A Reflection from the Okinotorishima Rocks

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How MuchCanaRockGet? ——— A ReflectionfromtheOkinotorishimaRocks

( ) * Guifang Julia XUE

Abstract :ThepaperexaminestheOkinotorishimaRocksandtheirentitle- mentingeneratingextendedjurisdictionalzones,togetherwithissuesaggrava- tedbyJapan’sexcessivenationalclaims.BasedontheOkinotorishimaRocks, Japanclaimsa200nauticalmileExclusiveEconomicZone (EEZ)andanex- tendedcontinentalshelf (ECS).Thepracticehascauseddisagreementand concernsfromtheinternationalcommunity. ThepaperstartswithabriefintroductionontheOkinotorishimaRocks andthemaritimezoneclaimscomposedbyJapanbasedonthetinyrocksa- gainsttheislandregimeenvisagedinthe United NationsConventiononthe LawoftheSea(UNCLOS).ThisisfollowedbyageneralreviewoftheJapa- neseattemptstopromotetheOkinotorishimaRocksintolegalislands(simpli- fiedas“islandisation”)soastosupportitsnationalclaimsofmultiplepurpo- ses.ThepapercontinueswithanillustrationoftheJapaneseviewsandargu- mentsinmaintainingitsclaimandislandisationpracticeovertheOkinotorishi- maRocks.ThepaperraisessomeofthekeyquestionsassociatedwiththeJap- aneseislandisationattempts.Theseincludewhetherornotrocksaredistin- guishablefromislandsbasedontheexistinginternationallaw.Howshouldthe UNCLOSbeimplementedandhow shouldtheconcernsoftheinternational communityberespected? How willtheCommissionontheLimitsoftheCon- tinentalShelfaccomplishitsrolewithanapplicabledecision? Afteryearsof heavy,deliberateexpansion,aretheOkinotorishimaRocksstillnaturalrocksor man-madeartificialstructures? ThepaperconcludesthattheOkinotorishimaRocksdonotqualifyaslegal

* Guifang(Julia)Xue,Director/Professor/Ph.D.,InstitutefortheLawoftheSea,Ocean UniversityofChina.Theviewsexpressedinthispaperarenotrepresentingthatofany governmentagencies.E-mail:[email protected]. 2 ChinaOceansLaw Review (2011Number1) islands,andarenotentitledtoextendedjurisdictionalzones.Moreover,what Japanhasconstructedaroundtherockshaschangedtheirnaturalstatusand theexpandedconcretestructureshaveturnedtherocksintoartificialislandsor artificialstructureswhichdeserveonlya500-metersafetyzone. Meanwhile,thepaperpointsouttheprofoundimplicationsandfar-reac- hingimpactreflectedfromtheJapaneseclaimsbasedonthe Okinotorishima Rocks.TherushbystatestomakeECSsubmissionshascreatedarealcrisis forinternationallawandthedeepseabedregime.Theinternationalcommunity asawholeshouldworktogethertodealwiththiscrisis. Key Words :Rocks;Islands;Okinotorishima;Japan;Extendedcontinental shelf

Ⅰ.IntroductionJaan’sClaimsonOkinotorishimaRocks : p andtheRegimeofIslands

JapansignedtheUnitedNationsConventionontheLawoftheSea(UN- ① CLOS)on7February1983andratifiediton20June1996. Afteryearsof preparation,Japanmadeasubmission (theSubmission)on12November2008 totheCommissionontheLimitsoftheContinentalShelf(hereinafterreferred toasCLCS)regardingtheouterlimitofitscontinentalshelves,which were calculatedas740,000squarekilometers,orabouttwicethesizeofitslandter- ② ritory(378,000). AccordingtotheJapaneseExecutiveSummarycontainingallchartsand coordinates,sevenregionsareincluded,namely,SouthernKyushu-PalauRidge Region (KPR),Minami-Io ToIsland Region (MIT),Minami-ToriShima (MTS),MogiSeamountRegion (MGS),OgasawaraPlateauRegion (OGP),

① TheUNCLOSwassignedonDecember10,1982andenteredintoforceonNovember16, 1994.Foralistofratifications,athttp://www.un.org/Depts/los/reference_files/chron- ological_lists_of_ratifications.htm#,30December2010.160StatesandtheEuropeanU- nionhadratifiedoraccededtotheUNCLOS.TheConventionenteredintoforceforJapan on20July1996. ② RegardingtheworkoftheCLCS,seeitswebsiteathttp://www.un.org/Depts/los/clcs_ th new/clcs_home.htm.Japanwasthe13 countrytosubmitthedataandinformationto theCLCSinNovember2008.TheCommissionbeganitsexaminationofJapan’ssubmis- sionatthemeetinginAugust2009,athttp://www.sof.or.jp/en/activities/index1.php, 20June2011. ? How MuchCanaRockGet 3

① SouthernOki-DaitoRidgeRegion(ODR),andShikokuBasinRegion(SKB). Theextendedcontinentalshelf(ECS)claimsofKPR,MIT,andSKBarebased onacoupleofRockscalledOkinotorishima,ormoreprecisely,theOkinotorish- ② imaRocks. Thissubmissionhasintensifieddiscussionsandconcernsfromthe internationalcommunity. Sincetheearly1980s,Japanhasbeenputtingenormouseffortsintotheis- landisationofthe OkinotorishimaRocks,andhasclaimedan ExclusiveEco- nomicZone(EEZ)aroundtheserocksupto200nmfromalldirectionsande- ③ venrecentlyclaimedanextendedcontinentalshelfbeyond200nm. Through thisSubmission,JapanexpectstoconfirmitsEEZclaimsof430,000square kilometersinadditionto1,550squarekilometersofterritorialsea,andanECS ④ inthreeregionsbasedontheOkinotorishimaRocks. Thefarthestareasbased ontheOkinotorishimaRocksextendupto550nauticalmiles,togetherwith rightstoenforceonmaritimeactivitiesandresourceswithintheclaimedzones. ItmayberecalledthattheregimeofislandsisestablishedbyArticle121 ⑤ oftheUNCLOS. Inthisarticle,Paragraph1repeatsthedefinitionofanis- landprovidedinArticle10ofthe1958ConventionontheTerritorialSeaand ContiguousZone.Italsosetsforththeprimarycriteriaofan“island”,namely, itmustbeanaturalfeature,anareaofland,surroundedbywater,andabove waterathightide.Italsodisqualifiesartificialislandsandlow-tideeleva-

① FortheExecutiveSummaryofJapan’sSubmission,athttp://www.un.org/Depts/los/ clcs_new/submissions_files/jpn08/jpn_execsummary.pdf,20June2011. ② “Shima”inJapanesemeans“island”,butJapancalledit“OkinotorishimaIslands”inits Submission.Tomatchthisexpression,“OkinotorishimaRocks”isadoptedinthispaper. ResearchReportontheOkinotorishimaRevivalandRelatedIssues ③ OPRF, ,2008 (Japa- nese),athttp://www.sof.or.jp/jp/report/pdf/200903_ISBN978-4-88404-216-5. pdf,20June2011. HarvardAsianQuarter- ④ YukieYoshikawa,Okinotorishima:JusttheTipoftheIceberg, ly ,Vol.9,No.4,2005,athttp://asiaquarterly.com/2006/02/03/ii-131/,15January 2011. ⑤ Article121readsinfull:(1)Anislandisanaturallyformedareaofland,surroundedby water,whichisabovewaterathightide.(2)Exceptasprovidedforinparagraph3,the territorialsea,thecontiguouszone,theexclusiveeconomiczoneandthecontinentalshelf ofanislandaredeterminedinaccordancewiththeprovisionsofthisConventionapplicable tootherlandterritory.(3)Rockswhichcannotsustainhumanhabitationoreconomiclife See oftheirownshallhavenoexclusiveeconomiczoneorcontinentalshelf. TheUnited NationsConventionontheLawoftheSea,10December1982,1833U.N.T.S.3. 4 ChinaOceansLaw Review (2011Number1)

① tions. Paragraph2reflectsthe “landdominatesthesea”principleandconfirms thesametreatmentofislandascontinentallandterritoryregardingitsmari- timezones,namely,territorialsea,contiguouszone,EEZ,andcontinentalshelf. ThesezonesaretobedeterminedinaccordancewiththeUNCLOSandinthe samemannerasapplicabletolandterritory. Paragraph3isacriticalpartofthe Article.Itexcludes “rocks”which “cannotsustainhumanhabitationoreconomiclifeoftheirown”fromapplica- tioninthedeterminationofEEZandECSjurisdiction.The mainpurposeof Article121 (3)istoguaranteethattheregimeofislandsinparagraphs1and2 isnotapplicabletotinyrocksandisletsonthebasisthattheyareessentially differentintermsofthenaturalconditionsnecessaryforsupportingnormalhu- manlife.Inthisrespect,the UNCLOSdifferentiatesbetween “islands”and ② “rocks”. Havingunderstoodtheprovisionanditsconnotations,Japantriedinvain ③ todeleteArticle121 (3)duringthenegotiationoftheUNCLOS. Toadjust thedisadvantagedstatusof Okinotorishimaasrocks,Japanhasventuredto workoverdecadesinturningthemintoislands.WhatJapanhasachievedfrom thesetinyrocksisbeyondevaluationatthepresentstage.However,itisworth notingtheimpactofitsislandisationandexcessiveEEZandECSclaimson StatePractice. Ⅱ.OkinotorishimaRocksandtheJapanese IslandisationAttempts

TheOkinotorishimaRockshavecometointernationalattentionsincethe 1980s,and discussionshavefocusedonthesubjectoflegalstatusandthe weightaccordedtomaritimezones.Abriefintroductionisprovidedbelow.

See United Na- ① CenterforOceanLawandPolicy,UniversityofVirginiaSchoolofLaw, tionsConventionontheLawoftheSea aCommentary 1982, ,Vol.Ⅲ,TheHague:Marti- nusNijhoff,1995,p.338. See United Na- ② CenterforOceanLawandPolicy,UniversityofVirginiaSchoolofLaw, tionsConventionontheLawoftheSea aCommentary 1982, ,Vol.Ⅲ,TheHague:Marti- nusNijhoff,1995,p.338. See United Na- ③ CenterforOceanLawandPolicy,UniversityofVirginiaSchoolofLaw, tionsConventionontheLawoftheSea aCommentary 1982, ,Vol.Ⅲ,TheHague:Marti- nusNijhoff,1995,p.337. ? How MuchCanaRockGet 5

A.TheOkinotorishimaRocks

沖鳥島 Okinotorishima(“ ノ :おきのとりしま”inJapanese),locatedinthe westernPacificOcean,1,740kilometersfromtheJapanesemainland,consists of5atollreefsthatwereoriginallycalled“PareceVela”byaSpanishsailorin ① 1565,as “itlookslikeasail”. Itwaslatercalled “Douglas Reef”aftera ② BritishnavigatorWilliam Douglasin1789. ItislocatedontheKyushu-Palau RidgeinthePhilippineSeaatthecoordinatesof20°25′N136°05′E/20.417, ③ 136.083. Itis534kilometersSEofOkiDaitō,567kilometersWSWofMina- miIwoJimaoftheOgasawaraIslandsor1,740kilometerssouthofTokyo,Ja- ④ pan. NoofficialrecordexistsinJapanaboutOkinotorishimapriorto1888.In 1922and1925,Japaninvestigatedtheareaandconfirmedin1931thatnoother ⑤ countrieshadclaimsandthusdeclaredthereefsitsterritory. Administrative- ly,JapanplaceditunderthejurisdictionoftheTokyoMetropolisaspartofthe OgasawaraIslands,andgaveitanewJapanesenameOkinotorishima(“remote

See ① Wikipedia,athttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Okinotorishima,16 March2011. See ② Wikipedia,athttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Okinotorishima,16February2011.Both “PareceVela”and“DouglassReef”arestillusedtoday. ③ Forrelevantpapersonthisaccount,seeYann-hueiSong,Okinotorishima:A “Rock”oran “Island”? Recent MaritimeBoundaryControversybetweenJapanand Taiwan/China,in MaritimeBoundary Disputes Settlement Seoug-YongHongandJon M.VanDykeed., , Processes andtheLawoftheSea , ,Leiden:MartinusNijhoffPublishers,2009;J.I.CHAR- AmericanJournalofInternational NEY,RocksthatcannotSustain Human Habitation, Law ,Vol.93,1999,pp.863~878. See ④ Wikipedia,athttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Okinotorishima,16February2011.Both “PareceVela”and“DouglassReef”arestillusedtoday. ⑤ SongisoftheviewthatitwasdebatableJapanclaimedtheOkinotorishimacoralreefsun- See deritssovereigntyfromtheinternationallawviewpointintheearly1930s. Yann-huei Song,Okinotorishima:A “Rock”oran “Island”? RecentMaritimeBoundaryControversy Mari- betweenJapanandTaiwan/China,inSeoug-YongHongandJon M.VanDykeed., timeBoundaryDisputes SettlementProcessesandtheLawoftheSea , , ,Leiden:Martinus NijhoffPublishers,2009;Moreover,accordingtoParagraph8ofthePotsdam Proclama- tion,Japan’ssovereignty waslimitedtotheislandsof Honshu,Hokkaido,Kyushu,and Shikoku.Thus,JapanesesovereigntyovertheOkinotorishimaiscontroversialandques- see tionable.Fordetails, “Potsdam Declaration (UnitedStates,China,UnitedKingdom): AStatementofTermsfortheUnconditionalSurrenderofJapan,26July1945”,athttp:// pwencycl.kgbudge.com/P/o/Potsdam_Declaration.htm,20June2011. 6 ChinaOceansLaw Review (2011Number1)

① birdislands”or“thesouthernmostislandsofJapan”). Therocksareinthewesternpartofa3to4.6meter-deeplagoonsurroun- dedbyasubmergedcoralreef,andextend4.5kilometerseast-westand1.7 kilometersnorth-south,withanareaofroughly5squarekilometerswithinthe ② rimofthereef,mostofwhicharesubmergedevenatlowtide. Thefringing reefispear-shapedinaneast-westdirectionwithitsgreatestwidthattheeast- ernend.Asmallboatchannelintothelagoonwasmadeinthesouthwest,a- bout15meterswideand6metersdeep,250meterssoutheastoftherocks. Typhoonsanderosionareconstantthreatstothereef’sexistence.Afew decadesago,therewereaboutfivevisibleprotrusions.Nowadays,onlytwoti- nyindividualrocksmaybetraceable,namely:Higashikojima(EasternExposed Rock,Japancallsit“EasternIslet”)andKitakojima(NorthernExposedRock, ③ Japancallsit“NorthernIslet”)locatedsomewhattotheWest. Athightide, theEasternExposedRockisroughlythesizeofatwinbedandpokesjust16 centimetersoutoftheocean,andtheNorthernExposed Rockislessthana ④ smallbedroom only6centimetersabove water. From satelliteimages,the twooriginalrocksappearcompletelyartificial,withnotraceofthetwonatural rocksthatstillappearedonphotographsof1987.

HarvardAsianQuarter- ① YukieYoshikawa,Okinotorishima:JusttheTipoftheIceberg, ly ,Vol.9,No.4,2005,athttp://asiaquarterly.com/2006/02/03/ii-131/,9 February 2011. See ② Wikipedia,athttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Okinotorishima,18February2011. See ③ Yann-hueiSong,Okinotorishima:A “Rock”oran“Island”? RecentMaritimeBounda- ryControversybetweenJapanandTaiwan/China,inSeoug-Yong HongandJon M.Van MaritimeBoundary Disputes SettlementProcesses andtheLawoftheSea Dykeed., , , , See Leiden:MartinusNijhoffPublishers,2009; also MartinFackler,A ReeforaRock? QuestionPutsJapanIna HardPlaceToClaim Disputed Waters,CharityTriestoFind WallStreetJournal UseForOkinotoriShima, ,16February2005,p.A1.Itisnotclear whenJapanchangedthenameofthoserocks:inthe “PortraitofOkinotorishima”(http://www.nodaland.com/okitori/okitori.php)updatedthelasttimein2003,the“East- ernExposedRock”and “Northern Exposed Rock”werestillused,butsince2005,the “EasternIslet”and “NorthernIslet”havebeenusedinrelevantdiscussionsanddocu- ments.Itisassumedthatthenameswerechangedin2004. See ④ Yann-hueiSong,Okinotorishima:A “Rock”oran“Island”? RecentMaritimeBounda- ryControversybetweenJapanandTaiwan/China,inSeoug-Yong HongandJon M.Van MaritimeBoundary Disputes SettlementProcesses andtheLawoftheSea Dykeed., , , , Leiden:MartinusNijhoffPublishers,2009. ? How MuchCanaRockGet 7

B.Japan’sIslandisationAttempts

Tostoptherocksfromdisappearingandtokeepthemabovewateratall timesandtousethemtoextendtothemaximum ofitsEEZandcontinental shelf,JapanhastriedwithgreatefforttomaketheOkinotorishimaRocksmeet theminimumcriteriaofan “island”inlegalterms.TheJapaneseattemptsin thisaccountcanbedividedintothreeperiods(forspecificdetails,seetheatta- chedAnnex1:Okinotorishima:HistoryandEvents). Startingfromthediscoveryoftherockstothelate1970s,Japanclaimed itssovereigntyovertherocksandmadesomeinitialexplorationonthenature andpotentialutilizationoftherocks,includingtheconstructionofa Naval ① Base. Inpost-World WarII,Japanlostitssovereigntyovertherockstothe ② UnitedStatesbutregaineditinthelate1960s. ThisenabledJapantocontin- ueitsinvestigationoftherocks. TherocksdidnotattractmuchattentionintheJapanesegovernmentuntil thelate1970swhencoastalStatesstartedtoclaimtheirEEZs.Japanextended itsfisheriesjurisdictioninthesurroundingwatersoftherocksupto200nm fromtheterritorialseabaselinesinaccordance withitsLaw on Provisional ③ MeasuresRelatingtotheFishingZonethatwentintoforceon1July1977. Thefishingzonecoversanareaofapproximately400,000squarekilometers,an ④ areaconsiderablylargerthanthetotallandofthecountry. Thisstimulated Japaneseenthusiasmoverthegaingeneratedbythelittlerocks.Theactional- sosignifiedthesecondperiodofJapan’sislandisationactionstill2004. In1983,JapansignedtheUNCLOS,concludedinthepreviousyear,which

① TheconstructionoftheNavalBasestartedin1939,butwasinterruptedin1941bythe outbreakofWorld WarⅡ.Asitseemedinappropriatetoopenlybuildamilitaryfacility intheinternationalclimateatthattime,thegovernmentdecidedtorefertothebaseexter- See nallyas“alighthouseandameteorologicalobservationsite.” Wikipedia,athttp:// en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Okinotorishima,18February2011. ② Andrew L,Silverstein,Okinotorishima:ArtificialPreservationofaSpeckofSovereignty, BrooklynJournalofInternationalLaw ,Vol.12,No.1,2009,pp.409~432,p.410. See ③ KiyofumiNakauchiandLawoftheSeaInstitute,Japan,Emergy(sic)Measuresfor Japan’sOceanAffairs Ocean Protectingthe“Oki-no-tori-Shima”Islandfrom Wavesin — Regime PolicyandDevelopment , ,September1989. See ④ KiyofumiNakauchiandLawoftheSeaInstitute,Japan,Emergy(sic)Measuresfor Japan’sOceanAffairs Ocean Protectingthe“Oki-no-tori-Shima”Islandfrom Wavesin — Regime PolicyandDevelopment , ,September1989. 8 ChinaOceansLaw Review (2011Number1) establishedtheEEZregime.BasedonitspossessionofOkinotorishima,Japan couldtransferitsformerfishingzonetoanEEZofthesamesize.However,the mostseriousissuetheJapanesegovernmentfeared wasthattherockscould submergeandnotlieabovesealevel.Thiswoulddefeatexclusivejurisdiction relatednotonlytoa200nmEEZinwatersaroundthem,butalsoacontinental shelfclaimbeyond200nm.Since1987,theJapanesegovernment,represented byvariousgovernmentalagenciesandscientificinstitutions,undertookemer- gencymeasuresleadingtoparticularlynoticeableislandisationmovements. In 1987,thesealevelrisetheory wasemployed and evidences were sought,andaproposalwasraisedtobuildconstructionstopreventthephysical erosionoftherockfromsubmersiontherebykeepingtherocksabovewaterfor makingmaritimeclaims.Inthesameyear,theJapanesegovernmentlaunched anembankmentbuildingproject. During1987-1993,thegovernmentofTokyoandlatertheCentralGov- ernmentbuiltsteelbreakwatersandconcretewallsof50 metersindiameter, andtheoriginalrocks (HigashikojimaandKitakojima)werecompletelycov- ① eredbyartificialconcretestructurestostoptheerosion. In1998,acovering costingeightbillionyenwasplacedontheeasternexposedrock. In1988,Japan’s MarineScienceandTechnologyCentererecteda marine investigationfacility,aplatformonstiltslocatedintheshallowpartofthela- ② goon,whichappearedasarectangleof100 metersby50 meters. Theplat- formsupportsahelicopterlandingpadandalarge,three-storybuildingforma- rineinvestigationsaswellasameteorologicalstation. On8February2002,Japan modifieditsCoastLaw adoptedon12 May ③ 1956. AccordingtoArticle37(2),theCentralGovernmenttookoverthead- ministrationtasksfortheartificialstructure.From2004onwards,thethirdpe- riodofnationalislandisationeffortsstartedina muchenhanced mannerwith morecomprehensiveefforts.Repairworkontheembankmentwasapproved withsignificantfundingandaseriesofresearchandobservationprojectsbegan ④ ontherocksandtheirsurroundingwaters.

See ① In1925,therewerestillfiveabove-waterrocks,whichhaveerodedsince. Wikipedia, athttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Okinotorishima,5 March2011. See ② In1925,therewerestillfiveabove-waterrocks,whichhaveerodedsince. Wikipedia, athttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Okinotorishima,5 March2011. ③ Athttp://law.e-gov.go.jp/htmldata/S31/S31HO101.html(Japanese),5 March2011. HarvardAsianQuarter- ④ YukieYoshikawa,Okinotorishima:JusttheTipoftheIceberg, ly ,Vol.9,No.4,2005,athttp://asiaquarterly.com/2006/02/03/ii-131/,5 March2011. ? How MuchCanaRockGet 9

nd In2004,the22 OceanForum organizedbythe OceanPolicy Research Foundation (OPRF)washeldfocusingonthestatusandregenerationofOki- ① notorishima. Areportwassubsequentlyissuedontherehabilitationofthe ② rocksandanelectronicbaselinecoordinatewassetup. Since2004,confer- enceson Okinotorishimarelatedissueshavebeenarrangedbythe OPRFas ③ regularforums. InNovember2004and March2005,theNipponFoundationdispatcheda missiontoinvestigatehowtoutilizeOkinotorishimaandthesurroundingEEZ, andmission membersincludedexpertsinthefieldsoftheinternationallaw, ④ coralreefecologyandconstruction. Thesuggestionsinthereportinclude:to buildalighthousesoastoaddthenameOkinotorishimainthechartsaround theglobeandtoenhanceitspresence;toexpandthesizeoftherocksbycoral breedingandvariousotherwaystodevelopanartificialreef;tobuildanocean- thermalenergyconservationpowerplanttoattractfish,whichwassaidtobe ⑤ thefirstsuchexperimentintheworld: toexploremineralresourcesinthead- jacentseabed;tobuildsocialinfrastructuresuchasaportandhousesforhu- ⑥ manhabitation,marinestudies,anddevelopment;andtopromotesightseeing. In2005,asecondmissionwasconductedbytheNipponFoundationfocusingon feasibilitystudiesonthe mostpromisingfieldsofmarineengineering,power ⑦ generation,andlighthousebuilding. StimulatedbytheeffortsandresearchoutcomesoftheNipponFoundation and OPRF,Japaneseofficialsandpoliticianshavesuccessfullyattracted more

① Athttp://www.sof.org.jp/jp/forum/22/php,6 March2011. ② HajimeKayane,Submergedatollsandtheirregeneration-Territorialpreservationofisland Newsletter statesinthePacific OceanandislandsalongtheJapaneseborder, ,No.99, 2004,OPRF,athttp://www.sof.or.jp/en/news/51-100/99_1.php#01,20June2011. ③ Formoredetailson OPRF,athttp://www.sof.or.jp/en/index.php,20June2011;for activityreports,see OPRF,athttp://www.sof.or.jp/en/report/index.php,20 June 2011. ④ NipponFoundation,The Reporton Promoting Economic Activitiesin Okinotorishima (Japanese),2005,athttp://nippon.zaidan.info/seikabutsu/2004/00009/contents/0001. htm,16 March2011. ⑤ ShintaroIshihara’swebsite:http://www.citymayors.com/mayors/tokyo_mayor.html, 16 March2011. ⑥ NipponFoundation,TheReportonUtilizationofOkinotorishima(Japanese),2005,athttp://nippon.zaidan.info/seikabutsu/2004/00004/mokuji.htm,16 March2011. ⑦ NipponFoundation,The Reporton Promoting Economic Activitiesin Okinotorishima (Japanese),2005,athttp://nippon.zaidan.info/seikabutsu/2004/00009/contents/0001. htm,17 March2011. 10 ChinaOceansLaw Review (2011Number1)

① attentionfromtheCentralGovernmentaltotherocks. In2005,theCentral ② Governmentdecidedtobuildalighthouse, installeda330 millionyenradar systemforround-the-clocksurveillancetodetectvesselsapproachingOkinoto- ③ rishima, repairedtheheliport,andsetupanofficialaddressplateatthe“is- ④ land”reading“1Okinotori,OgasawaraVillage,Tokyo”. Despiteprotestsby environmentalists,GovernorIshiharaofTokyodecidedtobuildapowersta- ⑤ tion. Fishingexpeditionswerealsosenttodemonstratetheexistenceof“eco- ⑥ nomiclife”ontherocks. On16 March2007,alightbeaconwasinstalledby Japan’sCoastGuardandstartedoperation;later,thebeaconwasplottedona hydrographicchart.Okinotorishimahasbecomeanintermittentrallyingpoint ⑦ forJapanesenationalists,andahot-buttonpoliticalissueinJapan. Inadditiontotheconcreteprotectionactions,Japanlaunchedaseriesof ⑧ campaignstoraisepublicawarenessonthesignificanceofOkinortorishima. Sucheffortsincludetheproductionofapublic-oriented movie “Okinotorishi- ⑨ ma:MiraculousIslands”. The70-minute movie wasreleasedin December 2007andwasmadewidelyavailableincinemas,libraries,informationcenters etc. InJanuary2010,theJapanesegovernmentduringaregularDietsession submittedanew billfortheprotection ofJapan’ssouthernmost Okinotori coastlinetopreservetheirEEZclaimsandinterest.InMay2010,Japanadopt-

① MartinFackler,A ReeforaRock? QuestionPutsJapaninaHardPlace;ToClaim Dispu- WallStreetJournal ted Waters,CharityTriestoFindUseforOkinotoriShima, ,16Feb- ruary2005. KyodoNews ② JapanplanstoputlighthouseondisputedPacificisle, ,24August2005. BritishBroadcastingCorpora- ③ JapantoestablishsurveillancesystemonOkinotoriIsland, tion ,16 May2005. XinhuaNewsAgency ④ JapansetsupaddressplateoncontroversialreefinPacific, ,20June 2005. ⑤ May2005 Governor Visits OkinotoriIslands,athttp://www.sensenfukoku.net/mail- See magazine/no36.html,18 March2011. alsothepaperwrittenbyGovernorIshihara, StrategicSignificanceofOkinotorishima,athttp://www.sankei.co.jp/,6June2005. KyodoNews ⑥ BoatreturnsafterfishingneardisputedOkinotoriIsland, ,19April2005. HarvardAsianQuarter- ⑦ YukieYoshikawa,Okinotorishima:JusttheTipoftheIceberg, ly ,Vol.9,No.4,2005,athttp://asiaquarterly.com/2006/02/03/ii-131/,19 March 2011. See ⑧ PRFoceanforumsandrelevantactivities,athttp://www.sof.or.jp/en/index.php,19 March2011. ⑨ Athttp://www.metro.tokyo.jp/ENGLISH/TOPICS/2005/index.htm,20June2011. ThemovieconsistsofsixpartscoveringbasicallyeveryaspectofOkinotorishima,suchas location,history,weather,marineenvironment,resources,significance,andprotectionef- forts. ? How MuchCanaRockGet 11 edtheLawfortheReservationofLowTideLineandMaintenanceofFoothold ① Facilities. Throughthispieceofnationallegislation,theprotectionofOkino- torishimarocksisexpectedtobefurtherenhancedtonewrecordlevels.

C.IncentivesofJapan’sOkinotorishimaIslandisation

JapanhasbeeninvestingmoneyonthedevelopmentoftheOkinotorishima Rockssince1932withsomeintervals,including85billionyen (approximately 740millionUSdollars)inbuildingandmaintainingaresidenceattheobserva- tionsite.In1987,Japanencasedthereefswith$280millionworthofconcrete topreventthemfrom beingcompletelywashedawayandcoveredthesmaller onewith $50millionUSDtitaniumnettoshielditfromdebristhrownupby theoceanwaves. In2005,Japanallocated10millionyenforthelighthouseandobservation site.Thefollowingyearanother$7.55milliondollarswasinvestedforthere- generationofcoralreefsand340millionyenforJapan’sCoastGuardtoinstall asolar-poweredbeacon.Since2007,Japanhasexpandedthelargescaleregen- erationofcoralreefsandusedsand-creatingelectrodestosaveOkinotorishi- ② ma. Accordingtoamediareporton9April2008,theJapaneseGovernment plannedtoinvest770millionyenoverthreeyearstofarmthecoralreefaround Okinotorishima.Along-termplanisbeingcarriedouttomakefulluseofthe rocks. In2010,theJapanesegovernmentdevelopedaplanfor Okinotorishima reefmanagementandmaintenance.Thisplanaimstoupgradethebankmain- tenancefromannualvisualinspectiontomoreeffectivemeasurestoensurethe survivaloftheconcretestructuresfrom harshnaturalconditionssuchasero- ③ sion,typhoonsandwaves.

① ThisisanabbreviatednameoftheLaw.Itsfullnameis:“Lawconcerningpreservationof lowtidelineandmaintenanceandothersoffootholdfacilitiesforprotectionandpromotion See ofutilizationoftheexclusiveeconomiczoneandthecontinentalshelf”. “Japanenacts lawtopreserveJapan’sEEZ”(Japan Today,Kyodo,26 May2010);OPRF MARINT MonthlyReport(May2010),DietenactslawtopreserveJapan’sEEZ,athttp://www. japantoday.com/category/politics/view/diet-enacts-law-to-preserve-japans-eez, p.12,20June2011. ② Governmentwillusesand-creatingelectrodestosave Okinotorishima,athttp://www. japanprobe.com/2008/09/21/government-will-use-sand-creating-electrodes-to- save-okinotorishima/,20 March2011. ③ Athttp://news.sina.com.cn/w/2010-05-19/082117532724s.shtml,20 March2011. 12 ChinaOceansLaw Review (2011Number1)

Mostrecently,JapanannouncedinJanuary2011anewplantoallocate750 billionyenoversixyearstobuildaporttofurtherreinforceitsmaritimeclaims ontheOkinotorishimaRocks.Theyalsoplantouseitasabasetoconductma- ① rineresourcesurveysandtoengageinothereconomicactivities. Thequestionthatmightbeaskedis:whataretheincentivesforJapanto investsuchheavyfundingontheseremoteandtinyrocks? Theanswermaylie inthefactthattheOkinotorishimaRockscarryenormoussignificancetoJapan inmanyaspects.Forexample,themostobviousbenefittoJapanisthatthese rocksareamajorboosttoJapan’soffshoreresourcepotential.Intheresource field,Japanpossessesstate-of-arttechnology,andhasagoodreasontoexpect resourcesfromitsoceanandseas,especially marinenaturalresources,living andnon-living,tosustainitsnationaleconomicdevelopment.Theseabeda- roundtheOkinotorishimaRocksissaidtobepotentiallyrichinoilandhasal- readybeenfoundtoberichinmanganesenodulesandrareminerals. From anationalsecurity pointofview,Okinotorishimaalso hasgreat weight.SittingintheMid-centralPacificOceanwithaperfectgeographicallo- cation,thesetinyrocksmayserveasanunsinkableaircraftcarrier.Thisfunc- tionhighlightstheirstrategicvalueand militarypotentialasavitalenhance- menttoJapan’sabilitytocontrolthePacificOceanandthenavigationalactivi- ② ties. ThemostsignificantandfundamentaloftherolesOkinotorishimacould playfallintothecategoryofgeneratingsubstantialjurisdictionalwatersunder sovereignty,sovereignrightsandjurisdictionstemmingfrom establishingan ③ EEZandECSaroundtherocks. IntheageoftheUNCLOS,smallsolitary islandsintheseasdistantfromthemainlandcan makestatesinto majorsea ④ powersduetotheentitlementofmaritimezones. Thisisparticularlythecase withJapanandtheOkinotorishimaRocks.Withouttheserocks,Japanwould havetoretreatitsterritorialseatoitssouthern-mosttipofMinami-IoTo-shi-

See ① GusLubin,ChinaStunnedasJapan MakesShockIslandAnnouncementinKeyEco- nomicZone,athttp://www.businessinsider.com/chinese-angered-by-japan-island See -grab-2010-1,7January2010. alsoJapanistobuildbaseattheOkinotorishima (Chinese),athttp://junshi.daqi.com/slide/2735790.html#t,20June2011. ② MartinFackler,A ReeforaRock? QuestionPutsJapaninaHardPlacetoClaimDisputed WallStreetJournal Waters,CharityTriestoFindUseforOkinotoriShima, ,16February 2005,p.A1. See ③ Articles55and77oftheUNCLOS. ④ YasuhikoKagami,EnvironmentalPolicyforDesertIslands:Beyond “IslandorRock?”,in ResearchReportontheOkinotorishimaRevivalandRelatedIssues OPRF, ,2008,p.109. ? How MuchCanaRockGet 13

ma,andsufferalossof1,550squarekilometersofterritorialseaandsover- eigntyoverthe watercolumn,seabedandairspace.Japan’s EEZ would be pushedbacktoeitherMinami-IwoJima,anislandalmost400milestotheNE, orto OkiDaitojima,anotherislandaboutthesamedistancetothe NW,and ① sufferalossof430,000squarekilometersofEEZ, plusanECSclaiminthree regions. Fromeconomic,political,andsocialperspectives,itisalsoapparentthat Japancouldbenefitimmenselyfromsuchan“islandisation”effort.Toachieve thebenefits,JapanisdeterminedtoholdtheOkinotorishimaRocksandtoes- tablisheffectivecontroloverthesurroundingwatersthrougheconomicactivi- ties. Ⅲ.JapaneseViewsontheOkinotorishimaClaimsand IslandisationPractice

JapanhasmaintaineditsclaimsbasedontheOkinotorishimarocksandis- landisationpractice.Ononehand,itclaimsfirmlytheislandstatusofthe rocks;ontheotherhand,itpavesitswaywithconcreteactionstowardenabling therockstosatisfythecriteriaofalegalisland.Meanwhile,Japanesescholars haveconductedthoroughandcomprehensiveresearchonOkinotorishimainthe recentdecadestojustifynationalclaimsandpractices.Someevolvingviewsre- presenttheoreticalsupportandreflectJapan’smotivationanddeterminationo- veritsislandisationeffort.

A.ToAssert Island Statuso theOkinotorishimaRocks “ ” f

RegardingthelegalstatusofOkinotorishima,theJapaneseviewsareby andlargeconcentrated on a “self-constructed belief”thattheserocksare “islands”underArticle121(1)andfitintheislandcriteriainArticle121 (1), thatis,“anaturallyformedareaofland”,“surroundedbywater”,“abovewater

HarvardAsianQuarter- ① YukieYoshikawa,Okinotorishima:JusttheTipoftheIceberg, ly ,Vol.9,No.4,2005,athttp://asiaquarterly.com/2006/02/03/ii-131/,19 March 2011. 14 ChinaOceansLaw Review (2011Number1)

① athightide”. Moreover,JapanholdsthepositionthatasanArticle121(1)island,itshouldnotberestrictedbyArticle121(3).Basedonsuchlogic,Okino- torishimaistherefore“qualified”and“entitled”toitsextendedmaritimezones ② includingEEZandcontinentalshelf. Still,viewsaredividedwithinthispanelregardingthe “island”statusof Okinotorishima.TadaoKuribayashi,alawprofessorofToyoeiwaUniversityin Tokyo,arguesinpartthatrocksandreefsdifferincompositionandstructure. Hebelievesthatonlyrocksthatcannotbeinhabitedorhavenoeconomiclife havenoclaimsforEEZorcontinentalshelf,andthattheintentofArticle121 ③ (3)wasgearedtowardtheformer. Headdsthatcoralreefsandrocks (ob- ④ jectsconsistingofhardcontinentalsoil)aredifferent, thustheclaim that Okinotorishimais notanisletbutrocksdoes not makesense.Professor KuribayashiinsiststhattheJapaneseclaimisjustifiableasthereisnodefini- tionofa“rock”ininternationallaw,andacountrycanclaimitsownEEZor ⑤ continentalshelfbasedonitspossessionofcoralreefs. AnotherJapanesescholar,KentaroSerita,arguesthataccordingtothe PreambleoftheUNCLOS,mattersnotregulatedbytheConventioncontinue

TheO enReorttotheConstructionCommitteeo theHouseo Reresentativeso Ja ① p p f f p f - pan byOshimaShotaro,DirectoroftheEconomicBureau,MinistryofForeignAffairson 16April1999,athttp://www.shugiin.go.jp/index.nsf/htm/index_kaigiroku.htm,20 June2011.Citedfrom AkesatoNakayama,IslandDefinitionandRelatedIssuesinInter- ResearchReportontheOkinotorishimaRevivalandRelated nationalLawp.34,inOPRF, Issues ,2008,pp.26~38. TheO enReorttotheConstructionCommitteeo theHouseo Reresentativeso Ja ② p p f f p f - pan byOshimaShotaro,DirectoroftheEconomicBureau,MinistryofForeignAffairson 16April1999,athttp://www.shugiin.go.jp/index.nsf/htm/index_kaigiroku.htm,20 June2011.Citedfrom AkesatoNakayama,IslandDefinitionandRelatedIssuesinInter- ResearchReportontheOkinotorishimaRevivalandRelated nationalLawp.34,inOPRF, Issues ,2008,pp.26~38. HarvardAsianQuarter- ③ YukieYoshikawa,Okinotorishima:JusttheTipoftheIceberg, ly ,Vol.9,No.4,2005,athttp://asiaquarterly.com/2006/02/03/ii-131/,19 March 2011. ④ AccordingtoKazuhikoFujita,UniversityoftheRyukyus,“Reefislands,generallylow-ly- ing,flat,smallislandsformedonreefflatsofatolls,arelargelycomposedofunconsolidat- edbioclasticsandsandgravels.Thus,theislandsarehighlysubjecttoinundation,coastal See erosion,catastrophicstorms,andothercoastalhazards. KazuhikoFujita,Enhancing ResearchRe- foraminiferalsandproductivityforthemaintenanceofreefislands,inOPRF, portontheOkinotorishimaRevivalandRelatedIssues ,2008,p.97. ⑤ TadaoKuribayashi,ThepositionofOkinotorishimaininternationallaw,inNipponFoun- Reporton Promoting Economic Activitiesin Okinotorishima dation, ,athttp://www. nippon-foundation.or.jp/eng/maritime/programsseas.html,20June2011. ? How MuchCanaRockGet 15 tobegovernedbytherulesandprinciplesofgeneralinternationallaw.Hebe- lievesthatthe200nmfishingzoneispartofcustomaryinternationallaw,and ① thusOkinotorishimaisentitledtohavea200nmfishingzone. Headdsthat theactionsJapanadoptedtowardsOkinotorishimathroughitsnationallegisla- tionsincetheentryintoforceoftheUNCLOShaveneverbeenprotestedby anycountry.HeconcludesthatthisfactsupportstheJapanesepositionthat ② theEEZofOkinotorishimashouldbemaintained. Basedonthetwo Okinotorishimarocks,Japanhasclaimednotonlyan EEZupto200nmtoalldirections,butalsoanECSattheSKB,MIT,andKPR regionsbasedonthenaturalprolongationprinciple.Accordingtotheprovision ofUNCLOSArt.76.1,“[t]hecontinentalshelfofacoastalStatecomprisesthe seabedandsubsoilofthesubmarineareasthatextendbeyonditsterritorialsea landterritory throughoutthenaturalprolongationofits (emphasisadded)to theouteredgeofthecontinentalmargin … ”. InasimilarfashiontoitsargumentaboutitsEEZclaimonOkinotorishi- ma,JapanassertsthenaturalprolongationprincipletoclaimitsoutermostECS basedontherocks.ThisisreflectedinParagraph2ofSection6.2oftheExec- utiveSummaryofJapan’sSubmissionthattheKyushu-PalauRidgeformspart landmass ofthenaturalprolongationofJapan’s (emphasisadded)“represen- ③ tedbyOkinotorishimaIsland”(so-called!). Insteadofadmittingthefactthat thesubmissionareasextendingdowntheridgetowardsPalauwasonthebasis ofthenaturalprolongationofOkinotorishimaitself,Japanistryingtogivethe impressionthatitisthenaturalprolongationofJapanasawhole.Suchacont- entionisassociatedwithobviousproblems,mostnotably,theremotenatureof theseabedinquestionfromthenearestJapanesemainland/mainislandterrito- ry.

B.ToFacilitatetheConditionoftheOkinotorishimaRocksto SustainHuman HabitationorEconomicLife

Inadditiontotheargumentsmadeoverthelegalstatusandgeographical

Japan’sTerritory ① KentaroSerita, (Japanese),C HUOKORON-SHINSYA,INC,2002, pp.182~189,pp.224~245. Japan’sTerritory ② KentaroSerita, (Japanese),C HUOKORON-SHINSYA,INC,2002, pp.182~189,pp.224~245. See ③ theExecutiveSummaryofJapan’sSubmission,athttp://www.un.org/Depts/los/ clcs_new/submissions_files/jpn08/jpn_execsummary.pdf,20June2011. 16 ChinaOceansLaw Review (2011Number1) positionoftheOkinotorishimaRockstosupportitsclaimtoEEZandECS,Ja- panassertstherocksmaintainaneconomiclifeoftheirown. AJapanesescholarbelievestheinterpretationandapplicationofArticle 121(3)isproblematicandcriticizesitasfollows: “If‘rockswhichcansustainhumanhabitationoreconomiclifeoftheir own’issetastheconditionfordesignationofanislandwithoutactuallyrequi- ringsuchhabitationinpractice,thentherearegroundsfortheinterpretation thatthepossibilityofmeetingtheconditionaloneissufficient.Ifsuchisthe case,theconditionitselfwillevolvealongwithprogressinscienceandtechnol- ① ogy,leadingtouncertaintyintherequirementstobemet.” ThisparagraphactuallyindicatestheunsaidtruthofhowJapanhasbeen creatingtheconditionthroughevolvingscienceandtechnologytokeepOkino- torishimafrombeingregardedasArticle121 (3)rocks. Toprovidesupportforitsclaimsandnationalislandisationattempts,Japa- nesescholarshavealsosearchedgloballyforrelevantpracticesasevidence. Oneobservationreportsaboutothercountriessendingsignalstoshowthat scattereddesertislandsare(orwillbe)ableto“sustainhumanhabitationore- ② conomiclifeoftheirown” .Thesesignalsincludepermanentpostingofsmall militaryforcesormeteorologicalobservationstationstaff,etc.,constructionof lighthousesandothernavigationalaids,fishingactivities,andinrecentyears, andestablishmentofprotectedareastoreserveecosystemsorbiodiversityin ③ theoceanssurroundingislands. Recentexamplesemployedbythisscholar weretheUSestablishmentin2006ofthethenworld’slargestmarineprotected area (Papahānaumokuākea Marine National Monument)aroundthenorth- westernHawaiianIslandswheretheUShashadanEEZaround10uninhabited ④ islandssincethe1970s. Asecondexamplecitedwasanew MarineNational

① HiroshiTerashima,TheNeedforaComprehensiveStudyontheProblemsofIslandsand ResearchReportontheOkinotorish- ManagementofTheirSurroundingWaters,inOPRF, imaRevivalandRelatedIssues ,2008,p.113. ② YasuhikoKagami,EnvironmentalPolicyforDesertIslands:Beyond “IslandorRock?”,in ResearchReportontheOkinotorishimaRevivalandRelatedIssues OPRF, ,2008,p.109. ③ YasuhikoKagami,EnvironmentalPolicyforDesertIslands:Beyond “IslandorRock?”,in ResearchReportontheOkinotorishimaRevivalandRelatedIssues OPRF, ,2008,p.109. ④ AccordingtoanAmericanexpertinthelawoftheseathose “shouldnothaveEEZ”in See lightofUNCLOS Article121. Yasuhiko Kagami,EnvironmentalPolicyforDesert ResearchReportontheOkinotorishimaRe- Islands:Beyond“IslandorRock?”,inOPRF, vivalandRelatedIssues ,2008,p.109. ? How MuchCanaRockGet 17

MonumentsestablishedinJanuary2009aroundremoteislandsinthePacific ① Ocean. ThisJapanesescholarobservedthatenvironmentalmeasuressuchases- tablishingmarineprotectedareasarounddesertislandsareimplementednot onlybytheUS,butalsobyFrance,Australia,Kiribati,andothercountries.He believesthatthesepracticeswouldhaveapositivesignificancefororimpacton the“IslandorRock”dispute,inthat“desertislandswillnotbepositionedasa basisforenclosingthesea,butasbasesforpositiveoceanmanagementforsus- ② tainabledevelopment.” Thesepracticesmaybeexpectedtocastnewlightonmanagementofdes- ertislands.However,thekeypointthisscholarforgottomentionisthatJapan isindeedaforemostpioneerwithpracticesthathavesetanexampleofclaiming extendedmaritimezonesoverrocks. Asidefrom lookingforevidencefrom othercountries,otherJapanese scholarshavetriedtojustifyJapan’sclaimsandnationalpracticebynewdevel- opmentsofinternationallawandStatePractice.HiroshiTerashima,theExec- utiveDirectorofOPRF,arguedtoapproachtheArticle121(3)andOkinotor- ishimaissuefromtheoverallframeworkandspiritoftheUNCLOSforcom- ③ prehensivemanagementoftheocean. Heindicatedthatdiscussionsonthe EEZandthecontinentalshelffocusprimarilyoncoastalStates’rights,rather thanontheirresponsibilitiesandobligationsto managecoastalareasinEEZs andcontinentalshelves.Recentyearshaveseenalargeshiftfromtheemphasis giventomarinepollutionresponsesatthetimetheUNCLOSwasdrafted,i.e. toconservationofmarinebiodiversityandotherissues,suchastopromoteeco- system-basedmanagementand marinespatialmanagementofoceanareasa- roundislands. ProfessorKuribayashirecommended nottotalkabout whetherornot smallislandsaretobeaccordedEEZsandcontinentalshelves,buttoconsider theproblemfromtheperspectiveofwhoshouldmanagetheoceanareasaround islandsandhowthemanagementistobecarriedout.Further,hearguedthatit

① YasuhikoKagami,EnvironmentalPolicyforDesertIslands:Beyond “IslandorRock?”,in ResearchReportontheOkinotorishimaRevivalandRelatedIssues OPRF, ,2008,p.109. ② YasuhikoKagami,EnvironmentalPolicyforDesertIslands:Beyond “IslandorRock?”,in ResearchReportontheOkinotorishimaRevivalandRelatedIssues OPRF, ,2008,p.109. ③ HiroshiTerashima,TheNeedforaComprehensiveStudyontheProblemsofIslandsand ResearchReportontheOkinotorishi- ManagementoftheirSurroundingWaters,inOPRF, maRevivalandRelatedIssues ,2008,p.114. 18 ChinaOceansLaw Review (2011Number1) isadvisabletoclarifyandreevaluatethinkingaboutislandsandthe managementoftheirsurroundingwaters.HecalledonStatesnotonlytoaddressthe questionofhowfartheexerciseofjurisdictionalrightsbysmallislandsover resourcesintheirsurroundingwatersisappropriateindistributingthecommon heritageofmankind,butalsotoanswerthequestionofwhoisthemostappro- priateentitytofulfilltheobligationsandresponsibilitiesforprotectingthere- sourcesintheoceanareasaroundsmallislands,e.g.inprotectingandconser- ① vingthemarineenvironment. HealsohopesforJapantomakeitscontribu- ② tiontotheadaptivedevelopmentoftheUNCLOSregimeofislands. SuchviewsandargumentsconfirmtheJapaneseislandisationactionsto- wardstheOkinotorishimaRocksanditsgenerationofjurisdictionalzones.At thesametime,theseviewshavealsoencouragedJapantostrayfurtheraway fromtheUNCLOSregime.

Ⅳ.QuestionstoPonder

TheaforementionedJapaneseviewssuggestthatwhatJapanhasdoneisto promotetheconservationandprotectionofmarineresourcesandenvironment throughecosystem-basedmanagementaroundtheserocks.Butquestionshave tobeasked,including:willtheseargumentsjustifytheJapaneseclaimandits islandisationattempts? MayotherStates“doastheRomansdo”withsimilar insularfeatures? Whataretheimplicationsforsupportingexcessivenational claims? AsStatesmoveforwardwithexcessiveclaimsandislandisationinitia- tives,whatshouldbetheguidingprincipleininterpretationandimplementation ofthe UNCLOS? Willtherebeapotentialdangerofunderminingthe UN- CLOSandfurtherencroachmentonthecommonheritageofmankind? Who shoulddefendtheinterestsoftheinternationalcommunity,andhow? These questionswillbedealtwithinthissection.

① HiroshiTerashima,TheNeedforaComprehensiveStudyontheProblemsofIslandsand ResearchReportontheOkinotorish- ManagementofTheirSurroundingWaters,inOPRF, imaRevivalandRelatedIssues ,2008,p.114. See ② TadaoKuribayashi,ConcludingRemarks:ThePresentImplicationsregarding “Island Research RegimefromthePerspectiveofInternationalLawoftheSeaOrder”,inOPRF, ReportontheOkinotorishimaRevivalandRelatedIssues ,2008,pp.83~84. ? How MuchCanaRockGet 19

A.AreRocksDistin uishable romIslands g f ?

WhatJapancallsOkinotorishimaIsland,some1,740kilometerssouthof Tokyo,ismerelyanatollthatcannotsustainhumanhabitationoreconomiclife ofitsown.JapanarguesOkinotorishimaareislands,notrocks.Isthisbecause thedifferencesbetweenrocksandislandsarenotdistinguishable? Thetruthis, despitethefactthatnoobjectivestandard wasestablishedonhowtodistin- guishArticle121(1)islandsfrom Article121(3)rocks,theprovisionsofUN- CLOSArticle121areclearandexplicit. Incomparisonwiththe “island”definitionprovidedin Article121(1),a “rock”maybesimplifiedasa “naturallyformed”“areaofland”,“surrounded bywater”,“abovewaterathightide”;that“cannotsustainhumanhabitationor economiclifeofitsown”.Thisimpliesthefollowingfeatures:a“rock”isadis- advantagedtypeofisland;thesize(refersto“areaoftheland”abovewaterat ① hightide)ofa“rock”isusuallysmall: andlastly,a“rock”isgenerallynota- bletoprovidethenaturalconditionsnecessaryforsupportingnormalhuman life.Infact,thelastfeatureisthedeterminerthatdifferentiatesrocksfrom islands.Ifaninsularfeaturecannotfulfillthiscondition,itisonlyentitledtoa territorialseaandacontiguouszone,butnotanEEZorcontinentalshelf. Manyinternationallaw expertsbelievethatanisland must:sustainand maintainfreshwater,beabletogrowvegetationthatcansustainhumanhabi- tation,producesomematerialthatcanbeusedforhumanshelter,andbeable ② tosustainahumancommunity. Someexpertssuggestthatanislandmustbe ③ abletosustainatleastfiftypeople. Indeed,food,freshwater,andlivingspace

① Dr.Hodgson,ageographeroftheUSStateDepartment,proposedthata“rock”isanarea oflandlessthan0.001squaremiles,theareaoflandforan “islet”isbetween0.001-1 See squaremiles,theareaoflandforan“island”islargerthanonesquaremile. Robert. D.Hodgson,Islands:NormalandSpecialCircumstances,inJohnKingGamble,Jr.andGi- LawoftheSea TheEmergingRegimeoftheOceans ulioPontecorvoed., : ,Cambridge, Massachusetts:BallingerPublishing,1974,p.148. ② Forrelevantdiscussionsonthisaccount,seeJoséLuisJesus,Rocks,New-bornIslands,Sea LevelRiseand MaritimeSpace,inJochen Abr.Frowein,KlausScharioth,Ingo Winkel- ed. VerhandelnfürdenFrieden-NegotiatingforPeace Liber mannandRüdigerWolfrum , : amicorumTonoEitel ,2003,pp.587~592;Charney,Jonathan,RocksThatCannotSustain AmericanJournalofInternationalLaw HumanHabitation, ,Vol.93,1999,pp.864~ 871. See ③ InternationalSeabedAuthorityPressRelease,SB/15/10,p.3,para.18. 20 ChinaOceansLaw Review (2011Number1) constitutetheveryfundamentalcriteriaforhumanhabitationonanisland. Withthesethreecriteria,theislandmaybeconsideredasbeingabletosustain humanhabitation,nomatterhowlongitcan“sustain”,orifthe“sustaining”of habitationisonapermanentortemporarybasis. Tomakethesecriteriamorecomprehensible,theIndonesianAmbassador andleadinglawoftheseaexpert,Hasjim Djalal,proposedthreespecificcrite- ria:first,whetherthereisfreshwaterontheislandorrocks;second,whetherit ispossibletogrow food;third,whetherthereis materialto build houses. Shouldallthreecriteriabemet,theinsularfeatureshallnotonlybearock,but alsoanislandableto“sustain”humanhabitationandreproduction;thatis,itis entitledtoitsownjurisdictionregardlessofitssize.Ifthethreeconditionsare ① notmet,thefeatureisonlyentitledtoa12nmterritorialsea. “Theeconomiclifeoftheirown”criterionseemstoappealtotheideaof therockhavingthecapacityorpotentialofbearinganindependent,thoughnot necessarilyself-sufficient,economiclife.Thismightimplythepotentialorca- pacitytodevelopitsownsourcesofproduction,distributionandexchangeina waythat,ifitweretohavehumanhabitation,itwouldconstituteamaterialba- sisthatwouldjustifytheexistenceanddevelopmentofastablehumanhabita- ② tionorcommunityontherock. Itwouldseemthatthecriterionofeconomic lifeoftheirownismorethantheexistenceofagivenresourceorthepresence ofagiveninstallation ofaneconomicnature,howeverimportantit might ③ be. Ifanareaof“land”abovewaterathightide(nomatterwhatitiscalledby tradition)satisfieseitheroneofthetwocriteriato“sustainhumanhabitation” oran “economiclifeofitsown”,itisentitledtoitsownEEZandcontinental shelf.InthecaseofOkinotorishima,noneofthereefsislargethanonesquare

Con- ① IanTownsend-Gault,PreventiveDiplomacyandPro-activityintheSouthChinaSea, temporarySoutheastAsia ,Vol.20,No.2,1998,p.179. See ② JoséLuisJesus,Rocks,New-bornIslands,Sea LevelRiseand MaritimeSpace,in ed. Ver- JochenAbr.Frowein,KlausScharioth,Ingo WinkelmannandRüdiger Wolfrum , handelnfürdenFrieden-NegotiatingforPeace Liberamicorum TonoEitel : ,2003,p. 590. See ③ JoséLuisJesus,Rocks,New-bornIslands,Sea LevelRiseand MaritimeSpace,in ed. Ver- JochenAbr.Frowein,KlausScharioth,Ingo WinkelmannandRüdiger Wolfrum , handelnfürdenFrieden-NegotiatingforPeace Liberamicorum TonoEitel : ,2003,p. 590. ? How MuchCanaRockGet 21

① meterandthetotalareaislessthan10squaremeters. Okinotorishimahasno freshwater,norsoil;neitherdoesithaveanyvegetation.Moreimportantly,its sizeistoosmallto “sustainhumanhabitation”.Basedonitsnaturalcondi- tions,itcannotberegardedasanisland. NoconsensushasbeenreachedontheinterpretationandapplicationofAr- ticle121.Thetreatmentofislands/rockshaslonggeneratedinternationallegal debates,andStatePracticehasremainedsomewhatdiverse.Nonetheless,the understandingofinternationallawexpertsonthetextoftheUNCLOSprovi- sions,relevantjurisprudencebyinternationaljudicialandarbitralcourtsand StatePracticesareconsistentandidentical.Therearesignsofaconsistent trendemergingand,attheleast,numerousexamplesexistwhichindicatehow islands/rocksshouldbetreated.Nomatterhow Article121isinterpreted,giv- enitssizeanduninhabitablenaturalconditions,theOkinotorishimacannotbe recognizedasanislandoflegalnature.Japan’seffortsconfirmthatitistrying toturnrocksintoislands.

B.HowshouldUNCLOSbeImplementedandInternational Communit ConcernsbeResected y p ?

Article121 (3)oftheUNCLOSexpresslydeniestherightofarockto supportanEEZandacontinentalshelf.However,JapanstillclaimedanEEZ to200nmandanadjoiningcontinentalshelfregionbeyond200nm usingthe OkinotorishimaRocksasabase-pointinitssubmission.Japan’sunilateralas- sertionis widely out of conformity with the intention and purpose of UNCLOS’s“commonheritageofmankind”concept.Astheforemostadvocate of“thePrincipleoftheCommon Heritageof Mankind”,Ambassador Arvid PardoofMaltapointedout,“[i]fa200milelimitofjurisdictioncouldbefoun- dedonthepossessionofuninhabited,remoteorverysmallislands,theeffec- tivenessofinternationaladministrationofoceanspacebeyondnationaljurisdic- ② tionwouldbegravelyimpaired.” In1988,havingnoticedtheJapaneseconstructionovertherocks,Professor JonVonDykeoftheUniversityofHawaiiexpressedhisviewinthefollowing terms:“Okinotorishima-whichconsistsoftwoerodingprotrusionsnolarger

① Athttp://news.xinhuanet.com/world/2005-03/11/content_2681137.htm,2 April 2011. ② UnitedNationsSea-BedCommittee,Doc.A/AC.138/SR.57,p.167. 22 ChinaOceansLaw Review (2011Number1) thanking-sizebeds-certainly meetsthedescriptionofanuninhabitablerock thatcannotsustaineconomiclifeofitsown.Itisnot,therefore,entitledto ① generatea200[nautical]-mileexclusiveeconomiczone.” Hehasfurtheras- sertedthatitisimpossibletomake“aplausibleclaimthatOkinotorishouldbe ② abletogeneratea200 [nautical]-milezone”. ProfessorVonDykemadeit ③ clearagainin2005. ProfessorVonDykehasalsosuggestedthatthesituationissimilartothe failedBritishattempttoclaimanEEZaroundRockall.Rockallisasmall,uninhabited,rockyislet withintheEEZofthe United Kingdom (UK)inthe ④ NorthAtlanticOcean. Rockallisalmost200nmfromtheScottishcoast,25 ⑤ metersabovesealevelandmeasures624squaremeters. In1977,theUKes- tablishedafishingzoneusingRockallasabasepointforanextensionof200 nmbeyondtheislet.TheBritishclaim wasprotestedbyDenmark,Icelandand ⑥ Ireland. The UK eventuallyabandoneditsclaim afteritsaccessiontothe ⑦ UNCLOSin1997. Nodoubt,thecaseofRockallhastheclosestsimilaritytotheOkinotorish- imasituationbuttheUKrationalewaspresentedonadifferentfooting.Arti- cle121 (3)deniesthecapacityoftinyrockstogenerateunfairlyandinequita- blyhuge maritimeentitlementse.g.an EEZ oracontinentalshelf,which could,inmostcases,impingeuponotherStatesmaritimespaceorontheInter-

See ① MartinFackler,AReeforaRock? QuestionPutsJapaninaHardPlacetoClaim Dis- WallStreetJournal puted Waters,CharityTriestoFind UseforOkinotoriShima, ,16 February2005,p.A1. NewYorkTimes ② SpeckintheOcean MeetsLawoftheSea, ,21January1988. ③ MartinFackler,A ReeforaRock? QuestionPutsJapaninaHardPlacetoClaimDisputed WallStreetJournal Waters,CharityTriestoFindUseforOkinotoriShima, ,16February 2005,p.A1. See ④ EEZoftheUKandIrelandathttp://www.seaaroundus.org/eez/eez.aspx,20June 2011. See ⑤ FordetailsonRockall,athttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rockall,20June2011. also Rockall.London GeoffreyBles JamesFisher, : ,1956,pp.12~13. ⑥ Athttp://www.opsi.gov.uk/SI/si1997/19971750.htm,20June2011.FortheFishery LimitsOrder1997,StatutoryInstrument1997No.1750. ⑦ TheForeignandCommonwealthSecretaryoftheUnitedKingdomexpressedinastate- mentthat“Rockallisnotavalidbasepointforsuchlimitsunderarticle121(3)”,andthen thelimitofthefisheryzonewasredefinedaccordinglythroughtheFisheryLimitsOrder See 1997. AlexG.OudeElferink,ClarifyingArticle121(3)oftheLawoftheSeaConven- IBRU Boundaryand tion:theLimitsSetbytheNatureofInternationalLegalProcess, Security Bulletin ,Summer1998,p.59,p.66.Editors’note:seealso D.Anderson, “IslandsandRocksintheModernLawoftheSea”inthepresentvolume. ? How MuchCanaRockGet 23 nationalSeabed Area whichisreservedfortheCommon Heritageof Man- ① kind. Since2004,asJapan’smaritimeneighbor,Chinahasconstantlyobjectedto JapanesejurisdictionovermarinescientificresearcharoundtheOkinotorishima RockswhereJapanhasclaimedthatithastherighttoprescribeandenforceju- ② risdictionoverthetworocksandsurroundingwatersupto200nm. China’s positionisthatthelegalstatusofthesewatersishighseasandtraditionalfish- inggroundsforthefishersfromthe mainlandofChina,Taiwan,and Korea. ChinafirmlyopposedtheJapaneseunilateralactionsandconsiderssuchactions ③ asaseriousviolationoftherightsofothercountries. ThedisputeregardingwhetherOkinotorishimaisarockoranislandhas escalatedandintensified.Theissuehascaughttheattentionoftherestofthe worldbecauseoftheJapanesesubmissionofitsproposedouterlimitofthe continentalshelftotheCLCS,whichstimulatedapublicreactionfrom China andKorea. InFebruary2009,ChinaandSouth Korearespectivelysubmittedtothe Secretary-GeneraloftheUnitedNationsNoteVerbalescommentingontheis- ④ sueoftheOkinotorishimaintheJapaneseSubmission. BothChinaandSouth KoreaobjectedtoJapan’sclaimtoanEEZandECSbasedontheOkinotorishi- ⑤ maRocks. Theinternationalcommunityhas,forthemostpart,avoidedinvolvement inthedispute.However,the Submissionintensifiedthe disagreementand raisedconcernsintheinternationalcommunitysparkingvariedcomments. ConcernswerearticulatedaboutJapan’sdutynottoinfringeonthecommon spaceoftheinternationalcommunity.Ononeoccasion,Japanseemedtore- memberitsdutyanddeniedNewZealand’sclaimstotheAntarctic.WhenNew

① UN Doc.A/CONF.62/122,7October1982. XinhuaNews ② JapanhopestobuildlighthouseonatolldisputedwithChina, ,25 August, 2005. See ③ JiaYuandLiMingjie,NottoaccepttheartificiallyconstructedOkinotori,athttp:// news.sina.com.cn/c/2004-05-24/12103317063.shtml,20June2011. ④ ForChina’sNote,athttp://www.un.org/Depts/los/clcs_new/submissions_files/jpn08/ chn_6feb09_e.pdf;forKorea’s,athttp://www.un.org/Depts/los/clcs_new/submissions _files/jpn08/kor_27feb09.pdf. ⑤ ForChina’sNote,athttp://www.un.org/Depts/los/clcs_new/submissions_files/jpn08/ chn_6feb09_e.pdf;forKorea’s,athttp://www.un.org/Depts/los/clcs_new/submissions _files/jpn08/kor_27feb09.pdf. 24 ChinaOceansLaw Review (2011Number1)

① ZealandmadeitsECSsubmissiontotheCLCS, JapansentaNoteVerbaleto ② theUNconcerningNewZealand’sclaimstotheAntarcticregion. Japanem- phasizedthatitdoesnotrecognizeanyState’s“claimtoterritorialsovereignty intheAntarcticandconsequentlydoesnotrecognizeanyState’srightsoveror claimstothewater,seabedandsubsoilofthesubmarineareasadjacenttothe ③ continentofAntarctica.” ViewshavealsobeenexpressedthattheOkinotorishimaRocksarenoten- titledtoanycontinentalshelf,andthatnoentitlementshouldbegrantedonthe portionsrelatedtotheOkinotorishimaRocksinJapan’sSubmission.AfterJa- pan madeitsSubmissiontothe CLCSconcerningitsextendedcontinental th th shelf,atthe15 SessionoftheInternationalSeabedAuthorityandatthe19 th MeetingoftheStatesPartiestotheUNCLOS (the19 Meeting),athorough ④ discussionensuedonrelevantissues. Atthese meetings,seriousconcerns wereexpressedbymanycountriesregardingthepossibleencroachmentonthe internationalseabedareabyusingarockasthebasepointforanextendedcon- ⑤ tinentalshelf. Inadditiontorelevantdiscussionsundercurrentitemsinthe th agenda,itwasalsodecidedatthe19 meetingtoconsidertheinclusionofa supplementaryitementitled“InternationalSeabedAreaasthecommonherit-

① ForNewZealand’ssubmission,athttp://www.un.org/Depts/los/clcs_new/submissions _files/submission_nzl.htm,20June2011. ② ForJapan’snote,athttp://www.un.org/Depts/los/clcs_new/submissions_files/submis- sion_nzl.htm,28June2006.ThePermanentMissionofJapantotheUnitedNationspres- enteditscomplimentstotheSecretariatoftheUN withreferencetothecircularCLCS. 05.2006.LOS (ContinentalShelfNotification)dated21 April2006,concerningthere- ceiptofthesubmission madebyNew ZealandtotheCLCS.Japanconfirmstheimpor- tanceofkeepingharmonybetweentheAntarcticTreatyandtheUNCLOSandtherebyen- suringthecontinuingpeacefulcooperation,securityandstabilityintheAntarcticarea.Re- callingArticleIVoftheAntarcticTreaty,JapandoesnotrecognizeanyState’srightofor claimtoterritorialsovereigntyintheAntarctic,andconsequentlydoesnotrecognizeany State’srightsoverorclaimstothewater,seabedandsubsoilofthesubmarineareasadja- centtothecontinentofAntarctica. ③ ForJapan’snote,athttp://www.un.org/Depts/los/clcs_new/submissions_files/submis- sion_nzl.htm,28June2006. th ④ The19 MeetingoftheStatesPartiestotheUNCLOS,SPLOS/L.60,22 May2009,at http://daccess- dds- ny.un.org/doc/UNDOC/LTD/N09/346/55/PDF/N0934655. See pdf,20June2011. alsoYuJia,LegalIssuesConcerningtheOki-no-Tori(Chinese), OceanDevelopmentand Management ,Vol.8 (130),2009. th ⑤ The19 MeetingoftheStatesPartiestotheUNCLOS,SPLOS/L.60,22 May2009,at http://daccess- dds- ny.un.org/doc/UNDOC/LTD/N09/346/55/PDF/N0934655. See pdf,20June2011. alsoYuJia,LegalIssuesConcerningtheOki-no-Tori(Chinese), OceanDevelopmentand Management ,Vol.8 (130),2009. ? How MuchCanaRockGet 25 ageofthemankindandArticle121oftheUnitedNationsConventiononthe LawoftheSea”inafuturemeeting. TheEEZandECSpoliciesandStatepracticeareimportantforthefuture. Itisnotonlyamatterofeconomicsandhowoceanresourcescanbeexploited fromthecontinentalshelf,butalsothelegalexistenceofthesovereignrightsof amaritimenation.Japan’sbidtoextenditscontinentalshelfbasedonrocks willnotbesupported.AsaStatePartytotheUNCLOS,Japanisobligatednot toviolatethelegalregimeoftheUNCLOS,andtorespectthedisagreementof itsmaritimeneighborsaswellastheconcernsoftheinternationalcommunity.

C.HowwillCLCSAccomplishItsRolewith A licableRecommendations pp ?

JapansubmittedtheinformationonthelimitsofitsECStotheCLCSon ① 12November2008. ThroughthisSubmission,Japansetanexampleofclai- minganEEZandanexcessivecontinentalshelfbasedonrocksinthevastPa- cificOcean.ConcernshavebeenvoicedaboutthefactthatJapanisusingthe CLCSasaforumtostrengthen,maintain,ordefenditsclaimsconcerninglegal titlesofrocks/islands,and EEZs,continentalshelfandextendedcontinental shelfthereof.ShouldJapan’ssubmissionbeconfirmedbytheCLCSaboutthe locationoftheouterlimitofJapan’scontinentalshelfin Okinotorishimaand Japan’sentitlementtolargeareasofcontinentalshelfbeyond200nm,Japan wouldhavejurisdictionoveranextra740,000squarekilometers,whichisa- bouttwicethesizeofitslandterritory. Discussionshavealsobeenvoicedabouttheapplicablerecommendationsof theCLCS.AsaninternationalbodyestablishedbytheUNCLOS,theCLCSis ② neitherajudicialnorapoliticalbody. Itgivestechnicaladviceandguidanceto States,andoffersopinionsonthedataandanalysessubmittedbycoastalStates onthebasisofthetechnicalandobjectivecriteriasetoutintheUNCLOS.As of18January2011,therehavebeen59SubmissionsdeliveredtotheUnitedNa-

① Athttp://www.un.org/Depts/los/clcs_new/submissions_files/submission_jpn.htm,20 August2011. ② FordiscussionsonCLCS,seeTedL.McDorman,TheEntryintoForceofthe1982LOS InternationalJournalof ConventionandtheArticle76OuterContinentalShelfRegime, MarineandCoastalLaw ,Vol.101995,pp.165~187;TedL.McDorman,TheRoleofthe Commissiononthe Limitsofthe ContinentalShelf:A TechnicalBodyina Political InternationalJournalof MarineandCoastalLaw World, ,Vol.17,2002,pp.301~324. 26 ChinaOceansLaw Review (2011Number1)

① tionsfortheCLCStoconsider. Meanwhile,asof19October2011,theCLCS hasalsoreceived45PreliminaryInformationsubmissionsindicativeoftheout- ② erlimitsoftheextendedcontinentalshelf. ThejoboftheCLCSistoconsider thedocumentationsubmittedbythecoastalStateandtorecommendwherethe outerlimitsofthecontinentalshelfshouldlie. Japan’sSubmissioncomplicatestheclearprovisionaboutislandregimes andtheauthorizationoftheCLCSintheUNCLOS.Thismayleadtoanin- fringementofthecompletenessoftheUNCLOSandanencroachmentonthe ③ InternationalSeabedArea. TheCLCSwillhavetodealwithJapan’sSubmis- ④ sionandalsothirdpartynotifications. Asmentionedearlier,theNotesVerbal ofChinaandSouth KoreasuggestedthattheCLCSshouldtakenoactionon ⑤ theportionsrelatedtothe Okinotorishima RocksinJapan’sSubmission. HowtheCLCSwillhandleJapan’sSubmissionregardingtheregionsgenerated basedontheOkinotorishimaRockscontinuestobeanissueofgeneralinterest aswellasasourceofconcernformany. ToconsiderJapan’sSubmissionrequiresdefiningthelegalstatusofOki- notorishima,buttheCLCSisnotinapositionwithauthoritytodecideitslegal status.TocomplywiththeUNCLOSandnottoaffecttheCommonHeritage ofMankind,itisadvisablefortheCLCSnottoconsiderthecontroversialparts inJapan’sSubmission.The Okinotorishimasituation willbeanentréetoa broaderdiscussionontheroleoftheCLCSasregardsthesubmissionsandin-

① Forsubmissions,athttp://www.un.org/Depts/los/clcs_new/commission_submissions. htm,20January2012. ② Athttp://www.un.org/Depts/los/clcs_new/commission_preliminary.htm,20 June 2011. ③ TheCLCShasseenmanydifferentkindsofSubmissionsandthirdpartynotifications,cop- ingwithdifferentsituationsthatthecoastalStatesface.Amongthe59Submissions,22 Submissionshavealreadyencounteredthecomments,oppositions,disapproval,orapprov- alsexpressedbyasmanyas58thirdpartynotifications.Among45PreliminaryInforma- tionSubmissions,fourpieceshavemetcommunicationsfromthirdStates,expressingdif- ferentideas,athttp://www.un.org/Depts/los/clcs_new/commission_submissions. htm,20June2011. ④ Forrelevantdiscussions,seeMichaelSheng-tiGau,ThirdPartyInterventionintheCom- missionontheLimitsoftheContinentalShelfRegardingaSubmissionInvolvingaDis- OceanDevelopmentandInternationalLaw pute, ,Vol.40,2009,pp.61~79. See ⑤ Paragraphs3-5ofthecommunicationofChina,Paragraphs4-6oftheKoreancom- municationtorespondtotheJapaneseSubmission.ForChina’sNote,athttp://www.un. org/Depts/los/clcs_new/submissions_files/jpn08/chn_6feb09_e.pdf;forKorea’s,athttp://www.un.org/Depts/los/clcs_new/submissions_files/jpn08/kor_27feb09.pdf,21 May2011. ? How MuchCanaRockGet 27 formationpresentedtoit.OnethingthatisclearisthattheCLCSshallnotbe usedtoinfringetheUNCLOS,ortoabuseitsownresponsibility.

D.AreOkinotorishimaStillNaturalRocksorArtiicialStructures f ?

TheheartofthisOkinotorishimarock/islandissueiswhetherthefeature canbeusedasabasepointtoclaimanextendedjurisdictionalzone.According toArticle121,bothislandsandrockshavetobe“naturallyformed”.Concern- ingwhatis “naturallyformed”,two viewsexist:thefirstview countson whetherornotthereisdeliberateconstruction,andinsiststhat “naturally ① formed”means “nodeliberateconstruction”. Thisview mayseemabitex- treme.Thesecondviewtolerates “deliberateconstruction”butdifferentiates ② thedecisiondependinguponthepurpose: ifthedeliberateconstructionisfor theprotectionoftheareaofthe“land”,thelegalstatusofthe“land”remains ③ unaffected:ifthedeliberateconstructionistoexpandthelandmassoftheare- a,thelegalstatusoftheoriginalandadditionalnew “land”willloseitslegal ④ statuscollectivelywithitsterritorialsea. Internationallawscholarsseemto ⑤ favorthisview. Inparticular,Diaz,Dubner,andParentpointedoutintheir paperthattoprotecttheislandbyusingcoralandothermarinebiotechnology tobuilditupcreatesanartificialislandthatisnotentitledtoitsownmaritime ⑥ zones.

TheMaritimeZonesofIslandsinInternationalLaw ① CliveR.Symmons, ,The Hague: MartinusNijhoff,1979,p.36. ② Athttp://www.seastead.org/localres,20June2011. See ③ Andrew L,Silverstein,Okinotorishima:ArtificialPreservationofaSpeckofSover- BrooklynJournalofInternationalLaw eignty, ,Vol.12,No.1,2009,pp.409~432. See TheLegalRegimeofIslandsinInternationalLaw ④ Derek.W.Bowett, ,New York: OceanaPublications,1979,p.122. See ⑤ LeticiaDiaz,BarryHartDubner,andJasonParent,Whenisa “Rock”an “Island?”: MichiganState AnotherUnilateralDeclaration Defies “Norms”ofInternationalLaw, JournalofInternationalLaw See ,Vol.15,2007,p.547. alsoYasuhikoKagami,Environ- ResearchReporton mentalPolicyforDesertIslands:Beyond“IslandorRock?”,inOPRF, theOkinotorishimaRevivalandRelatedIssues ,2008,p.109. ⑥ BinBinJiaisoftheviewthatifanislandcannotcontinueitsexistencewithoutaconcrete structureorartificialinstallation,itisnolongeranaturalisland,butanartificialisland,not See entitledtoamaritimezonebuttoa500-metersafetyzone. BinBinJia,APrelimina- NordicJournalofInternationalLaw ryStudyoftheProblemoftheIsleofKolbeinsey, , See 66,1997,p.313. alsoLeticiaDiaz,Barry HartDubnerandJasonParent,Whenisa “Rock”an “Island?”:Another UnilateralDeclaration Defies “Norms”ofInternational MichiganStateJournalofInternationalLaw Law, ,Vol.15,2007,p.547. 28 ChinaOceansLaw Review (2011Number1)

InthecaseoftheOkinotorishimaRocks,iftheactionJapanhastakenis solelyfortheprotectionoftherocks,they willcontinuetobenaturalrocks withanentitlementtoterritorialseaandcontiguouszone,butifJapan’spur- poseis to expand the physicalsize ofthe rocks,the situation will be ① different. Japanrescued Okinotorishimawithgreateffortsto makesuretherocks werenotcompletelywashedaway.Thiswasforthepurposeofenablingthem togeneratevastmaritimezones.Tokeeptherocksafloatandtofulfillthecri- teriaofalegal“island”,Japanhascarriedoutambitiousprojectstoexpandthe “landmass”byartificiallyproducingeconomiclifethereandplanningtocreate aplacethatisactuallylivable.The“nationalconstruction”increasedtherocks muchbeyondtheiroriginalshapes.Itspurposeisnotfortheprotectionofthe rocks,butfor“expansionofitsterritory”.Giventhesizeoftherocks,yearsof heavy,deliberate expansion,concrete encasing and building facilities have changedthecharacteroftherocks.Ondetailedsatelliteimages,eachofthe rocksappearsasacirclewithadiameterof50meters,butthesearemostlyar- tificialstructures.TheOkinotorishimaRockshavelosttheirnaturalcharac- ter.Instead,theyarean “artificiallyformedareaofland”or“artificiallycon- ② structedareaofland”. FollowingJapan’slogic,therescuingconstructionwasmeantto “expand” therockstoenablethemto “sustainhumanhabitationoreconomiclifeofits own”asanArticle121(1)island,andsubsequentlytogenerateextramaritime jurisdictionalzones.Actually,thisisanabusiveinterpretationofthe UNL- COS,whichaimsattheconformityoftherightsandinterestsofStateParties basedontheexistingoceanorder.TheJapanesepracticeiscontrarytointerna- tionallawandtotheUNCLOSregime,asittriestomodifythenaturalfeatures forthepurposeofenhancingclaimstojurisdictionalzonesthatshouldnotbe legitimatelygranted. Shouldsuchlogicandpracticebepermittedandencouragedtoanyextent, Statescouldrelyontheirnationalcapacityto“transform”anyinsularfeatures

① Silversteinagreesthatartificialislandisnotentitledtoaterritorialsea,butheexcluded See theOkinotorishimaasaspecialcircumstance. AndrewL,Silverstein,Okinotorishima: BrooklynJournalof International ArtificialPreservation ofa Speck ofSovereignty, Law ,Vol.12,No.1,2009,pp.429~430. See ② LeticiaDiaz,BarryHartDubner,andJasonParent,Whenisa “Rock”an “Island?”: MichiganState AnotherUnilateralDeclaration Defies “Norms”ofInternationalLaw, JournalofInternationalLaw ,Vol.15,2007,p.519. ? How MuchCanaRockGet 29 suchassubmergedrocksandsandbarsintoislands,andthenclaimlargeareas ofwatersandresourcestowhichtheyarenotentitled.Thistrendwouldlead toirreversibledamagetotheauthorityoftheUNCLOS,andcertainly would ① resultinanewroundofcompetingclaimsandchaosintheworld’soceans. TheUNCLOSendeavorstoavoidsituationsofthiskindbycreatingaframe- workbasedoncustomaryinternationallawandacceptedStatePractice. JudgingbywhatJapanhasbeendoingwithgreatdetermination,itisun- fortunatethattheresulthasturnedouttobethatJapan’sislandisationat- temptshavetransformedthelegalstatusofOkinotorishimafrom Article121 ② (3)rocksintoartificialstructurestowhichthelawinArticle60applies. The “Okinotorishima”havelosttheverybasicfeatureofrocksastheyhavebeen transformedintothe“Okinotorishimaartificialisland”or“Okinotorishimaar- tificialstructures”.Thusfromaninternationallawviewpoint,Japanisnoten- titledtoany maritimezonesbutmerelya500-metersafetyzone.Japan’sex- pensiveeffortshavebeencounterproductivefromaUNCLOSpointofview.

Ⅴ.ConcludingRemarks

ItcanbearguedthattheislandregimeoftheUNCLOShastriggereden- duringsovereigntydisputesoverislands,complexitiesformaritimeclaims,dis- putesoverthelegalweightaccordedtoinsularfeatures,andaggressiveextend- edcontinentalshelfclaims.However,nocountryhassovigorouslytakenad- vantageoftheUNCLOSasJapanhastotheextremeinattemptingtoclaim largeareasofjurisdictionalzonesbasedonrocks. Accordingtointernationallaw,maritimefeaturescanbeaccorded mari- timezones,butnotallfeaturesareentitledtoanEEZandbeyond.TheOkino- torishima,whichareindeeduninhabited,isolatedrockslocatedinthePacificO- cean,cannotsustainhumanhabitationoreconomiclifeoftheirownatall.At hightide,thetworockscomposingtheOkinotorishimaarebarelyabovewater anditstotalareaislessthanonesixtiethofRockall.Thisistheclearestexam- pleoftherockprovidedforinArticle121(3)oftheUNCLOSwhichisnotto generateanEEZorcontinentalshelf,notto mentionanextendedcontinental

See ① LeticiaDiaz,BarryHartDubner,andJasonParent,Whenisa “Rock”an “Island?”: MichiganState AnotherUnilateralDeclaration Defies “Norms”ofInternationalLaw, JournalofInternationalLaw ,Vol.15,2007,p.519,pp.519~555. See ② UNCLOSArticle60(4);(5);(8);(11);(147),Subpara.2 (e);and259. 30 ChinaOceansLaw Review (2011Number1) shelf. Temptedbythevastoceanspaceandabundantresourcestherein,Japan hastriedtousesuchsmallreefrockstoclaimahuge200nm EEZinalldirec- tionsandevenacontinentalshelfbeyond200nm.Japanhasalsoputintoprac- ticeaseriesofmanmademeasurestoenabletheOkinotorishimaRockstosus- tainhumanhabitationoraneconomiclifeofitsownobviouslytoincreasethe possibilityforexpandingotherwiseunqualified maritimejurisdictionalzones. Fromsatelliteimages,thetwooriginalrocksnowappearcompletelyartificial, withnotraceofthetwonaturalrocks. NomatterhowhardtheJapanesehavetried,itisdoubtfulthattheJapa- neseeffortcanbesuccessfulduetothefollowingfactors:first,theJapaneseis- landisationcampaignhasviolatedthestandardsandunderminedtheauthority oftheUNCLOSframework;second,itsexcessiveclaimsencroachontheInter- nationalSeabed Areathatissetasidefortheinternationalcommunityasa whole;third,JapanhaschangedthelegalstatusoftheOkinotorishimaRocks from naturalrocksintoartificialstructures.No matterhow Japantriesto stretchtheword“rock”orhowittriestotwisttheword “island”,thehistory oftheprovision,thewritingsofvariousscholars,andtheopinionoftheinter- nationalcommunitysquarelyplacetheJapaneseonthewrongside,legallyand morally. Aquestionable“island”mayratea12nmterritorialseabutafullentitle- mentisnotconsistentwiththeobjectandpurposeoftheUNCLOStolimitex- cessiveclaims.WithregardtothequestionablenaturalstatusofOkinotorishi- ma“artificialisland,installationorstructure”,a500-metersafetyzoneandex- clusivejurisdictionissufficient. Theproblem withJapan’sassertionovervastareasofwatersbasedonthe nationalbuilding-up ofartificialislandsaroundrocksisratherobvious.It wouldbeanexampleofgreed,constitutingaprecedentonexpanded maritime jurisdictionandofabusingthe UNCLOSand wouldseriouslyencroachupon theinternationalseabedarea.Yet,theprofoundimplicationsandfar-reaching impactreflectedfromtheJapaneseclaimsisworthnoting.Ifeverystatedecid- edtomakethesametypeofexpansionasJapanhas,therewouldbenousefor internationalruleoflawandthelegalsystem ofordersetforthinthe UN- CLOSwouldbe meaningless.Therewouldbearealcrisisbroughtalongby thesubmissionrushofECStotheinternationallawandInternationalSeabed Area.Theinternationalcommunityasawholeshouldworktogethertodeal withthiscrisis. ? How MuchCanaRockGet 31

Annex1:Okinotorishima:HistoryandEvents

Year Events UnconfirmedreportsclaimedthattheatollwasfirstsightedbytheSpanish 1543 shipSanJuanandnamedAbreOjos(“Openyoureyes,look!”inSpanish).

Therockswererecordedas“PareceVela”(“lookslikeasail”inSpanish)by SpanishshipSanPedro.Afterthat,itwasnamed “EngelsRocks”byDutch 1565 shipEngelsand “DouglassReef”byBritishshipIphigenia.DouglassReef andPareceVelaarestillusedasalternativenamesforOkinotorishima.

TheJapaneseNavysurveillanceship “MANSHU”madeaninvestigationto 1922 theatoll,andreportedthestatusofit.

Okinotorishimawasmarkedinhydrographicchartspublishedby Hydrogra- 1929 phicDepartmentofJapn.

TheJapaneseCabinetdeclareditJapaneseterritoryunderthejurisdictionof 1931 theOgasawara-shichoofTokyoPrefecture,andnameditOkinotorishima.

Surveillanceship“KOSHU”investigatedtheislandsandfound4isletsinad- 1933 ditiontotheEasternIslet(Higashikojima)andNorthernIslet(Kitakojima). AhydrographicchartwasmadebytheHydrographicDepartment.

1938 Surveillanceship“SHINSHO MARU”investigatedthearea.

Thesouthwestreefsoftheatollwereblastedtoopennew searoutes.A 1939-1941 lighthouseandameteorologicalobservationsitewerebuiltusing900concrete columns.TheconstructionwasinterruptedbythestartofthePacificWar.

1952.4 TheUnitedStatestookovertheOgasawaraislands

1968.6 TheUnitedStatesreturnedtheislandstoJapan

1969 Surveillanceship“MEIYO”investigatedthearea.

JapanAmateurRadioLeague(JARL)“DXPedition”setupanamateurradio stationbasedontheobservationsiteanddirectedradio wavesaroundthe 1976 globefrom Okinotorishima.Within78hours,theymadecommunicationwith about9000otherradiostations.

1978 TokyoMetropolisfisheriesresearchship“Metropolis”investigatedthearea.

1982 SurveyshipAA “TAKUYO”investigatedthearea.

Twoislets were markedinthetopographical mappublishedbythe Geo- 1984 graphicalSurveyInstitute(GSI).

TheAgriculturalAquaticCommitteeofJapaneseDietheldthefirstmeeting 1987.9 onOkinotorishimaandtherisingsealevels.

1987.10 ItwasdesignatedasacoastalprotectedareabyTokyoMetropolis. 32 ChinaOceansLaw Review (2011Number1)

Renewaltable1 Year Events Japan Marine Scienceand Technology Center (JAMSTEC)builtan un- 1988 mannedmarineinvestigationfacilitywhichitmaintained,followingmeteoro- logicalobservationuntil1991.

Theformer MinistryofConstructionstartedtheprotectionprojectforthe 1988-1989 EasternIsletandNorthernIslet

TheformerMinistryofConstructionstartedabaseprojectfortheobserva- 1990-1993 tionstation.

JAMSTECperformedmeteorologicalandmarinemeteorologicalobservations 1993 attheworkingsite(continuingnow).

TheformerMinistryofConstructioninstalledatitanium metallicnettocover 1998 theEasternIslet.

AccordingtotheamendedCoastalAct,themanagementwasputunderthe NationalGovernment:theformer MinistryofConstruction:responsiblefor bankprotection;the Coast Officeofthe RiverBureauofthe Ministryof 1999 Land,Infrastructure,TransportandTourism andtheKeihinDepartmentof EngineeringAffairs:responsibleforprotectivemeasures;thedegreeofgener- alconcernisnothigh.

“Eco-engineeringregenerationtechnologyhelpsimprovetheregenerationca- pacityofthedegradedcoralreefecosystem,contributestotheterritorypro- 2004.9 tectionofislandstatesinthePacificOcean,andavoidsthefloodingissues.” HajimeKayanne(NewsletterNo.99,Sep.2004,OPRF)

“AssociationforOkinotorishimaResearch”wassetupbyOPRFandheldits 2004.10 firstmeeting.

“ObservationGroupforEffectiveUtilizationofOkinotorishima”established bytheNipponFoundationtocentralizeexpertsofdifferentfieldstoinvesti- 2004.11 gatethestatusoftheareafromdifferentperspectives,anddiscussthepossi- bilityofeffectiveutilizationofthe“island”anditssurroundingwaters. nd The22 OceanForum washeldbyOPRF withthetheme “Currentstatus 2004.12 and regeneration of Okinotorishima”,speakers:Terashima Hiroshi and HajimeKayanne.

TheMinistryofLand,Infrastructure,TransportandTourism (MLITT)in- 2004 stalledvideocamerasonsurveillancefacilities. ? How MuchCanaRockGet 33

Renewaltable2 Year Events

“InvestigationGroupforPromotingEconomicActivitiesofOkinotorishima” fundedbyNipponFoundationtostrengthenandimproveeconomicactivities ofOkinotorishima,investigateaquaticorganisms’proliferationstatusthatcan helptheislandregenerationsuchascoral,andthestatusofislandbuilding andexpansion,setupabeacontoinsuremarinetraffic,andtoinvestigatethe 2005.3 feasibilityofpowergeneration by usingoceanthermalenergyconversion technology.Also,accordingtothecontractbetweenMLITTandMinistryof Agriculture,ForestryandFisheriesofJapan,someproposalsweremadesuch astheassumptionthatcoralproliferationpromotestheexpansionofanis- land,andprotectionstrategiesandutilizationprogramsof Okinotorishima werediscussedfromvariousperspectives.

th The25 OceanForum washeldbyOPRF withthethemeas “Wiseuseof Japan’sexclusiveeconomiczones,submarinemineralresources,andOkinoto- 2005.3 rishima”,speakers:Yasuhiko Kakami,Takatoshi Matsuzawa,Tomohiko Fukushima.

2005.4 “RegenerationPlanofOkinotorishima”wasannouncedbyOPRF.

2005.6 GeographicalSurveyInstitute(GSI)setupanelectronicreferencepoint

OPRFreleased “RegenerationInvestigationand Researchon Okinotorishi- 2005 ma”:Analysisofboringcoretechnology;Basicecologicalinvestigationof Foraminifera;Discussionofthelegalstatus

FisheriesAssociationofOgasawara-Shoto,TokyoMetropolisprovidedopera- 2005 tionalsupporttoOkinotorishima,releasedstripedmackerelfishfries,andin- vestigatedfishinggroundsinsurroundingseaarea.

2005 TheMLITTsetupoceanobservationradar.

2005-2006 TokyoMetropolisbuilttheInstructionalShipforFisheriesSurvey“KOYO”.

OPRFcarriedout“Investigationandresearchonmaintenanceandregenera- tionofOkinotorishima”:reorganizedandanalyzedtheinvestigationsonmain- tenanceandregenerationofOkinotorishima;Internationalcomparativestud- 2006-2008 iesaboutislandsstatusand managementmethods;Outreachinvestigations; EcologicalinvestigationsofPacificislandnations;Investigationson manage- mentimplementationofdifferentcountries;andOthers

TheMinistryofAgriculture,ForestryandFisheriescarriedoutresearchon 2006-2008 “TheDevelopmentoftheProliferation MethodsunderAbominableNatural Conditions”andthedevelopmentofthecoralproliferationtechnology. 34 ChinaOceansLaw Review (2011Number1)

Renewaltable3 Year Events TokyoMetropoliscarriedouta“ProjecttoimprovetheutilizationofOkino- torishima”:toinvestigatefishingground;toconstructanartificialfloating 2006- fishreefinmid-layerofdeepwater;tomakeapublic-orientedmovie“Okino- torishima:MiraculousIslands”(2008).

2007.3 ThelightbeaconbuiltbytheMLITTstartedworking.

The“BasicOceanLaw”wasputintoforce:Article26regulatesoffshoreis- 2007.7 landprotection.

2007.11 “OkinotorishimaForum2007”washeldinTokyoMetropolis.

WhitePaperIIoftheMLITT:Chapter6“Constructasafeandpeacefulsoci- ety”,Section4:Crisis managementandsafetyguaranteecountermeasure: Para.4 MarinerightsprotectionofJapan “(4)TheprotectionofOkinotor- ishima:Okinotorishimaislocatedatthesouthmostofourcountry’sterrito- 2008 ry,andisthe mostimportantisland,basedon which wecanestablishover 2 400,000km exclusiveeconomiczone.Itisimportanttoterritoryprotection andutilization,anditisnecessarytodiscuss whetheritshouldbedirectly managedbythenationalgovernmentandwhethercompletemeasuresshould betakentomakethebestuseofit”.

*2008.11 “OkinotorishimaForum2008”washeldinTokyoMetropolis.

JapanadoptedLawforReservationoftheLowTideLineandMaintenanceof *2010.5 FootholdFacilities.

Aplanwasannouncedtobuildadeep waterportinthenext6yearswith *2011.1 $10billionUSDollars.

Source:Translatedfrom OPRF,ResearchReportontheOkinotorishimaRevivalandRe- latedIssues,2008:http://www.sof.or.jp/jp/report/pdf/200903_ISBN978-4-88404-216 -5.pdf. Note:“*”:updatesofthisauthorfromothersourcescitedinthispaper.

(Editors:CAO Ni;CHEN Xiaoshuang)