PUBLIC SECTOR
Public Sector, Vol. 29, (3) 2006
Articles
Developing leadership in the New Zealand public service
New Zealand involvement in local government development in the Solomon Islands
Meeting the challenge: Elements in reducing and managing risk in social work practice
News
Annual prizes awarded at Victoria University’s School of Government for 2006
Volume 28 Number 2 2005 1 Publisher Institute of Public Administration New Zealand. P O Box 5032, Wellington, New Zealand. Phone +64 4 463 6940 PUBLIC Fax: +64 4 463 6939 Email: [email protected]
The whole of the literary matter of Public Sector is copyright ©2006 – IPANZ
Editor SECTOR Allen Petrey 2006 Volume 29 Number 3 ISSN 0110-5191 Layout Hettie Barnard
Editorial Office c/- The Publisher as above Contents
Editorial Committee Articles Tom Berthold Ralph Chapman Developing leadership in the New Zealand public service Chris Eichbaum by Murray Short ...... 2 Geoff Lewis Allen Petrey Gaylia Powell New Zealand involvement in local government development Michael Reid in the Solomon Islands Carol Stigley by Mark Dacombe ...... 8 Advertising Jay Matthes Meeting the challenge: Elements in reducing and managing risk in Phone:+64 4 463 6940 social work practice Fax: +64 4 463 6939 by Rob Laking ...... 15 Email: [email protected]
Scope News IPANZ is committed to promoting in- formed debate on issues already significant in the way New Zealanders govern them- Annual prizes awarded at Victoria University’s School of selves, or which are emerging as issues Government for 2006 ...... 18 calling for decisions on what sorts of laws and management New Zealanders are prepared to accept. Book Review
IPANZ arranges seminars and workshops Roderick Deane: His Life and Times – Michael Bassett and Judith Bassett for people to debate these issues. Much of by Judy Whitcombe ...... 20 this debate is reflected in Public Sector.
Information for Authors Obituary See our web page at www.ipanz.org.nz/pub.html R.F. (Ray) McCullagh BE, FIPENZ, MIEE 1925–2006 ...... 22
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Public Sector Volume 29 Number 3 2006 1 Article
Developing leadership in the New Zealand public service
Murray Short
Leadership Development Centre, Wellington
Introduction Personal Attributes are seen as the underlying indicators of leadership potential and they tend to be more innate and The Leadership Development Centre (the Centre) considers difficult to develop. These include agility of thinking, integrity, that the quality of leadership is critical to the success of ability to connect with people, energy and drive, and personal organisations. Leadership is essentially about aligning people strength and courage. As these are difficult to develop and and action with the purpose and direction of an organisation indicative of potential, the Centre uses them for assessment and creating energy through motivation and inspiration. purposes to, for example, determine who enters the Executive Leadership Programme. The Centre was established to develop leadership capability in the public service and it has been in operation for three years. The Leadership Abilities are strategy forming, culture shaping, The Centre is a Trust run by a Board of Chief Executives senior official nous, managing people, business acumen, elected by the 40 public service and other state agency mem- stakeholder management, cultural sensitivity, and responsive- bers. We offer a range of services to senior managers and the ness to Mäori. These abilities are the focus of development for agencies themselves. the Centre’s programmes and services.
The Centre’s funding comes from agency subscriptions, fees Pathways and Experiences are the variety of life and career for services and events, and government funding of part of experiences that people bring to the leadership role. The the cost of one service, the Executive Leadership Programme1. Profile indicates that there is value in breadth of experience in terms of both varied career paths and other life experience. The Centre has seen a substantial increase in the use of its Experiential learning is also central to the development focus services and as a consequence has expanded its resources to of the Centre’s programmes. match the demand. The Centre now has 16 staff, up from a base of six when it was established. The Profile is therefore an inclusive model of leadership in the sense that it includes the range of management skills and Over the three years of operation, the Centre has grown in its competencies rather than focusing exclusively on leadership understanding of the nature and current state of leadership in aspects. This informs the approach taken by the Centre and the public service, its importance for organisational effective- consequently the term leadership is used throughout this paper ness, and the most effective ways of building leadership in the inclusive sense. The Centre considers that comparing capability. This paper sets out some of those insights. and contrasting the two is not helpful, particularly in terms of development.
We prefer the approach implicit in Mintzberg’s seminal ‘The Nature Leadership in the New Zealand public of Managerial Work’, which includes key leadership behaviours as service part of the management role conferred by hierarchical status.
The Centre develops leadership capability within the context Management is the role which creates suitable conditions for of the Senior Leadership and Management Development organisational and individual performance. It develops and Strategy, which is one stream of the development goals for the communicates purpose, strategies and plans; sets up operating systems state services as expressed by the State Services Commission and conditions; obtains and deploys resources; and operates internal (the SSC)2. As a key part of this Strategy, the SSC developed a and external accountabilities. standard for leadership in the public service, the Leadership Good managers will have a number of leadership qualities so that, Capability Profile (SSC, 2003). The Profile has three main in carrying out their role, they gain alignment and energy from others aspects; Personal Attributes, Leadership Abilities, and Path- (Leadership Development Centre, 2006). ways and Experiences. The Profile is a type of competency model and can be readily aligned with such models, although In the Centre’s view therefore, leadership is part of good the attributes and abilities are described at a higher level. management. It is the set of behaviours good managers use to
2 Public Sector, Volume 29 Number 3 2006 inspire active followership by ensuring that people are aligned When working with managers on their career planning, the with the organisation’s purpose and direction and energised to framework is used to indicate the development emphases fulfil them. The outcome of such management and leadership (based on the Leadership Capability Profile) that flow from is the achievement of results through others; results that their particular career aspirations. So, for example, if a man- exceed what could otherwise be achieved through the contri- ager aspires to lead a large and complex organisation (Organi- bution of individuals. sational leadership) then the greatest emphasis needs to be on the abilities associated with ‘culture shaping’, ‘managing One aspect of leadership that the Profile does not incorporate people’, and ‘business acumen’. In contrast, if they aspire to a is the concept developed by Elliott Jacques (Jacques, 1998) of senior functional leadership role such as in financial manage- different tasks and competencies at different levels of manage- ment then the technical abilities remain an important emphasis. ment. This concept is central to the Australian equivalent of the Profile, the Integrated Leadership System (APSC, 2002) Organisational leaders cannot maintain the technical leadership and the Centre considers it is particularly important in terms role across the increasingly diverse range of functions they of leadership development. become responsible for as they move into more senior posi- tions. Furthermore, all leaders need to be cautious about The concept is that at each level of management the tasks are exercising a direct role even in the area of their own technical different and the timespan over which discretion is exercised expertise because this can have the effect of disempowering increases. This requires different sets of knowledge and skill as those in the organisation who have that function, as illustrated leaders gain experience at the various levels. So for example, in the following passage from a recent article in Harvard first level management is predominantly about managing the Management Update. performance of staff in a 12-month cycle. The skills required include setting expectations, coaching and mentoring, giving Phelps points to a newly appointed manager in a construction feedback, and joint problem solving. In contrast, at senior company who, after being given the results of a 360-degree review, levels there is a 5–10 year cycle of strategy development, was shocked to learn that her direct reports found her demanding and implementation through organisational systems, and increasing unwilling to listen to their ideas. An exceptionally brilliant and focus on external relationship management. talented professional, usually several steps ahead of anyone else she One of the most critical factors in this process is the transition worked with, the woman was accustomed to coming up with the best from ‘doing’ to ‘achieving through others’. It is the Centre’s ideas herself and then making them happen on her own. So, she view that leadership is, in essence, about creating the condi- simply continued that behaviour as a manager, not realizing she was tions that enable others to achieve – the larger and more stepping on team members’ toes – and making them feel incompetent complex the organisational context, the more actual results are (Field, 2006). achieved through others. This will vary with the nature and This is reinforced in another article that describes how a new size of the organisation and the Centre has developed the Chief Executive Officer must learn to manage organisational following framework to illustrate this.
Public Sector Volume 29 Number 3 2006 3 context and move away from the focus on daily operations, between objectives, vaguer personal accountability, a need for which is described as a ‘jarring transition’. The article suggests more integrative and collaborative behaviour, and higher that for the successful operation of the organisation, the leader concern with risk avoidance that may affect innovation and ‘…needs to learn how to act in indirect ways – setting and entrepreneurship. communicating strategy, putting sound processes in place, selecting and mentoring key people – to create the conditions The importance of good leadership that will help others make the right choices.’ (Porter et al, 2002) The recently published Career Progression and Development If the leader retains direct involvement in the ‘doing’ then it is Survey, 2005 (SSC, 2005) highlights that effective management also likely that the real leadership role will be neglected. A is amongst the three most important factors that motivate significant portion of leaders’ time needs to be devoted to public servants. Of the 5235 public servants surveyed, 84 per developing their team through coaching, mentoring, providing cent rated effective management as ‘highly important’. When feedback ,and generally building capability. Professor Malcolm asked what management functions were important to them Higgs3, in a conversation at a recent Centre seminar, com- they identified effective communication, being allowed mented that in recent research at Henley Management College, freedom to use their initiative, and being encouraged to have it was noted that effective managers spend up to 60 per cent input into decisions that affected them. of their time developing others (using development in its broadest sense). Because of demographic and other trends (Khawaja, 2006) that are resulting in increasing skill shortages and intensified Central to the organisation are its people and a critical aspect competition for staff, the ability of organisations to recruit and of leadership is about building the ‘social capital’ which has retain staff is becoming increasingly important. Organisations been described as the softer side of the organisation, ‘…the that are attractive to employees will succeed in recruiting and informal networks, accumulated know-how, mutual retaining talent, and leaders are ultimately responsible for understandings, and trust that make organisations effective’ creating the conditions that attract. It is clear therefore that the (MacMillan, 2006). Social capital is seen as making organisa- quality of leadership is going to be increasingly critical to tions more effective because: organisational capability. • Conflicts arise less frequently because people trust one another, have Leadership is also important for maintaining organisational learned to work together, and share common goals. When conflict productivity and effectiveness. The Centre considers that the does occur, it doesn’t fester. People get it on the table and resolve it, two key effects of good leadership are ‘…that people are and they get back to work. aligned to purposes or goals espoused by the leader and are • Operational issues can be handled at lower levels because manage- energised to pursue them’ (Leadership Development Centre, ment can trust employees to do the right things. 2006). Alignment involves linking the people and their roles and activities to the purpose and direction of the organisation. • Problem solving is faster because of trust and common goals. Energising is achieved through motivating and inspiring people and has been described as helping to tap into the discretionary • The company enjoys leadership continuity and low turnover thanks effort that people are capable of when highly motivated to do to long-term employment and a policy of promoting from within. so. This is particularly important with knowledge workers who • People know how and where to get help when they need it, and don’t have more discretion than those in more ‘production line’ feel obliged to ask for permission to act when they see things that environments (Patterson et al, 1996). need fixing. Alignment to common purpose creates energy on its own, but • Employees enjoy job security. Consequently, there’s less ‘looking out good leaders galvanise above and beyond this. Some leaders for No. 1’ and much greater attention to the common good. generate energy by sheer force of personality, others by (MacMillan, 2006) compelling communication of purpose, caring for people and generating a sense of belonging, or building energetic teams, Leadership then, in the public service as elsewhere, is in and there are many combinations of these and other behav- essence about achieving through others. This requires a high iours. The Centre considers that there is a common core of degree of what has been described as ‘emotional intelligence’ good leadership behaviours, but that beyond this there are – the mix of self awareness and awareness of others that situational and personal differences which mean that a wide provides the essential ability to connect with people, motivate range of different and even contrasting behaviours can still and inspire (Cherniss, 2001). constitute effective leadership.
There are differences between the public and private sectors Perhaps for this reason, much about the nature of effective which affect how leadership operates. This paper does not leadership is contested (Grint, 2005). However, the Centre address this matter in any detail but the most important believes that good leadership achieves results that are more differences are: the political context and the challenges it than the sum of individual contributions, and forges the imposes on leadership; pursuit of public good; cross- pursuit of goals stretched above and beyond the ordinary. This organisation, cross-sector and all of government is why there is widespread agreement that good leadership is interdependencies; and public accountability. The implications critically important to the successful functioning of of these differences include greater ambiguity and conflict organisations.
4 Public Sector, Volume 29 Number 3 2006 The state of leadership • Effective communication There is evidence of considerable room for improvement in • Managerial expertise. the quality of leadership and management in the public These conclusions are similar to those reached by the SSC in service. The Career Progression and Development Survey is an analysis of chief executive appointments. That analysis led one source of such evidence. As indicated above, a high the then State Services Commissioner, in a speech for Ministry proportion of those surveyed rated effective management as of Social Development Senior Managers in 2003, to conclude highly important; but only 27 per cent rated their organisation that, ‘…what was emerging was a Public Service leadership as good at providing it. When asked how they rated their that was brainy, understood their way around Wellington (the experience of management functions that were important to political context), could do the stakeholder relationship thing them, a negative picture emerged, as highlighted in the (although mainly in a Wellington context) and were enthusias- following conclusion: tic and committed to the job. But they were poorly equipped to In rating their managers against a number of management support be managers of their organisations’ (Wintringham, 2003). factors, respondents did not give high ratings. Of the nine factors surveyed, only five were rated ‘Good’ by more than 40 per cent of It has also been the experience of the Centre over the past public servants. three years that senior managers struggle to commit time to their own development. There is a relatively high rate of Qualitative information showed that some respondents felt that a absence on the day, of those registered to attend our seminars lack of management support had made it difficult for them to and clinics. Attendance at Action Learning Group4 sessions, develop their careers. Many staff commented on poor management in which are universally regarded by participants as highly general. A few public servants felt their managers did not fully valuable, still runs at about 60 per cent. The strong impression understand or recognise their work and ideas. Some public servants the Centre has gained is that there is a ‘culture of busyness’ in perceived that managers were unsupportive or uninterested in which the critical role of a leader as learner and developer is advancing their careers, sometimes because managers were too busy given relatively low priority. with their own work. Other staff indicated a lack of positive feedback or opportunities to develop. Not having performance reviews This is particularly important because of the effect of what or regular feedback on performance was part of this. A small they are modelling. If they are not spending time and effort on number of public servants reported they had experienced bullying development then it is likely that neither will their teams. behaviour by their manager (SSC, 2006, p. 50). Without ongoing development it is also likely that leaders will need to spend time in more detailed involvement, monitoring Other research reinforces these conclusions and also indicates and quality control of the work of their team than would that the problem is not confined to the public service. A otherwise be the case. This may then limit the time they can Hudson Report that highlighted the importance of people spend on development and become a vicious cycle that is management describes research across 17 sectors in New difficult to break from. Zealand, including Government, that revealed only 17.3 per cent of the 1500 employers surveyed rated people manage- The conclusion from this analysis is that public service leaders ment as the most effective aspect of their leaders (Hudson, have some of the attributes that indicate leadership potential. 2005, p. 7). A recent article in Management identifies three other They are well developed in some specific areas, but in the research studies that indicate management in New Zealand is aspects of leadership and management that ensure effective performing below par, and it quotes Doug Matheson as saying: achievement through others they are not strong. ‘…many of New Zealand’s managers are not achieving the potential of the organisations they lead’ (Birchfield, 2006). In the absence of research we can only speculate why this may be. Perhaps the nature of public service work, which is largely From the Centre’s own experience with the results of some knowledge work, makes the transition into leadership more 100 leadership assessments to date, public service senior difficult because leaders find it more difficult to let go of the leadership is characterised by the following strengths and ‘doing’. Perhaps there are expectations (including from weaknesses: Ministers) that the most senior leaders be technical experts as well as organisational leaders in a way that is different from Strengths other sectors. However, whatever the cause, there is clearly a • Intellectual capacity strong case for investment in leadership development. • Commitment • Stakeholder relationship management Development approach • Understanding of the political-cultural context There are a number of propositions that underpin the Centre’s approach to development:
Weaknesses 1. People can learn by doing and this is more likely when • Strategic leadership action is followed by reflection in a learning cycle. The model we use is the experiential learning cycle developed • People management by Kolb (Kolb, 1984). Our development approach is
Public Sector Volume 29 Number 3 2006 5 therefore designed to encourage structured application of brief is to encourage consistency with the leadership standard learning back on the job and, equally, reflection (off the as expressed in the Leadership Capability Profile. The other job) on ongoing experience. An example of this is that for critical part of the brief is to help ensure that leaders develop our Leadership in Practice Programme5, there is a 5-day the necessary sets of skills at the appropriate stages and thus residential component followed by 9 months of participa- make the transition into leadership successfully. tion in a peer learning group to assist the process of applying learning and reflecting on experience.
2. Some form of competency model is necessary as a basis Conclusion for identifying what knowledge and skill is required and therefore what needs to be developed. The Leadership The Leadership Development Centre considers that the quality Capability Profile serves this purpose, augmented by the of leadership is critical to organisational capability and use of a more detailed competency model when working effectiveness. In our view, good leadership includes all the with individuals. essential disciplines of management together with an ability to breathe life into management by aligning people and energising 3. Self awareness, motivation and ability to learn are them to pursue purpose and direction. This requires of the important. Based on their research into leadership over leader a particularly highly developed ‘emotional intelligence’ many years, an American company, Lominger Ltd, suggest that includes self awareness and a commitment and ability to that if there is a ‘silver bullet’ that guarantees a leader’s learn. success it is the ability to recognise, then learn to do what you don’t know (Lombardo & Eichinger, 2002, p. 58). There is currently room for improvement in the quality of leadership and the Centre considers that leadership skills can 4. Learning comes from multiple development vehicles. be developed. Critical to progress however is the ability of Lominger Ltd estimate that leadership is developed: leaders to commit time and effort to both their own develop- ment and developing others. At present there are signs this is not given the priority it requires to contribute to leadership • 70 per cent through on-the-job experience, working effectiveness. on real tasks and problems;
• 20 per cent through feedback, reflection on experi- ence and observing others both good and bad; and Acknowledgement • 10 per cent through formal study, courses and The author gratefully acknowledges the assistance of Bruce reading. (Lombardo & Eichinger, 2002, p. 114). Anderson, Alan Cassidy, and Shahla Motadel in the prepara- The Centre’s development planning with individuals tion of this article. therefore includes a wide range of options such as targeted learning from experience, coaching, mentoring, peer learning, and various forms of study. References 5. Evaluation of progress and results needs to be an integral part of development. The Centre’s approach to evaluation APSC (Australian Public Service Commission) (2004), Integrated is informed by the four-level evaluation model developed Leadership System. APSC, Canberra. by Kirkpatrick. Level one measures learners’ satisfaction with the training, level two the knowledge that is acquired, Birchfield, Reg (2006), “A Sorry State: Studies Reveal the level three the extent to which behaviour is changed by the Troubling Truth About Local Management”, Management, Vol. learning, and level four whether there have been organisa- 53, No. 5. tional results from the learning (Kirkpatrick, 1998). Our experience is that evidence at level four is particularly Cherniss, Cary & Goleman, Daniel (eds) (2001), The Emotion- difficult to identify but we are committed to trying to ally Intelligent Workplace. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. measure at that level, as well as the other levels where Field, Anne (2006), “Moving Managers from ‘Me’ to ‘We’”, evidence is more readily accessible. Harvard Management Update, Vol. 11, No. 4. Because of the importance of experience in leadership development, particularly in the transitions through different Grint, Keith (2005), Leadership: Limits and Possibilities. Hamp- levels of management, the Centre’s view is that there are many shire: Palgrave, Macmillan. pathways to leadership but very few shortcuts. Leadership development needs to start early in a career. Hudson (2005), “Leadership Development in the Workplace”, The Hudson Report, January–June 2005. Although the Centre is focused on development of senior leaders, it also has a brief to assist agencies to develop leader- Jacques, Elliott (1998), Requisite Organisation. Arlington: Cason ship programmes that are designed to manage the transition of Hall & Co. leaders from first level management onwards. Part of that
6 Public Sector, Volume 29 Number 3 2006 Khawaja, Mansoor (2006), New Zealand’s Population Future: SSC, Wellington. Dynamics, Diversity and Policy Implications. Unpublished presenta- tion to the Leadership Development Centre. Wintringham, Michael (2003), Speech for the Ministry of Social Development Leadership Group Meeting, 17 July 2003, Kirkpatrick, Donald (1998), Evaluating Training Programs: The Wellington. Four Levels, 2nd edition. USA: Berrett-Koehler.
Kolb, David (1984), Experiential Learning: Experience as the Source Notes of Learning and Development. USA: Prentice Hall Inc. 1 The Executive Leadership Programme is for senior Leadership Development Centre (2006), What is Leadership? managers and involves an initial assessment and then a Wellington. Available from http://www.ldc.govt.nz range of development activities designed to address identified development needs over a period of up to five Lombardo, Michael M. & Eichinger, Robert W. (2002), The years. Leadership Machine: Architecture to Develop Leaders for Any Future. 2 The relevant goal for the state services is ‘Excellent State Minneapolis: Lominger. servants – Develop a strong culture of constant learning in the pursuit of excellence’. MacMillan, Whitney (2006), “The Power of Social Capital”, Harvard Management Update, Vol. 11, No. 6. 3 Professor Malcolm Higgs is on the faculty of Henley Management College and has published several articles Patterson, Kerry, Grenny, Joseph, McMillan, Ron & Switzler, and books, particularly on emotional intelligence. Al (1996), The Balancing Act: Mastering the Competing Demands of Leadership. Ohio: Thomson Executive Press. 4 Action Learning Groups are small groups of peers with a facilitator that identify, reflect on and problem-solve real Porter, Michael E., Lorsch, Jay W. & Nohria, Nitin (2002), leadership issues brought to the group by members. “Seven Surprises for New CEOs”, Harvard Business Review, Vol. 5 82, No. 10, p. 72. The Leadership in Practice Programme involves an intensive 5-day residential period in groups limited to 16 SSC (State Services Commission) (2003), The Leadership and uses a mix of high profile international leadership Capability Profile. SSC, Wellington. experts and local Chief Executives. This is followed by Available from http://www.ldc.govt.nz nine months of peer learning.
SSC (State Services Commission) (2006), Career Progression and Development Survey 2005 Results for the New Zealand Public Service.
Murray Short has been a Relationship Manager at the Leadership Development Centre since 2003. Murray had 15 years experience as a general manager before this and over that time was responsible for leading the Courts and Collections Business Units and the Probation Service.
Murray has a Master of Arts degree from Victoria University of Wellington and has completed management programmes with Henley, Oxford, and the Federal Executive Institute (USA). He is a past President of IPANZ.
Public Sector Volume 29 Number 3 2006 7 Article
New Zealand involvement in local government development in the Solomon Islands
Mark Dacombe
Kapiti Coast District Council, New Zealand
Solomon Islands is a Melanesian country with a mainly rural population of about 450,000, spread across 15 main islands and many smaller ones. The population is ethnically and linguistically very diverse. Honiara is the national capital of the Solomon Islands, and is situated on the north coast of the large island of Guadalcanal. Honiara has a population of about 50,000 people although some say that this could be quite a bit higher as there is substantial migration from the rural areas. It is estimated that one wage earner in the city supports 25 people. Solomon Islands is a constitutional monarchy and a member of the British Commonwealth of Nations. It is a unitary state with a structure of government comprising central government, nine Provincial Governments, Honiara City Council (with its own Act of Parliament) and one town council (Noro). Not only does the City Council have its own Act but ministerial responsibility rests with a separate minister, the Minister of Home Affairs and his department while the provinces are overseen by the Minister of Provincial Affairs and his department. The City Council comprises 12 elected members (from which a Mayor and Deputy Mayor are appointed) together with 4 members appointed by the Minister (one of whom must be from Guadalcanal), the members of Parliament who represent Honiara City, and the Premier of Guadalcanal. The non-elected members are described in the Act as ex officio and do not vote. Editor
Introduction New Zealand involvement in Solomon Islands development International development is not an activity that immediately springs to mind when one thinks of New Zealand local New Zealand has been formally involved in the development government. International connections are most usually of the Solomon Islands since 1972. This long-term relation- thought of in the context of Sister Cities and promoting trade, ship has taken the form of a bilateral programme that started educational and cultural exchanges with countries in Asia, with a budget of NZ$16,500 rising to the current level of Europe and the USA. more than NZ$16m out of a total annual aid budget for Pacific nations of NZ$122m. The work plan of Local Government New Zealand (LGNZ) has a small output area that aims to encourage New Zealand The vision for New Zealand’s involvement in the Solomon local government to ‘contribute to the building of capacity in Islands is: local government in the Pacific, in partnership with the To empower the government of the Solomon Islands and Solomon Ministry of Foreign Affairs and the Commonwealth’. Under Islanders to create an environment conducive for economic recovery this umbrella the Kapiti Coast District Council (KCDC) has and growth, and for addressing basic social needs.1 been involved in a programme providing support to the Honiara City Council in the Solomon Islands since February From 1998 to 2003 the Solomon Islands suffered civil unrest. 2005. In June 2003 the Australian Government, with the support of the New Zealand Government, offered to provide police and This article covers the involvement of New Zealand in the military forces to assist the Solomon Islands Government Solomon Islands, the role of the Commonwealth Local restore law and order as well as provide increased development Government Forum, a background to the Honiara City assistance for economic recovery. The Regional Assistance Council project, and discussion on the role of local govern- Mission to Solomon Islands (RAMSI) arrived in July 2003. ment in the development project. This mission involved eight Pacific nations2 including Australia
8 Public Sector, Volume 29 Number 3 2006 and New Zealand. In June 2006, police and other officials 1998 to 2003 was focused on Honiara and the surrounding from 11 Pacific nations3 were serving in Solomon Islands. areas of Guadalcanal, and during this period the City Council collapsed and its assets were plundered. The Council was As a result of the unrest, New Zealand assistance was dismissed by the Minister of Home Affairs following an audit refocused on humanitarian and conflict resolution needs. In that was critical of its stewardship and an authority (the close consultation with the Solomon Islands Government the Competent Authority), representative of the ethnic mix of principal investment area has been determined to be the Solomon Islands, was appointed. The Competent Authority primary education sector, with the overall strategy including was charged with rebuilding the institution, regaining public the following goals: confidence, and preparing for democratic elections.
Education: support Solomon Islands Government (SIGOV) The City Council is dealing with rapid urbanisation and high to achieve universal primary education for all children and to community expectations but with inadequate resources. It has eliminate gender disparity at all levels of education by 2015; a staff of about 200 and is responsible for normal local government functions but also for the running of 12 schools Economic governance: assist SIGOV restore fiscal and and the employment of teachers. The City Council also runs a financial stability, reform the public sector, and rebuild the health department responsible for primary health care through infrastructure required to support the productive sector; seven clinics. Urban planning has been largely nonexistent and Law and order: support SIGOV to restore the rule of law infrastructure is run down. and to normalise the rule of law and security situation; The riots of April 2006 were a further setback, not only in Capacity building: provide SIGOV with flexible resources to community and political relationships but also with the loss of identify the human resource needs of the country and to 50–70 per cent of the City Council’s revenue base. develop initiatives to build the necessary capacity;
Sustainable livelihoods: support SIGOV to revitalise the Partnership for development productive sectors of the economy including the development NZAID and CLGF are clearly two key agencies in the drive of sustainable and rural livelihood opportunities.4 for improved governance and service delivery at the local level in the Pacific. Given the establishment of the CLGF Pacific Commonwealth Local Government Forum Project they were the logical agencies for the Solomon Islands Government to approach in 2004 when seeking assistance to The Commonwealth Local Government Forum (CLGF) was restore city government in Honiara. The focus of the RAMSI created in 1995 as the result of deliberations of the Common- activities had been on the restoration of law and order and on wealth Heads of Government Meeting held in Auckland that the re-establishment of the machinery of government at a year. The mission of CLGF is essentially to act as a catalyst for central level. The efforts of AusAID had been on supporting action on local democracy in the Commonwealth. The CLGF central government departments, particularly the Ministry of does this by undertaking programmes and projects, developing Finance and the Department of Lands and Survey. AUSAID good practice guidelines, undertaking research and providing were starting to focus some attention on financial management information on innovation, and other activities that support in the provincial governments and had funded a financial the development of democratic values and good governance. adviser in the Honiara City Council for about a year. But there was no integrated plan of support for the Honiara City The Board of CLGF comprises 14 members including the New Council and no specific mention of it in the SIGOV National Zealand Minister for Local Government and the President of Economic Recovery, Reform and Development Plan other LGNZ. CLGF runs a formal Pacific-wide programme funded by than in the context of the development of a federal system of the New Zealand Agency for International Development government with maximum devolvement of functions. (NZAID), Australian Agency for International Development (AusAID), the Commonwealth Secretariat, and United Nations Following an initial approach to CLGF, a scoping mission to agencies. The programme involves a variety of activities, includ- Honiara was undertaken by the CLGF and the Papua New ing mapping and status reviews, community education and Guinea Urban Local Level Government Association sensitisation, advocacy for broader representation in local (PNGULLA), a CLGF member. The purpose of that mission government (in particular women) and for a strong role for local was to determine the opportunities for maximum engagement government at national and regional levels, research/case studies of Solomon Islands local government in the CLGF Pacific of good practice and communication, capacity development and Project and to ascertain how the Pacific Project could comple- technical assistance across several spectrums, and mechanisms ment other decentralisation/local government/community for improved regional cooperation. development initiatives in the country. The mission made a number of recommendations to assist the City Council but the principal outcome was agreement that a second broader Honiara City Council mission was required.
Honiara is the national capital of the Solomon Islands. It is This mission assisted the Solomon Islands’ Minister of Home situated on the island of Guadalcanal and has a population of Affairs to be quite specific in the assistance that he sought to approximately 50,000. Much of the unrest during the period strengthen local government; particularly capacity building and
Public Sector Volume 29 Number 3 2006 9 institutional development for Honiara City Council in the key Honiara City Council, based on regional cooperation and in areas of governing structures, review of enabling legislation, particular close working relationships with KCDC and MCC. town planning, and institutional rebuilding. The Minister recognised that a functioning City Council providing good The first year of the programme was approved by NZAID quality services, enabling effective urban planning and address- and funding totalling about NZ$1.4m was provided. Support ing the social issues associated with rapid population growth is for the following four years was provided in principle, subject a necessary, if not critical, contributor to economic recovery to independent review of the programme design, particularly and the restoration of social harmony. in relation to the roles, expectations and relationships of all the parties involved, the management framework and lines of A second mission followed in February 2005. This mission was accountability, and the locus of ownership and responsibility. conducted in accordance with CLGF philosophy by a multi- disciplinary team led by CLGF and drawn from member The project is to be implemented jointly by the Honiara City organisations including PNGULLA and LGNZ. The team also Council and the CLGF. The SIGOV Department of Home included people from Maryborough City Council (MCC) in Affairs provides support to the management of the project Queensland and United Nations Centre for Human Settle- and appropriate oversight. ments (UNHabitat). Building capacity and transferring skills through two-way The overall conclusion of the second mission was that the City professional peer relationships and ensuring that the appropri- Council, the appointed authority (Competent Authority) ate ‘tools of trade’ are in place at all levels to deliver services is running it and Council management were operating under considered essential to the sustainability of the project. difficult and constraining circumstances, most of which were The CLGF’s strategic approach to local government capacity outside their control. The mission also concluded: ‘…that the building across the Pacific is to involve regional partners in the Council currently lacks the capacity to deliver basic services to development and implementation of projects. In this case the a satisfactory level and to meet community and national 5 key partners are LGNZ (principally through KCDC) and expectations. ’ MCC. There are a number of other stakeholders in the project The report made approximately 40 recommendations, all of and their interest and involvement is managed by CLGF. which were formally adopted by the Honiara City Competent The project goal and objectives have been developed through Authority on 19 May 2005. extensive discussions with the Competent Authority, Council The report essentially established the framework for a long- management, and other stakeholders. They focus on four main term commitment of partners to the restoration of city areas of city management. These are: building management government in Honiara. It was apparent that a long-term capacity; improving basic services; urban planning and devel- project would take some time to construct, and in the mean- opment control; and good governance. The Competent time expectations had been raised that there would be action Authority and Department of Home Affairs made it clear that within a reasonable time. the first priority is management capacity and that is where the initial work has been focused. It was agreed with NZAID that, while the long-term project was being developed, an interim assistance project (IAP) would The project does not involve major interventions in the be commissioned to carry out some urgent tasks and begin the Council’s health and education services. These are being implementation of the mission’s recommendations. This was handled relatively well with good support from SIGOV conducted in May–June 2005 and again, in accordance with Departments and development partners. CLGF’s philosophy, comprised a multidisciplinary team drawn The Project Goal is: ‘To bring about sustainable improvements from partner organisations. It was led by LGNZ (through the in quality of life for the citizens of the City of Honiara chief executive of KCDC) and included MCC, Association of through sound city management, improved local services, Local Government Engineering New Zealand Incorporated planned urban development and good governance.’ (INGENIUM), UN Habitat, and CLGF. The IAP focused on the general management functions of the Council, particularly There are five components: the capacity of the City Clerk’s office, the need for improved management of the landfill and refuse collection, and some 1. To strengthen management capacity and processes; preliminary work on the development of a local planning 2. To improve the quality and the delivery of essential scheme. This mission was the longest undertaken to that point services; and accordingly enabled a strengthening of personal relation- ships and trust between the partners. It also coincided with the 3. To ensure coordinated and well-planned urban appointment of a new Honiara City Clerk, so the critical development; relationship between City Council management and the project partners was able to be cemented at an early stage. 4. To promote good governance and good democracy; and
Following the IAP, the CLGF prepared a draft proposal for a 5. To manage the project effectively and in the City’s best three to five year institutional strengthening partnership with interests.
10 Public Sector, Volume 29 Number 3 2006 Progress so far? appointments: Director of Corporate Services, Financial Adviser, planning technical adviser, and an engineer under the Sustainable improvements will take time and the project is still Australian Volunteer International (AVI) scheme. With these in its establishment phase. Nevertheless, it is useful to have a people in place the feeling is that real progress can be made, look at the situation that arose from the riots that followed the bearing in mind that the role of these expatriates is principally election of a new Prime Minister and Government in April to assist Solomon Island counterparts to develop the skills 2006. The fragility of the Solomon Islands state is thrown into necessary to ultimately take over the roles. sharp relief by the events of 18 and 19 April. The election of Snyder Rini as Prime Minister culminated in a week of It is early days, but the focus on Chinatown has tentatively demonstrations and violence that saw the destruction of a shown positive returns on the project investment in human substantial part of Chinatown and of other Chinese interests capital, supporting and developing the people; social capital, in Honiara. Had this happened a year earlier there would have the development of open and trusting relationships; and been almost no capacity in the Honiara City Council to deal financial capital, the strengthening of revenue systems. with the aftermath. The report of the second CLGF mission Although it had been identified previously, the riots reinforced noted: ‘the Council is not equipped with the human and the need to work with youth and more effectively deal with material capacity necessary to bring back services to an economic development, education, health, and the housing and acceptable standard…’6 other infrastructure issues of rapid urbanisation. This is work in progress. The immediate law and order situation in April 2006 was dealt with by the intervention of Australian and New Zealand The response to the April 2006 riots demonstrates some initial military and police. The Council was then able to follow positive returns from the Honiara City Council Capacity through with the establishment of a task force to plan and Development Project and shows that it is people-centred, organise the clean-up of the areas of the City that had been integrated, and dynamic. destroyed by the rioters. The task force was a multi-agency The project was conceived in response to an approach from group chaired by a Member of the Competent Authority. It the SIGOV. It was developed in close consultation with the was able to marshal the resources of central government Department of Home Affairs and the Honiara City Compe- agencies, representatives of the diplomatic community, and the tent Authority Chair and the City Clerk. The City Clerk was private sector to undertake the clean-up and safely dispose of actually a member of the review team and all conclusions were the debris. worked through with him until he was comfortable to support Concurrently with the organising of the clean-up the Council them. was able to begin the planning for the rebuilding of the The Competent Authority was briefed during the second destroyed areas. Discussions were started with the Solomon mission and, over two meetings in May and June 2005, the Islands Chinese Association and agreement reached that recommendations that form the core of the project were redevelopment had to be planned, of a quality appropriate to worked through and formally adopted. The Department of the culture of the Chinese in Melanesia and in particular the National Planning and Aid Co-ordination has been briefed capital city of Honiara, and that illegal rebuilding would be throughout the process and an introduction made to the team stopped. Agreement was reached, in short order, with the new starting the review of the National Economic Recovery and Minister of Lands on appointments to the Town and Country 7 Reform and Development Plan. This allows the City Council Planning Board, a process that had previously stalled, and strategic planning work to dovetail with national planning. submissions were made to development partners for additional professional support in the areas of town planning and At a meeting held on 15 May 2006, the new Minister of Lands, building inspection to provide the necessary expertise to Rev. Leslie Boseto, addressed the newly appointed members of support an effective recovery. the Honiara Town and Country Planning Board. He said that The destruction of Chinatown has quite drastic implications the new SIGOV was looking forward to the Board delivering a for the revenue base of the City Council. The shortfall in the new Local Planning Scheme providing for consistency and Council revenue for 2006 is expected to be about SB$1m continuity of comprehensive planning policy that has broad resulting directly from the riot impact. The Council has been community agreement. He said he wanted to see the Board able to conduct negotiations with the government on budget quickly prepare the part of the scheme that would provide for support and secure its commitment on the collection of a the redevelopment of Chinatown in a manner that was based further significant revenue stream that had previously been on quality analysis, economic and social evidence, sound urban stalled, the basic rate or head tax collected by employers. planning principles, and respect for existing property owners, but in a manner that ensures a repeat of the destruction is Adversity has been a catalyst for action. This action, both in its avoided and provides for the participation of Solomon considered approach and also the resources that have been Islanders in business in Honiara. mustered, has been supported by the comprehensive approach taken to strengthen the City Council. The specific actions The significance of this guidance is that it provides a clear taken within the framework of the project that have enabled high-level framework for the support to the City Council in the this higher level of activity include a number of key planning area.
Public Sector Volume 29 Number 3 2006 11 Although the project is in its early stages it is clear that as the • Governing structure and review of Honiara City Act, institutions of democracy at a local level and the Council 1999 organisation are strengthened, the foundation will be created for the local government to support and in some cases lead • Preparation of a Local Planning Scheme for Honiara initiatives to address the social and economic issues that allow • Assessment of the institutional needs of the Council ongoing unrest and ethnic and political tension. organisation. A feature of the development of the project has been the co- Given the immediate pressures to deliver improvements in operation between two key development partner agencies. service delivery this is a logical approach. However the United Initially AUSAID funded a financial adviser to be placed in the Nations Development Programme (UNDP) report, Emerging City Council organisation. The early successes from that Priorities in Preventing Future Violent Conflict (2004) poses the arrangement were around investment in core financial systems question: ‘how would the structure and processes of donor and some initial training of local staff, together with an and government activities change if they were modified to fit assessment of staffing and other support needs. The arrange- traditional structures?’ The answer that the UNDP provides is, ment faltered later because it lacked a comprehensive frame- ‘Quite fundamentally…’ work or a support network. They do not go on to suggest a preferred approach, however Subsequently, as the CLGF project has been developed, there they do note that the issue is complex because the Solomon has been close communication between project team members, Islands’ population is very diverse ethnically and culturally and NZAID and AusAID, which has ensured that the efforts of the traditional structures are not static over time. They also note two development partners are coordinated and integrated in the that there are problems of ‘manipulation’ and ‘distortion’ of CLGF project. As part of the actual project implementation traditional practices. Some examples of this were evident there have been briefings for other potential development during the ethnic tensions, particularly around such issues as partners by the City Clerk and project advisers. At this stage, compensation. other than European Union funding for the Chinatown clean-up, there has not been direct involvement by other potential develop- The Council that was dissolved in 2004 was removed as a ment partners in the project. In addition, the officials of develop- result of allegations of corruption. It is not suggested that this ment partners based in Solomon Islands meet regularly and was justified in any way in the context of traditional exchange information on their respective activities. approaches. It is clear however that there is a great deal of concern that the next election will return people who were From the beginning of the review it was apparent that if implicated in the previous plundering of the Council sustainable improvements were to be achieved then the resources. partners would need to be involved for a long period. At the early stages of development there was a high level of One way of addressing this is to ensure there are formal and scepticism that suggested this would be yet another exercise effective controls in place and mechanisms to ensure transpar- that would produce a report that would sit on the shelves and ency. The latter would be enhanced by greater community the reviewers would go away and never be seen again. Regular involvement in the activities of the Council. visits by project team members and a clear indication of support both from the New Zealand High Commissioner in A stronger institutional base could see the City Council Honiara and NZAID has started to build trust and confidence facilitating the development of approaches which involve the of commitment to ensuring that project outcomes are community in decision-making processes that effectively sustainable. devolve authority to appropriate community structures that could include traditional structures. Such an approach could ensure an amalgam of the best features of traditional ap- proaches with more formal local government. New Zealand Local Government involvement has considerable experience to contribute in this area. The in development projects development of the Local Planning Scheme (LPS) and the establishment of a public waste collection and processing Is the institution of local government appropriate as an service would be two activities that would lend themselves to instrument in the development process? this approach. Some steps have been taken in designing the LPS process to provide for this, however, there is some way to The CLGF considers the legitimacy of the formal local go to build the trust and credibility on which such an approach government structure as an instrument to deliver local level would need to be founded. governance as a given. Indeed the Report of the Technical Partnership Mission (2005) notes: ‘the intrinsic values of demo- The second aspect of local government involvement is the cratic local government and Solomon islands society under- participation of Councils in the home countries of develop- pinned the analysis and subsequent recommendations’. ment partners.
This view is clearly relevant to the three areas of the operating The main Council partners in the Honiara project are KCDC environment that were required in terms of the overall in New Zealand and MCC in Queensland. Each has different purpose of the project: motivations for involvement. KCDC is involved in the context of
12 Public Sector, Volume 29 Number 3 2006 making a contribution to the international commitments of The risk for the project is that the approach is vulnerable to a LGNZ and because of the importance of the Pacific Islands number of different people with different ideas passing community in the Wellington Region. MCC is involved because it through Honiara and perhaps giving conflicting signals and values its historical association with the Solomon Islands and contrary points of view. Although this is a real risk it is wants to build on that as part of the cultural context for city considered that with tight specification of assignments, development. managing with clear objectives (via the strategic plan and a work plan), a detailed Terms of Reference for each assignment The particular benefits that the KCDC sees in its involvement linked to the overall programme, and well briefed people, the are: risk is manageable. Careful selection of people with ideals consistent with the project philosophy is also important. 1. Contribution to LGNZ which is a membership organisa- tion relying substantially on voluntary contributions to its The SIGOV announced that elections for a new Honiara City work programme; Council were held on 23 August. The City Clerk has been moved to the position of Permanent Secretary of the Ministry 2. Contribution to New Zealand’s international obligations in of Infrastructure. There are obvious risks as these changes the Pacific; and take place but there is optimism that the steps that have been 3. Professional development opportunities for professional taken so far and the resources that have been made available and technical staff. will assist to ensure a smooth transition and continuing improvement in the capacity of the City Council to fulfil its The professional development benefits are tangible. Being very important role. involved in an overseas development project provides the opportunity to: manage in a global environment, develop the skills necessary to work across cultures, work outside one’s Conclusions comfort zone, look at things differently, and develop innova- tive approaches to make the most of limited resources. To date, New Zealand local government involvement in international development has not been extensive. The The main challenge the KCDC has faced is concern expressed experience of the Kapiti Coast District Council in working by some residents that resources are being spent on activities with the Honiara City Council has been positive from the that have no direct benefit to local ratepayers. As a recent perspectives of both parties and may encourage other local letter to the Mayor put it: ‘how much of the ratepayer’s hard governments to consider making a contribution in the Pacific, earned funds have been spent to send the chief executive to particularly when they have some direct interest through local the Solomon Islands to act as some white Bwana come to save Pacific communities. them’. The personal satisfaction of assisting people with few of the The cost to ratepayers has, in fact, been minimal. The KCDC resources that we in New Zealand take for granted is ex- has contributed some of the time of its chief executive as its tremely rewarding. contribution to the LGNZ work programme. The chief executive has contributed all of his professional development activity for the last two years and some of his annual leave entitlement. The direct costs of travel and accommodation have been met through the CLGF contract with NZAID. Acknowledgements
Recent events in the Solomon Islands and their coverage in the This article draws on the work of Mr Terry Parker, Regional news media have raised awareness in the community of the Coordinator, Commonwealth Local Government Forum, Suva issues being faced by that country. This has resulted in a level whose commitment to local democracy in the Pacific is of support by the news media of the KCDC’s involvement inspirational; Ms Rebecca Spratt, NZAID, Wellington who has and that has been helpful in maintaining political support. strongly supported the partnership approach; and Mr Peter Hauia, Former City Clerk, Honiara City Council whose vision, From the perspective of the Honiara City Council the involve- commitment and unfailing good humour in the face of ment of the two councils has given them access to local adversity has been the critical factor in making progress on this government practitioners who are operating successfully in the long journey. sector in their home countries. It has provided access to a wide network beyond the two councils and it has the potential to The author has represented Local Government New Zealand provide continuity over time so that lasting relationships, based with the support of the Kapiti Coast District Council, which is on personal knowledge and understanding, underpin the gratefully acknowledged. sustainability of the project. Regular peer support visits have maintained the confidence of Bibliography the Competent Authority that there is a genuine interest in providing support and it has given a psychological boost to the Aid Instruments in Fragile States, Nicholas Leader and Peter City Clerk as he undertakes his difficult role. Colenso, Poverty Reduction in Difficult Environments
Public Sector Volume 29 Number 3 2006 13 Working paper 5, UK Department for International Green, Chris Game, Simon Delay, School of Public Policy, Development (March 2005). University of Birmingham (June 2005).
Department for International Development, Sustainable Livelihoods Guidance Sheets. Emerging Priorities in Preventing Notes Future Violent Conflict, UNDP 2004. 1 New Zealand Agency for International Development web The Forgotten States: Aid Volumes and Volatility in Difficult Partner- page www.nzaid.govt.nz ship Countries (1992–2002): Victoria Levin and David Dollar, 2 DAC Learning and Advisory Process. Australia, New Zealand, Fiji, Papua New Guinea, Samoa, Tonga, Kiribati, Cook Islands. Gudrun Kochendörfer-Lucius & Klemens van de Sand, 3 Institutional Development Should Supercede the Conventional Project Australia, New Zealand, Papua New Guinea, Fiji, Tonga, Approach. Earth Times News Service, 24 August 2000. Samoa, Cook Islands, Vanuatu, Nauru , Kiribati, Tuvalu.
4 New Zealand Agency for International Development web NZAID Solomon Islands Programme Strategy 2003– page www.nzaid.govt.nz 2006.
5 NZAID Solomon Islands Programme Strategy 2003–2006. Honiara City Council, Report of the Technical Partnership Mission led by the CLGF, 8 February to 1 March 2005. Piloting the Principles for Good International Engagement in Fragile 6 States DCD(2005)11/REV2, OECD. . Honiara City Council, Report of the Technical Partnership Mission led by the CLGF, 8 February to 1 March 2005. Program Design Document. Graham Sansom, Honiara City 7 Council and Commonwealth Local Government Forum (June The Town and Country Planning Act provides for the 2006). appointment of a Board with all of the local government planning powers applying to Honiara. The City Council Why Should My Local Authority Be Involved In An Overseas provides professional and administrative support for the Project? Understanding the domestic impacts of local Board. government involvement in international development. Lara
Mark Dacombe is Chief Executive of Kapiti Coast District Council. His career in local government spans nearly 30 years including Chief Executive of the smallest New Zealand local authority, Chatham Islands, and one of the largest, Waitakere City. For the last two years Mark has acted as an adviser to the Honiara City Council representing Local Government New Zealand.
Mark Dacombe with Peter and Margaret Hauia and their daughter and grandson on an earlier trip to Honiara.
14 Public Sector, Volume 29 Number 3 2006 News Meeting the challenge: Elements in reducing and managing risk in social work practice
Rob Laking
School of Government, Victoria University of Wellington
Zealand hospitals, analytically founded on the Reason model This article first appeared in issue 31 of Social (Roberts, 2003). Work Now, August 2005 and is reproduced here Viewed through the lens of the Reason human error model, with permission. something seems to be missing from the published investiga- Editor tions of child deaths. There is usually a careful analysis of the events that preceded the death and the role of public employ- Introduction ees in these events. There is often no convincing explanation of why the responsible staff made the decisions they did and it In a number of high-profile cases involving the death of a is not easy in these situations to find out why people make child, it has been revealed that social workers handling the case mistakes or break the rules. The risk to the workers of being made decisions that appeared to violate the organisation’s found out in error – whether deliberate or not – can be established procedures or commonly-held ideas of good considerable. In both child protection and health services, the practice. When an accident is attributed to failure to follow the analysis is taking place in the context of investigation of rules, the common reaction is ‘how can they have been so causes of serious injury or death, where the personal stakes are stupid, neglectful or disobedient?’ The usual response from the high for the staff involved and defensive responses can inhibit authorities is to conduct an investigation, apologise for the open discussion. Incident reporting systems in hospitals may error, possibly discipline the offending social workers and understate practice error because of workers’ fear of the introduce more rules. consequences. In her investigation of the medical errors in Christchurch Hospital, the Health and Disability Commis- The problem of apparently inexplicable disastrous operator sioner reported that for a whole year under investigation, decisions is not confined to social work. Experienced surgeons virtually no incidents were reported by clinical staff – the remove the wrong limb from a patient. Pilots deliberately fly commonest reason given was fear of punishment (Stent, 1998). well below safe altitudes and into mountains in clear, still air. Where fear of blame is present, these reactions are perhaps At Chernobyl, engineers disabled safety interlocks, leading to a predictable. Nevertheless, understanding why people do what catastrophic explosion in the reactor. In the last two decades, they do is surely critical in understanding how to reduce the accident investigations into these high risk activities have risk that in similar future circumstances they will make similar begun to take a systemic approach. Questions to ask include: mistakes. • What was it about not only the decision makers but about the situation they were in that might have contributed to the error? The relationship between social worker • Why did the usual safeguards against error fail in this case? performance and client outcomes Analysis of the systemic origins of human error in air acci- dents was pioneered by James Reason (1990). A path-breaking Analysis of child homicide statistics reveals that only a inquiry based on a systemic analysis was the Royal Commis- minority of the children who are killed by a parent or caregiver sion of Inquiry into the Erebus crash, where Justice Mahon in New Zealand are known to Child, Youth and Family concluded that Air New Zealand as a company contributed to workers at the time of their death (Doolan, 2004). But when it the accident as well as errors made by the pilots. It is not only appears that the child or their family members were ‘on the air accident investigations that take a systemic approach – the Department’s books’ at the time of the child’s death, the Reason analysis has also been applied to the Cave Creek tendency is to look for failures in performance that might have disaster (Capper et al., 1996) and similar modes of analysis are contributed to the tragedy. What then follows in reports and applied in cases of medical misadventure. The Health and recommendations is usually primarily focused on recommend- Disability Commissioner’s 1996 investigation of the ‘Patients ing changes to rules and systems designed to reduce the risk of are Dying’ cases at Christchurch Hospital is a textbook case further similar occurrences. When the report is published, the history of how organisational stress can affect communication focus in the media is almost exclusively on errors in case and decision-making in a hospital (Stent, 1998). Others make management in order to attribute responsibility and blame for cases for rethinking how to achieve a safety culture in New the failure.
Public Sector Volume 29 Number 3 2006 15 Hindsight is a particularly deceptive basis for policy change in encompassing both the organisation and the client a profession as complex as social work. New Zealand children community in which they operate. suffer injury or death for a wide variety of reasons that have little to do with social worker error and a lot more to do with 2. Much of the argument in the baseline review of Child, their family circumstances. The case manager faces multiple Youth and Family in 2003 implicitly treated social workers paths to an outcome – paths that interconnect and events that as bureaucrats, in the sense that they were primarily influence each other – and many factors that are outside the working within clear organisational rules. It may be control of social workers. Indeed the appropriate scope of misleading to think of social workers in this way. Much of analysis of the ‘social work system’ is not the boundary of the what social workers do takes place in an environment organisation but a much broader perimeter encompassing the where tightly defined performance measures are not child or young person, their family and other significant peers, effective and outcomes are uncertain and complex. There and adults and the wider community, including other organisa- is no doubt that rules do constrain social worker behav- tions with which they have contact. iour – child protection and youth justice work are law- driven processes – but there are certainly tensions between It follows that even best practice in social work may on its own rules and discretion in social work that are analogous to have limited impact on client wellbeing. There is a wider issue those between management authority and clinical govern- of what strategies can be employed that will help reduce risk in ance in hospitals. the larger social system. To say that social worker control over outcomes is uncertain is not to say that there is no accepted best practice in a specific case management situation, only that 3. Social workers in the wider workplace are attempting to decision-making in social work is a matter of weighing up manage, in the sense of influence, a much wider range of probabilities and risks. Putting it this way raises significant resources than is available to them from their budgets and issues – similar to those in medicine – about the relationship legal powers. Conversely, significant constraints on, and between best practice and clinical judgement. incentives for, social worker behaviour may originate from this wider workplace. These environmental factors need to To the outside observer, it is not clear that social workers agree be folded into the analysis. With these provisos in mind, on what constitutes best practice. But senior Child, Youth and the Reason analysis might be a useful starting point for a Family management argue that the definition of best practice similar analysis in Child, Youth and Family. is not an intractable problem. There is a swing back to the idea of evidence-based practice in social work and there is firm evidence that some practices significantly reduce the risk to clients. Best practices in social work can or should be recog- Where to from here? nised and error, a departure from best practice, can be defined. How can Child, Youth and Family move towards a more strategic approach to managing risk? First, managers and staff could develop a common understanding of best practice and Causes and consequences of error in how it might be at risk from systemic factors in the organisa- tion and the worksite. One approach might be for groups of social work task managers and experienced social workers to see if a classification of possible system factors helps them analyse So why don’t social workers follow the rules? Here the appro- sources of risk. Caseworkers could be asked to consider priate empirical questions are: what personal or workplace situations in which they believed that a mistake or violation factors might contribute to social worker error and what can occurred that could have led to an accident but didn’t, and to be done to reduce this source of risk to children? identify factors that they thought were important in contribut- James Reason’s human error model asserts in brief that ing to the accident risk. Staff could be surveyed on their mistakes and intentional rule breaches that lead to accidents assessment of risk-making factors in the organisational and can be analysed in terms of both the personal situation of the community workplaces. Task managers and caseworkers could workers involved and the workplace in which they operate. An workshop the development of system models. implication of Reason’s analysis is that the most effective Secondly, information needs to be collected in a way that response to organisational risk is often not to impose more identifies the systemic factors in performance risk. Within operating rules at the ‘sharp end’ but to consider strategic existing quality assurance practices, audits could be enlarged to responses at the level of organisational systems and culture. systematically consider environmental factors that might be There are a number of general points relating to the specific present, and risk-inducing factors could be included in report- characteristics of social work that probably need to be ing on performance and conditions at worksites. A further and considered: more ambitious step is to develop an incident reporting system based on near misses rather than disasters. A first step towards 1. The effects of the wider environment are likely to be such a reporting system is to reach a consensus among more significant in the case of social work organisations experienced task managers and caseworkers on ‘sentinel than in the case of airlines. Indeed, as discussed earlier, it events’ – deviations from approved practice that may increase seems useful to regard the social worker’s ‘workplace’ as risk for the organisation – as a basis for error reporting.
16 Public Sector, Volume 29 Number 3 2006 Possibly the most important element is to consider all informa- References tion collection and analysis from the viewpoint of how it will enhance collective understanding of the risk to children and Capper, C., Crook, C. and Wilson K. (1996), ‘Systems safety how to manage it. To do this, reporting and analysis of risk issues in the wake of the Cave Creek disaster’. Conference factors has to be separated from blame. Of course social paper, Australasian Evaluation Society, Wellington. workers must carry responsibility for their personal actions in the workplace, but the quality of the information on risk will Doolan, M. (2004), ‘Child Death by Homicide: An Examina- be itself at risk if open reporting and analysis can threaten tion of Incidence in New Zealand 1991–2000’. In: Te Awatea personal reputations and careers. The challenge facing Child, Review 2(1). Pp. 7–10. Youth and Family management is to assure the public that it is accountable for the safety of children and that it is competent Reason, J. (1990), Human Error. Cambridge University Press, at an organisational level to understand and manage that risk. Cambridge. A more collective and strategic approach to understanding risk may help. Roberts, P. (2003), Snakes and Ladders: The Pursuit of a Safety Culture in New Zealand Public Hospitals. Institute of Policy Studies and Health Services Research Centre, Victoria Univer- sity of Wellington, Wellington. Disclaimer Policy Studies and Health Services Research Centre, Victoria This article draws on work done in Child, Youth and Family as University of Wellington, Wellington. part of the baseline review and also on subsequent discussions with staff of the Department. The Department did not, Stent, R. (1998), Canterbury Health Ltd: A Report by the Health however, contribute to the preparation of the paper and is not and Disability Commissioner. Health and Disability Commissioner, responsible for any of the ideas or opinions expressed. Wellington.
Rob Laking is a senior lecturer in public management at the School of Government at Victoria University. Rob is a former public servant and specialist in advice and capacity building in Governance, Public Management and Financial Management. He left the public service in 1995 after thirty-two years, with the last four as Chief Executive of the Ministry of Housing.
Public Sector Volume 29 Number 3 2006 17 News Annual prizes awarded at Victoria University’s School of Government for 2006
The top scholars in Victoria University’s public policy, public The winners of the 2006 Prizes are: management, and strategic studies programmes received their prizes from Prime Minister, the Rt Hon Helen Clark, at the • Grace Campbell-Macdonald, Senior Policy Analyst in the School of Government’s fourth anniversary celebrations Ministry of Education, who received the Prime Minis- Tuesday, 10 October 2006 in Wellington ter’s Prize for Public Policy for her research on developing an analytical framework to assess the chal- The School of Government was launched by Miss Clark in lenges to achieving a fair resource allocation process in 2002 and is the home of the University’s public policy, public tertiary education following the 2002 tertiary education administration, and strategic studies programmes at its Pipitea reforms Campus in downtown Wellington.
Vice-Chancellor, Professor Pat Walsh, said the University appreciated Miss Clark’s ongoing support for the School and its programmes and students. He went on to say, In four years, the School has established itself as a leader in public policy analysis and research and New Zealand’s pre-eminent centre for the education of public sector leaders, building on Victoria’s long- standing reputation in this field. The University is proud to be a founding partner, with the New Zealand Government, in the Australia and New Zealand School of Government and to have established a strategic partnership with the States Services Commission to enhance the capability of the New Zealand public sector. The Prime Minister presented five prizes at the celebration. The three Prime Minister’s Prizes are awarded for the best all- round academic performance in the Master of Public Policy, Grace Campbell-Macdonald receiving the Prime Public Management or Strategic Studies programmes. The Minister’s Prize for Public Policy Holmes Prize is awarded for the best research paper or thesis in these programmes. The Bernard Galvin Prize is awarded annually to a student in the School who has demonstrated the best application of economic analysis to public policy or public management.
Prize winners with the Rt Hon Helen Clark
18 Public Sector, Volume 29 Number 3 2006 • Anna Mills, an Advisor with Child Youth & Family • Squadron Leader Carol Abraham, who is serving at Services, who received the Prime Minister’s Prize in Headquarters, Joint Forces New Zealand, who received Public Management for research which involved a the Bernard Galvin Prize for research that applied literature review to assess whether child protection economic literature to an examination of international services had made use of the error literature to analyse influences on the historical development of New child deaths or injury Zealand’s air transport industry
Anna Mills receiving the Prime Minister’s Prize in Public Management Carol Abraham receiving the Bernard Galvin Prize from the Prime Minister • Rebecca Lineham, a Policy Officer with the Ministry of Foreign Affairs & Trade, who received the inaugural Prime Minister’s Prize in Strategic Studies and the Holmes Prize for her research examining the demo- cratic accountability of the Regional Assistance Mission to Solomon Islands (RAMSI) IPANZ Prize Associate Professor Bill Ryan, Director of Programmes at the School, acknowledged the creation by the Institute of the Public Management Prize for the best performing undergradu- ate student in PUBL302 Public Management. This prize will be awarded for the first time at the completion of Trimester 2 in 2006.
Rebecca Lineham receiving the Prime Minister’s Prize in Strategic Studies
Public Sector Volume 29 Number 3 2006 19 Book Review
Roderick Deane: His Life and Times
Michael Bassett and Judith Bassett
Viking, Published by The Penguin Group, Auckland, February 2006
ISBN 0-670-04567-5, Hardcover Price NZ$49.99, 287 p
‘Roderick Deane is one of the most important figures in recent However, it is the account of the country’s financial slide economic and political history’ states the blurb on the flyleaf – under the Muldoon government in the chapter ‘The Deepen- and for once this is not an extravagant comment. Michael and ing Crisis’, and the following chapters called ‘Devaluation Judith Bassett, both historians by profession (though Michael 1984’ and ‘The Advocate’, where the tense drama of those was a Cabinet Minister in the Fourth Labour Government days unfolds with the excitement of a thriller. Some of the 1984–1990), have assembled a fascinating collection of accounts of the actions which were taking place will be well information from records, files, personal papers and inter- known to Wellington ‘insiders’ at the time, but for others views, which provides a well written account of the events of coming later, these chapters provide a gripping and detailed the times, and revealing insights into the ‘behind the scenes’ summary of the events as they occurred. thoughts and actions of some of the key players. The authors’ For readers of ‘For the Record: Lange and the Fourth Labour background is also evident in the information from past events Government’ (2005) Margaret Clark (editor), there will be which is introduced to add focus to the current situation. The some overlap. That Conference, held in May 2004 to mark the book is organised into an introduction and fourteen chapters twentieth anniversary of the Fourth Labour Government, which cover Roderick Deane’s life in sequence. produced papers from 26 people who had been involved at the time. Their recollections, often modified by subsequent events, Although Dr Deane’s career is wide-ranging – economist, provide a rich summary of the period from their own particu- banker, public servant, State Owned Enterprise (SOE) Chief lar perspectives. Indeed, Michael Bassett’s chapter ‘Cabinet Executive, Telecom Chairman and now Independent Director Making: Cabinet Breaking’ covers the financial crisis which the – it is his time as Chairman of the State Services Commission incoming Government encountered and the selection of the (SSC), from 1 April 1986 through to the end of May 1987, that members of the Cabinet. readers of Public Sector are likely to find of particular interest. The public sector reform process which Deane oversaw is By way of leading into chapter 10, ‘The State Services Com- summarised at the end of chapter 10 and makes a most mission’, a brief history of the public service, going back to impressive list. It involved: the creation of nine new SOEs, the 1880s is provided – the Bassett historians at work again. most of which were later privatised; a complete review of the There are 99 footnotes and references and it is obvious that public service wage-determination process; major reviews of great care was taken to interview key people and explore all several government departments; substantial reductions in facets of that tumultuous 14 months at the SSC. Notes and public service staff numbers; a huge reduction and/or delega- comments from the interviews undertaken with Don Hunn tion of superfluous rules and regulations contained in the (who replaced Dr Deane as Chair of the SSC), Margaret Public Service Manual; a start in the concept of user-pays for Bazley (a fellow Commissioner – later Dame Margaret), other services; and a clarification of both public service objectives key participants from the Treasury upper echelons at the time and accountabilities.(p. 167/8). However, for those who were – including Dr Graham Scott and Roger Kerr – and key also involved at the time it could be thought that the Bassetts leaders from the PSA, add personal views and recollections to have been rather generous in linking Deane to all of these, flesh out the events of the period. even though in an oversight capacity. Certainly he was very involved in the work on the State Sector Act before his Although chapter 11 is entitled ‘The SOEs up Close’, it also departure from the SSC in May 1987 (the Bill was introduced covers the SSC period and leads into the work undertaken on into the House in December 1987) and also in the thinking the early development of the State Sector Act under Dr behind the Public Finance Act. Deane’s guidance. The four principles from the SOE exercise which Dr Deane stressed: clearer objectives and delivery Deane’s departure from the SSC and his move into SOEs and systems; better accountability mechanisms; greater flexibility in then private sector is well covered in the book. However, it is personnel policies; and a reduction in the centralising process the detail of the events which caused him to resign as Chair of (p. 170) were subsequently incorporated in the State Sector Act the SSC which is most vivid in detail. It is interesting to (1988) and the Public Finance Act (1989) after Dr Deane’s speculate: if the election had not been due in 1987, would the departure from the SSC. actions of the Ministers of the day have been different?
20 Public Sector, Volume 29 Number 3 2006 Deane’s relationship with Ministers in 1987 was certainly lived which provides a most fascinating record of a period of affected by the forthcoming election. Would his tenure at the transformation in New Zealand’s history. SSC have been longer and would subsequent events have happened differently? This will never be known. Judy Whitcombe PhD student The title ‘His Life and Times’ is well chosen, for although School of Government Deane himself is the subject of this meticulous and well Victoria University of Wellington written account, it is the background of the times in which he
Books
Partnerships: Putting Good Governance Principles in Practice
Laura Edgar, Claire Marshall and Michael Bassett
Institute On Governance, 8 August 2006, 22 p
This Canadian publication explores the meaning of and internationally, the paper also illustrates some of the ‘governance’ and ‘partnership’, and blends these concepts lessons and best practices in the governance of partner- with good governance principles used by the United ships. Nations Development Programme and the IOG to create a tool for assessing good governance in partnership Available at http://www.iog.ca/publications/ arrangements. Drawing on the Institute’s work in Canada 2006_partnershipspdf
Corrigendum: Vol. 29 No. 2, 2006
In the Seminar Report ‘Pathways to influence: Senior Mäori public servants talk about their public sector careers’, a transcription error occurred when reporting the family name of the contributor of this Report, Ms Mynetta Erueti. This error also occurred when reporting Ms Erueti’s membership of the Institute’s Finance Administration and Membership committee, elsewhere in this issue of the journal.
I apologise for this error.
The Seminar Report was an edited version of Ms Erueti’s submission to Public Sector. The original document may be found on the Institute’s website at http://www.ipanz.org.nz/SITE_Default/resources/default.asp
Editor
Public Sector Volume 29 Number 3 2006 21 Obituary
Obituary
R.F. (Ray) McCullagh BE, FIPENZ, MIEE 1925–2006
It was with sadness that older members of IPANZ Ray continued his active association with the IPANZ learned of the death in September of Ray McCullagh, after his move to Wellington; he was elected president former president of the Institute and a long-time stalwart of the Institute for 1975–76, a testing time for the of the College of Management (formerly the Administra- organisation. At the end of his term, he was able to tive Staff College). report ‘signs of greater activity and purpose’. But it was as the IPANZ representative on the various governing Ray had a long involvement with the New Zealand bodies of the Administrative Staff College (as it was electrical industry. After an early association with con- then) for 20 years from 1973 to 1992 that Ray made his struction at Arapuni and Karapiro power stations, Ray largest contribution. He chaired the governing body in completed his engineering degree at Canterbury Univer- 1981–82 and was deputy chair of the Council from sity and joined the State Hydro-Electric Department in 1990 to 1992. His sage counsel and dedicated service 1952. are fondly remembered. The Institute extends its sympathy to Ray’s family. He was to remain with the successor organisations, NZED and Electricorp, until 1988. As Senior Engineer and Construction Engineer, Ray spent 13 years in Hamilton where he was an active member and office- Acknowledgements holder in the Waikato Branch of the Institute. He moved to Wellington in 1967, and then from 1975 was District Brian McGinchy (IPENZ), Diana Beaglehole, Learning Manager, NZED, Palmerston North. After two years to Lead. there, Ray became Chief Engineer (Operations) at Head Office. John Martin
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