in the western North Pacific (American elements are in a continuous process of trans- Meteorological Society 2019b), Aristotle likely was re- formation from one to another. Thus, when the heat ferring to a tornado or a waterspout, which is the defi- from the reaches the surface of Earth, it mixes nition used in the remainder of this article. with the cold and moist water to form the moist and According to Aristotle, a windstorm occurs as the cool exhalation (noninflammable, ‘‘essentially like result of the deflection of the wind within the sur- air’’; Frisinger 1972), which is associated with clouds rounding cloud. Aristotle used an analogy with the sit- and rain. When the heat from the sun interacts with uation in which the wind hits a narrow in alleys the cold and dry Earth, the result is the dry and and portals, or encounters wind from the opposite di- warm exhalation (inflammable, ‘‘essentially like fire’’; rection. In such situations, the wind is ‘‘thrust aside by Frisinger 1972), which is associated with wind, thun- the resistance either of the narrow entrance of the der, and lightning. A more detailed analysis of the contrary wind and as a result forms a circular of concept of exhalations can be found, for example, in wind’’ (Aristotle 1952, Meteorologica, 370b23–25). The Frisinger (1965), Frisinger (1972), Taub (2003),and same mechanism occurs in clouds for the formation of Wilson (2013). The moist and cool exhalation sinks, tornadoes or waterspouts but combined with a down- whereas the dry and warm exhalation rises. Both ex- ward motion. As stated by Wilson (2013), Meteorologica halations coexist, and when Aristotle was referring to is not particularly clear on what produces the descent. one of them, he was referring to the one that is dom- A tornado or a waterspout [, in the original inant for a certain type of weather phenomena. For translation] thus arises when a windstorm [hurricane,in example, wind is produced by the dry and warm ex- the original translation] that has been produced is unable halation as a result of the sun drying and heating to free itself from the cloud: it is caused by the resistance Earth. As the dry and warm exhalation rises, only the of the eddy, and occurs when the spiral sinks to the Earth vertical component of the wind is generated. The and carries with it the cloud from which it is unable to horizontal component of the wind is generated by free itself. Its blast overturns anything that lies in its path, the interaction between the dry and warm exhalation and its circular motion whirls away and carries off by and the movement of the celestial spheres (i.e., a anything it meets (Aristotle 1952, Meteorologica, fundamental concept of the early cosmological 371a9–15). models in which the rotating spheres made of a single This description is, to a certain extent, similar to the called ‘‘aether’’ are responsible for the ap- modern definition of a tornado, which the American parent movement of the stars and planets in the sky). Meteorological Society (2019a) defines as a rotating Aristotle also indicated that the dry exhalation causes column of air, in contact with the surface, pendant thunder and lightning when it is produced in small from a cumuliform cloud (‘‘spiral sinks to the Earth’’) quantities, but when ‘‘there is an abundant and con- and often visible as a (‘‘carries with it the «xn«uíaz stant flow of exhalation,’’ (ecnephias)is cloud from which it is unable to free itself’’) and/or cir- produced (Aristotle 1952, Meteorologica, 370b4–18). culating / at the ground (‘‘its circular mo- In the Greek–English Lexicon (Liddell and Scott tion whirls away and carries off by force anything it «xn«uíaz 1996), is translated as ‘‘a hurricane, caused by meets’’). Recent of tornadoes and water- clouds meeting and bursting.’’ The term ‘‘hurricane’’ spouts show their potential across much of Greece (e.g., was used in official meteorological reports, before the Matsangouras et al. 2014; Avgoustoglou et al. 2018), beginning of the twentieth century, for windstorms, and also to describe tornadoes and waterspouts [see, e.g., the discussion concerning the use of hurricane in tornado 3 reports for Romania in the nineteenth century from According to Cannon and Kaye (1994), ‘‘typhoon’’ was trans- mitted by Cantonese via Arabic and, further, Persian, with its or- Antonescu and Bell (2015)]. Thus, given Aristotle’s igin in Greek. The Chinese use of typhoon (i.e., tung fung—‘‘a description of «xn«uíaz, we argue that the term can be terrible storm of east winds’’ and ta fung—‘‘a great wind’’) is re- translated as a generic windstorm, which is the definition ferring to a different type of wind than the Greek original.

Unauthenticated | Downloaded 09/24/21 11:27 AM UTC OCTOBER 2019 A N T O N E S C U E T A L . 893 suggesting that the ancient Greeks would have been down to Earth, it is called hurricane4 (Theophrastus familiar with both tornadoes and waterspouts. Meteorology 13.43–46; Daiber 1992). Next, Aristotle introduced another type of weather Unlike Aristotle who was trying to provide single ex- phenomena that occurs ‘‘when the wind that is drawn planations for different weather phenomena, Theo- down catches fire—which happens when it is finer in phrastus’s approach was to explain meteorological prhsthr^ texture—[and] is called a firewind ( —prester); phenomena through multiple causes (Taub 2003). Thus, for its conflagration sets on fire and so colours the he described two mechanisms for the formation of tor- neighbouring air’’ (Aristotle 1952, Meteorologica, nadoes or waterspouts accompanied by lightning. The 371a16–19). The translation of prester is not straight- first mechanism produces a tornado or a waterspout forward (Taub 2003). In the Greek–English Lexicon, the when ‘‘a hollow cloud set itself up forcing the wind and term is defined as a ‘‘hurricane or waterspout attended stretches to the sea, the wind is pulled because of (the with lighting’’ (Liddell and Scott 1996). The term has cloud)’’ (13.46; Daiber 1992). This mechanism suggests been usually translated as whirlwind (e.g., Webster 1984; that an ‘‘empty’’ cloud is moving upward and thus is Wilson 2013), but Hall (1969) argued that presteros is the forcing the wind to rise with it and the cloud to stretch funnel-shaped body of a tornado or waterspout, and thus vertically. Through the second mechanism, which is an accurate translation of prester would be tornado or similar with the one proposed by Aristotle, a tornado waterspout. For Aristotle, the wind is associated with or a waterspout occurs when ‘‘the wind rushes off [the presteros and also with keraunos (x«raynó§, or thun- cloud] violently’’ (13.47; Daiber 1992). derbolt), the difference between the two being the tex- Like Aristotle and Theophrastus, other natural phi- ture of the wind (i.e., the density of the material exhaled losophers speculated about weather phenomena, but from the cloud). A thunderbolt is produced ‘‘if a large some of their speculations were proposed as theoretical quantity of wind of fine texture is squeezed out of the or practical explanations with the aim to eliminate the cloud itself’’ (Aristotle 1952, Meteorologica, 371a20– fear of deities (i.e., ‘‘attainment of an ethical aim’’; Taub 21). Aristotle’s view that presteros and keraunos have a 2003). For example, Epicurus (341–270 BCE) tried to common origin is likely based on the observation that explain meteorological phenomena to eliminate the fear both tornadoes and waterspouts are associated with and anxiety associated with them (i.e., meteorological storms that produce lightning flashes (e.g., Peyraud phenomena have a rational explanation and they are 2013; Renko et al. 2013; Belo-Pereira et al. 2017; Stough not caused by deities). Furthermore, Epicurus believed et al. 2017). In the remainder of this article, presteros is that multiple natural and logical causes should be con- translated as tornado or waterspout accompanied by sidered for meteorological phenomena (Daiber 1992) lightning flashes. Thus, the theory proposed by Aristotle and not causes based on divine intervention. In Letter for the formation of tornadoes and waterspouts has to Pythocles dated from c. 305 BCE, Epicurus gener- three elements: 1) the wind is rotating inside the cloud ally follows Aristotle’s explanations for the formation of and at some point is descending (generating wind- the tornadoes or waterspouts accompanied by lightning. storms), 2) the descending wind carries the cloud with it Tornadoes or waterspouts accompanied by lightning (generating tornadoes or waterspouts), and 3) the de- [, in the original translation by Bailey (1926)] scending wind can catch fire (generating tornadoes or may be produced either by the driving down of a cloud waterspouts accompanied by lightning flashes). into the regions below in the form of a pillar, because it is Aristotle’s successor in the Peripatetic School, Theo- pushed by the wind gathered inside it and is driven on by phrastus of Ereus (c. 371–c. 287 BCE), is associated with the violence of the wind, while at the same time the wind several short works on meteorological subjects, like On outside impels it sideways; or by wind forming into cir- Winds, Meteorology, and On Weather Signs (Daiber cular motion, while mist is simultaneously thrust down 1992). Theophrastus’s starting point for Meteorology from above; or when a great rush of wind takes place and was Aristotle’s Meteorologica. For Theophrastus, the cannot pass through sideways owing to the surrounding of the atmosphere (Epicurus’s Letter to exhalations used by Aristotle to explain the wind rep- Pythocles 104.5–105.1, Bailey 1926). resent one of the possible causes of weather phenomena. According to Theophrastus, the wind moves in order to restore the balance disrupted by the sun (Taub 2003). Theophrastus indicated that a tornado or a waterspout 4 In this case, the original translation by Daiber (1992) was kept accompanied by lightning is because it is not clear for which type of weather phenomena the term ‘‘hurricane’’ is used. Daiber (1992) contains a translation from [...] an airy pillar which is stretched out from the heaven Syriac and Arabic of Theophrastus’s Meteorologica, as the original to the sea and draws the ships upwards. When it goes version is no longer extant.

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The second explanation (‘‘[...] or by wind forming into Lucretius wrote his only known work in the first century circular motion, while mist is simultaneously thrust BCE, the philosophical poem De Rerum Natura (On the down from above’’) seems to suggest that tornadoes or Nature of Things), an account of the Greek Epicurean waterspouts can form without a parent cloud. One philosophy. Lucretius described in book VI of De possible interpretation of Epicurus’s text is that the wind Rerum Natura the core theories of Epicurean philoso- has a circular motion over a certain height in the at- phy that were offered as an alternative to divine expla- mosphere. This circular motion is made visible due to nations of meteorological phenomena. Two mechanisms the interaction with ‘‘mist [...] from above’’ (or with are presented by Lucretius for the formation of torna- cloud from the clouds above). does and waterspouts: In summary, the earliest theories explaining the forma- [...] what the Greeks named presteres from above tion of tornadoes and waterspouts originate in Aristotle’s Are sent down on the sea. Sometimes you know Meteorologica. His theories were later repeated by other A pillar, so to speak, is let right down philosophers (e.g., Theophrastus and Epicurus) who From sky to sea, round which the surges boil also proposed their own theories. The ancient Greek Lashed by the blowing winds, and ships that are philosophy exerted a strong influence on the ancient Caught in that turmoil come in greatest risk. Roman philosophy especially after 200 BCE when And this takes place sometimes when the wind’s force the Roman conquest of Greece began. One of the first Cannot burst the cloud it aimed at, but can urge Roman natural philosophers who wrote about mete- It downward, like a pillar that is set orological topics was Titus Lucretius Carus (c. 99–c. 55 Tween sea and sky, coming by slow degrees, BCE), known simply as Lucretius, whose view on tor- Pushed and extended as’t were from above nadoes and waterspouts is described in the next section. Over the waves by strength of arm and hand: And when the cloud is rent, the force of wind 4. Tornado and waterspout theories in ancient Bursts forth upon the sea, and raises up Rome A wondrous surging in the waves around: The eddy whirling round descends and brings Unlike ancient Greece from where no records of Yon cloud of pliant body down with it: tornadoes or waterspouts are known to exist, there are And having thrust it, heavy as it is, surviving reports of tornadoes (turbo in Latin)5 that Down to the level of the sea, the eddy then occurred in the city of Rome and were described in Plunges itself entire into the waves, Liber Prodigiorum (The Book of Prodigies)written And stirs the ocean with terrific noise, around the fourth century CE by Giulio Ossequente And makes it boil. It chances too sometimes (Ossequente 2005). The first known tornado report That the eddying wind wraps up itself in clouds, occurred in 152 BCE at Campo Marzio (today, the And gathering from the air the seeds of clouds, urban area between Capitoline Hill and Quirinal, As though let down from heaven, imitates two of the seven hills of Rome) close to the temple of The prester. And when it has reached the earth Jupiter where the tornado demolished a column with And burst, it vomits forth a whirling storm (turbinis) its golden statue. The second tornado (60 BCE) oc- Of vast dimensions, but as it is rare, curred around noon and removed the roofs of houses, And mountains must obstruct its way on land, destroying a bridge (presumably a wooden bridge) and More frequent it is seen in the wide expanse uprooting trees in the nearby countryside. The third Of ocean and beneath the spreading sky. tornado (44 BCE) detached the bronze plaques (i.e., (Lucretius 1919, De Rerum Natura, book VI, plaques that displayed laws) from the Temple of Fede 423–451). (Richardson 1992, p. 151), damaged the doors of the Temple of Ops (Richardson 1992, p. 277), uprooted The first mechanism explains the formation of water- trees, and destroyed many roofs. spouts and is similar to the one proposed by Aristotle. The latter two of these tornadoes occurred during the Thus, the wind cannot break the cloud, and it is forced lifetime of the Roman poet and philosopher Lucretius. down in the shape of a pillar to the sea where it bursts and causes a furious boiling and surging. The second mechanism explains the formation of presteros (tor- nado or waterspout accompanied by lightning) and is 5 In Latin, turbo is the nominative case and turbinis is the genitive case, which can be translated into English by the preposition ‘‘of’’ similar to the second one proposed by Epicurus. In this (e.g., ‘‘de violentia turbinis’’ can be translated as ‘‘the violence of explanation, the presteros forms outside the cloud by the tornado’’). gathering the ‘‘seeds of clouds’’ (i.e., atoms of cloud)

Unauthenticated | Downloaded 09/24/21 11:27 AM UTC OCTOBER 2019 A N T O N E S C U E T A L . 895 and wrapping them around. According to Lucretius, early encyclopedia dated c. 77–79 CE that used Greek this type of presteros, formed through the gathering of and Roman sources. Pliny provided descriptions of ‘‘seed of clouds,’’ is sometimes observed over land (i.e., meteorological phenomena and was also interested in tornado), but often over the sea (i.e., waterspout). ways of predicting those phenomena. Pliny described Other major works of Latin literature include refer- two types of winds, those that present some regularity ences to violent weather phenomena. In the Georgics, and those that are sudden wind gusts. The sudden written around 29 BCE, the Roman poet Virgil (70– wind gusts are caused by Earth exhalations or by 19 BCE) described what looks like the effects of a tor- vapors associated with bodies of water (Taub 2003) nado or a waterspout. and include the windstorm (ecnephias)andtorna- does and waterspouts (typhon) that form through the [...] my own eyes have seen all the winds clash in battle, mechanisms proposed by Aristotle. In particular, a tearing up the heavy crops far and wide from its deepest roots and tossing it on high; then with its black whirlwind waterspout poses a threat to navigators ‘‘because [it] (turbine) the storm would sweep off the light stalk and snatches things up and carries them back with it to the flying stubble. Often, too, there appears in the sky a sky sucking them high above,’’ the only remedy being mighty column of , and clouds mustered from on the ‘‘pouring [of] vinegar in advance of its approach, high roll up a murky tempest of black showers: down fall vinegar being a very cold substance’’ (Pliny the Elder the lofty heaven, and with its deluge of rain washes away 1967, Naturalis Historia, book 2, XLIX, 132). Ac- the gladsome crops and the labours of oxen (Virgil 1916, cording to Pliny, tornadoes and waterspouts would Georgics, book I, 316–326). never form when the wind gusts are from the north, At the beginning of the first century CE, two Roman and windstorms would never form during snowfall or authors wrote on meteorological subjects. The first au- when snow is on the ground (Pliny the Elder 1967, thor was Seneca (c. 4 BCE–65 CE), who around 65 CE Naturalis Historia, book 2, XLIX, 134). wrote (Natural Questions), an In summary, the Roman authors adopted the early encyclopedia of the physical sciences that included me- theories proposed by Greek philosophers on tornadoes teorological subjects. Taub (2003) argued that, unlike and waterspouts and further developed them. As we will Epicurus and Lucretius whose aim in explaining the show in the next section, the theories proposed by the formation of meteorological phenomena was to free Greek and Roman natural philosophers dominated people from fear, Seneca had a genuine interest in me- meteorological thought for the next centuries. teorology as a physical science. For Seneca, a turbo forms when 5. Impact of the early theories on tornadoes and [...] so long as there are no obstacles, [wind] gives its waterspouts through to the seventeenth century free rein; but when it is deflected by some Most of the theories on tornado and waterspout for- prominence, or is forced into a sloping, narrow channel mation from ancient Greece and Rome can be traced between converging land-masses, it wheels round on it- back to Aristotle’s Meteorologica (Fig. 2). Almost all of self repeatedly and produces a [...]. This wind that revolves and circles on the same and whips itself up the explanations from Meteorologica do not ‘‘even as it spins is a tornado or a waterspout6 (Seneca 2010, come close to the modern truth’’ (Wilson 2013,p.2), Naturales Quaestiones, book 5, 13.2–3). and Aristotle ‘‘was wrong in profoundly interesting and significant ways’’(Wilson 2013, p. 3). Regardless of the Thus, for Seneca, the same mechanism that produces validity of Aristotle’s theories, he created a new sci- whirls in rivers (i.e., deflection of the course of the river entific discipline (Lindberg 2008). Meteorologica not by an obstacle) is responsible for forming in only influenced Greek and Roman natural philoso- the atmosphere. If the whirlwind intensifies and lasts phers, but it also influenced Muslim philosophers longer than ordinary, then ‘‘it catches fire and produces and scholars. Around 800 CE, the Antiochene scholar what the Greeks call a prester—that is, a fiery whirlwind Ibn al-Biṭrıq translated and paraphrased Meteorologica (igneus turbo)’’ (Seneca 2010, Naturales Quaestiones, into Arabic [see Schoonheim (2000) for a detailed book 5, 13.3). discussion]. Over the next centuries, philosophers and The second Roman author from the first century CE scholars such as Ibn Sına (Avicenna; 980–1037) and interested in meteorology was Pliny the Elder (23–79 CE), Ibn Rusd (Averroes; 1126–98) wrote commentaries on the author of Naturalis Historia (), an Meteorologica and meteorological treaties inspired by Aristotle (Lettinck 1999). In Kitab al-Sif a’ (The Book of Healing), Ibn Sına describes tornadoes and water- 6 In the original Latin turbo; the English translation is whirlwind. spouts (i.e., whirlwinds) as originating ‘‘[...]fromthe

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Europe declined as Latin grew (O’Hogan 2019). Also during this time, Isidore of Seville (c. 560–636) in Spain, the Venerable Bede (c. 673–735) in Great Britain, and Rabanus Maurus Magnentius (c. 780–856) in Germany were among the first medieval scholars to in- clude meteorological topics in their works (Hellmann 1908). For example, in Etymologies (c. 600 CE), Isidore of Seville provided explanations for air, clouds, thunder and lightning, , and rain. He also mentions that tornadoes and waterspouts are produced by the ‘‘twisting of winds.’’ Meteorologica was rediscovered in the twelfth century when Gerard of Cremona (c. 1114–87) translated into Latin the Arabic version by Ibn al-Biṭrıq. A new trans- lation from Greek to Latin was completed in the second half of the thirteenth century by William van Moerbeke (c. 1215–c. 1286). Between the thirteenth century and throughout the Renaissance, Aristotle’s writings strongly influenced the physical sciences due to the ‘‘overwhelming explanatory power of [his] philosophi- cal and scientific system’’ (Lindberg 2008). Further- more, Aristotle’s view about nature and the divine were adopted by Christian philosophers and theolo- gians during the Middle Ages (Grant and Martin 2017). There were also commentaries on Meteorologica, such as ’s (c. 1214–92) commentary in 1270, that were critical of Aristotle’s theories and that were perceived at that time as being close to blasphemy (Walker 2011). Between the thirteenth and sixteenth centuries, very few works included discussions about the formation of tornadoes and waterspouts and their effects. One ex- ample of such a work that did discuss these whirl- winds is Historia de Gentibus Septentrionalibus (1555) (Description of the Nordic Peoples) by Olaus Magnus (1490–1557). In Historia de Gentibus Septentrionalibus, one of the first about Sweden and its inhabitants, FIG. 2. The main theories on the formation of tornadoes and waterspouts proposed by Greek and Roman natural philosophers Olaus Magnus dedicates a chapter to ‘‘the violence of (illustrated with portraits). For each natural philosopher, the core the tornado (turbinis), and the storm’’ (Fig. 3). Olaus ideas of their theories are summarized. The black lines indicate the Magnus describes tornadoes as influence and ramifications of different theories. [All images are from Wikipedia Commons (accessed 3 March 2019).] A tornado (turbo)[...] as Isidore says, is a gyration of winds, and is named from earth (); it occurs when- meeting of two strong (opposing) winds...Sometimes ever the wind rises and drives particles of earth in a ro- (the whirlwind) is firm (and) strong, (and) uproots the tatory motion, the whirlwind being produced by several winds striving with one another, as Seneca testifies in his trees and wrenches ships from the sea. Sometimes Naturales Quaestiones. It is generated and moves where (the whirlwind) encompasses a portion of cloud...and there is land, and so tears up trees by the roots and strips looks as if it were a dragon, flying in the atmosphere’’ bare whatever soil it falls upon; meanwhile, it snatches up (Sersen 1976). woods and houses, travelling mostly below the clouds Between the end of later Antiquity (c. 600 CE) and and certainly never higher. It is rounded in shape, and, the early Middle Ages (c. 1100 CE), Aristotle’s writings rolling on like a spinning column, sweeps along faster were virtually unknown in western Europe. During this than any cloud. Its movement is roving, discontinuous, time, knowledge of the Greek language in western and full of eddies; but it cannot last for long, for when a

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FIG. 3. Woodcut illustrating the chapter on tornadoes and their effects, from the Historia de Gentibus Septentrionalibus (1555) by Olaus Magnus (1490–1557). (The image is provided through the courtesy of the University of Manchester Library.)

wandering and unsettled breath of air has formed a spiral, the transition to a new period in the study of tornadoes the total force eventually yields to one wind (Magnus and waterspouts in Europe. The theologian Francois 1996, Historia de Gentibus Septentrionalibus,chapterXI). Lamy (1636–1711) in France (Lamy 1689), the astron- omer and mathematician Geminiano Montanari (1633– In the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries and even 87) and the Jesuit polymath Roger Joseph Boscovich in the nineteenth century, authors generally repeated (1711–87) in Italy (Montanari 1694; Boscovich 1749) the theories proposed by Aristotle and Roman natural published book-length studies about waterspouts and philosophers such as Lucretius7 (e.g., Tachard 1686; tornadoes. These natural philosophers did not just sim- Hartsoeker 1696; Richard 1770; Page 1835). An in- ply repeat previous speculations about tornado forma- teresting example is from Meteorologia Cosmica (Cos- tion, but in their attempts to understand this type of mic Meteorology) by Robert Fludd (1574–1637) (Fludd weather phenomena they also focused on providing 1626) in which Aristotle’s theories about windstorms detailed observations on tornadoes and waterspouts and (ecnephias), tornadoes and waterspouts (turbo), and their effects. Toward the end of the eighteenth century, tornadoes and waterspouts accompanied by lightning new theories on tornado and waterspout formation be- (prester) are illustrated (Fig. 4). This figure shows that gan to emerge (Antonescu et al. 2016). One theory pop- echoes of Aristotle’s views on tornadoes and water- ularized by the French physicist Jean Charles Athanase spouts survived until the seventeenth century. Peltier (1785–1845), who also published the first pan- The period covering the end of the seventeenth cen- European tornado , indicated that torna- tury and the beginning of the eighteenth century marks does are an electrical phenomenon (Peltier 1840). In the nineteenth century, the theories on tornadoes and water- spout formation proposed by Greek and Roman natural philosophers were cited only for their historical value. By 7 Considered lost, the poem ‘‘De Rerum Natura’’ was redis- covered in 1417 by Gian Francesco Poggio Bracciolini (1380–1459), the nineteenth century in the , these specu- an Italian humanist, historian, scholar in the Papal Court, and book lations about the formation of tornadoes and thunder- hunter (Greenblatt 2012). storms in general do not seem to have been considered

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FIG.4.The Great Meteorological Chart (1623) by Matthäus Merian (1593–1650) from Cosmic Meteorology (1626) by the English physician Robert Fludd (1574–1637). The inset is an illustration of the theory of tornado and waterspout formation proposed by Aristotle in Meteorologica showing the windstorm (ecnephias), the tornado or waterspout (turbo), and the tornado or waterspout accompanied by lightning (prester). (The image is provided through the courtesy of archive.org.)

Unauthenticated | Downloaded 09/24/21 11:27 AM UTC OCTOBER 2019 A N T O N E S C U E T A L . 899 by researchers in the field of severe storms. For example, tornado research in Europe. Bull. Amer. . Soc., 100, in the Espy–Redfield debate about storm formation, 567–578, https://doi.org/10.1175/BAMS-D-17-0316.1. no references are made, to our knowledge, to these ear- Aristophanes, 2015: Clouds, Women at the Thesmophoria, Frogs. Oxford University Press, 298 pp. lier hypotheses (e.g., Kutzbach 1979). Sometimes the core Aristotle, 1952: Meteorologica. Harvard University Press, 397 pp. ideas of modern theories were found in these speculations. Avgoustoglou, E., I. Matsangouras, I. Pytharoulis, N. Kamperakis, Thus, the German tornado researcher M. Mylonas, P. Nastos, and H. Bluestein, 2018: Numerical (1880–1930) traced the mechanical and hydrodynamic modeling analysis of the mesoscale environment conducive hypotheses on tornado formation back to Lucretius and to two tornado events using the COSMO.Gr model over Greece. Atmos. Res., 208, 148–155, https://doi.org/10.1016/ further to Aristotle (Antonescu et al. 2019). Even if the j.atmosres.2017.07.022. early ideas proposed by Greek and Roman natural phi- Bailey, C., 1926: Letter to Phythocles, translation of Epistula ad losophers about tornado formation were proven to be Pythoclea. Epicurus—The Extant Remains, Clarendon Press, wrong by modern theories, summarizing and discussing 56–81 pp. these ideas contributes to a better understanding of the Belo-Pereira, M., C. Andrade, and P. Pinto, 2017: A long-lived tor- nado on 7 December 2010 in mainland Portugal. Atmos. Res., evolution of meteorological thought on severe storms. 185, 202–215, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosres.2016.11.002. Boscovich, R. G., 1749: Sopra il turbine che la notte tra gli XI, e XII ó Acknowledgments. We thank the University of Man- giugno del MDCCXLIX danneggi una gran parte di Roma (Upon the whirlwind that on the night between the 11th and chester Library for their help with the source material 12th of June 1749 damaged a large part of Rome). Appresso and for providing the image used in Fig. 3. Partial Niccoló, é Marco Pagliarini, 231 pp. funding was provided to the University of Manchester Brázdil, R., K. Chromá, L. Dolák, O. Kotyza, L. Rezn ícková, by the Risk Prediction Initiative of the Bermuda In- P. Dobrovolný, and Z. Cernoch, 2019: Spatiotemporal vari- stitute of Ocean Sciences through Grant RPI2.0-2016- ability of tornadoes in the Czech lands, 1801–2017. Theor. SCHULTZ and the Research Appl. Climatol., 136, 1233–1248, https://doi.org/10.1007/ s00704-018-2553-y. Council through Grant NE/N003918/1. Partial funding Cannon, G., and A. S. 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