The Historical Recognition of Japanese Neo-Nationalism*

International Journal of Korean History (Vol.17 No.2, Aug.2012) 109

Yi Gyu Soo (Yi Kyusu)**

Introduction

While surfing Japanese Internet sites, I found the website, Kyokasho ga Osienai Rekisi, Nihon Kindai shi no Shinjitsu [Advancement of Unbiased View of History], operated by Jiyushugi Sikan Kenkyūkai [Association for the Advancement of Liberal View of History; hereafter ALVH].1 Since ALVH was associated in January 1995, when Japanese society faced a crisis of finance and social consciousness, it has insisted on a nation-centric historical view. ALVH’s core members are the well-known “Neo-Nationalist Intellectuals,” including Hujioka Nobukatsu, Nishio Kanji, Kobayashi Yoshinori, and Nishibe Susumu. The purpose to form ALVH was to create historical studies and history lessons according to a “healthy neo-nationalism” against “a de-nationalist” view of history, rejecting Japan’s established history.2 ALVH’s ideology continues to spread in diverse media as well as in magazines and books. Kobayashi uses an emotional appeal to young people who do not have the war memory through animations of War Theory, Study of Taiwan, and Okinawa Theory. He depicts the war as

** This work was supported by the National Research Foundation of Korea Grant funded by the Korean Government (NRF-2010-413-A00003). ** Research Professor, Asian Cultural Studies Research Institute, Gachon University 110 The Historical Recognition of Japanese Neo-Nationalism initiated by Japan as a heroic act to protect parents and relatives, not as an invasion. In addition to these animations, lively video movies capture the younger generation’s attention.3 The movement of neo-nationalism was extended to textbooks. ALVH criticizes already published textbooks for portraying only the dark past of Japan by excessively emphasizing Japanese imperialistic invasion, colonial rule, and war crimes in modern-contemporary history. A co- association of ALVH, Atarasii Rekishi Kyokasho wo Tsukuru Kai [Japanese Society for History Textbook Reform; hereafter HTR], 4 glorifies the war through its edition of Atarashi Rekishi Kyokasho [New history textbook] for middle schools and Atarasii Goumin Kyokasho [New Ethic Textbook” for high schools. HTR is busily engaged in creating heroes who devoted their lives to the country. In the field of education, the Hinomaru has been raised and Kimigayo has been sung for a long time. HTR’s ultimate goal is to strengthen Japanese “patriotism” education for the country through the revision of “Japan’s Fundamental Education Law.” There is a more critical problem: Japan’s denial of war invasion and colonial rule has been extended to people in various social strata. This trend is linked to the unsolved war responsibility and post-war compensation. Meanwhile, Japan is rather busily engaged in making “a normal country that can bring on war” through whitewashing facts. The history distortion by manipulating public sentiment is more serious than we think, and at the heart of the distortion are the above associations’ websites.5 In the following sections, I will examine the actual situation of distorted historical consciousness which has been spread in Japanese society and analyze how this has been encouraged through the neo-nationalism related websites. Especially, I will concentrate on the various opinions given on the website that are reflected in the HTR textbook. Also, I will to review all conditions of Japanese society, and take into account the empowered people who have allowed this to happen.

Yi Gyu Soo 111

A Justification of Colonial Control

On its website, HTR declares: “Postwar history education lost sight of the culture and tradition which must be accepted by Japanese people and took pride from them. Especially in the modern history, Japanese people were treated as criminals of fate who have to apologize continuously. Because this self-inflicted tendency has been intensified after the Cold War, the current history textbooks described the enemy countries’ propaganda as fact. There is no country that executes such history education in the world.”6 HTR criticizes that existing textbooks are self- inflicted textbooks; hence HTR creates a slogan to popularize the “new textbook.” Thus, the purpose of HTR is fundamentally the same as the purpose of ALVH. HTR says that Japan cannot bear criticism from other East Asian countries; therefore HTR emphasizes the importance of this new textbook edition. HTR does not recognize Japan’s invasion and ruling of other nations on its website. HTR also criticizes that textbooks emphasizing colonial rule consider history as a result based on a “dualism of good and evil” and ultimately treat Japanese people as “the criminal.”7 HTR emphasizes that the narration which describes those who were involved in colonization and invasion as criminals is wrong. HTR has a strong premise that the history textbook should describe the bright part of history and that Japan is always “good and right.” HTR’s stance is evident in the speech of Sugimoto Mikio, who mainly takes charge of the question and answer section of the website as the secretary of ALVH. He insists that Japan was never criminal in the relations to its colonies as follows.

Do you think it is really miserable that a country was ruled by Japan? North Korea, which had 3 million deaths caused by hunger in the 1990s, was suppressed by the same nation. Then, are North Koreans happy? The Korean War occurred because of the same nation, Kim Il-Sung’s [Kim Ilsŏng] ambition. A total of 4 million people of 112 The Historical Recognition of Japanese Neo-Nationalism

South and North Korea were killed in the Korean War. Do you think he can be forgiven because he is of the same nation? In the small island, Cheju, there were 50,000-80,000 deaths in Palch’isan (partisan) struggle. Do you think Korean people will like it more than Japan’s rule because the struggle occurred by the same nation? Thinking that the colony is the weak party and controlling country is the exploiter is the same as the thought of communism on capital and labor. Insisting that communism was wrong has been already proved.8

Sugimoto exposes his ignorance of historical fact here. He thinks that the problem of the North Korean people who were starved to death was caused by South Korea. But, he cannot present any evidence. He describes North Korea as ruled by South Korea. Furthermore, he dismisses the criticism on colonial rule as the ideology of communism. Since government authorities described the resisting force against Japan as the ideology of communism in the past colonial rule system, Japan now treats those who criticize Japan’s historical distortion as communists. He recognizes that Japan’s colonial rule is “the most excellent compared to the Western countries’ colonial rule, and should never be apologized for.”9 In this viewpoint, the HTR textbook does not detail the facts about Japan’s colonial rule of Korea. Because “it must never be apologized for,” it was a natural result. On the contrary, Japan’s colonial rule of Korea was the necessary choice to protect Japan from the threats of Russia. The HTR textbook hides the fact that Japan crushed Korea’s resistance and colonized Korea.10 The HTR textbook conveys the intruders’ viewpoint in explaining Japan’s colonial rule of Korea. With respect to the colonization process, the HTR textbook states, “Japan established the office of resident-general and strengthened control” and “Japan suppressed Korea’s resisting force and carried out the absorption of Korea.” Also, it justifies Japan’s colonial rule of Korea, mentioning that England, the USA, and Russia did not make any objection to Japan’s colonial rule of Korea. Furthermore, Japan Yi Gyu Soo 113 colonized Korea to protect Japan from the threats of Russia. According to the HTR textbook, the purpose of absorbing Korea by Japan was to prevent Japan from the threats of Russia.

To achieve this purpose, Japan needed to annex the Korean people. The Korean people’s gun muzzle should not be toward Japan. Japan desperately strived to absorb Korean people into Japan. Unfortunately, such effort is not recognized. It continues to suggest that Japan’s colonization efforts should be assessed through a comparison with the post-war period. Due to Japan’s rule, the industrial revolution occurred and the industry’s base was built. Through the improvement of irrigation facilities and agricultural technology, the yield by area was largely increased. Sudden development during the Park Chung Hee [Pak Chŏnghŭi] period was made based on the era of Japanese rule. Also, Korea was developed because the trade with Japan started by the conclusion of the basic treaty between Korea and Japan. There was the new problem of discrimination between the Japanese people and Korean people. But, the discrimination of social level was abolished and the servants were liberated. Through the spread of education, people could have the chance to develop.11

These arguments expose the logic of justifying Japan’s colonial rule. The illegality of Japan’s governance is not discussed. In relation to the illegality of Japan’s rule of Korea, it attempts to “legalize” Japan’s rule of Korea through arguing that pro-Japanese organizations (such as Iljinhoe) requested absorption. Emphasizing that Japan’s rule of Korea is different from Western countries’ colonies. HTR describes that Japan’s rule of Korea contributed to the improvement of Korea’s standard of living and resulted in modernization. It constituted the original form of “modernization of the colony.” In this connection, it stresses that Japan’s colonial rule must not be criticized; rather, Korea must appreciate Japan’s colonial rule. Such distortions are absorbed into the edition of the HTR textbook. The 114 The Historical Recognition of Japanese Neo-Nationalism description of Japan’s rule of Korea is mentioned in the section titled “Japan in the World Powers. The introduction to this part reads: “Japan achieved the goal to keep independence under pressure of western powers through winning the Sino-Japanese War and Russo-Japanese War after Japan’s feudal government. Japan’s international position was improved and so it entered the level of the World Powers. Modern Japan was completed here.”12 It is the consciousness of history that reflects the situation of the time when the imperial power constructed the colony by dividing the world through the confrontation and mutual negotiation. The HTR textbook seeks to inculcate students with this historical view of imperialism by evaluating Japan as one of the world powers without recognizing that Japan invaded East Asia to become one of the imperial countries. In the section “Completion of Modern Japan Construction,” the HTR textbook does not mention the fact that Japan invaded East Asia and that Korea was the target of an invasion. After winning the Sino-Japanese War, Japan acquired Taiwan as a colony, and repressed natives who resisted Japan by establishing the office of the government-official. That is, Japan started the first colony control. Japan made the first step to become the World Power mentioned in the HTR textbook. However, the HTR textbook does not mention this. On the contrary, the textbook declares that Japan contributed to the development of Taiwan through the column titled “Taiwan and Hatta Yoichi.”13 It praises colonial control. In relation to the Russo-Japanese War, it introduces that China’s Sun Yat-sen and India’s Nehru were moved by Japan’s victory in the Russo-Japanese War and had hope for independence.14 It stresses that Japan confronted Russia, which tried to invade Asia, through receiving the full support of Asia. The website stresses only the periodic background called joining the World Powers and the perfection of modern Japan. It does not mention pacifism, which has risen in Japan and other countries, but it stresses “it was the government’s unavoidable choice to prevent Japan from being a western colony.” Yi Gyu Soo 115

Based on the above viewpoint, the HTR textbook notes in the section, “Japan’s new assignments”: “Through the elevation of international position, Japan had a heavy burden. Japan, as the only great power among the colored races, was threatened by western countries.”15 It does not consider that the strong resistance of Koreans after Japan’s rule of Korea was a heavy burden to Japan’s empire management. Japan’s new issue is still recognized as only a confrontation with the western great powers. This textbook uses the terminology of “colored race,” which cannot be expressed in other textbooks and glorifies Japan’s invasion war as a struggle of the colored race that pursues liberation from the white-colored race. After all, they recognize the problem caused by the Great Power of Japan as the western empire’s warning to the Asians or the racial problem. As Japan denies the fact that Japan became the only imperialist country in Asia and invaded neighboring empires, it is connected to the justification of the invasion war. The website approves of Japan’s rule of other nations such as Japan’s rule of Korea. It emphasizes there was serious concern about Asia’s fate by the western great power. According to the website, Japan colonized Korea and Taiwan because of its strong sense of duty to confront the western great power by reconstructing the Asia. Also, it says that Japan’s rule of Korea was not strange in a situation where western power dominated the world, but was welcomed by the west as a measure to stabilize the Korean peninsula. It wants to infuse the distorted concept that any ruin caused by Japan in Korea was only in the Korean students’ minds.

Justification of Invasion War

The HTR textbook forgets the harm Japan’s invasion war caused in Asia and lists only the damages from western countries at the end of the Asia-Pacific War (symbolized by the atomic bomb). It criticizes that textbooks’ descriptions of Japan’s invasion war are one-sided and do not 116 The Historical Recognition of Japanese Neo-Nationalism objectively portray the war as mentioned before. It is because the Japanese people were labeled with a “victim consciousness” and not a “harmer consciousness” after their defeat.16 In relation to the invasion war, HTR says: “Many textbooks except Husosha depicted Japan after Meiji Restoration as an animal that only invades and acts violently. However, there was a historical background and reason for Japan’s action. It is necessary to learn Japan’s position clearly and then to understand the opposite country’s position to understand history deeply,”17 and it insists that students cannot learn the true history through current textbooks. It also complains that the image of Japan is described as an animal that only invades and acts violently. It it explains that if a home country-centric history is recognized, the invasion war can be re-interpreted from another angle. In addition, it accuses other textbooks’ descriptions of the invasion war as amplifying contradictions in Japan’s society and causing problems for young students. It says: “Because Japan’s young students memorize the past invasion through the HTR textbook, they can think ‘I hate Japan. I am ashamed of being born in Japan. I hate the country where my grandfather killed people in.’ Students think they are the inferior nation and the posterity of criminals. Recently, young students say they do not have confidence. It means that young people are passive, pessimistic, nerveless, indifferent, and impassive, but it is related with the increase of heinous crimes.” 18 It attributes the cause of Japanese society’s contradictory structure to other textbooks’ expressions. As an alternative, HTR is trying to make Japan a hero. In relation to the Japanese invasion of Korea in 1592, the HTR website cites the instance of “Hideyoshi’s troops over the sea” published by Nihon bunkyōshupan and the description of Admiral Yi Sunsin. It insists: “The description of “Hideyoshi’s troops over the sea” in this page surely lost a sense of proportion. It is only for the Chosŏn people, it never introduces the Japanese military commander. In addition, it introduces the picture of Chosŏn’s [Joseon] hero, Admiral Yi Sunsin’s statue. If Admiral Yi Sunsin is introduced, the Japan’s military commander must be introduced Yi Gyu Soo 117 in the HTR textbook.”19 In the section “Front line on Lesson” of the website, in order to stress the excellence of Japan’s culture, it writes the lesson schedule on the formation of ancient Japanese language and Prince. Neo-nationalism needs a fictitious hero to provide the pride and romance of Japan. In the website, the Japanese invasion of Korea in 1592 is denied. It brings forth a counter-argument to deny other textbooks, which describe the Japanese invasion of Korea in 1592 as Toyotomi Hideyoshi’s “rash invasion,”20 and asks “why is the dispatch of Hideyoshi to Chosŏn is labeled as ‘Chosŏn invasion’?” It is because the word “invasion” did not exist before the modern age and is used as an ambiguous political terminology. No country states that the home country invaded a neighboring country openly in the home country’s history textbook.21 It criticizes that only Japan’s action is described as an invasion. By reflecting it, the item that represents Japan’s position, “Dispatch to Chosŏn,” was made as the part of the HTR textbook. 22There is an exercise: “Make the career and history of Hideyoshi in a chronological table.” Also, the HTR textbook describes the military commanders Kato Kiyomasa and Konishi Yukinaga. The military commander appearing in the Japanese invasion of Korea in 1592 is not an invasion’s leader but Japan’s hero. Appealing to the national consciousness on such an invasion, the HTR textbook uses the phrase “the Great Asian War” instead of “Asia-Pacific War” or “Pacific War” which is expressed in other textbooks. In a footnote, the HTR textbook write: “because the United States prohibited using the name ‘the Great Asian War,’ the terminology of ‘Pacific War’ has been generalized.” 23 However, the explanation is distorted. The reason why learned historians do not use the terminology “the Great Asian War” is because as related parties reflect on the war, they consider that the invasion war cannot be excused or glorified through the expression “Asia Liberation.” The HTR textbook states that the Great Asian War was a war to protect Japan from invasion by western countries, and to stand against the Assembly of Great East Asian Nations or the 118 The Historical Recognition of Japanese Neo-Nationalism

Atlantic Charter. On the website, the war is stated as a holy war fought against the western invasion of Asia. It emphasizes that Japan’s initial victory was made under the cooperation of East Asian people and the war gave hopes of independence to them. Also, it extols the “Greater East Asian Co- prosperity Sphere” as an attempt to construct an Asia-centric order system for standing against western countries. With such one-sided descriptions and material presented, it is unquestionable that students can surely answer that “the Great Asian War” contributed to the independence of Asian countries. How Korea became independent is never described, even though it says each country gained independence. Japan had priority on the policy of obtaining resources for the war, not independence through military administration in the colony. Because of this, learned historians don't use the terminology “the Great Asian War.” The reason why the “Asia-Pacific War” is called “the Great Asian War” on the website is because it intends not to admit Japan’s war of invasion. Recognizing this war would be against what is seen as general common sense. The HTR textbook does not record those who were opposed to the war. The Maintenance of the Public Order Act, which suppressed anti-war activity and press freedom, is mentioned only in a note on the activities of communist in the world in “The Rise of Communism and Fascism,” but is not described in the text. The note states, “In Japan, Japanese communism was established in secret.” In 1925, there is the paragraph that writes: “The Japanese government made diplomatic ties with the USSR, and then enacted the Maintenance of the Public Order Act to investigate activities such as the denial of the private property system in the same year by preventing the impact of subvert activity through it.”24 It is evaluated as a law for investigating “subversive activity.” The HTR textbook contains extreme antipathy against socialism. This is connected to its criticism on the thought that the existing historical recognition is “Communist International View of History.” As indicated above, from the position of “dualism of good and evil” criticized by HTR, Yi Gyu Soo 119 it perpetuates the Cold War sentiment: Socialism = “Evil,” Capitalism = “Good.” HTR criticizes that “the USSR is born, War is the end”;25 the description in the HTR textbook about the Russian Revolution is given here.

Out of histories that are described as “Dark” in the existing textbooks, the brightest part is the Russian Revolution. As you well know, Russia’s revolution ended as a big failure. Through the communist one-party rule, a dictator appeared, and many nations were killed and died from hunger by military pressure such as preventing press freedom. As described by Husosha, “In fact, Lenin’s dictatorship started.” “The Soviet government stopped the war with Germany and concentrated on the internal war with the domestic force which was against the revolution.” “Stalin executed people in volume by using the secret police and concentration camps. The Soviet Union started from the ideology which made the non-grade society, but it brought about severe labor and a huge number of victims” … the mass of people who groaned under capitalism rose against capitalism and intended to create the heaven of socialism. For the present, perfectly-destroyed dogma is universally used. It indicates that the textbook is the domain of the left- wing.26

Thus, the website goes through with a blind criticism on socialist history. It is shown in the form of “North Korea Threat Theory” in relation to North Korea’s past abduction of Japanese citizens, to be mentioned later. The website stresses that the Soviet government-related “massacre” as expressed in a quotation, but it intentionally hides the description of “massacre” conducted by Japan's militarism through the invasion war. Its representative examples are the military sexual slavery by Japanese soldiers and the Nanjing Massacre. In relation to the problem of military sexual slavery by Japanese soldiers, HTR says: “The phrase ‘military sexual slavery by Japanese soldiers’ did not exist before the war. Also, there is no official sentence to prove that the Japanese army ever 120 The Historical Recognition of Japanese Neo-Nationalism compulsorily took military sexual slavery as a national policy. Other foreign countries installed the same facility. Accordingly, it is not fair that only the military sexual slavery of Japanese troops is described.”27 It insists this practice of military sexual slavery by Japanese soldiers not be detailed in the edition of the HTR textbook. HTR deleted the part about military sexual slavery by Japanese soldiers from its website; it gives distorted logic such as “there is no evidence” or “Japan paid indemnities.” In particular, it insists that “there is the fact which Japan paid a huge amount of indemnities and provided support sincerely” by raising the issue of the treaty between Korea and Japan in 1965. “The colony problem was all solved through the treaty between Korea and Japan” shows a historical recognition that reflects the existing position of Japan. The website erases the victims of the invasion war from history. Their assertions about the erasure are anti-historical by using phrases like “there is no evidence,” “it is the unconfirmed fact,” “it is the assertion of the left wing,” and “it is improper for compulsory education.” This logic deleted “the offender’s consciousness” from the Japanese after the war and stresses only “the victim consciousness.” It is a trick to change the victim's memory of the invasion war into oblivion through education.

Hostility and Contempt toward East Asia

On the website, the viewpoint held throughout Asia after the modern period is changed to “ignorance” and “contempt.” With the appearance of Europe, the descriptions on “Asia” are shortened. The part of the textbook titled “What is the Meiji Restoration?” states that “China (Qing Dynasty) could not sufficiently recognize the threats by the military force of the western great powers. Chosŏn, which was subjected to China, did not recognize it too. . . . They did not have an attitude to learn western civilization.”28 Only an ignorant and weak Asian image is emphasized. HTR ignores the internal movements in Chosŏn and China, which Yi Gyu Soo 121 pursued modernization, resisting external pressure. Disregard toward Asia is expressed as various biased prejudices. Regarding the relationship between Korea and Japan, the textbook says, “the Korean peninsula protruded like a forearm from a continent toward Japan.”29 It starts from a geopolitical recognition. That is, the textbook notes, “If the whole Korean peninsula is under the control of a great power, which is against Japan, Japan’s independence is at stake”30 and depicts the forearm as a “weapon.” Here, the great power names the Qing Dynasty and Russia, and it justifies Japan’s invasion of Korea. Also, the website insists on humbling the patriotic soldiers as “mounted bandits” or “thieves,” in relation to pictures of patriotic soldiers who resisted Japan’s invasion that are shown in other textbooks.31

The main part of this page is “patriotic solders that conducted the anti-Japan struggle.” However, included pictures are from unknown source. The people in the picture are just “mounted bandits” or “thieves.” Calling the people in this picture “patriotic soldiers” (soldiers for justice) and including the picture in the textbook is senseless. Also, the muzzle of the gun carried by people in the picture is toward the Japanese. If the picture of the muzzle of the gun toward to Japanese is shown to Japanese students, the idea of the textbook editor is doubtful.32

It indicates the picture of patriotic soldiers, which is universally used in Korean textbooks, are from an unknown source, and tries to change concern into hostility toward Japanese people by finding fault in the position of the gun's muzzle. It is intended to destroy the movement of patriotic soldiers as well as the occurrence of an anti-Japan movement. Also, the website criticizes other textbooks, which contain the picture of Yu Kwansun’s statue in relation to the independence movement of March 1st, 1919.

In this page, the Japanese hero does not appear. Throughout the 122 The Historical Recognition of Japanese Neo-Nationalism

textbook, the Japanese hero does not appear. Instead, Korea and Korean people are described as the hero. Unknown people who resisted Japan become the hero, but the Japanese people who achieved Japan’s modernization are not significant. It is not today rare that violent demonstrations are suppressed by military force. Why is the conductor of violent demonstrations described as the hero?33

The website minimizes the independence movement of March 1st, 1919, as “a violent demonstration.” It also declares that it is proper to oppress such a movement by military force. Yu Kwansun, who is the symbolic figure of victims, is not a hero. It says Yu Kwansun is just the object of oppression that led to the violent demonstration. The textbook includes a large column on “Japanese who helped Jewish people under oppression of the Nazis” and praises the diplomats Hikuchi Kiichiro and Sukihara Jiune as model humanitarians. It intends to impress the students with the fact that there were Japanese heroes who helped Jewish people, unlike the leader of violent demonstrations such as Yu Kwansun. This intention is expressed in the paragraph that cites the indiscriminate suppression by Japan as a legal defense. With respect to the genocide that Japanese troops committed in Cheam-ri (Jeam-ri), Suwŏn, the website mentions: “The story of Chosŏn people who were burned in a church was for the self-defense of Japanese troops. For this reason, the independence movement was the most intensive. Two policemen were killed before, and about a thousand riots burned the elementary school in the daytime. Because of it, Japanese people couldn't help evacuating their houses. Then, in order to investigate the situation, about 10 soldiers called about 30 Chosŏn people and then started to investigate them. At that time, one man acted violently and other people followed him. So, the soldier unavoidably escaped from the church and then burned the church. That commander was punished for excessive defense.” 34 This Cheam-ri Incident is described as a legal defense made in response to a violent demonstration. Furthermore, it states that the commander was punished for excessive self-defense to represent Japanese morality. Yi Gyu Soo 123

Hostility and contempt toward East Asia reached a peak regarding North Korea’s past abduction of Japanese citizens. Only a one page column was allotted in the old edition Ethics in relation to the problem of the abduction, but the new edition contains the abduction problem-related description in five sections with pictures and a section titled “the Special on Infringement of Sovereignty.” In the front color picture of the textbook titled “The Problem of Circumference,” five pictures related to North Korea are attached. Then the description of these pictures follows.

(Left picture) In 1998, North Korea fired the ballistic missile “Taepodong” toward Japan and the missile was impacted in the Pacific over Japan proper. (Right picture) In 2001, North Korea’s spy ship which was found in the South Sea went down at the end of a gunfight with a Japan’s patrol boat. (Middle picture) North Korea didn't supply food to citizens, so that about 3,500,000 citizens died from hunger. (Left) Victims abducted by North Korea who were warmly welcomed by the families. A Poster of searching for Yokota Megumi, kidnapped by North Korea.35

This shows HTR’s intention not to mention the relationships between country and country, country and individual, government and individual, or family and individual, including the problem of normalizing diplomatic relations with North Korea. Instead it seeks to provide students with “a clear national consciousness” by taking advantage of the nation’s insecurity over North Korea through explaining the pictures.

Conclusion

The recognition and attitude of Japanese neo-nationalists on their past history is dishonest and prejudiced. With a negative attitude on the East Asian peace, the revision of the Peace Constitution, and the revision of the Basic Education Act are involved in a political agenda, and the 124 The Historical Recognition of Japanese Neo-Nationalism principles of education have been put at risk. Under the pretext of “patriotism,” a lot of politicians insist on the revision of the constitution and the amendment of the fundamental education law. They assert that Japan must accept the self-defense forces as the military. Such assertions are spread through diverse websites. The HTR website concentrates on the propagation of two historical recognitions. The one is that Japan must break from its “self-inflicted view of history.” The other is that “Learning history is to know what people of those times were thinking. Modern people cannot criticize already past facts.” Though a certain individual or association expresses this unreasonable view on the history, it might be accepted as an opinion. However, the textbook is different. If the history textbook justifies the invasive war, it would distort young students’ historical recognitions. Blinding young students with such a distortion of history must never be permitted. Although many students learn historical facts by this textbook, and love their own nation, it is not a true patriotism, but a flimsy fabrication. The “Liberalist view of history” is the home country-centric view of history. Intellectuals of “Liberalist view of history” criticize that many history textbooks contain only the dark side of Japan by emphasizing Japan's imperialistic invasion, colonial rule, and war crimes in modern- contemporary history. They insist that it should be an “anti-Japan” description of history. The HTR’s views have directly affected the postwar generation’s historical knowledge, and have encouraged right-wing organizations. This is a very serious problem, because the assertion of this “Liberalist view of history” is generally accepted by people without any criticism.36 The public’s emotional agreement, affected by the distorted ideology of its website and textbook, will accelerate Japan's dialogue on the military reconstruction. We must not overlook that the Neo-Nationalist movement whitewashes Japanese history to explain its society's identity crisis and revives Japanese military resurgence. The HTR’s propagation of distorted historical recognition through various media would have a negative Yi Gyu Soo 125 influence on Japan’s own people as well as on all East Asians.

Notes :

1 “Kyokasho ga Osienai Rekishi, Nihon Kindai no Shinjitsu” [Advancement of Unbiased View of History], accessed February 25, 2012, http: //www. jiyuu- shikan.org. 2 “Toukai ni Tsuite” [About this association], accessed February 25, 2012, http: //www. jiyuu-shikan.org/tokai.html. 3 For example, a movie that praises Dojo Hideki, Puraido, Unmei no jukan [Pride, moment of destiny], was produced in 1998 for the purpose of looking back at Japan’s national system caused by USA’s compulsion after the war, and of recovering the Japanese people’s pride and glory. This movie sophisticates Japan’s position by stating “the war was for Japan’s self defense, and the war was the holy war to liberate Asia through the character of Dojo who was [an] A-class war criminal.” The movie also does not mention colonization or pillaging, and contains words which reject these facts. 4 “Atarasii Rekishi Kyokasho wo Tsukuru Kai” [Japanese Society of History Textbook Reform], accessed February 25, 2012, http://www.tsukurukai.com. 5 The website of ‘Japanese Society for History Textbook Reform’ is composed of “Shuchō” [Insistence], “Jihaku” [Self-Torment], “Undō” [Movement], “Saitaku” [Adoption], “Sandō” [Support], and “Boshu” [Registration]. HTR mentions the purpose of its establishment in “Insistence,” and describes the existing textbook as the 'self-inflicted textbook' from its point of view in “Self-Torment.” Also, its position, ranging from the ancient period to modern times, is introduced in the section, “Q&A.” In “Movement” and “Adoption,” it expresses the situation for the textbook verification process, and contains various statements of ‘new textbook’ support. Especially in “Support,” HTR quotes support from various circles, and appeals to Japanese people about the textbook problem. In addition, the HTR website causes the distortion of historical recognition through the variety of 'Special' sections. For example, it explains HTR textbook-related items in detail. It links to various articles written by related members. It not only distorts historically-recognized facts, but also spreads extreme nationalism. Also, HTR inserts an original copy of HTR magazine “HUMI” and then delivers its justification. In “Support,” HTR 126 The Historical Recognition of Japanese Neo-Nationalism

details related members' careers and writings. Information on Neo-Nationalism members can be obtained by analyzing the formation of the meeting, the organization’s change, and the association's aims. “Voice from Members” becomes the basis to identify “normal Japanese” recognition of history. It will be helpful to find a way to respond appropriately to their distortion of history which is inserted online in real time. Also, the ALVH website is composed of “Front line of history dispute,” “Special,” “Front line of Lessons,” “Comments,” and “Q&A.” Through these sections, we can examine distortion of the Dokdo problem and the topic of military sexual slavery by Japanese soldiers. 6 “Atarashii Rekishi Kyokasho wo Tsukurukai” [Japanese Society of History Textbook Reform], accessed February 25, 2012, http://www.tsukurukai.com. 7 Through the website, HTR stresses that seven companies’ history textbooks, except “Husosha,” contain only the dark part of Japan’s history, because a balance is considerably short. Especially, in modern history, good and evil are defined so that Japan is always described as evil. This dualism of good and evil is portrayed even in the social system. Dogma treating socialism as “Good” and capitalism as “Evil” (which is discredited now) has been generally used in the HTR textbook. It questions: “Do you think we can respect the human life through reading the history textbook which treats our ancestor as the criminal?” 8 Iminjoku shihai wa warui koto ka? [Is Domination of other nations wrong], accessed February 25, 2012, http://www.jiyuu-shikan.org/tokushu_a_1.html). 9 Ibid. 10 After the Russo-Japanese War, Japan strengthened its superintendence by establishing the office of Residency-General in Korea. Western powers did not object to Japan’s colonial rule of Korea as Japan admitted England’s colonial rule of India, USA’s colonial rule of the Philippines, and Russia’s colonial rule of Outer Mongolia. The Japanese government thought that Korean annexation was required to defend Japan’s safety and Manchu’s rights and interests. In 1910, Japan started combining Korea by military force and suppressing Korea’s objection. In Korea, people strongly resisted because they lost the nation’s independence. Even after that, Korean people continued to do the independence recovery movement. The colonial Chosŏn government established after Korean annexation started to improve the railway/irrigation facility and to investigate the lands as part of the colonial policy. However, there are many farmers who were removed from their farming lands due to the Yi Gyu Soo 127

land survey. Also, because of assimilation policies such as Japanese language education, the Chosŏn people’s antipathy to Japan was increased. Atarashii Rekishi Kyokasho [New history textbook] (Tokyo: Shakaika Chugakusei no Rekishi, Teikoku Shoin, 2005), 170-171. 11 “Is the Domination of Other Nations Wrong?” accessed February 25, 2012, http://www.jiyuu-shikan.org/tokushu_a_1.html. 12 Atarashii Rekishi Kyokasho, 170. 13 Atarashii Rekishi Kyokasho, 171. 14 Atarashii Rekishi Kyokasho, 168. 15 Atarashii Rekishi Kyokasho, 170. 16 Resistance to democracy and nationalism was extended by a victim mentality after the war. The victim consciousness brought about serious obstacles in developing the logic behind Japanese's national responsibility for its imperialistic invasion. This logic, that the invasion was done by a minority of militarists and that Japanese people were the victims, enabled the Japanese people to escape from strong guilt over their war cooperation. However, Japanese people madly welcomed Japan's victory and felt great pride in their country when Japan invaded the Asian countries and extended its power, Accordingly, Japanese people cannot deny the fact that they were party to this invasion war. 17 “Asia Shokoku wo Shinrakusita Kyokuakuhidona Nihonjin” [The evilest and cruelest Japanese that invaded many Asian countries’], accessed February 25, 2012, http://www.tsukurukai.com. 18 Ibid. 19 “Taremo Shiranai Kyokasho no Naka no Eiuyutachi” [Heroes in the Textbooks Nobody Knows], accessed February 25, 2012, http://www.tsukurukai.com. 20 Chugaku Shakai Rekisi teki Bunya [Social study of the middle school] (Osaka: Ōsaka Shoseki, 2005), 69. 21 “Taremo Shiranai Kyokasho no Naka no Eiuyutachi” [Heroes in the Textbooks Nobody Knows], accessed February 25, 2012, http://www.tsukurukai.com. 22 Atarashii Rekishi Kyokasho, p. 97. 23 Atarashii Rekishi Kyokasho, p. 204. 24 Atarashii Rekishi Kyokasho, p. 193. 25 Chugaku Shakai Rekisi teki Bunya, 160-162. 26 “A Pursuit of Socialists Those who are Dreaming of Revolution,” http://www.tsukurukai.com. 27 “Nihon Seifu wo Utae Tsuzukeru Kaiko no Soshodan o Kurōzu Appu” 128 The Historical Recognition of Japanese Neo-Nationalism

[Close-up: The foreign suit association which continues to sue against the Japanese government], accessed February 25, 2012, http://www.tsukurukai.com. 28 Atarashii Rekishi Kyokasho, 148. 29 Atarashii Rekishi Kyokasho, 163. 30 Ibid. 31 Chugaku Shakai Rekisi teki Bunya, 163. 32 “Meiji Shinmo Asia no Kuni guni no Shinraku he no Daiibū” [The Meiji Reformation, the tirst step for the invasion of Asian countries], accessed February 25, 2012, http://www.tsukurukai.com. 33 “Taremo Shiranai Kyokasho no Naka no Eiuyutachi” [Heroes in the Textbooks Nobody Knows], accessed February 25, 2012, http://www.tsukurukai.com. 34 “Suwon de no Kyōkai Yaki Uchijiken ni tsuite” [About the Accident of Cheam-ri in Suwŏn], accessed February 25, 2012, www.jiyuu-shikan.org/ goiken/03/03/gmain.html. 35 Atarashii Kōmin Kyokasho, 2. 36 For instance, on the HTR website, there are the following comments: “I thought Japan was very malicious one year ago. Also, I thought Japan had to apologize rapidly and give indemnities when the problem of military sexual slavery by Japanese soldiers was revealed. When people who insisted ‘Liberalist view of history’ came to mass communication, I thought they were like Neo-Nazis who denied the Holocaust at first. However, their assertion is sufficiently persuasive. I didn't want to fully believe, but I felt something attracted my attention. After that, I read many related books. Now, I support ‘ALVH’ and ‘HTR’.” This example shows how the general population is infected by such distorted public opinion.

†

Submission Date: 2012. 5. 25. Completion Date of Review: 2012. 7. 5. Accepted: 2012. 8. 13. Yi Gyu Soo 129

The Historical Recognition of Japanese Neo-Nationalism

Yi Gyu Soo

In this thesis, I will examine the actual situation of distorted historical consciousness which has been spread in Japanese society and analyze how this has been encouraged through the Neo-Nationalism-related websites. Especially, I will concentrate that the various opinions given on the website are reflected in the Japanese Society for History Textbook Reform (abbreviated as HTR) textbook. Also, I’d like to review all conditions of Japanese society, and take into account the powered people who have allowed this to happen. The 'Liberalist view of history' is the home country-centric view of history. Intellectuals of 'Liberalist view of history' criticize that many history textbooks contain only the dark side of Japan by emphasizing Japan's imperialistic invasion, the colony rule, and war crimes in modern-contemporary history. They insist that it should be an 'anti-Japan' description of history. The HTR’s views have directly affected the postwar generation’s historical knowledge, and have encouraged right-wing organizations. The HTR’s propagation of distorted historical recognition through various media would have a negative influence on Japan’s own people as well as on all East-Asians. The recognition and attitude of Japanese Neo-Nationalists on the past history is dishonest and prejudiced. With the negative attitude on the East-Asian peace, the revision of the Peace Constitution and the revision of the Basic Education Act are involved in the political agenda, and the principles of education have been put at risk. Under the pretext of 'patriotism,' a lot of politicians insist on the revision of the constitution and the amendment of fundamental education law. They assert that Japan must accept the self-defense forces as the military. Such assertions are 130 The Historical Recognition of Japanese Neo-Nationalism spread through diverse websites. This is a very serious problem, because the assertion of this 'Liberalist view of history' is generally accepted by people without any criticism. The public’s emotional agreement, affected by the distorted ideology of its website and textbook, will accelerate Japan's dialogue on the military reconstruction. We must not overlook that the Neo-Nationalist movement whitewashes Japanese history to explain its society's identity crisis, and revives Japanese military resurgence.

Keywords : colonial rule, war responsibility, post-war compensation, distorted historical consciousness, Neo-Nationalism, Liberalist view of history

Yi Gyu Soo 131

<국문초록>

일본 네오내셔널리즘의 역사인식

이규수(가천대학교 아시아문화연구소 연구교수)

이 논문에서는 일본사회에서 제기되고 반향을 불러일으킨 왜곡된 역사인식의 실태와 그 논점들이 신민족주의자의 관련 홈페이지 분석을 통해 어떻게 유포되고 있는지 살펴보s았다. 일본의 역사왜곡문제의 특질을 검토할 때, 우리는 역사왜곡 을 만들어낸 일본사회의 제반 조건을 충분히 검토해야 하며, 이를 위해 역사왜곡 을 주도한 세력에 대한 구체적인 검증작업이 뒤따라야 하기 때문이다. 신민족주의자들은 두 가지 역사인식의 전파에 주력하고 있다. 하나는 일본사의 부정적 측면을 내세운 자학사관으로부터 탈피해야 한다는 것이고, 다른 하나는 역 사를 배운다는 것은 그 시대 사람들이 무엇을 생각하고 있는가를 배우는 것이지 당시의 사실을 현대 인간이 비판하는 것이 아니라는 것이다. 왜곡된 주장과 교과서의 이데올로기, 그것에 영향을 받은 대중의 감정적인 동의 는 결국 일본의 보수화나 군사적 재구축화로 이어질 것이다. 우리는 일본사회의 위기상황에 대처하여 자국사를 재조명하겠다는 명분에서 출발한 신민족주의자의 움직임은 일본군국주의의 부활이라는 맥락과 결부되어 있음을 결코 간과해서는 안 된다. 신민족주의자들은 궁극적으로 천황제적 전통의 복고를 추구하고 '약육강식'을 이상화함으로써 일본을 '전쟁할 수 있는 나라'로 만들고 싶다는 편협한 가치기준 을 관철시키고자 한다. 그들이 관여한 교과서는 메이지 헌법과 지금의 헌법을 대 비시켜 어느 쪽이 일방적으로 뛰어나다는 구도는 채용할 수 없다고 설명하고 있 다. 이것은 왕정=천황제로부터 공화제=국민주권으로의 역사적 진보를 부정하는 것이다. 메이지 헌법 아래에서는 기본 인권이 침해되었고, 아시아 여러 나라를 침 략하여 다수의 희생자가 속출했다. 현재의 평화헌법은 바로 그러한 반성 위에서 수립, 제정되었다. 신민족주의자들은 이러한 역사적 배경을 무시하고 '강요된 헌법 론'의 입장에서 헌법개정 문제를 청소년에게 강요하려는 것이다.

주제어: 네오내셔널리즘, 교과서, 자유주의사관연구회, 새 역사교과서를 만드는 모임, 우경화, 역사왜곡 132 The Historical Recognition of Japanese Neo-Nationalism

Notes :

3 For example, a movie that praises Dojo Hideki, Puraido, Unmei no jukan [Pride, moment of destiny], was produced in 1998 for the purpose of looking back at Japan’s national system caused by USA’s compulsion after the war, and of recovering the Japanese people’s pride and glory. This movie sophisticates Japan’s position by stating “the war was for Japan’s self defense, and the war was the holy war to liberate Asia through the character of Dojo who was [an] A-class war criminal.” The movie also does not mention colonization or pillaging, and contains words which reject these facts.

4 “Atarasii Rekishi Kyokasho wo Tsukuru Kai” [Japanese Society of History Textbook Reform], accessed February 25, 2012, http://www.tsukurukai.com. 5 The website of ‘Japanese Society for History Textbook Reform’ is composed of “Shuchō” [Insistence], “Jihaku” [Self-Torment], “Undō” [Movement], “Saitaku” [Adoption], “Sandō” [Support], and “Boshu” [Registration]. HTR mentions the purpose of its establishment in “Insistence,” and describes the existing textbook as the 'self-inflicted textbook' from its point of view in “Self-Torment.” Also, its position, ranging from the ancient period to modern times, is introduced in the section, “Q&A.” In “Movement” and “Adoption,” it expresses the situation for the textbook verification process, and contains various statements of ‘new textbook’ support. Especially in “Support,” HTR quotes support from various circles, and appeals to

Japanese people about the textbook problem. In addition, the HTR website causes the distortion of historical recognition through the variety of 'Special' sections. For example, it explains HTR textbook-related items in detail. It links to various articles written by related members. It not only distorts historically-recognized facts, but also spreads extreme nationalism. Also, HTR inserts an original copy of HTR magazine “HUMI” and then delivers its justification. In “Support,” HTR details related members' careers and writings. Information on Neo-Nationalism members can be obtained by analyzing the formation of the meeting, the organization’s change, and the association's aims. “Voice from Members” becomes the basis to identify “normal Japanese” recognition of history. It will be helpful to find a way to respond appropriately to their distortion of history which is inserted online in real time. Also, the ALVH website is composed of “Front line of history dispute,” “Special,” “Front line of Lessons,” “Comments,” and “Ｑ＆Ａ.” Through these sections, we can examine distortion of the Dokdo problem and the topic of military sexual slavery by Japanese soldiers.

6 “Atarashii Rekishi Kyokasho wo Tsukurukai” [Japanese Society of History Textbook Reform], accessed February 25, 2012, http://www.tsukurukai.com. 7 Through the website, HTR stresses that seven companies’ history textbooks, except “Husosha,” contain only the dark part of Japan’s history, because a balance is considerably short. Especially, in modern history, good and evil are defined so that Japan is always described as evil. This dualism of good and evil is portrayed even in the social system. Dogma treating socialism as “Good” and capitalism as “Evil” (which is discredited now) has been generally used in the HTR textbook. It questions: “Do you think we can respect the human life through reading the history textbook which treats our ancestor as the criminal?” 8 Iminjoku shihai wa warui koto ka? [Is Domination of other nations wrong], accessed February 25, 2012, http://www.jiyuu-shikan.org/tokushu_a_1.html). 9 Ibid. 10 After the Russo-Japanese War, Japan strengthened its superintendence by establishing the office of Residency-General in Korea. Western powers did not object to Japan’s colonial rule of Korea as Japan admitted England’s colonial rule of India, USA’s colonial rule of the Philippines, and Russia’s colonial rule of Outer Mongolia. The Japanese government thought that Korean annexation was required to defend Japan’s safety and Manchu’s rights and interests. In 1910, Japan started combining Korea by military force and suppressing Korea’s objection. In Korea, people strongly resisted because they lost the nation’s independence. Even after that, Korean people continued to do the independence recovery movement. The colonial

Chosŏn government established after Korean annexation started to improve the railway/irrigation facility and to investigate the lands as part of the colonial policy. However, there are many farmers who were removed from their farming lands due to the land survey. Also, because of assimilation policies such as Japanese language education, the Chosŏn people’s antipathy to Japan was increased. Atarashii Rekishi Kyokasho [New history textbook] (Tokyo: Shakaika Chugakusei no Rekishi, Teikoku Shoin, 2005), 170-171. 11 “Is the Domination of Other Nations Wrong?” accessed February 25, 2012, http://www.jiyuu-shikan.org/tokushu_a_1.html. 12 Atarashii Rekishi Kyokasho, 170. 13 Atarashii Rekishi Kyokasho, 171. 14 Atarashii Rekishi Kyokasho, 168. 15 Atarashii Rekishi Kyokasho, 170. 16 Resistance to democracy and nationalism was extended by a victim mentality after the war. The victim consciousness brought about serious obstacles in developing the logic behind Japanese's national responsibility for its imperialistic invasion. This logic, that the invasion was done by a minority of militarists and that Japanese people were the victims, enabled the Japanese people to escape from strong guilt over their war cooperation. However, Japanese people madly welcomed Japan's victory and felt great pride in their country when Japan invaded the Asian countries and extended its power, Accordingly, Japanese people cannot deny the fact that they were party to this invasion war. 17 “Asia Shokoku wo Shinrakusita Kyokuakuhidona Nihonjin” [The evilest and cruelest Japanese that invaded many Asian countries’], accessed February 25, 2012, http://www.tsukurukai.com. 18 Ibid. 19 “Taremo Shiranai Kyokasho no Naka no Eiuyutachi” [Heroes in the Textbooks Nobody Knows], accessed February 25, 2012, http://www.tsukurukai.com. 20 Chugaku Shakai Rekisi teki Bunya [Social study of the middle school] (Osaka: Ōsaka Shoseki, 2005), 69. 21 “Taremo Shiranai Kyokasho no Naka no Eiuyutachi” [Heroes in the Textbooks Nobody Knows], accessed February 25, 2012, http://www.tsukurukai.com. 22 Atarashii Rekishi Kyokasho, p. 97. 23 Atarashii Rekishi Kyokasho, p. 204. 24 Atarashii Rekishi Kyokasho, p. 193. 25 Chugaku Shakai Rekisi teki Bunya, 160-162. 26 “A Pursuit of Socialists Those who are Dreaming of Revolution,” http://www.tsukurukai.com. 27 “Nihon Seifu wo Utae Tsuzukeru Kaiko no Soshodan o Kurōzu Appu” [Close-up: The foreign suit association which continues to sue against the Japanese government], accessed February 25, 2012, http://www.tsukurukai.com. 28 Atarashii Rekishi Kyokasho, 148. 29 Atarashii Rekishi Kyokasho, 163. 30 Ibid. 31 Chugaku Shakai Rekisi teki Bunya, 163. 32 “Meiji Shinmo Asia no Kuni guni no Shinraku he no Daiibū” [The Meiji Reformation, the tirst step for the invasion of Asian countries], accessed February 25, 2012, http://www.tsukurukai.com. 33 “Taremo Shiranai Kyokasho no Naka no Eiuyutachi” [Heroes in the Textbooks Nobody Knows], accessed February 25, 2012, http://www.tsukurukai.com. 34 “Suwon de no Kyōkai Yaki Uchijiken ni tsuite” [About the Accident of Cheam-ri in Suwŏn], accessed February 25, 2012, www.jiyuu-shikan.org/goiken/03/03/gmain.html. 35 Atarashii Kōmin Kyokasho, 2.

36 For instance, on the HTR website, there are the following comments: “I thought Japan was very malicious one year ago. Also, I thought Japan had to apologize rapidly and give indemnities when the problem of military sexual slavery by Japanese soldiers was revealed. When people who insisted ‘Liberalist view of history’ came to mass communication, I thought they were like Neo-Nazis who denied the Holocaust at first. However, their assertion is sufficiently persuasive. I didn't want to fully believe, but I felt something attracted my attention. After that, I read many related books. Now, I support ‘ALVH’ and ‘HTR’.” This example shows how the general population is infected by such distorted public opinion.

Submission Date: 2012.5.25.

Completion Date of Review: 2012.7.5.

Accepted: 2012.8.13.