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Thor's Legions American Meteorological Society Historical Monograph Series the History of Meteorology: to 1800, by H Thor's Legions American Meteorological Society Historical Monograph Series The History of Meteorology: to 1800, by H. Howard Frisinger (1977/1983) The Thermal Theory of Cyclones: A History of Meteorological Thought in the Nineteenth Century, by Gisela Kutzbach (1979) The History of American Weather (four volumes), by David M. Ludlum Early American Hurricanes - 1492-1870 (1963) Early American Tornadoes - 1586-1870 (1970) Early American Winters I - 1604-1820 (1966) Early American Winters II - 1821-1870 (1967) The Atmosphere - A Challenge: The Science of Jule Gregory Charney, edited by Richard S. Lindzen, Edward N. Lorenz, and George W Platzman (1990) Thor's Legions: Weather Support to the u.s. Air Force and Army - 1937-1987, by John F. Fuller (1990) Thor's Legions Weather Support to the U.S. Air Force and Army 1937-1987 John F. Fuller American Meteorological Society 45 Beacon Street Boston, Massachusetts 02108-3693 The views expressed in this book are those of the author and do not reflect the official policy or position of the Department of Defense or the United States Government. © Copyright 1990 by the American Meteorological Society. Permission to use figures, tables, and briefexcerpts from this monograph in scientific and educational works is hereby granted provided the source is acknowledged. All rights reserved. No part ofthis publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, elec­ tronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise, without the prior written permis­ sion ofthe publisher. ISBN 978-0-933876-88-0 ISBN 978-1-935704-14-0 (eBook) DOI 10.1007/978-1-935704-14-0 Softcover reprint of the hardcover 1st edition 1990 Library of Congress catalog card number 90-81187 Published by the American Meteorological Society, 45 Beacon Street, Boston, Massachusetts 02108-3693 Richard E. Hallgren, Executive Director Kenneth C. Spengler, Executive Director Emeritus Evelyn Mazur, Assistant Executive Director Arlyn S. Powell, Jr., Publications Manager Jonathan Fe1d, Publications Production Manager Editorial services for this book were provided by Designworks, Kim Dolphin, Linda Esche, Eileen Furlong, Susan McClung, and Jay Talbot. CONTENTS Illustrations, Maps, Charts and Thbles ... VB 7 World War II - Pacific. .. 179 Alaska-Aleutians. .. 179 Foreword . Xl Southwest Pacific ............ .. 182 Leyte and the Philippines .................... 186 Preface . X111 Hawaii and the South-Central Pacific. .. 188 1 Army Roots . 1 Gilberts, Marshals, Marianas, and Bonins ...... 195 Signal Service, 1870 -1891: Okinawa. .. 198 The National Service. 2 Strategic Bombing .......................... 201 Weather Reconnaissance . .. 203 2 The Great War . 9 AAFPOA Weather Central, Guam. .. 205 Hiroshima and Nagasaki .................... 206 3 Between Wars. 17 An Assessment . .. 209 The Birth Of Air Weather Service ............. 21 1937 - 1940 ................................. 26 8 Demobilization and Retrenchment - 1946 -1960. .. 213 4 World War II - The Home Front. 35 Flag Rank and Autonomy .................... 213 Leadership and Organization . 36 An Epidemic of Centrals .................... 221 Equipment and Training ..................... 49 The Rank and File .......................... 226 Women .................................. 227 5 World War II - Europe. 55 Blacks ................................... 229 The Ferry Routes ........................... 55 Research and Development .................. 230 North Africa. 67 Weather Reconnaissance. .. 232 Sicily. 71 Hardware ................................ 237 Anzio ..................................... 73 Missions ................................. 242 Arctic Reconnaissance and Ice Islands ...... .. 244 Cassino: "Operation Ludlum" . 75 Nuclear Sampling: Justifying the Fleet. .. 246 Strategic Bombing .......................... 77 The Berlin Airlift ........................... 249 Ploesti . 79 Schweinfurt . 80 255 Operation Argument: "Big Week" . 80 9 The Korean War ....................... U.S. Strategic Bombing Survey ............... 83 Organization ............... .. 259 Overlord: The Normandy Invasion ............ 85 Weather Reconnaissance . .. 264 The Forecast . 86 Supporting the Eighth Army. .. 266 The Outcome. 93 The Army Complains. .. 267 Twenty-first Weather Squadron In France and Germany. .. .. 100 10 Southeast Asia. .. .. 271 Airborne Invasion of Holland . .. 101 Advisory Years (1961 - 1964) .................. 272 The Ardennes and After ..................... 103 Combat Years (1965 -1973) ................... 276 Organization and Leadership ................ 277 6 World War II - China, Burma, India...... 107 The One-Year Tour . .. 284 Burma and India. .. 107 The Centers. .. 286 Observing Systems. .. 287 China.. .. .. 115 Weather Reconnaissance .................. 287 The "Red Network" ........................ 118 v Weather Satellites. .. 290 Appendixes 403 Other Sources. .. 291 A. Letter Adjutant General, War Department, to Weather Modification. .. 291 Chief ofthe Air Corps, "Meteorological Service," Air Operations Support (Seventh Air Force) .... 294 January 28, 1937 .......................... 403 "In-Country" . .. 294 B. Me~?randum Col. William C. McChord (Chief, "Out-Country" .......................... 297 Trammg and Operations Division, Office of Chief The Raid on Son Tay . .. 310 of the Air Corps) to Chief, Personnel Division, Ground Combat Support (USARV) . .. 312 Office of Chief of the Air Corps, ''Allocation of The Tet Offensive, 1968 ................... 315 Meteorological Officers," April 5, 1937 . .. 403 The Weather Support . .. 318 C. War Department newpaper release, ''Army Laos: "The Secret War" ................... 322 Meteorological Service to be Transferred from Withdrawal Years (1973 - 1975) . .. 325 Signal Corps," June 18, 1937 . .. 404 The Fall of Phnom Penh and Saigon ........... 334 D. Meteorological equipment issued by Army Signal The Mayaguez Incident. .. 336 Corps, World War II ....................... 405 11 After the '1\.ge of Aquarius" . .. 339 E. Letter JesseJones, Secretary of Commerce, to Henry L. Stimson, Secretary of War, September The Leadership. .. 339 28, 1944 (subject: weather reconnaissance) .... 406 The People . .. 347 F. Memorandum Henry L. Stimson, Secretary of "Peace Dividends" - Post-Vietnam Budget Cuts. 353 War, to Jesse Jones, Secretary of Commerce, n.d. Transferring Weather Reconnaissance ......... 355 (subject: weather reconnaissance) . .. 407 Tropical Storm Reconnaissance. .. 361 Sampling Mission Cutbacks. .. 365 G. Letter Gen. William C. Westmoreland, commanding general, U.S. Military Assistance Loss of the Missions ...................... 367 Command, Vietnam, to Air Weather Service A "Purple Suit" Force? ...................... 370 "30th Anniversary Message to the Air Weather The Federal Coordinator (OFCM) .......... 370 Service,"June 25,1967 ..................... 407 SAES and DDOES (JCSI]-3) ............... 372 A "Defense Meteorological Agency"? . .. 373 H. Letter and six attachments Capt. Dale G. An "Army Weather Service"? ............... 374 LaForrest (Assistant Staff Weather Officer, USAF Operations Center, Hq. USAF) to The Ascendency of Air Force Global Weather Central .. .. 375 Brig. Gen. Brent Scowcroft, Military Assistant to the President, White House, "Five Day Notable Achievements. .. 379 Weather Forecasts for the President" DMSP Satellites ........................... 381 November 29, 1972 ............. : . .. 407 The Contingencies .......................... 385 Cuban Missile Crisis, 1962 .... .. 385 Glossary 409 Yom Kippur War, 1973 ...................... 385 Abort at Desert One: Iran, 1980 . .. 387 Index..................................... 413 Grenada, 1983 . .. 392 12 Conclusion............................ 397 vi ILLUSTRATIONS, MAPS, CHARTS, GRAPHS AND TABLES Cols. Donald N. Yates, William S. Stone, Oscar W Senter, and Marcellus Duffy ................. 131 Illustrations Lt. Col. Robert B. Sykes Crash-landed B-17, Greenland Ice Cap, 1942 Briefing Sixth Air Force pilot, Albrook Field, ca. 1943 .................................... 132 Section I 121 Coastal defense radar used for weather, Panama Canal Zone, 1943 Col. Albert]. Myer M.Sgt. William S. Barney, Losey Field, Puerto Brig. Gen. William B. Hazen Rico, 1942 1st Lt. Adolphus W Greely and expedition survivors Col. James T. Seaver Army Signal Service soldier transmitting weather Reading anemometer, 12th Weather Squadron, observation by heliograph, Pike's Peak, late 1880s Italy, 1944 ............................... 133 DH-4B bomber, World War I ........... .. 122 Radiosonde launch, 12th Weather Squadron, Maj. William R. Blair, 1918 Italy, 1944 American Expeditionary Forces weather balloon Deciphering weather data, 12th Weather Squadron, release, 1918 Italy, 1944 1st Lt. Randolph P. Williams in balloon gondola, Theodolite tracking, 12th Weather Squadron, Scott Field, ca. 1926 ........................ 123 Italy, 1944 Capts. Randolph P. Williams, Albert W Stevens, and Libyan Desert sandstorm, ca. 1942 ............. 134 Orvil A. Anderson, 1935 Majs. Oliver K.Jones and Edward Y.W Dunn, Capt. Don McNeal and staff, Patterson Field, 1937 VIII Fighter Command ('l\jax") command post, Enlisted forecaster class marching, Patterson U.K.,1944 Field, 1938 . .. 124 Gen. Carl A. Spaatza and Col. Harold H. Bassett First observer class, Scott Field, 1939 USSTAF Weather Central officers, France, 1945 135 Weather communications, Fort Sam Houston, 1936 125 AAF Weather Service leadership, 1945 PFC Harold N. Whitfield with theodolite, Fort Sam USSR-U.S.
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