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2009 Gustav Mahler's Das Lied von der Erde: An Intellectual Journey Across Cultures and Beyond Life and Death Shih-Ni (Sidney) Sun

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COLLEGE OF MUSIC

GUSTAV MAHLER’S DAS LIED VON DER ERDE:

AN INTELLECTUAL JOURNEY

ACROSS CULTURES AND BEYOND LIFE AND DEATH

By

SHIH-NI (SIDNEY) SUN

A Thesis submitted to the College of Music in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Music

Degree Awarded: Spring Semester, 2009

The members of the Committee approve the Thesis of Shih-Ni Sun defended on April 6, 2009.

Douglass Seaton Professor Directing Thesis

Michael Broyles Committee Member

Frank Gunderson Committee Member

The Graduate School has verified and approved the above named committee members.

ii

For my mother, Tsai-hsien Chien, an amazing woman and my heroine

iii ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

I am truly thankful for those who have assisted me in various ways. First and foremost, my thanks go to Dr. Douglass Seaton, my adviser. I want to thank him for his guidance, assistance, and encouragement in musicological research and writing. I would like to thank Dr. Michael Broyles for his insightful comments and Dr. Frank Gunderson for bringing different perspectives into this project. All three of my committee members helped me shape this project into a finished thesis. Furthermore, I am also grateful for Dr. Denise Von Glahn’s encouragement; her enthusiasm in teaching and researching always motivate me to press onward. In the process of writing this thesis many friends outside the United States have helped me with the German and Chinese texts. I am grateful to Hsiu-wen Chang, my dearest friend since college, for her knowledge of German. Her friends in Germany, Andrea Franzetti and Manfred Schittler, also provided valuable explanations of several German passages. Hsiu-cheng Cheng, my friend from junior high school who is currently studying Chinese Literature in China, helped me find articles by Chinese scholars and shared his knowledgeable understanding and interpretation of the Chinese poems with me. Writing this thesis at the College of Music of the Florida State University, I owe thanks to the program and the music library. I am grateful to my colleagues at the Musicology program, especially Amy Dunning; her words of encouragement always lift my spirit at the most needed moments. My thanks also go to the Taiwanese students in the College of Music and Lucy Ho for their kindness and friendship. My family in Taiwan – my parents, Ming-chieh Sun and Tsai-hsien Chien, and my brother, Jui-shen Sun – has always been very supportive. Their love has enabled me to pursue the education I desire. One more person should be mentioned is Peter Prim, who offered suggestions concerning organization, helped me with the idiomatic use of English, and patiently participated in every stage of this project. The generous assistance and support from all of you made the completion of this thesis possible.

iv TABLE OF CONTENTS

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ...... iv

LIST OF TABLES ...... vi

LIST OF MUSICAL EXAMPLES ...... viii

ABSTRACT ...... xi

INTRODUCTION ...... 1

CHAPTER 1 “DAS TRINKLIED VOM JAMMER DER ERDE”: AN INVITATION TO THE JOURNEY ...... 14

CHAPTER 2 “DER EINSAME IM HERBST”: NATURE AS SORROW ...... 27

CHAPTER 3 “VON DER JUGEND”: DISTRACTED AT A PARTY ...... 39

CHAPTER 4 “VON DER SCHÖNHEIT”: OBSESSIONS IN LIFE ...... 51

CHAPTER 5 “DER TRUNKENE IM FRÜHLING”: CONVERSING WITH NATURE ...... 63

CHAPTER 6 “DER ABSCHIED”: FAREWELL TO ALL ...... 77

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS ...... 98

BIBLIOGRAPHY ...... 100

BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH ...... 105

v LIST OF TABLES

Table 0.1: Six movements of Das Lied von der Erde and the Chinese poems ...... 2

Table 1.1: Chinese original, Bethge’s paraphrase, and an English translation ...... 15

Table 1.2: Bethge’s paraphrase and Mahler’s alterations ...... 18

Table 1.3: Tonal analysis of “Das Trinklied vom Jammer der Erde” ...... 21

Table 1.4: Formal analysis of “Das Trinklied vom Jammer der Erde” ...... 24

Table 2.1: The six lines that were omitted and an English translation ...... 28

Table 2.2: Chinese original, Bethge’s paraphrase, and an English translation ...... 29

Table 2.3: Bethge’s paraphrase and Mahler’s alterations ...... 31

Table 2.4: Formal analysis of “Der Einsame im Herbst” ...... 34

Table 3.1: Chinese original, Bethge’s paraphrase, and an English translation ...... 40

Table 3.2: Bethge’s paraphrase and Mahler’s alterations ...... 42

Table 3.3: Formal, harmonic, and thematic analyses of “Von der Jugend” ...... 48

Table 4.1: Chinese original, Bethge’s paraphrase, and an English translation ...... 52

Table 4.2: Bethge’s paraphrase and Mahler’s alterations ...... 53

Table 4.3: Tonal analysis of “Von der Schönheit” ...... 58

Table 5.1: Chinese original, Bethge’s paraphrase, and an English translation ...... 64

Table 5.2: Bethge’s paraphrase and Mahler’s alterations ...... 66

Table 5.3: Formal, tonal, and thematic analyses of “Der Trunkene im Frühling” ...... 70

Table 6.1: Chinese original, Bethge’s paraphrase, and an English translation ...... 79

Table 6.2: Bethge’s paraphrase and Mahler’s alterations ...... 82

Table 6.3: Structure of the first poem in “Der Abschied” ...... 89

vi Table 6.4: Structure of the second poem in “Der Abschied” ...... 93

vii LIST OF MUSICAL EXAMPLES

Example 1.1: The horn-call melody (horns in F, mm. 1-3) ...... 22

Example 1.2: The second theme (two solo violins, mm. 179-85) ...... 23

Example 1.3: Ecstasy melody (tenor and cellos, mm. 121-25) ...... 23

Example 1.4: Wagner’s Tristan und Isolde, ecstasy motive (Scene 3, oboe, mm. 210) ...... 23

Example 1.5: The refrain (tenor, mm. 81-89) ...... 24

Example 2.1: Oboe solo, mm. 3-21 ...... 33

Example 2.2: Violin countermelody, mm. 1-3 ...... 33

Example 2.3: Vocal line, mm. 25-31 ...... 34

Example 2.4: Rocking figure (cellos, mm. 19-20) ...... 34

Example 2.5: Alto, mm. 63-66...... 36

Example 2.6: First violins and cellos, mm. 73-77 ...... 37

Example 2.7: Alto, mm. 78-79...... 37

Example 2.8: Alto, mm. 128-35...... 38

Example 2.9: Alto, mm. 136-37...... 38

Example 3.1: Theme 1 (first flute and second oboe, mm. 3-5) ...... 45

Example 3.2: Theme 2 (tenor, mm. 13-18) ...... 46

Example 3.3: Theme 3 (tenor, mm. 39-47) ...... 46

Example 3.4: Theme 4 (tenor, mm. 70-75) ...... 47

Example 3.5: Rocking figure (bassoon, mm. 29-34) ...... 47

Example 3.6: Percussive figure (B-flat clarinets, mm. 40-44) ...... 47

Example 3.7: The bell-like sound (horns in F, mm. 1-5) ...... 48

viii Example 3.8: Oboes, violin 1, and tenor, mm. 106-10 ...... 50

Example 4.1: The opening figure (flutes, mm. 1-4) ...... 57

Example 4.2: Theme 1 (first flute, mm. 7-13) ...... 58

Example 4.3: Imitation of a horse’s sound (clarinets, mm. 90-91)...... 60

Example 5.1: Opening figure (first oboe and horns in F, mm. 1-4) ...... 69

Example 5.2: Theme 1 (tenor, mm. 4-5) ...... 69

Example 5.3: Theme 2 (tenor, mm. 6-8) ...... 70

Example 5.4: Theme 3 (first violins, mm. 8-11) ...... 70

Example 5.5: Tenor, mm. 32-34 ...... 72

Example 5.6: Solo violins, mm. 36-41 ...... 72

Example 5.7: Tenor, mm. 39-45 ...... 73

Example 5.8: Piccolo, mm. 41-44 ...... 73

Example 5.9: Piccolo, oboe, and tenor, mm. 47-49 ...... 74

Example 5.10: Tenor, mm. 50-51 ...... 74

Example 5.11: Tenor, mm. 62-63 ...... 74

Example 5.12: Piccolo, flutes, and tenor, mm. 56-61 ...... 75

Example 5.13: Harps, mm. 72-73 ...... 76

Example 6.1: Turn figure (oboe, m. 3) ...... 87

Example 6.2: Counter of the turn figure (oboe, mm. 28-30) ...... 87

Example 6.3: Ending figure (oboe, mm. 41-43) ...... 87

Example 6.4: Rocking figure (harps, mm. 39-42) ...... 88

Example 6.5: Ecstasy figure (first horn in F, mm. 87-91) ...... 88

Example 6.6: Static figure (clarinets, mm. 323-24) ...... 88

ix Example 6.7: First harp, mm. 55-58 ...... 91

Example 6.8: Alto, mm. 118-19...... 92

Example 6.9: Birdsong (oboe and flute, mm. 139-46) ...... 92

Example 6.10: Alto, m. 392 ...... 95

Example 6.11: Alto, mm. 410-14...... 95

Example 6.12: Second harp, mm. 495-98 ...... 96

Example 6.13: Alto, mm. 521-26...... 97

x ABSTRACT

This thesis examines the expressive and philosophical content in Gustav Mahler’s Das Lied von der Erde (1908), as well as the intellectual journey of the speaker whose voice is heard throughout the work. Das Lied von der Erde contains seven poems originally from the Tang Dynasty (618-907) of ancient China. The Chinese original poems are a significant part of the history of this work, although Mahler’s familiarity with the sources before Hans Heilmann’s translation (1905) remains unknown. This thesis reconnects the work with the original poems. A comparison of different texts – the original poems, Hans Bethge’s paraphrases (1907), and Mahler’s alterations – leads to a more thorough understanding of the poetic meaning of Das Lied von der Erde. The discussion of the text is followed by musical analysis, focusing on melodic figures, formal structures, harmonic schemes, word painting, rhythmic devices, orchestration, and texture. The lyrical and musical analyses illuminate the speaker’s ongoing journey through the six movements. The speaker has been afflicted by doubts about life and desires a deeper understanding of life. In the course of his journey, he brings along the audience to experience different emotions, seasons, and thoughts with him. At the end of the work he recognizes the meaninglessness of pursuits in the material world. He thus decides to retreat from the world, look beyond life and death, and live a life detached from material concerns. In Das Lied von der Erde the historical significance of the texts and Mahler’s musical setting reveal an intellectual journey across two cultures.

xi INTRODUCTION

Proposing a new view of Das Lied von der Erde This study investigates Mahler’s last vocal-orchestral masterpiece, Das Lied von der Erde, bringing together new research on the texts and new analysis of the music. Detailed comparisons of the original source texts, derived from ancient Chinese poetry, reveal the composer’s understanding and reworkings of the poems as he received them. I argue that the work operates cyclically to trace the experience and reflections of the lyric persona, especially based on observations of nature, leading to a final, transcendent withdrawal from the world. Style analysis then shows how the music expresses and focuses the imagery and emotional response. In addition, in several instances this study shows how the listener is invited into the speaker’s experience through the musical design.

Background and significance In the music of Gustav Mahler (1860-1911) death is a recurrent theme, as for example in Kindertotenlieder. Several incidents in the last five years of Mahler’s life also caused him approach the topic of death. The biographical background of Das Lied von der Erde is essential to the understanding of this work because it was composed at a difficult time in Mahler’s life – Das Lied von der Erde was completed in 1908 and not premiered until after Mahler’s death. As musicologist Stephen Hefling points out, in June 1907 Mahler lost his favorite daughter, Maria, to scarlet fever. Soon after Maria’s death Mahler himself was diagnosed with faulty heart valves and prohibited from any activities that might exhaust his heart. Mahler’s resignation from the Vienna Opera also made him more pessimistic about life.1 His choice of texts from Hans Bethge’s Die chinesische Flöte also reflects a strong connection between the poems and Mahler’s own life situation. In the 1860s two French translations of Chinese poetry were published in Paris: Poésies de l’époque des Thang (1862) by Le Marquis d’Hervey-Saint-Deny and Livre de Jade (1867) by Judith Gautier. A German translation based on these two anthologies was published in 1905 by

1 Stephen E. Hefling, Mahler: Das Lied von der Erde (The Song of the Earth), (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2000) 28-31.

1 Hans Heilmann in Munich, Chinesische Lyrik. Mahler’s direct source, Hans Bethge’s Die chinesische Flöte, was a paraphrase of Heilmann’s anthology.2 It was published late in 1907, and Mahler acquired it around 1908.3 Each movement in Das Lied von der Erde sets one poem, except for the last movement, which combines two. The titles of the movements and Chinese poems are listed in Table 0.1. Mahler chose seven poems that together reflect one of the most important concepts in Chinese philosophy – 超然 (chao-ran). The meaning of this term is close to that of “transcendence” in English, which means the state of extending beyond ordinary knowledge and rising above everyday experience. This philosophical outlook values spiritual life over materialism. People who embrace transcendentalism also long for the attainment of oneness with nature as well as a retreat from urban life to nature, as shown in works by American writers Ralph Waldo Emerson (1803-82) and Henry David Thoreau (1817-62). In some of the texts that Mahler used the poet laments the loss of unrecoverable youth. These poems thus show affinities to German Romanticism, in which subjectivity and nature are central elements, as well as with aspects of Euro-American transcendentalism in the nineteenth century. These resemblances allowed Mahler to search in a foreign tradition for answers in the face of death. Thus an understanding of the poetic background of Das Lied von der Erde serves as a key for us to follow the speaker’s quest.

Table 0.1: Six movements of Das Lied von der Erde and the Chinese poems Mvt. 1 “Das Trinklied vom Jammer der “悲歌行” (“The Song of Sorrow”) Erde” (“The Drinking Song of by 李白 (Li Tai-Po)4 Earth’s Misery”) Mvt. 2 “Der Einsame im Herbst” (“The “效古秋夜長” (“Imitation of Old Poems: Long Lonely One in Autumn”) Autumn Nights”) by 錢起 (Chien Chi) Mvt. 3 “Von der Jugend” (“Of Youth”) “青春頌” (“Banquet at Tao’s Family Pavilion”) by 李白 (Li Tai-Po)

2 Fusako Hamao, “The Source of the Texts in Mahler’s Lied von der Erde,” 19th-Century Music 19 (1995): 83.

3 Alma Mahler, however, suggested in her biography of her husband that Mahler had received Bethge’s Die chinesische Flöte in the summer of 1907 from a friend of Alma’s father. Hefling has observed that Mahler would not have been able to own the anthology until the next year due to the publication date of the anthology.

4 Following Chicago style manual, this thesis puts family name first in classic poets’ names (for example, Li Tai-Po), and family name last in contemporary scholars’ names (for example, Kii-ming Lo).

2 Table 0.1 – continued: Six movements of Das Lied von der Erde and the Chinese poems Mvt. 4 “Von der Schönheit” (“Of “採蓮曲” (“Lotus-plucking Song”) Beauty”) by 李白 (Li Tai-Po) Mvt. 5 “Der Trunkene im Frühling” (“The “春日醉起言志” (“Feelings upon Awakening Drunken Man in Spring”) from Drunkenness on a Spring Day”) by 李白 (Li Tai-Po) Mvt. 6 “Der Abschied” (“The Farewell”) “宿業師房山待丁大不至” (“Staying at a Teacher’s Mountain Retreat, Awaiting a Friend in Vain”) by 孟浩然 (Mong Kao-Jen) “送別” (“Farewell”) by 王維 (Wang Wei)

Survey of Literature Das Lied von der Erde is one of Mahler’s late works and has been broadly studied. This survey will discuss the resource materials by category: those on the work’s background and those that discuss the music. Biographies of Mahler and specific discussions of the sources of the texts constitute the most important background literature for this study. The second category, writings about the music, is further divided into four sub-categories: comprehensive studies, analyses, music-text relationships, and interpretations. Categorization of a specific study is not always simple, because the study may address more than one issue; in such cases the main purpose of the specific research determines an item’s category in the following discussion. In addition, only the central studies in each category will be discussed in this survey. A comprehensive list is provided in the bibliography. Among the many biographers of Mahler, Bruno Walter portrayed Mahler’s personal and professional life from a friend and colleague’s point of view. Walter worked with Mahler for two years in Hamburg and six years in Vienna. When they were apart, they continued their communication through letters. The biography comprises of two sections: “recollection” narrates Walter’s memories about Mahler, and “reflection” introduces Mahler’s roles as opera director, conductor, composer, and individual. As a friend, Walter records Mahler’s personality as sincere and genuine, characteristics that Walter finds explain Mahler’s volatile temperament. As a conductor, Walter discusses Mahler’s professional skills in conducting and composing. Written

3 in an engaging style with Walter’s credited authority as an established conductor, this book has become one of the most cited biographies of Mahler. Another important and frequently cited biography is by Alma Mahler. Married to Gustav Mahler, Alma naturally gained authority as a biographer from her close relationship with him. This biography begins in the year 1901, when they first met, and concludes with Mahler’s death. Alma reveals the more private aspects of Mahler’s life. Mahler scholars, however, are cautious when consulting this biography due to several factors, such as Alma’s affairs and sensational style of writing. A more recent biography of Mahler was published in 2004 by Stuart Feder, a practicing psychoanalyst. In this biography, Feder focuses on crises in the composer’s life and uses psychoanalytical approaches to interpret Mahler’s life and works. Mahler’s musical works are important sources for Feder to understand the composer’s life. Therefore, his main focus in musical analysis is to trace symbols of death and crisis in Mahler’s life. His method, using compositions as biographical materials, might be criticized as lapsing into biographical fallacy. This biography is a significant source about the meaning of Mahler’s music and the composer’s perspective on death, but the validity of Feder’s psychoanalytical interpretations is necessarily checked here against my own musical analysis. Another aspect about the work’s background is the studies concerning the sources of the texts. In the article published in 1985, Donald Mitchell mentions the problem of identifying the Chinese original poems but does not further investigate this topic.5 Most of the original poems are easily recognized except for those used in the second and third movements, “Der Einsame im Herbst” and “Von der Jugend.” Fusake Hamao, a Japanese scholar, identified the poems in an article published in the journal 19th-Century Music in 1995. According to Hamao, the original poems are “效古秋夜長” (“Imitation of Old Poems: Long Autumn Nights”) and “宴陶家亭子” (“Banquet at Tao’s Family Pavilion”) respectively. Nonetheless, this topic did not seem to draw Chinese scholars’ attention until 1999, as is indicated by Ming-hui Bi in his article published in 2001.6 Several articles on this subject by Chinese scholars were published between 2000 and 2007, as shown in the bibliography. Although the Chinese scholars proposed more possible

5 Donald Mitchell, “New Light on Das Lied von der Erde,” in Colloque International Gustav Mahler, ed. by Henry- Louis de La Grange, 20-30 (Paris: Association Gustav Mahler, 1986), 20-21.

6 Ming-hui Bi, (“An Overview of Identifying the Sources of Texts of Mahler’s Das Lied von der Erde.”) Renmin Yinyue 419 (2001): 41-44.

4 poems for the originals, their conclusions were identical to Hamao’s. It is not clear whether Chinese scholars were unaware of Hamao’s research before conducting theirs or if they intended to confirm the Chinese originals by themselves. Among the studies concerning music, the first group focuses on analysis. Kofi Agawu calls our attention to the lack of studies of Mahler’s musical language. In his article “Mahler’s Tonal Strategies: A Study of the Song Cycles,” Agawu investigates Mahler’s musical language from three aspects: large-scale tonality, harmony and voice-leading, and form and tonality. In another article “Prolonged Counterpoint in Mahler,” Agawu chose counterpoint as the focus to study Mahler’s musical language. Paul John Whitworth follows the direction taken up by Agawu, who was in fact the chairperson on Whitworth’s doctoral committee. Discontinuities in music are important in Whitworth’s study; he explains, “Surface discontinuities are an important signal of Mahler’s discursive structures.”7 Following the signals given by discontinuities, Whitworth analyzes counterpoint and cadences. According to Whitworth, Mahler’s use of counterpoint is “unique and diverse in style and technique, represents a new development for his day: out of a late romantic vocabulary that was largely vertically-oriented.”8 Cadences are essential to Mahler’s discursive structure: “Cadences provide a special insight into Mahler’s most striking disjunctions: when combined with climactic bids, as they are frequently in Mahler, they become points at which rhetoric and technique meet, providing obvious points of interpretation.”9 Agawu and Whitworth both explore Mahler’s musical language and propose areas that need further research. J. Randall Wheaton’s dissertation “The Diatonic Potential of the Strange Sets: Theoretical Tenets and Structural Meaning in Gustav Mahler’s “Der Abschied” advanced a diatonic theory of harmony for the analysis of pentatonic, whole-tone, and octatonic sets in tonal works. This dissertation’s most important section relevant to my study is Wheaton’s introduction and critiques of the studies that consider the use of pentatonic scales in Das Lied von der Erde. According to Wheaton, Egon Gartenberg and Deryck Cooke identify pentatonic scales’ function as establishing an “oriental flavor,” and Michael Kennedy only focuses on a three-note idea that

7 Paul John Whitworth, “Aspects of Mahler’s Musical Language: An Analytic Study,” Ph.D. diss., Cornell University (Ann Arbor, MI: University Microfilm International, 2002), 8.

8 Whitworth, 374.

9 Whitworth, 374.

5 constructs the Chinese atmosphere in Das Lied von der Erde.10 Wheaton objects to the idea that the use of pentatonic set in Das Lied von der Erde could “imply the systematic permutations of all-encompassing ordered set” or “justify the claim of serial techniques.”11 Furthermore, Wheaton critiques Josef Ventantius von Wöss’s thematic analysis: “While the presentation of Wöss’s ideas is disorganized, unsystematic, and often confusing, his treatment of the subjects is, ironically, still the most thorough one available.”12 Wheaton then indicates the insufficiency of using pentatonic scales for musical analysis and the necessity of a new theory. His new theory is, however, not directly relevant to my research. The introduction of this dissertation has shown scholars’ interests in the “Chinese” or “Oriental” elements in Das Lied von der Erde. Peter Revers also discusses the influence of Chinese music. He first investigates Chinese music’s influence on Mahler in the first decade of the twentieth century and shows how pentatonic scales were used in Das Lied von der Erde. He then compares the third movement of Das Lied von der Erde with “Der Pavillon aus Porzellan” in Anna Hegeler’s Vier chinesische Lieder; both were settings of the same poem. He further explores the influence of Chinese music and proposes that the use of heterophony shows a deeper connection than pentatonic scales. The works classified under comprehensive studies of the piece are written in a quite standard format. Both Hefling and Danuser present their works as handbooks that include historical background and musical analysis. They are both significant resources for studies of Das Lied von der Erde. This group includes another article by Hefling, in which he indicates the significance of the piano version.13 The piano version was not a simplified version for smaller performances – Mahler did intend to create both versions. Hefling states that the piano version strips Mahler’s alluring instrumentation skills and illuminates the work’s core essence: “the new source underscores a fundamental aspect of Mahler’s work often obscured by fascination with his splendid orchestration and remarkable personality: the ultimate value of his music rests in its substance, not in its surface coloring or any superficial association that have come to be linked

10 J. Randall Wheaton, “The Diatonic Potential of Strange Sets: Theoretical Tenets and Structural Meaning in Gustav Mahler’s Der Abschied,” Ph.D. dissertation (Yale University, 1988), 1-2.

11 Wheaton, 4.

12 Wheaton, 6.

13 Stephen Hefling, “Das Lied von der Erde: Mahler’s Symphony for Voices and Orchestra or Piano,” The Journal of Musicology 10 (1992): 293-341.

6 with it.”14 Hefling provides a valuable perspective about the core substance of Mahler’s music. His statement, however, should not be used to underestimate the importance of the orchestral setting because Mahler’s orchestration is a significant element in his music. Donald Mitchell’s Gustav Mahler: Songs and Symphonies of Life and Death: Interpretations and Annotations is an important source for my thesis. This book discusses works about life and death, including Kindertotenlieder, Das Lied von der Erde, and the Eighth Symphony. As a standard handbook, Mitchell’s study includes abundant valuable resources for research such as several poems written in Chinese calligraphy and facsimiles of the French and German anthologies of poetry. Mitchell integrates musical analysis and his interpretations to unravel the meaning of the works. The relationships between music and text are one of the main interests in the studies of Das Lied von der Erde. Scholars from the Eastern and Western world apply different methodologies due to their languages. In his article “The Text and Music of Das Lied von der Erde,” Renkang Qian first introduces the historical background of the texts and the original Chinese poems. He then translates the German paraphrases by Bethge into Chinese and compares them to the music. Western scholars, including Hefling, translate the German poems into English for a comparison with English translations of the original Chinese poems, often done by a different person who knows Chinese. The problem of translation is one of the central issues in the studies of music-text relationships. The discussions of translations indicate that the German texts are removed from the original poems, which is problematic. Gautier’s French anthology was not literally translated, and she also attributed some of the poems incorrectly.15 Heilmann’s German translation and Bethge’s paraphrase distanced the poems further from the Chinese originals. The last layer of removal was Mahler’s alterations. This problem also leads to the issue of cultural misrepresentation, discussed by Bao-yu Yian and Yuan Huang. Huang especially shows his irritation by the issue in his article “Mahler’s Das Lied von der Erde and Chinese Poetry in the Tang Dynasty.” He uses the mistranslation of

14 Stephen Hefling, “Das Lied von der Erde: Mahler’s Symphony for Voices and Orchestra or Piano.” The Journal of Musicology 10 (1992): 340-41.

15 For more information, see Fusako Hamao, “The Sources of Texts in Mahler’s Das Lied von der Erde” 19th- century Music 19 (1995): 83-95.

7 “porcelain” and the last name “Tao” as an example of mistranslation.16 When Mahler used porcelain as a symbol of Chinese culture, the cultural image is thus misrepresented. This misrepresentation also caused problems in the process of identifying the original poems. Huang critiques the discrepancy between the moods in Chinese poetry and the music. He argues that the music is too pessimistic to represent the concept of transcendence in Tang poetry. Huang’s critiques raise an important question: does Das Lied von der Erde represent the Orient as the “Other”? In the same journal, a response by Jian-ying Guo, points out the problems in Huang’s article: Das Lied von der Erde is known for using poems that were originally Chinese, but neither the texts nor the music is considered as representation of Chinese culture. This response indicates that Huang introduces one perspective but cannot represent the majority of Chinese musicologists.17 Kii-ming Lo’s article “Chinesische Dichtung als Textgrundlage für Mahlers Lied von der Erde” also addresses the problem of translations. In this article, he investigates the differences among different translations and lists available versions of each poem: Chinese originals, French translations by Marguis d’Hervey-Saint-Denys and Judith Gautier, German translations by Hans Heilmann, German paraphrases by Hans Bethge, and Mahler’s alterations. Lo argues that it was Mahler’s alterations, rather than Bethge’s paraphrases, that created a musical work of the highest rank not by interpreting the superficial essence but the life attitude in the Chinese poems: “His composition, however, signified for the composer likewise also the generation of one confession works of the highest rank, in which not the “words” of Bethge’s poetry, but one attitude towards

16 Huang Yuan, “Mahler’s Das Lied von der Erde and Chinese Poetry in the Tang Dynasty”

17 One might raise the question whether Das Lied von der Erde is a work representing orientalism. As Edward Said has famously argued, Westerners have historically created or portrayed cultures in the Far East in such a way that the “oriental” is used as “the others” to reflect the superiority of the West. The created “Eastern” world is treated neither independent nor real, but it serves a Western intellectual construct. In Das Lied von der Erde, the poems’ Chinese origin and Mahler’s use of pentatonic scales might both make this work a portrait of the “orient.” The characters in the poems might also be understood specifically to represent an image of Chinese culture, for example, when they are collecting lotus-flowers or sewing. My thesis does not attempt to deal with this issue, for several reasons. First, although the speaker in this work addresses stories of specific individuals, the characters are not represented as stand-ins for an exotic culture; instead they present individual lives. Second, the composer’s use of another culture’s literature provides a means to look beyond one’s own culture for ways to deal with difficulties in life. Throughout the journey the speaker aspires to achieve an understanding of his own life, not a distinction between himself and another culture. Third, Mahler named the work Das Lied von der Erde. Unlike Bethge’s title, Die chinesische Flöte, Mahler’s title points out that the work will concern a more universal outlook on life beyond a specific culture. Finally, discussion of orientalism would simply require more space than could possibly be accommodated in this thesis and take the study in a different direction. For all these reasons my thesis will not venture away from its primary goal in order to discuss orientalism.

8 life was interpreted, that Mahler perhaps addressed in the – certainly not always competently conveyed – verses of poetry of the Tang Dynasty.”18 The last category of studies of the music is the largest and the most intriguing one, in which different perspectives are used to interpret Das Lied von der Erde. David Birchler views Mahler’s works explicitly as an autobiography and thus Mahler’s relationship with nature can be known through the works. In Das Lied von der Erde he focuses on the separation between past and present in “Der Abschied.” Birchler includes Mahler’s works from different periods. This methodology helps him achieve a more objective understanding of Mahler’s music. Barbara Barry, on the other hand, uses a philosophical point of view for interpretation. She states, “In both its poetic and musical textuality, Das Lied von der Erde is a powerful narrative full of longing and beauty, a journey whose content is the experience of mortality and transcendence.”19 To Barry Das Lied von der Erde is a place for past experiences. Pu-qu Jiang’s and Haiping Hu’s dissertations make connections between Das Lied von der Erde and Chinese poets or philosophy. Jiang relates the lives of Li Tai-Po and Mahler, as well the music’s structure with Chinese poetic structure, “Qi (introduction), Cheng (elucidation of the theme), Zhuan (transition to another viewpoint), and He (summing up).”20 The biographical information about the Chinese poet and the introduction of Chinese poetic form are pertinent. The way in which Jiang relates them is, however, not convincing, because the essence of Das Lied von der Erde lies in the differences rather than similarities between two distinct cultures. An earlier dissertation by Haiping Hu introduces different philosophies that had influenced Mahler in different periods and then relates Chinese and Western philosophies. He proposes that Mahler’s life philosophy in Das Lied von der Erde can be summarized under three aspects: perceptions of human destiny, transformations of nature into music, and spiritual culmination. Hu describes Mahler as a “musical philosopher.”21 Using “spiritual culmination”

18 Kii-ming Lo, “Chinesische Dichtung als Textgrundlage für Mahlers Lied von der Erde,” in Das Gustav-Mahler- Fest Hamburg 1989, ed. by Matthias Theodor Vogt, 509-29 (Kassel and New York: Bärenreiter, 1991), 518.

19 Barbara Barry, “Eternal Return in Das Lied von der Erde,” in The Philosopher’s Stone: Essays in the Transformation of Musical Structure, ed. by Barbara Barry, 203-21 (Pendragon, 2000), 203.

20 Pu-qi Jiang, “An Integration of Ancient Chinese Poetry and Western Post-Romantic Music: A Study of Gustav Mahler’s Das Lied von der Erde,” DMA diss. (University of Cincinnati, 2003), ii.

21 Haiping Hu, “Das Lied von der Erde: The Culmination of Mahler’s Artistic Life,” Ph.D. diss. (University of California at Los Angeles, 1991), 6.

9 and “musical philosopher” to interpret Das Lied von der Erde and Mahler does not seem appropriate. Although Mahler did have strong interest in philosophy and searched different philosophies for the answer to life, he did not claim to be a philosopher. Both of these dissertations started with good designs but are guilty of overstatement in their conclusions. Konrad Kenkel first uses musical analysis to uncover personal emotions such as loneliness, desperation, and nostalgia in fin-de-siècle Vienna. For instance, the frequent use of solo instruments in the first movement of Das Lied von der Erde is understood to portray the poet’s loneliness. Kenkel then suggests that the compositional techniques used by Mahler to present the decadent world also led to something new: “Mahler’s predilection for dematerialization displays a characteristic which, although originating in the basic experience of decadence, ultimately leads to a new conception of art.”22 Kenkel’s conclusions integrate the personal and aesthetic aspects: “On the personal level, it was a farewell without a future; within the aesthetic realm, it became an escape into the future.”23 Kenkel’s short article not only portrays Mahler’s musical presentation of emotions but also indicates this work’s historical importance in terms of its aesthetic values. Arthur Bampton Wenk views Das Lied von der Erde as a work that presents two main ideas: “resignation in face of the transitory character of existence” and “celebration of the endless renewal of life.”24 In order to understand how Mahler presents these two ideas, Wenk investigates the composer’s compositional decisions on setting poems and alterations of the texts. Through the connection between musical decisions and philosophical ideas, Wenk presents Mahler as a poet who integrated seven poems into “a single cycle of valediction and renewal.”25 Both Hans Wollschläger and Hermann Danuser focus on the last movement of Das Lied von der Erde and use its musical structure to understand the work’s meaning. In Wollschläger’s article, “Abschied from Das Lied von der Erde: Mahler’s Late Work,” he investigates this work’s central theme, contemplation of the concept of time. Wollschläger describes Das Lied

22 Konrad O. Kenkel, “Gustav Mahler’s Song of the Earth: Farewell or Escape?” in Focus on Vienna 1990: Change and Continuity in Literature, Art and Intellectual History, ed. by Erika Nielsen, 125-30 (Munich: Wilhelm Fink, 1982), 129.

23 Kenkel, 130.

24 Arthur Bampton Wenk, “The Composer as Poet in Das Lied von der Erde.” 19th-century Music 1 (1977): 33.

25 Wenk, 43.

10 von der Erde as a “Basis-Kunst-Werk des Zwanzigsten Jahrhunderts” (basis of the art work of the twentieth century) because it attempts to answer a question that is universal to humans.26 Hermann Danuser also interprets the musical structure to understand the work’s meaning. He suggests that the ending of “Der Abschied” is both concluding and open-ending; therefore, the concept of “ewig” is presented in music: “the word ewig has a semantic meaning far beyond the immediate context of the passage, extending, as a metaphor for nature’s process of life and death, to the central content of the entire work.”27 In her doctoral dissertation “Mahler and the Music of fin-de-siècle Identity,” Francesca Lurana Draughon situates Mahler’s four large works (Lieder eines fahrenden Gesellen, First Symphony, Ninth Symphony, and Das Lied von der Erde) within the historical and social background of Vienna at the turn of the century. She explains people’s anxiety and how they sought for comfort in various fields such as the Orient and philosophy. This dissertation has two focuses: Orientalism and transcendence. Draughon addresses the way in which Mahler portrays the “Orient” as “Other” and relates this issue to the composer’s own status as being an outsider in his society. Regarding transcendence, Draughon discusses the connection between Buddhism and Schopenhaurian philosophy in Das Lied von der Erde. Donald Mitchell interprets Das Lied von der Erde with its Chinese elements and the structure of “Der Abschied.” Mitchell explains that heterophony is significant in Chinese music. The use of counterpoint in Das Lied von der Erde thus shows the influence of Chinese music: “much of the counterpoint in Das Lied was heterophonically conceived.”28 Besides harmonic texture, Mitchell discusses the work’s exotic quality in structure. The last movement “Der Abschied” is different from all the other movements, in that it is not in strophic form. Its free form and open ending represent a departure from the Western tradition. Mitchell thus states, “It is in these dimensions of the finale of Das Lied that we can with confidence speak of the work’s exoticism, of its orientalism.”29

26 Hans Wollschläger, “Abschied from Das Lied von der Erde: Mahler’s Late Work,” Musik & Ästhetik 1, 3 (1997): 19.

27 Hermann Danuser, “Musical Manifestations of the End in Wagner and Post-Wagnerian ‘Weltanschauungsmusik’” 19th-Century Music 18 (1994): 81.

28 Mitchell, “New Light on Das Lied von der Erde,” 21.

29 Mitchell, “New Light on Das Lied von der Erde,” 24.

11 This literature survey has shown that research on the music-text relationships and the sources of the texts for Das Lied von der Erde is abundant, whereas there is still room for musical analysis and interpretation of the work. Based on and departing from the previous studies, my research will interpret Das Lied von der Erde by examining the lyric persona’s philosophical search for a deeper understanding of life across the borders of cultures.

Method This study regards Das Lied von der Erde as an ongoing journey of a single speaker; the six movements reveal various experiences and contemplations. Each of the following chapters will discuss one movement, starting with the texts and then the music. Nature is always present in all movements, but its meaning changes; for instance, nature is used to indicate the brevity of humans’ lives in “Das Trinklied vom Jammer” and to symbolize the speaker’s emotions in “Der Einsame im Herbst.” Nature is thus traced as a main theme that constitutes the meaning of the music. The discussions of the texts include that of the Chinese original, Bethge’s paraphrase, and Mahler’s alterations. Different approaches have been applied to compare texts; Renkang Qian translated Bethge’s versions into Chinese and compared them with the Chinese originals, and Stephen Hefling used English translations of different versions for the same purpose. Translation inevitably reduces the accuracy of the text. In order to truly comprehend texts, my approach is to examine all three versions in the original language and use English for explanation. An examination of the Chinese poem manifests the original look and meaning of the poem. Bethge’s paraphrase is then compared to the original poem to point out any change of structure, mistranslations, discrepancy in symbols, and difference in styles. A comparison between Bethge’s version and the text used in Das Lied von der Erde shows the composer’s alterations. These changes are examined closely to show how they nuance the lyrics, how they impact the structure, and how they suit a musical composition more effectively. Musical analysis of each movement begins with an overview of central themes and musical figures. The introduction of themes shows their characters, effects, and rhythmic and melodic features. A formal and stylistic analysis then examines the music to demonstrate the speaker’s specific experience in each movement as part of the journey. These experiences

12 represented by individual movements are integrated to form the speaker’s journey that continues throughout Das Lied von der Erde.

13 CHAPTER 1

“DAS TRINKLIED VOM JAMMER DER ERDE”: AN INVITATION TO THE JOURNEY

The speaker in “Das Trinklied vom Jammer der Erde” exhorts his listeners, “doch trinkt noch nicht, erst sing’ ich euch ein Lied!” inviting the audience to enjoy the music. This opening movement also singles out nature, the important symbol of Das Lied von der Erde. Moreover, the speaker reflects upon life, but his musings will not reach a conclusion until the last movement. Li Tai-Po (701-62) and Du Fu (712-70) were the two greatest poets of the Tang Dynasty. Li’s craft appears so effortless and natural that he received the nickname “Poetry Sage.” His poems show a vivid imagination, a variety of themes, and rich descriptions. He mainly used his talent in writing poems to protest political and social injustice. Although his ambition did not achieve positive results, Li’s persistence in promoting integrity never ceased. Throughout his life, Li continued using poems to express his passion for influencing the world. His rough path in politics also resulted in a pessimistic attitude in his poems, revealed by the protagonists’ use of alcohol for escape. Despite such pessimism, the proactive ideas to improve society are characteristic of his poems. Li is therefore regarded as one of the most important Romantic poets of the Tang Dynasty.30 Xuanzong (685-762), a Tang emperor who reigned from 712 to 756, recognized Li Tai- Po’s talent and appointed him to a post in the Hanlin Academy, an institution founded by Xuanzong to perform secretarial or literary work for the court. Li accidentally offended another powerful person while pursuing a position in the palace and was forced to give up his ambition in the palace and to resign from the court life. Li’s career story provides an explanation of his protagonists’ desire to withdraw from the world. The original poem of “Das Trinklied vom Jammer der Erde” is Li’s “悲來乎” (“Pei-Lai- Ho”), whose title is a declamatory expression conveying one’s sorrow. Hans Bethge’s paraphrase only includes the first half of the poem. Donald Mitchell explains that Bethge left out the second

30 Yue-yuan Chu and Chin-cheng Chu, ed., 中國古典文學叢書: 李白集校注 (Chinese Classic Literature: Poems by Li Tai-Po) (Shang Hai, China: Shanghai Ancient books publisher, 1998), 1-20.

14 half due to the difficulty of translating names. Even if the second half were translated literally, it would have required a lot of explanations, or the poem would only make sense to those who were already familiar with Chinese history.31 The following discussion will explain the entire poem, placing more emphasis on the first half. The poem consists of three stanzas. Each begins with the declamatory expression “Pei- Lai-Ho,” which establishes the tone and structure of the poem. In the first stanza the poet asks the host not to drink yet, because he is about to sing a song. He explains that drinking and music go well together. The second stanza states that humankind’s lives are so short that the pursuit of wealth and fame is meaningless. The image of an ape under the moon symbolizes one’s loneliness. The third stanza, omitted in the translation, references many actual people who did not receive fair treatment from the authorities. These instances explain the poet’s hopelessness; being moral is pointless, since manipulative people can easily sabotage one’s work. The first half of the poem thus manifests an attitude of aloofness in life, and the second half shows the rationale behind such an attitude. Contemplating the unfair events in history, the speaker has come to realize that it is pointless to struggle with or fight against injustice. Enjoying the moment and appreciating liquor are more fulfilling alternatives. Nature is important for both the original poem and the German paraphrase, although, as we shall notice, the German text uses nature symbolically to question the meaning of life. The following discussion of the German text consists of two parts: the comparison between the Chinese original and Bethge’s paraphrase, and a comparison between the versions of Bethge and of Mahler. Table 1.1 shows the original Chinese poem with an English translation, and Bethge’s paraphrase and its English translation.

Table 1.1: Chinese original, Bethge’s paraphrase, and an English translation 悲來乎32 Das Trinklied vom Jammer der The drinking song of earth’s Erde33 sorrow34

31 Mitchell, Gustav Mahler: Songs and Symphonies of Life and Death, 164.

32 The Chinese translation is adapted from Ching-wah Lam’s in Mitchell, Gustav Mahler: Songs and Symphonies of Life and Death, 163.

33 Mitchell, Gustav Mahler: Songs and Symphonies of Life and Death, 169.

34 The English translation is adapted from Mitchell, Gustav Mahler: Songs and Symphonies of Life and Death, 171.

15 Table 1.1 – continued: Chinese original, Bethge’s paraphrase, and an English translation 悲來乎 Das Trinklied vom Jammer der The drinking song of earth’s Erde sorrow 悲來乎,悲來乎 Schon winkt der Wein in Now beckons the wine in the (How sad! How Sad!) goldenen Pokalen, golden goblet, 主人有酒且莫斟 Doch trinkt noch nicht! Erst but don’t drink before I sing (The host has wine, but do not sing ich euch ein Lied! you a song! pour yet.) 聽我ㄧ曲悲來吟 Das Lied vom Kummer soll The song of sorrow shall (Let me sing a song of sorrow.) euch in die Seele resound in gusts of laughter through your soul. 悲來不吟還不笑 Auflachend klingen! Wenn der When sorrow draws near, (I cannot express my sorrow nor Kummer naht, can I laugh.) 天下無人知我心 So stirbt die Freude, der Gesang Joy and song wither and die. (No one understands me in the erstirbt, world.) Wüst liegen die Gemächer The chambers of my soul lie meiner Seele. wasted. Dunkel ist das Leben, ist der Dark is life, and so is death. Tod.

君有數斗酒 Dein Keller birgt des goldnen Your cellar holds its fill of (You have several measures of Weins die Fülle, golden wine! wine;) Herr dieses Hauses, - ich besitze Master of this house! I am andres: holding 我有三尺琴 Hier diese lange Laute nenn ich this lute here that I name my (I have a three-foot long qin.) mein! own! 琴鳴酒樂兩相得 Die Laute schlagen und die To strike the lute and to drain (The qin is sounded and the Gläser leeren, the glasses, wine is drunk with joy;) Das sind zwei Dinge, die These are the things that go zusammenpassen! well together. 一杯不啻千鈞金 Ein voller Becher Weins zur A full goblet of wine at the (One cup is worth a thousand rechten Zeit right time taels of gold.) Ist mehr wert also die Reiche Is worth more than all the dieser Erde. kingdoms of this earth! 悲來乎,悲來乎 Dunkel ist das Leben, ist der Dark is life, and so is death. (How sad! How sad!) Tod.

天雖長,地雖久 Das Firmament blaut ewig, und The firmament is blue (Although heaven and earth are die Erde eternally, and the earth everlasting,)

16 Table 1.1 – continued: Chinese original, Bethge’s paraphrase, and an English translation 悲來乎 Das Trinklied vom Jammer der The drinking song of earth’s Erde sorrow 金玉滿堂應不守 Wird lange feststehnauf den Will long stand fast and (It is impossible to keep gold alten Füssen, blossom in spring. and jade for ever.) 富貴百年能幾何 Du aber, Mensch, wie lange But thou, O man, for how long (What is the use, after all, of lebst denn du? do you live? being rich for a hundred years;) 死生一度人皆有 An all dem morschen Tande In all the rotten trash of this (Everyone will face birth and dieser Erde, earth! death.)

Nur Ein Besitztum ist dir ganz Only one estate is totally gewiss: certain. Das ist das Grab, das Grinsende, That is the grave, the grin, of am Ende. the earth. Dunkel ist das Leben, ist der Dark is life, and so is death! Tod.

孤猿坐啼墳上月 Seht dort hinab! Im Mondschein Look down there! In the (A lonely ape sits above the auf den Gräbern moonlight, on the graves. grave and cries at the moon;) Hockt eine wild-gespenstische Squats a mad spectral figure. Gestalt. Ein Affe ist es! Hört ihr, wie It is an ape! Hear him howling sein Heulen Hinausgellt in den süssen Duft And yelling and shattering the des Abends? sweet fragrance of life! 且須一盡杯中酒 Jetzt nehmt den Wein! Jetzt ist Now take the wine! Now it is (One must finish the wine in es Zeit, Genossen! time, companions! one’s cup.) Leert eure goldnen Becher bis Drain your golden goblets to zum Grund! the dregs!

Dunkel ist das Leben, ist der Dark is life, and so is death! Tod.

In the German paraphrase, the reason for the speaker’s pessimism and disappointment is not addressed because of the omission of the original’s second half. Bethge’s version starts, as in the Chinese poem, with the speaker asking the guests to defer drinking to hear him sing. The image of the garden depicts the effect of sorrow’s closeness: “Wenn der Kummer naht, So stirbt die Freude, der Gesang erstirbt, Wüst liegen die Gemächer meiner Seele.” The analogy points out the significance of nature, which will be specified more clearly in the next stanza. Stanza 1

17 ends with a refrain, “Dunkel ist das Leben, ist der Tod,” which also presents the speaker’s pessimistic point of view – life and death are both dark. In Stanza 2, the speaker continues his singing. He says that drinking and music are two of the greatest things; thus he invites the guests to enjoy the moment, because good wine at the right time “is worth more than all the kingdoms of this earth!” After the second stanza, which is rather close to the Chinese poem, the singer indicates the longevity of nature: “Das Firmament blaut ewig, und die Erde wird lange feststehn auf den alten Füssen.” The permanence of nature contrasts to humans’ short life span in the following question, “Du aber, Mensch, wie lang lebst denn du?” Indicating human limitation, nature represents the speaker’s wondering about the meaning of life. In the next and last stanza another image depicts loneliness: an ape crying under the moon. This image reflects the speaker’s sorrow and disappointment in life. He then finishes the song and invites the guests to drink. In Bethge’s paraphrase, two images of nature, the everlasting firmament and the lonely ape, inspire the speaker’s musings about life. Table 1.2 includes Bethge’s paraphrase, Mahler’s version, and an English translation:

Table 1.2: Bethge’s paraphrase and Mahler’s alterations35 Das Trinklied vom Jammer der Das Trinklied vom Jammer der The drinking song of Erde (Bethge)36 Erde (Mahler)37 earth’s sorrow38 Schon winkt der Wein in Schon winkt der Wein im Now beckons the wine in goldenen Pokalen, gold’nen Pokale, the golden goblet, Doch trinkt noch nicht! Erst sing Doch trinkt noch nicht, erst but don’t drink before I ich euch ein Lied! sing’ ich euch ein Lied! sing you a song! Das Lied vom Kummer soll euch Das Lied vom Kummer soll The song of sorrow shall in die Seele auflachend in die Seele euch resound in gusts of klingen. laughter through your soul.

35 * Indicates Mahler made a change in the line.

36 Mitchell, Gustav Mahler: Songs and Symphonies of Life and Death, 169.

37 Mitchell, Gustav Mahler: Songs and Symphonies of Life and Death, 170.

38 The English translation is from Mitchell, Gustav Mahler: Songs and Symphonies of Life and Death, 171.

18 Table 1.2 – continued: Bethge’s paraphrase and Mahler’s alterations Das Trinklied vom Jammer der Das Trinklied vom Jammer der The drinking song of Erde (Bethge) Erde (Mahler) earth’s sorrow Auflachend klingen! Wenn der Wenn der Kummer naht, liegen When sorrow draws near, Kummer naht, wüsst die Gärten der Seele, the gardens of the soul lie wasted, So stirbt die Freude, der Gesang Welkt hin und stirbt die Freude, Joy and song wither and erstirbt, der Gesang die. Wüst liegen die Gemächer meiner Seele. Dunkel ist das Leben, ist der Tod. Dunkel ist das Leben, ist der Dark is life, and so is Tod. death.

Dein Keller birgt des goldnen Herr dieses Hauses! Master of this house! Weins die Fülle, Herr dieses Hauses, - ich besitze Dein Keller birgt die Fülle des Your cellar holds its fill andres: goldenen Weins! of golden wine! Hier diese lange Laute nenn ich Hier, diese Laute nenn’ ich Here, this lute I name my mein! mein! own! Die Laute schlagen und die Die Laute schlagen und die To strike the lute and to Gläser leeren, Gläser leeren, drain the glasses, Das sind zwei Dinge, die Das sind die Dinge, die These are the things that zusammenpassen! zusammen passen. go well together. Ein voller Becher Weins zur Ein voller Becher Weins zur A full goblet of wine at rechten Zeit rechten Zeit the right time Ist mehr wert also die Reiche Ist mehr wert, als alle Reiche Is worth more than all the dieser Erde. dieser Erde! kingdoms of this earth! Dunkel ist das Leben, ist der Tod. Dunkel is das Leben, ist der Dark is life, and so is Tod. death.

Das Firmament blaut ewig, und Das Firmament blaut ewig, und The firmament is blue die Erde die Erde eternally, and the earth Wird lange feststehnauf den alten Wird lange fest steh’n und Will long stand fast and Füssen, aufblüh’n im Lenz. blossom in spring. Du aber, Mensch, wie lange lebst Du aber, Mensch, wie lang But thou, O man, for how denn du? lebst denn du? long do you live? Nicht hundert Jahre darfst du dich Nicht hundert Jahre darfst du Not for a hundred years ergötzen dich ergötzen can you delight, An all dem morschen Tande An all dem morschen Tande In all the rotten trash of dieser Erde, dieser Erde! this earth! Nur Ein Besitztum ist dir ganz gewiss: Das ist das Grab, das grinsende, am Ende. Dunkel ist das Leben, ist der Tod.

19 Table 1.2 – continued: Bethge’s paraphrase and Mahler’s alterations Das Trinklied vom Jammer der Das Trinklied vom Jammer der The drinking song of Erde (Bethge) Erde (Mahler) earth’s sorrow Seht dort hinab! Im Mondschein Seht dor hinab! Im Mondschein Look down there! In the auf den Gräbern auf den Gräbern moonlight, on the graves. Hockt eine wild-gespenstische Hockt eine wild-gespenstiche Squats a mad spectral Gestalt. Gestalt. figure. Ein Affe ist es! Hört ihr, wie sein Ein Aff’ ist’s! Hört ihr, wie It is an ape! Hear him Heulen sein Heulen howling Hinausgellt in den süssen Duft Hinaufgellt in den süssen Duft And yelling and des Abends? des Lebens! shattering the sweet fragrance of life!

Jetzt nehmt den Wein! Jetzt ist es Jetzt nehmt den Wein! Jetzt ist Now take the wine! Now Zeit, Genossen! es Zeit, Genossen! it is time, companions! Leert eure goldnen Becher bis Leert eure gold’nen Becher zu Drain your golden goblets zum Grund! Grund! to the dregs! Dunkel ist das Leben, ist der Tod. Dunkel ist das Leben, ist der Dark is life, and so is Tod! death!

Mahler made only a few changes, and none of them drastically influences the text. The first change is the deletion of several phrases at the end of the third stanza: “Nur ein Besitztum ist dir ganz gewiss: / Das ist das Grab, das grinsende, am Ende. / Dunkel ist das Leben, ist der Tod.” The omission of these three phrases makes the text more concise, so that the comparison of firmament and human lives is immediately followed by the ape under the moon. Juxtaposing these two images heightens the audience’s sympathy with the speaker’s frustrations. Mahler also put a brief break in the fourth stanza before “Jetzt nehmt den Wein! Jetzt ist es Zeit, Genossen!” In the music the break is indicated by a change of key at m. 369 and the decreasing intensity before this phrase enters. The word “Leben” was set to twelve beats of B-flat and two beats of A- flat (mm. 361-65). In mm. 366-67 the orchestra plays long notes and descending lines before the word “Jetzt.” These two elements provide the audience a chance to reflect upon the speaker’s oration; such reflection is not an explicit feature of the original poem or Bethge’s paraphrase. Mahler’s minor but meaningful changes allow the speaker to express his feelings more concretely and the audience to experience the speaker’s feelings. As mentioned before, this movement singles out the symbolic meaning of nature, poses the speaker’s search for the meaning of life, and invites the audience to join him on his journey.

20 The discussions of the music will focus on these characteristics. Table 1.3 below provides an overview of this movement’s form.

Table 1.3: Tonal analysis of “Das Trinklied vom Jammer der Erde” Section Measure Key Text number Introduction 1-16 A minor Stanza 1 A minor Schon winkt der 17-24 Bb major Wein im gold’nen Pokale, 25-28 A minor Doch trinkt noch 29-32 A major Nicht, erst sing’ ich euch ein 33-43 A minor Lied! Das Lied vom Kummer soll auf lachend in die Seele 44-62 Bb major Euch klingen. Wenn der Kummer naht, liegen wüsst die 63-96 G minor Gärten der Seele, Welkt hin und stirbt die Freude, der Gesang. Dunkel ist das Leben, ist der Tod. Stanza 2 97-125 C minor Herr dieses Hauses! Dein Keller birgt die Fülle des goldenen Weins! 126-36 A minor Hier, diese Laute nenn’ ich mein! 137-44 B-flat major Die Laute schlagen und die Gläser leeren, 145-52 G-flat major Das sind die Dinge, die zusammen passen. 153-78 A-flat minor Ein voller Becher Weins zur rechten Zeit Ist mehr wert, (ist mehr wert, ist mehr wert,) als alle Reiche dieser Erde! 179-82 A-flat major (Interlude) 183-92 A-flat minor Dunkel ist das Leben, ist der Tod! 193-262 A-flat major (Interlude) Stanza 3 263-98 A-flat major Das Firmament blaut ewig, und die Erde Wird lange fest steh’n und aufblüh’n im Lenz. Du aber, Mensch, 299-325 Chromatic wie lang lebst denn du? Nicht hundert Jahre darfst du dich ergötzen An all dem morschen Tande dieser Erde! Stanza 4 326-42 A minor Seht dort hinab! Im Mondschein auf den Gräbern Hockt eine wild-gespenstiche Gestalt. 343-52 B-flat major Ein Aff’ ist’s! 353-68 A minor Hört ihr, wie sein Heulen Hinausgellt in den süssen Duft des Lebens! (Fifth stanza) Jetzt nehmt den 368-92 A major Wein! Jetzt ist es Zeit, Genossen! Leert eure gold’nen Becher zu Grund! Dunkel ist das Leben, ist der

21 Table 1.3 – continued: Tonal analysis of “Das Trinklied vom Jammer der Erde” Section Measure Key Text number (Stanza 4) 393-405 A minor Tod!

As shown in Table 1.3, the changes of key areas do not coincide with the change of sections. The division of sections follows the poetic structure, but the constant change of keys makes it difficult to identify sections by means of harmonic analysis.39 Thematic features, however, clarify the structure. A new section in the poem frequently opens with a horn-call theme and ends with a refrain, as will be explained in more detail shortly. Four important themes in this movement serve as meaningful signals. The horn-call melody (Example 1.1) opens the movement in a festive style.40 Besides opening the entire work, it also signals the beginnings of new sections. The theme is prominently used with mutations; such variation technique is a significant feature of Das Lied von der Erde. This theme is first played by the brass instruments, but its instrumentation will not be limited to one kind of instrument, especially when it becomes subjected to variation.

Example 1.1: The horn-call melody (horns in F, mm. 1-3)

The character of the second theme, shown in Example 1.2, contrasts to that of the horn- call melody. This theme exhibits darker, mellower traits. The theme frequently changes the mood of the music from festive to sorrowful. For example, this theme is used before the first refrain,

39 Paul John Whitworth discusses discontinuities in the last movement in his dissertation “Aspects of Mahler’s Musical Language: An Analytical Study.” He explains that discontinuities appear in texture, timbre, dynamics, and gesture. He also addresses how disjunct cadences at strategic highpoints create unfulfilled longing in both the technical and rhetoric aspects. Further discussion see the section “Discontinuity and Formal Resolution in ‘Der Abschied’” in pp. 302-33.

40 Theme 1 comprises three notes (A-G-E) from a C-major pentatonic scale. This feature is not addressed because the Oriental sound is not the focus of this chapter. For a more detailed discussion on the use of pentatonic scales in Das Lied von der Erde, see J. Randall Wheaton, “The Diatonic Potential of Strange Sets: Theoretical Tenets and Structural Meaning in Gustav Mahler’s Der Abschied,” Ph.D. dissertation (Yale University, 1988), 1-32.

22 “Dunkel ist das Leben, ist der Tod,” creating a foreboding atmosphere for the refrain, “dark life and death.”

Example 1.2: The second theme (two solo violins, mm. 179-85)

The ecstasy melody (Example 1.3) only appears occasionally, but its importance cannot be overlooked. The ecstasy motive in Richard Wagner’s Tristan und Isolde connotes an entangling emotion that reflects love and death (see Example 1.4). Reminiscent of that motive, Mahler’s ecstasy melody also carries the emotional intensity. This melody thus allows the composer to comment on the text with music. The use of this theme in the first movement also prepares the audience for its more prominent use in the sixth movement, “Der Abschied.”

Example 1.3: Ecstasy melody (tenor and cellos, mm. 121-25)

Example 1.4: Wagner’s Tristan und Isolde, ecstasy motive (Scene 3, oboe, mm. 210)

23 Both the words and the thematic contour construct the refrain’s significance (see Example 1.5). This phrase indicates the central idea of this poem: life and death are both dark. Mahler set the phrase to the same melody each time that it occurs. This refrain consists of two descending phrases of four and five measures, respectively. The notes in the first phrase outline a descending G-minor triad, and those in the second phrase descend in nearly scalar fashion. The smaller intervals slow down the pace, and the combination of two descending lines creates a solemn melody for the pessimistic statement: “Dunkel ist das Leben, ist der Tod.”

Example 1.5: The refrain (tenor, mm. 81-89)

As already stated, the design of the movement relies on the poetic structure. The four stanzas can also be heard as two large parts, and the entire movement can be divided into five musical sections. Table 1.4 lists the division of sections. Each division will be discussed individually in the analyses that follow.

Table 1.4: Formal analysis of “Das Trinklied vom Jammer der Erde” Part Stanza Section Measure Text (incipit) number Part 1 Stanza 1 Section 1 16-89 Schon winkt der Wein im gold’nen Pokale Stanza 2 Section 2 112-202 Herr dieses Hauses! Part 2 Stanza 3 Section 3 263-325 Das Firmament blaut ewig, und die Erde Stanza 4 Section 4 326-66 Seht dort hinab! Im Mondschein auf den Gräbern Section 5 367-93 Jetzt nehmt den Wein! Jetzt ist es Zeit, Genossen!

After fifteen measures of introduction, in which the horn-call melody creates a festive mood, the first section starts with the speaker trying to draw people’s attention to his singing. The ecstasy melody soon appears in the tenor voice in mm. 31-33 and the cellos in mm. 42-43. The speaker continues to address an important symbol – the garden of the soul. The use of the

24 garden points out the role of nature in this work, and the withered joy and song present the nearness of sorrow in life. In this section about the garden, the first flute plays trills and alternations between neighboring notes in mm. 56-60, and the oboes play trills in mm. 63-65. Both instruments provide a pastoral sound to reflect the text. The sorrowful second theme is played by the first clarinet in mm. 77-83, leading to the refrain in mm. 81-89. The speaker sets out his pessimistic view of life. The first section has already brought out some core elements of Das Lied von der Erde: the speaker’s declarative speech, the importance of nature, and central issues about life. The interlude between the first section and the second uses the horn-call melody again, and it lightens the mood after the solemn refrain. The ecstasy figure again plays an important role in this section, continuing to remind the audience of the hidden side of life that can bring unfortunate incidents. Since the speaker has posed his musings about life, he also wants to address the importance of enjoying life. Therefore he proposes a toast to the host, praises the wine, and indicates that drinking and music go together as important things in life. Music is painted in the word “Laute” in mm. 137-38. The gliding sound of the portamento, not belonging to the German language, creates a self-consciously musical effect for the word. Like the first section, the second is followed by the refrain. After the rather joyful opening, the section again leads to a serious ending. The long interlude before the next section is important. Several themes are played by various instruments; the interlude serves as a musical review of the first two sections. At the same time, changes of instrumentation alter the mood. For example, the English horn plays a more important role in the interlude. As Hector Berlioz describes the English horn: “Its tones are melancholy, dreamy, noble, somewhat veiled – as if played in the distance.”41 The more prominent use of the English horn projects a more sorrowful mood. Therefore, as the music approaches the second half, the somewhat joyful spirit of the first half has disappeared. The third section indicates the eternal existence of the blue firmament. To contrast such eternity, the speaker points out that human lives can last no more than a hundred years. This observation focuses his main view about life: the brevity of lives cannot be changed, no matter how much worldly success one achieves. Hence the first climax appears towards the end of this

41 Hector Berlioz, Treatise on Instrumentation, enlarged and revised by Richard Strauss, translated by Theodor Front (first published in 1844/5; New York: Edwin F. Kalmus, 1948), p. 184.

25 section. This section does not end with a refrain; the music can therefore sustain the climatic development, whereas the refrain would calm down the excitement. The fourth section uses another symbol to continue the speaker’s agony: an ape crying under the moon, which represents humankind’s loneliness. The music reaches its highest tension in this section. The speaker first points out the figure sitting on a grave in the moonlight. In mm. 328-65 the vocal line stays in higher registers, and the orchestra plays many ascending lines. The tension in music thus continues to accumulate, while the text goes on to reveal that the figure is an ape yelling and shouting. The horn-call melody and the ecstasy melody are both used in this section. Neither the second theme nor the refrain is used, because either would interrupt the climax. The speaker calms down in the fifth section, and his mind returns to the party. He asks the assembled guests to take their glasses and drink with him. The music reflects his mood change; after being so overwhelmed by his contemplation, he now feels only fatigue and wishes to use drinking as a means of temporary escape. The refrain at the end of this section not only reflects his calming down but also recasts the speaker’s contemplation. After the refrain the horn-call melody appears in the short coda, and the movement ends. Serving as the opening movement, “Das Trinklied vom Jammer der Erde” draws the audience’s attention to the speaker’s interior journey. This movement sets out the speaker’s musings about life, and he will continue his contemplation throughout the entire work. The movement sets up the centrality of nature and the speaker’s pondering about life, which are crucial to Das Lied von der Erde. The speaker starts contemplating life in this movement, but he has not reached his conclusion before the movement ends. While he invites the guests to drink the wine at the end of this movement, he also invites the audience to join the ongoing journey with him. The musings about life are posed, but the answers will not be found until the end of Das Lied von der Erde.

26 CHAPTER 2

“DER EIMSAME IM HERBST”: NATURE AS SORROW

Nature continues to play an important role in the second movement, where it symbolizes sorrow. In the first movement nature provided the speaker a place for reflection, and its permanence contrasted human life’s brevity. In “Der Einsame im Herbst,” rather than contemplating the meaning of life, the speaker expresses his affliction. Symbolizing a present suffering, nature expresses the emotional aspect of the speaker’s journey. Chien Chi’s “Imitation of Old Poems: Long Autumn Nights” was translated into French as “Le soir d’automne” (The Autumn Night) by Judith Gautier in her anthology of Chinese poetry, Le livre de jade. Fusako Hamao explains the problems that arise from Gautier’s attribution and style of translation.42 In the anthology the poem is attributed to “Tchang Tsi.” The names of two poets in the Tang Dynasty could be translated into this name, but none of their poems shows an affinity with the translated poem. Furthermore, Gautier included the Chinese characters “李巍” (Li Wei) next to the poet’s name. This name not only differs from the pronunciation “Tchang Tsi” but also refers to no poet in the Tang Dynasty. Scholars thus searched various poems to match the translation; among them was Li Tai-Po’s “烏夜啼” (“The Crows that Caw at Night”). Chien Chi’s poems were also considered as possible sources, since the pronunciation of his name is close to “Tchang Tsi.” After describing her research and opinions of other scholars such as La Grange and David Hawkes, Hamao states “All of this strongly suggests that Gautier’s poem was indeed based on the first four lines of Ch’ien-Ch’i’s poem [i.e., ‘效古秋夜長’].”43 Investigation of the source of this text also took place in China, as exemplified in Renkang Qian’s article, which recognizes the same poem as the source.44 Chien Chi (722-780) was a highly respected poet in the Tang Dynasty, although not as well known as Li Tai-Po, Wang Wei, and Mong Kao-Ren. He was appointed to a position at the

42 Fusako Hamao, “The Source of the Texts in Mahler’s ‘Lied von der Erde’” 19th-Century Music 19: 83-95.

43 Hamao, 90.

44 Renkang Qian, “大地之歌歌詞溯源” (“Tracing the Origin of the Texts of Das Lied von der Erde.”) Yinyue Yishu: Shanghai Yinyue Xueyuan Xuebao (Art of Music: Journal of the Shanghai Conservatory of Music) (2000): 12-19.

27 Hanlin Academy and has been considered as one of the ten most talented poets of his time. He was a prolific poet; more than ten books of his poems are preserved.45 The poem “效古秋夜長” reflects the poet’s skillful use of language. The depiction of a woman’s being left alone perhaps indicates the poet’s effort to arouse others’ empathy for the minority in the society.46 In “效古秋夜長” (“Imitation of Old Poems: Long Autumn Nights”), Chien Chi draws on images of nature – clouds, moonlight, and falling leaves – to symbolize the speaker’s bitter sadness. This poem consists of five lines, each with two phrases. Among these ten phrases, only the first four were included in the French and German translations. Bethge’s paraphrase thus only includes the four phrases as well. Nevertheless, I will discuss the entire Chinese poem to show Chien Chi’s vivid portrayal of the woman’s sorrow. In the four lines that were translated (see Table 2.2), the speaker is sewing alone in an autumn night. The stars and the cold wind both aggravate her sadness. The lamp that lights her work is about to go out, but the night seems endless. Table 2.1 shows the omitted remainder of the poem and my translation.

Table 2.1: The six lines that were omitted and an English translation 簷前碧雲靜如水 The clouds are floating above the roof in the middle of this silent night. 月弔棲烏啼鳥起 The moonlight shines on the ground and scares the raven on the tree, who then crows while flying away. 誰家少婦事鴛機 A neighboring woman is sewing late at night. 錦幕雲屏深掩扉 Behind doors and screens, the woman is probably not known by anybody. 白玉窗中聞落葉 It is getting chilly. I hear the sound of falling leaves outside the window. 應憐寒女獨無衣 Who would care about me, a woman feeling cold without winter clothes?

The gender of the lyric persona in this poem is indicated by the word “女” in the last line, meaning female. As the table shows, she expresses her misery throughout. Chien uses clouds and moonlight to paint a picture of a quiet night. The raven’s movement appears intrusive; the serenity of the night is thus emphasized. The speaker implies her situation in the next two phrases. By describing the neighbor woman who is also sewing late at night and not known by

45 Ting-yu Ruan, ed., 錢起詩集校注 (Annotation and Collection of Chien Chi’s Poems), (Taipei, Taiwan: National Publisher, 1996), 839-840.

46 Ting-yu Ruan, 67-69.

28 anyone, she expresses her sorrow at being left alone in the world. The last two lines indicate her affliction more directly. The coldness of the night reveals her joyless feeling. After various analogies by means of objects in nature, the neighboring woman, and the cold weather, the last line states her lament overtly: “Who would care about me, a woman feeling cold without winter clothes?” The poem thus uses nature to symbolize loneliness, and this remains true in Bethge’s and Mahler’s versions. Table 2.2 shows the original text (only the first four phrases), Bethge’s paraphrase, and an English translation.

Table 2.2: Chinese original, Bethge’s paraphrase, and an English translation 效古秋夜長 Die Einsame im Herbst48 The lonely one in autumn49 (In imitation of the old poem: Long Autumn Nights)47 秋漢飛玉霜 Herbstnebel wallen bläulich überm Autumn mists drift blue over the (Jade frost flies Strom. river through the Milky Vom Reif bezogen stehen alle Covered with rime stands every Way of autumn Gräser, blade of grass; sky.) Man meint, ein Künstler habe Staub It is as though an artist had strewn von Jade dust of jade Über die feinen Halme ausgestreut. Over the delicate stems. 北風掃荷香 Der süsse Duft der Blumen ist The sweet fragrance of the flowers (The wind from the verflogen, has faded; north sweeps the Ein kalter Wind beugt ihre Stengel A cold wind bows down their scent of lotus- nieder; stems. flowers.) Bald werden die verwelkten Soon the withered golden petals goldnen Blätter Der Lotosblüten auf dem Wasser Of the lotus-flowers will be ziehn. floating away on the water.

47 The English translation is adapted from Hamao, 88.

48 Mitchell, Gustav Mahler: Songs and Symphonies of Life and Death, 211.

49 The English translation is adapted from Mitchell, Gustav Mahler: Songs and Symphonies of Life and Death, 213.

29 Table 2.2 – continued: Chinese original, Bethge’s paraphrase, and an English translation 效古秋夜長 Die Einsame im Herbst The lonely one in autumn (In imitation of the old poem: Long Autumn Nights) 含情紡織孤燈盡 Mein Herz ist müde. Meine kleine My heart is weary. My little lamp (The lamp is the Lampe only thing that Erlosch mit Knistern, an den Schlaf Has burnt out with a splutter; it accompanies me gemahnend. puts me in mind to sleep. sewing alone in the Ich komme zu dir, traute Ruhestätte, I come to you, beloved resting middle of the night. place! Now the lamp is Ja, gib mir Schlaf, ich hab Yes, give me sleep, I need about to go out.) Erquickung not! refreshment. 拭淚相思含漏長 Ich weine viel in meinen I weep much in my loneliness. (The night that Einsamkeiten, makes me weep by Der Herbst in meinem Herzen währt Autumn in my heart is lasting too myself never ends.) zu lange; long. Sonne der Liebe, willst du nie mehr Sun of love, will you never shine scheinen, again Um meine bittern Tränen To dry up my bitter tears? aufzutrocknen?

Table 2.2 shows how each phrase in the Chinese poem was expanded into four phrases in the German paraphrase. The German paraphrase remains close to the original poem in terms of the choice of words; it preserved symbols such as autumn, the wind, lotus-flowers, the lamp, and tears. Nonetheless, the poem’s atmosphere was changed; the terse, symbolic style of the Chinese poem was transformed into more descriptive writing in the translation. The first stanza presents a misty picture of nature in which the world is covered with fog and rime. The focus on the sky in the first phrase of the Chinese poem shifts to images on the ground. The image “autumn sky” is replaced by another image, “river.” This mistranslation explains the shift of focus. Hamao explains how such a mistranslation proves Chien Chi’s poem to be the real original and the reason for Gautier’s mistake: Such a difference, however, does not indicate that they are two different poems. On the contrary, it emphasizes the strong connection between them, because the second Chinese character of the first line of Ch’ien-Ch’i’s poem includes two meanings, ‘Han River,’ and the ‘Milky Way’ by commentators and translators of Chinese poems. . . . Given the character’s ambiguity, however, it is understandable that Gautier translated it as ‘Han River’ and then changed the proper noun to the common noun, a river . . .50

50 Hamao, 89.

30

Additionally, the figure of an artist was inserted, emphasizing the artistic quality of the picture. The next three stanzas differ from the original poem in two aspects. The translations were expanded from the original and appear, as a result of expansion, less symbolic. Moreover, the speaker states her wish by pleading overtly. The second stanza does not contain newly invented ideas, but the third stanza does – “Ich komme zu dir, traute Ruhestätte, / Ja, gib mir Schlaf, ich hab Erquickung not!” The speaker pleads for a resting place and rejuvenating sleep. The speaker continues to declare her wish overtly in the last stanza; she asks when the sun of love will return to dry her tears. In short, Bethge’s paraphrase adopts a more direct and descriptive way to express emotions. Table 2.3 lists these two versions and an English translation of the text used in music.

Table 2.3: Bethge’s paraphrase and Mahler’s alterations51 Die Einsame im Herbst *Der Einsame im Herbst The lonely one in autumn54 (Bethge)52 (Mahler)53 Herbstnebel wallen bläulich Herbstnebel wallen bläulich Autumn mists drift blue over überm Strom. überm See, the lake Vom Reif bezogen stehen alle Vom Reif bezogen stehen alle Covered with rime stands Gräser, Gräser; every blade of grass; Man meint, ein Künstler habe Man meint, ein Künstler habe It is as though an artist had Staub von Jade Staub von Jade strewn dust of jade Über die feinen Halme *Über die feinen Blüten Over the delicate blossoms. ausgestreut. ausgestreut.

Der süsse Duft der Blumen ist Der süsse Duft der Blumen ist The sweet fragrance of the verflogen, verflogen; flowers has faded; Ein kalter Wind beugt ihre Ein kalter Wind beugt ihre A cold wind bows down their Stengel nieder; Stengel nieder. stems. Bald werden die verwelkten Bald werden die verwelkten, Soon the withered golden goldnen Blätter gold’nen Blätter petals Der Lotosblüten auf dem Der Lotosblüten auf dem Of the lotus-flowers will be Wasser ziehn. Wasser zieh’n. floating on the water.

51 * Indicates Mahler made a change in the line.

52 Mitchell, Gustav Mahler: Songs and Symphonies of Life and Death, 211.

53 Mitchell, Gustav Mahler: Songs and Symphonies of Life and Death, 212.

54 The English translation is from Mitchell, Gustav Mahler: Songs and Symphonies of Life and Death, 213.

31 Table 2.3 – continued: Bethge’s paraphrase and Mahler’s alterations Die Einsame im Herbst *Der Einsame im Herbst The lonely one in autumn (Bethge) (Mahler) Mein Herz ist müde. Meine Mein Herz ist müde. Meine My heart is weary. My little kleine Lampe kleine Lampe lamp Erlosch mit Knitstern, an den *Erlosch mit Knistern, es Has burnt out with a splutter; it Schlaf gemahnend. gemahnt mich an den Schlaf. puts me in mind to sleep. Ich komme zu dir, traute Ich komm’ zu dir, traute I come to you, beloved resting Ruhestätte, Ruhestätte! place! Ja, gib mir Schlaf, ich hab *Ja, gib mir Ruh’, ich hab’ Yes, give me peace, I need Erquickung not! Erquickung not! consolation.

Ich weine viel in meinen Ich weine viel in meinen I weep much in my loneliness. Einsamkeiten, Einsamkeiten. Der Herbst in meinem Herzen Der Herbst in meinem Herzen Autumn in my heart is lasting währt zu lange; währt zu lange. too long. Sonne der Liebe, willst du nie Sonne der Liebe, willst du nie Sun of love, will you never mehr scheinen, mehr scheinen, shine again Um mine bittern Tränen *Um meine bittern Tränen And dry up, tenderly, my bitter aufzutrocknen? mild aufzutrocknen? tears?

Mahler made some minor changes in this movement. The change in the title, however, merits attention. By changing “Die Einsame im Herbst” to “Der Einsame im Herbst,” Mahler changed the gender of the speaker from a woman to a man. This change reveals a difference between Chinese poetry and Western music. A female speaker is not uncommon in Chinese poetry, especially for poems that express loss of love. Mahler’s change shows that the composer was more accustomed to male speakers. Nevertheless, this movement was indeed set to an alto voice. The female singer can bring out the feminine, more sensitive emotions in the text. The alteration thus shows that Mahler was accustomed to male personae, but he was also aware of the sensitive emotions in the text. Besides this significant change, Mahler slightly altered one sentence’s structure, replaced three images, and added the word “mild” to the last phrase. As for the images, he replaced “Strom” (river) with “See” (lake), “Halme” (stems) with “Blüten” (petals), and “Schlaf” (sleep) with “Ruh” (rest). Changing from “Strom” to “See,” Mahler created a more static picture. The replacement of “Halme” with “Blüten” increases femininity in the text. Using “Ruh” instead of “Schlaf,” the composer emphasized the need of rest rather than simply sleep, which might be restless or even with nightmares. These alterations thus create a motionless, sensitive scene in which the speaker desperately needs rest for rejuvenation.

32 A declamatory instrumental melody opens and ends the movement. This section not only shapes the movement’s structure but also reflects the speaker’s sorrowful mood. In this passage, the first oboe functions as the solo voice (see Example 2.1). The moderate tempo playing of the oboe creates a declamatory effect, in which a singer expresses feelings in a monologue. The accompaniment is a scalar countermelody played by the first violins, as shown in Example 2.2. The repetitive, wave-like pattern produces little action and expresses a melancholy mood. Also reminiscent of gentle wind, the accompanying line presents the omnipresence of nature throughout the movement. Together the solo line and repetitive accompaniment paint a picture in which the speaker contemplates life.

Example 2.1: Oboe solo, mm. 3-21

Example 2.2: Violin countermelody, mm. 1-3

An inverted arch shape occurs frequently in the vocal line, starting at a high note and descending at first, and then ascending in the second half of the phrase (see Example 2.3). This

33 shape creates more movement than the instrumental introduction. It seems to suggest the speaker’s emotions in his musings.

Example 2.3: Vocal line, mm. 25-31

Another significant element is a rocking figure that appears in multiple movements of Das Lied von der Erde. As shown in Example 2.4, this rocking figure, alternating between two notes, creates a hypnotic effect that expresses the speaker’s peaceful mood in contemplation. This figure is used in various passages in this movement, but it always creates the same effect.

Example 2.4: Rocking figure (cellos, mm. 19-20)

This movement starts and ends in D minor, and it modulates to B-flat major. As the Table 2.4 makes clear, the frequent change of key does not correspond to changes in the poetic content. Therefore, the following discussions will focus more on thematic analysis.

Table 2.4: Formal analysis of “Der Einsame im Herbst” Stanza Line Measure Key Text number Introduction 1-24 D minor (Declamatory opening) Stanza 1 Lines 1-2 25-32 D minor Herbstnebel wallen bläulich über See, Vom Reif bezogen stehen alle Gräser;

34 Table 2.4 – continued: Formal analysis of “Der Einsame im Herbst” Stanza Line Measure Key Text number (Stanza 1) 33-38 B-flat (Interlude) major Lines 3-4 39-46 G minor Man meint, ein Künstler habe Staub von Jade Über die feinen Blüten ausgestreut. 47-49 G minor (Interlude) Stanza 2 Lines 5-6 50-59 D minor Der süsse Duft der Blumen ist verflogen; Ein kalter Wind beugt ihre Stengel nieder. 60-62 B-flat (Interlude) major Lines 7-8 63-70 B-flat Bald werden die verwelkten, gold’nen major Blätter Der Lotosblüten auf dem Wasser zieh’n. 71-77 B-flat (Interlude) major Stanza 3 Line 9 78-81 D minor Mein Herz ist müde. Lines 9-10 82-91 B-flat Meine kleine Lampe major Erlosch mit Knistern, es gemahnt mich an den Schlaf. Lines 11- 92-101 D major Ich komm’ zu dir, traute Ruhestätte! 12 Ja, gib mir Ruh’, ich hab’ Erquickung not! 102-108 D minor (Interlude) (declamatory) Stanza 4 Line 13 109-120 D minor Ich weine viel in meinen Einsamkeiten. Line 14 121-27 B-flat Der Herbst in meinem Herzen währt zu major lange. Line 15 128-132 E-flat Sonne der Liebe, willst du nie mehr major scheinen, Line 16 133-37 D minor Um meine bittern Tränen mild aufzutrocknen? Coda 138-42 D minor 143-54 (Declamatory closing)

The movement starts with the declamatory instrumental introduction stated by the first oboe and the first violins. The first clarinet joins the solo line at m. 9. The accompaniment is enriched by the horns’ long notes and the second violins’ accompanying line as well as that of the first violins. The music remains in a calm, contemplative mood despite the increase in scoring. When Stanza 1 starts at m. 25, the important elements in the introduction persist in the background. The vocal line, in exclusively conjunct motion, joins the introductory music to

35 present the speaker’s observation that the scene looks like an artist’s work. In mm. 47-49 the brief interlude incorporates the first oboe’s solo line, the first violins’ accompaniment, and the violas’ rocking figure. The interlude compresses the important musical elements, and it provides the audience some time to reflect upon the words in Stanza 1 before the next stanza. Stanza 2 is presented in a similar way as the first stanza; the arch-shaped vocal line is accompanied by the rocking figure and wave-like accompaniment. Mahler set three repetitions of two notes to the end of the third phrase, “Bald werden die verwelkten, gold’nen Blätter” (see Example 2.5). The repetitions create a static phrase and freeze the musical flow temporarily; this momentary pause seemingly represents the soon-to-wither golden petals, whose lives have ceased flowing and are approaching the end. After this phrase only one more phrase is sung before a longer interlude in mm. 71-77, which will change the mood.

Example 2.5: Alto, mm. 63-66

The first half of the interlude (mm. 71-73) starts with a tutti section, but the ensemble sound is suspended at m. 74. The first violins play several descending motives successively (see Example 2.6). In this phrase, the lengths of groups of notes also contract from three beats to two. The cello line creates a retarding effect through the gradually shorter notes in the rocking figure; the triplet eighth notes become eighth notes at first and then triplet quarter notes, and the ties in m. 77 further the retardation. With these features, this passage reduces the interlude’s energy and prepares the audience for Stanza 3. The interlude therefore changes the mood from sorrowful to depressing. Stanza 3 opens with the statement “Mein Herz ist müde.” Set to a musical phrase with little movement, this line portrays the speaker’s fatigued heart (see Example 2.7). This stanza will lead the music to the first climactic moment in mm. 92-99, when the vocal line sings “Ich komm’ zu dir, traute Ruhestätte! / Ja, gib mir Ruh’, ich hab’ Erquickung not!” The climax is produced by the wide range.

36

Example 2.6: First violins and cellos, mm. 73-77

Example 2.7: Alto, mm. 78-79

Following the first climax, another declamatory instrumental passage (mm. 102-8) reduces the tension. Stanza 4 begins rather peacefully. A more intense climax appears in mm. 128-35, when the singer says, “Sonne der Liebe, willst du nie mehr scheinen, / um meine bittern Tränen” (see Example 2.8). This is the speaker’s most intense lament. The music achieves the climax through several means. Mahler set the word “Liebe” over two full measures of 3/2 to express the speaker’s longing for love. The phrase “willst du nie mehr scheinen” reaches to the contralto’s highest register. Furthermore, the dynamic level of this phrase increases to fortissimo. This emotional passage is followed by a motionless musical passage underscoring the last part of the text (see Example 2.9). Identical to the notes in Example 2.7, this passage reminds the audience of the speaker’s fatigued mind as the text concludes. A declamatory closing by the oboe, bassoon, horns, and violins then concludes the movement in mm. 138-54.

37

Example 2.8: Alto, mm. 128-35

Example 2.9: Alto, mm. 136-37

“Der Eisame im Herbst” carries on several aspects of the first movement. Nature continues to play a central role; the cold and cheerless season symbolizes the speaker’s present affliction. Furthermore, although the speaker does not explore the intellectual response to his experience in this movement, his journey continues when he examines his feelings introspectively.

38 CHAPTER 3

“VON DER JUGEND”: DISTRACTED AT A PARTY

The third movement, “Von der Jugend,” expresses the least sorrow in Das Lied von der Erde. After voicing his sorrow in the second movement, the speaker enjoys the company of friends at a party. Mahler uses music to emphasize the moment when nature stimulates the speaker’s contemplation in the middle of the party; this moment also reveals the connection between nature and the speaker’s intellectual journey. The original poem of Von der Jugend is Li Tai-Po’s “宴陶家亭子” (“A Party at Mr. Tao’s Pavilion”). Since the poet has been introduced in Chapter 2, we may turn our attention to the content of the poem directly. Renkang Qian explains the poem’s background.55 Around the year 742 Li and five other poets lived for a while in the mountains, where they enjoyed singing and drinking, praising nature, and writing poems. Among the five poets was 陶沔 (Tao Mien), and this poem probably portrays one of the parties at Tao’s house. The title of the poem indicates a party (宴, meaning banquet) and a location (Mr. Tao’s Pavilion). Li uses two phrases as a unit to portray different aspects of Mr. Tao’s mansion; the party itself is, however, mentioned nowhere except in the title. In the first two phrases Li describes the house’s reclusive location and luxurious vistas. The description then concerns the scenic features such as a lake, a garden, and the flowers in the garden. In the fifth and sixth phrases, Li acknowledges nature’s presence in the mansion (the sun and the sunset). In the last two phrases, the poet praises the mansion and says that this place would be perfect with music. Through his skill in portraying images, Li vividly expresses his enjoyment at the party. Bethge’s paraphrase “Der Pavillon aus Porzellan” was clearly modeled on Gautier’s “Pavillon de Porcelaine.” Gautier’s version, however, does not clearly identify its original poem. Fusako Hamao explains how this came about.56 Gautier attributed this poem to Li Tai-Po, but scholars could not match the translated poem with any of Li’s poems. Hamao examined Li’s

55 Renkang Qian, “大地之歌歌詞溯源” (“Tracing the Origin of the Texts of Das Lied von der Erde”) Yinyue Yishu: Shanghai Yinyue Xueyuan Xuebao (Art of Music: Journal of the Shanghai Conservatory of Music) (2000): 15.

56 Fusako Hamao, “The Source of the Texts in Mahler’s ‘Lied von der Erde’” 19th-Century Music 19: 83-95.

39 poems and noticed the resemblance between Li’s “A Party at Mr. Tao’s Pavilion” and Gautier’s “Pavillon de Porcelaine.” Hamao also indicates that Gautier’s mistranslation of the word “Tao” led to the confusion: In the title of Li-Tai-Po’s poem, the first character means “a party” and the last two characters designate “a pavilion.” The middle characters, though – the second and third – present a problem. The second character depicts either “porcelain” or “Tao” (a person's name). The third character has several meanings including “a house” and “a family.” Although the second character sometimes means “porcelain,” when it is used with the third character, it is customary to understand the two characters as “Tao's family,” not “a porcelain house.” . . . In short, although the last four characters of the title are correctly translated as “the pavilion of Tao's family” or “Mr. Tao's pavilion,” it is likely that Gautier misinterpreted the same characters as “the porcelain pavilion.57

Several years later, Chinese scholars also conducted the search and identified the same poem as this movement’s source.58 Table 3.1 includes the original poem (with a separate translation), Bethge’s paraphrase, and an English translation.

Table 3.1: Chinese original, Bethge’s paraphrase, and an English translation 宴陶家亭子 Der Pavillon aus Porzellan60 Youth61 (A Party at Mr. Tao’s Pavilion)59 曲巷幽人宅 Mitten in dem kleinen Teiche In the middle of the little pool (A winding path leads to Steht ein Pavillon aus grünem Stands a pavilion of green Mr. Tao’s quiet Und aus weissem Porzellan. And white porcelain. residence.) 高門大夫家 Wie der Rücken eines Tigers Like a tiger’s back (His house is a fine Wölbt die Brücke sich aus Jade Arches the bridge of jade mansion with a high Zu dem Pavillon hinüber. Over to the pavilion. gate.) In dem Häuschen sitzen In the little house friends are sitting, Freunde,

57 Hamao, 92.

58 See Renkang Qian’s “大地之歌歌詞溯源” (“Tracing the Origin of the Texts of Das Lied von der Erde”)

59 The translation of the Chinese is adapted from Hamao, 93.

60 Mitchell, Gustav Mahler: Songs and Symphonies of Life and Death, 247.

61 The English translation is adapted from Mitchell, Gustav Mahler: Songs and Symphonies of Life and Death, 249.

40 Table 3.1 – continued: Chinese original, Bethge’s paraphrase, and an English translation 宴陶家亭子 Der Pavillon aus Porzellan Youth (A Party at Mr. Tao’s Pavilion) 池開照膽鏡 Schön gekleidet, trinken, Beautifully dressed, drinking, (The clear surface of the plaudern, - chatting. lake in the garden Manche schreiben Verse Several are writing down verses. reflects everything like a nieder. mirror.) 林吐破顏花 Ihre seidnen Ärmel gleiten Their silken sleeves slip (The flowers that Rückwärts, ihre seidnen Backwards, their silken caps everyone praises for Mützen their beauty bloom in Hocken lustig tief im Nacken. Perch gaily on the back of their the wood.) necks. 綠水藏春日 (The sun in the spring is Auf des kleinen Teiches stiller On the little pool’s still sinking into the Oberfläche zeigt sich alles Surface, everything appears turquoise surface of the Wunderlich im Spiegelbilde: Fantastically in a mirror image. lake.) 青軒祕晚霞 Wie ein Halbmond scheint der The upside-down arch of the bridge (The sunset glow Brücke appears like a half-moon. spreads behind the blue Umgekehrter Bogen. Freunde, Friends, edge of the roof.) Schön gekleidet, trinken, Beautifully dressed, are drinking 若聞弦管妙 plaudern, and chatting. (If one can listen to music in this view,) Alle auf dem Kopfe stehend, Everything is standing on its head 金谷不能誇 In dem Pavillon aus grünem In the pavilion of green (he will enjoy the Und aus weissem Porzellan. And white porcelain. scenery more than at the famous Kinku garden.)

As Table 3.1 shows, the stanzas of the German paraphrase cannot be traced back to specific phrases in the Chinese poem. The paraphrase contains seven sections. The first two describe the place: a pavilion made of green and white porcelain and a bridge arching like a tiger’s back. Stanzas 3 and 4 continue to describe the party by introducing people’s activity: nicely dressed friends gather in the house to drink, chat, and write poems. Stanza 5 and 6 shift the focus to the pool, which reflects the image of the bridge. The last section of the sixth stanza, “Freunde, schön gekleidet, trinken, plaudern,” refers to the inverted image in the pool. The last stanza concludes the poem by readdressing the mirror image and the pavilion made of green and white porcelain, thus recalling the title.

41 Bethge’s text paints a similar picture to that of the original poem. Nevertheless, rather than Li Tai-Po’s serene picture, Bethge’s scene is filled out with more actions in the details about the guests’ activity. Furthermore, the last two phrases in the Chinese poem are nowhere to be seen in the translation. The poet’s praise and favor of the place remains unexpressed. Bethge’s paraphrase thus focuses on the more apparent aspects of the party without overtly explaining the speaker’s inner thoughts. In setting Bethge’s paraphrase to music, Mahler made some substantial alterations. Table 3.2 sets out Bethge’s paraphrase, Mahler’s alterations, and an English translation.

Table 3.2: Bethge’s paraphrase and Mahler’s alterations62 Der Pavillon aus Porzellan Von der Jugend (Mahler)64 Youth65 (Bethge)63 Mitten in dem kleinen Teiche Mitten in dem kleinen Teiche In the middle of the little pool Steht ein Pavillon aus grünem Steht ein Pavillon aus grünem Stands a pavilion of green Und aus weissem Porzellan. Und aus weissem Porzellan. And white porcelain.

Wie der Rücken eines Tigers Wie der Rücken eines Tigers Like a tiger’s back Wölbt die Brücke sich aus Wölbt die Brücke sich aus Arches the bridge of jade Jade Jade Zu dem Pavillon hinüber. Zu dem Pavillon hinüber Over to the pavilion.

In dem Häuschen sitzen In dem Häuschen sitzen In the little house friends are Freunde, Freunde, sitting, Schön gekleidet, trinken, Schön gekleidet, trinken, Beautifully dressed, drinking, plaudern, - plaudern. chatting. Manche schreiben Verse Manche schreiben Verse Several are writing verses. nieder. nieder.

Ihre seidnen Ärmel gleiten Ihre seidnen Ärmel gleiten Their silken sleeves slip Rückwärts, ihre seidnen Rückwärts, ihre seidnen Backwards, their silken caps Mützen Mützen Hocken lustig tief im Nacken. Hocken lustig tief im Nacken. Perch gaily on the back of their necks.

62 * Indicates that Mahler made a change in the line.

63 Mitchell, Gustav Mahler: Songs and Symphonies of Life and Death, 247.

64 Mitchell, Gustav Mahler: Songs and Symphonies of Life and Death, 248.

65 The English translation is adapted from Mitchell, Gustav Mahler: Songs and Symphonies of Life and Death, 249.

42 Table 3.2 – continued: Bethge’s paraphrase and Mahler’s alterations Der Pavillon aus Porzellan Von der Jugend (Mahler) Youth (Bethge) Auf des kleinen Teiches stiller Auf des kleinen Teiches stiller On the little pool’s still Oberfläche zeigt sich alles *Wasserfläche zeigt sich alles Water surface, everything appears Wunderlich im Spiegelbilde: Wunderlich im Spiegelbilde. Fantastically in a mirror image.

Wie ein Halbmond scheint der Brücke Umgekehrter Bogen. Freunde, Schön gekleidet, trinken, plaudern,

Alle auf dem Kopfe stehend, Alles auf dem Kopfe stehend Everything is standing on its head In dem Pavillon aus grünem In dem Pavillon aus grünen In the pavilion of green Und aus weissem Porzellan. Und aus weissem Porzellan; And white porcelain;

*Wie ein Halbmond scheint Like a half-moon appears the die Brücke, bridge, *Umgekehrt der Bogen. [an] inverted arch. Friends, Freunde, Schön gekleidet, trinken, Beautifully dressed, are plaudern drinking and chatting.

As shown in this table, the first alteration appears in the second phrase of Stanza 5. Mahler replaced the word “Oberfläche” (surface) with “Wasserfläche” (water’s surface). The alteration specifies the object that reflects the inverted images. The next alteration is more significant; Mahler reversed Stanzas 6 and 7. By changing the order, Mahler placed Bethge’s Stanza 7 after Stanza 6; the phrase “Wunderlich im Spiegelbilde” (Fantastically in a mirror image) now is followed nicely by “Alles auf dem Kopfe stehend” (Everything is standing on its head). In other words, the mirror image is better developed. Moreover, the phrase “Freunde, schön gekleidet, trinken, plaudern” (Friends, beautifully dressed, are drinking and chatting) now concludes the poem. This phrase therefore refers more clearly to the real guests rather than to their images in the pool. Mahler’s alterations thus structure the poem into descriptions of four categories: the place, the people, the mirror image, and again the people.

43 Mahler made two more alterations. In the last stanza of Mahler’s version, the phrase “Wie ein Halbmond scheint der Brücke umgekehrter Bogen” (The upside-down arch of the bridge appears like a half-moon) was changed to “Wie ein Halbmond scheint die Brücke, umgekehrt Bogen” (Like a half-moon appears the bridge, [an] inverted arch). The word “der Brücke” was changed into “die Brücke”; the noun “Brücke” is therefore changed from a genitive to nominative case. As a result, the subject of the clause is now the bridge (“Brücke”) instead of the upside-down arch (umgekehrter Bogen). In short, Bethge’s phrase is more poetic, and Mahler changed it into a simpler sentence and provided the singer a place to take a breath. This movement introduces exotic sounds that are reminiscent of Chinese music. The Chinese-like character is widely recognized and discussed by scholars. Hefling describes this movement: “Von der Jugend” is the lightest and shortest of all the symphony’s movements, and the most transparent in its chinoiserie; “Leicht und phantastisch (Light and fantastic)”was Mahler’s provisional tempo marking in the piano autograph. It is indeed “Chinese rococo” in style, and comes closest to the function of a scherzo, as several reviewers of the premiere noted.66

Theordo Adorno also discusses exoticism in Das Lied von der Erde:

Directly, with tangible connections through motives, the world of Chinese imagery of Das Lied von der Erde is derived from the biblical Palestine of the Faust music, particularly in the outwardly most cheerful song, “Von der Jugend.” The exoticism is not content with the pentatonic and the whole-tone scales, but molds the whole texture; Mahler’s old bass-lessness has its homecoming in the alien world. That which cannot be entirely reproduced in the remote musical system becomes an ingredient of meaning, as if the world of his past life had become as removed from the subject as such languages. . . . But it is above all in Das Lied von der Erde that exoticism provides the thematic principle of construction. Mahler selects the critical tones from the pentatonic scale, the melodic sequence of second and third, that is, a deviation from the scale in seconds.67

Represented by tonal, textural, and melodic construction, the exoticism denotes alienation and foreignness in which the speaker can forget his afflictions and experience a happy moment. To justify the speaker’s search for a deeper understanding of life by way of different experiences, this foreignness in fact needs to be attached to an identity, which in this case finds the requisite specificity through the Chinese locale of the poems. Unlike mythological figures or fictional

66 Stephen E. Hefling, Mahler: Das Lied von der Erde (The Song of the Earth), (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2000), 95.

67 Adorno, 150.

44 characters, these individuals in the Chinese poems are grounded in a world no less real than the speaker’s own and therefore have similar earthly concerns. It would make a much weaker case if the foreignness were represented by a fictional culture in which mortal worries did not exist. Four themes play significant roles in this movement. Theme 1 (see Example 3.1) is spun out of a pentatonic scale of B-flat major (B-flat, C, D, F, G, B-flat). It is played by woodwind instruments. The pentatonic scale and the scoring thus create a Chinese-like sound. Its fast tempo also expresses a festive atmosphere. Opening the movement, this theme signals a beginning of a section and functions as a ritornello.

Example 3.1: Theme 1 (first flute and second oboe, mm. 3-5)

Theme 2 (see Example 3.2) also features an exotic sound, derived from four notes in the B-flat-major pentatonic scale (B-flat, D, F, and G). Although the first and fifth measures in the example do have notes that do not belong to the pentatonic scale (E-flat and A-flat), the pentatonic sound in the other four measures undoubtedly colors this passage with a Chinese-like character. The leaps in the third and fourth bars of the theme distinguish this theme from Theme 1 and produce a playful mood for this passage.

45

Example 3.2: Theme 2 (tenor, mm. 13-18)

Theme 3 features alternations between the rhythmic figure of a dotted half note and a quarter note and four quarter notes. The figure creates a sighing effect when the quarter note descends from the dotted half note, for example, in the first measure of Example 3.3. The longer values of the notes also slow down the tempo. As a result, the theme has a more sorrowful character.

Example 3.3: Theme 3 (tenor, mm. 39-47)

Theme 4 is the saddest melody in this movement (see Example 3.4). This theme shares the rhythmic figure of Theme 3, but the intervals are no longer pentatonic or diatonic ones. As shown in Example 3.5, the intervals in the first three bars are an augmented second and minor seconds. As a result, Theme 4 has a more apparent sighing effect and a darker character.

46

Example 3.4: Theme 4 (tenor, mm. 70-75)

Two more musical elements are essential in this movement. As discussed in Chapter 2, Mahler frequently uses a rocking figure in Das Lied von der Erde. In this movement, the rocking figure can first be heard in mm. 29-34 (see Example 3.5). Since this figure is only used to create an effect, it is not as important as in other movements. Due to its faster tempo, this figure produces a busy, festive mood rather than the hypnotic effect that it produced in the preceding movement.

Example 3.5: Rocking figure (bassoon, mm. 29-34)

A percussive rhythmic figure becomes another noteworthy element in this movement (see Example 3.6). This figure’s four eighth notes produce sound as open fourths and fifths. This short figure resembles the animated sound of percussion instruments.

Example 3.6: Percussive figure (B-flat clarinets, mm. 40-44)

This movement features a structure closely related to the poetic structure, repetitive use of thematic materials, and a relatively simple harmonic design. Table 3.3 shows the formal and harmonic structure of this movement.

47 Table 3.3: Formal, harmonic, and thematic analyses of “Von der Jugend” Section Stanza Measure number Key Melodic material A Introduction 1-12 B-flat major Theme 1 Stanza 1 13-19 Theme 2 Stanza 2 20-28 Theme 3 Interlude 29-34 Theme 2 A’ Interlude 35-38 G major Theme 2 Stanza 3 39-47 Theme 3 Interlude 48-50 Theme 2 Stanza 4 51-59 Theme 3 Interlude 60-69 Theme 3 B Stanza 5 70-85 G minor Theme 4 Interlude 86-96 Theme 4 A Introduction 97-99 B-flat major Theme 1 Stanza 6 100-105 Theme 2 Stanza 7 106-118 Theme 3

As shown in Table 3.3, “Von der Jugend” can be divided into four sections; each contains one or two stanzas. The movement opens and ends in B-flat major, and modulating to G major and G minor in the middle. The only minor-key section (mm. 70-96) reveals the composer’s emphasis in the text; it will be discussed in more detail below. The movement opens with an introduction (mm. 1-12), in which Theme 1 plays a dominant role. Bell-like repeated notes from the horn (see Example 3.7) in mm. 1-5 suggest the sound of a Chinese percussive instrument, the tam-tam. When the long notes become four shorter notes in mm. 6-12, the effect evokes a tambourine, which also suggests an exotic origin. These notes characterize the repetitive and rhythmic use of a tam-tam or tambourine despite the lack of the echoing effect of the two instruments. The music of the opening thus reflects the source of the text and sets the scene. Stanza 1 is sung to Theme 2, and Stanza 2 to Theme 3. The percussive figure in the background creates excitement. These two stanzas both describe the location, and the joyful sound reflects the mood of a party. This section is followed by a short interlude that contains the rocking figure and Theme 2.

Example 3.7: The bell-like sound (horns in F, mm. 1-5)

48

The next section concerns the guests at the party and retains the cheerful mood of the previous section. Tonally, the music shifts to G major while the woodwinds play staccato eighth notes in mm. 35-38. The tonal shift and the eighth notes bring a livelier mood to the music; this mood change reflects the text, which now mentions the guests at the party for the first time. This section includes Stanzas 3 and 4, both sung to Theme 3. The music’s character becomes slightly darker because of the sighing effect in Theme 3. The percussive figure permeates this section; its excitement remains but the festive character is here transformed into a restless one. In the interlude (mm. 48-50), where the vocal part rests, the agitation from the percussive figure is especially apparent. Theme 3 is the main theme in Stanza 4, which provides more details about the guests’ clothes and praises their beautiful appearances. The section ends with an interlude built out of Theme 3. The third section (shown as Section B in Table 3.3) is the only minor-key section and contains only one stanza. Theme 4 is introduced in this section. These elements reveal the composer’s intention to emphasize this section. The text states “Auf des kleinen Teiches stiller Oberfläche zeigt sich alles Wunderlich im Spiegelbilde” (On the little pool’s still surface, everything appears fantastically in a mirror image). Focusing solely on the mirror image in the pool, Stanza 5 emphasizes the speaker’s contemplation when he steps outside the scene and views the party and the guests from a new perspective. The contemplative mood of Theme 4 confirms his pensive state. This section therefore depicts a moment of solitude for the speaker to reflect upon his observations of the people and scene. The speaker’s intellectual journey, which began in the first movement, continues into this movement. This section ends with an interlude that also consists of Theme 4. After the dark third section, the introduction reappears in mm. 97-99, and the tonality returns to B-flat major. As in the opening section, the introduction is dominated by Theme 1 and the bell-like sound and it carries a joyful, festival mood. This section contains two stanzas; each depicts images that have appeared. Stanza 6 recalls the friends who are drinking and chatting in Stanza 3, and Stanza 7 reintroduces the pavilion of green and white porcelain from Stanza 1. Recollection also appears in music; Stanza 6 is sung to Theme 2 and Stanza 7 to Theme 3. The percussive motive also permeates the music and sustains the sense of restlessness. These

49 recurrent musical elements therefore shift the section’s focus from the speaker’s musings back to the party. This movement concludes at the end of Stanza 7. Stanza 7 is also noteworthy for word-painting. When the speaker sings “wie ein Halbmond scheint die Brücke, umgekehrt der Bogen.” the vocal line clearly presents an arch shape (see Example 3.8). Furthermore, the first violins play a compressed melody of the vocal line (mm. 106-7) in m 106. The arch shape appears in mm. 108-9 of the first violins and in m. 109 of the oboes. In other words, this shape is omnipresent from m. 106 to the end, both in the vocal and instrumental parts. Musically, the repetitive use of an arch shape creates an image full of bridges or half-moons. It is curious that Mahler did not invert the arch shape to represent mirror images, but his decision to retain the arch shape created a different effect – the music is filled with the arch image in the text so that the audience cannot overlook or forget the object.

Example 3.8: Oboes, violin 1, and tenor, mm. 106-10

In “Von der Jugend,” the speaker joins a party and enjoys a joyful event. The speaker’s intellectual journey and the significance of nature, however, are not absent from this movement. Gazing at the pool (nature), the speaker temporarily leaves the social setting and enters his own inner world. This brief moment of losing oneself in reflection is vividly presented in the music. The party goes on, but it does not stop the speaker from contemplating life.

50 CHAPTER 4

“VON DER SCHÖNHEIT”: OBSESSIONS IN LIFE

In the fourth movement, “Von der Schönheit,” the speaker narrates a story about a girl who falls in love with a young man. The girl’s love and loss, put into the context of the speaker’s intellectual journey, symbolizes infatuations in life more generally. This movement thus continues the speaker’s intellectual journey to discover the aspects in life that cannot be easily relinquished. After recognizing such obsessions, one can look beyond them and live more freely, which is what the speaker hopes to achieve in this journey. The original poem of “Von der Schönheit” is Li Tai-Po’s “採蓮曲” (“Lotus-plucking Song”). In the Chinese poem, nature constitutes the scene; the girls are plucking lotus at a river. Furthermore, the poet uses objects of nature to portray characters. For instance, the lotus symbolizes the maidens’ youth and beauty. The men’s horses, on the other hand, represent their energy and wildness. The poem consists of eight phrases, each comprising seven characters. Pairs of phrases form sections. The first section paints the picture of the river and the girls – some maidens are having fun while collecting lotus at the river. The second section describes the girls’ beauty. The third section introduces the young men’s entrance, intruding into the picture and arousing the girls’ curiosity. The young men walk away in the last section and the most beautiful maiden is heartbroken because she has fallen in love. These four sections thus structure the poem into an introductory situation (the girls plucking lotus), incidents (the young men entering the scene), and resolution (a girl is sad because of the man’s leaving). The last two characters in the last phrase, “斷” (to break) and “腸” (intestines), together portray a strong feeling of loss by using the pain of broken intestines as an analogy. The introductory and incidental phases of the poem are thus set up to reach the last phrase, which expresses the girl’s heartache. The content of Bethge’s paraphrase remains close to the original, but its structure and atmosphere are changed. Table 4.1 shows the original Chinese poem and an English translation, and Bethge’s paraphrase and its English translation.

51

Table 4.1: Chinese original, Bethge’s paraphrase, and an English translation 採蓮曲 (Lotus- Am Ufer69 At the Shore70 plucking Song)68 若耶溪旁採蓮女 Junge Mädchen pflücken Blumen Young maidens are plucking (The lotus-collecting flowers girls by the Ruo Ye An dem Uferrande. by the river’s edge. River) 笑隔荷花共人語 Zwischen Blättern sitzen sie Amid the bushes and leaves they (Laugh and chat among sit the lotus flowers.) Und sammeln Blüten, Blüten in and gathering flowers, flowers in den Schoss und rufen their laps, and calling teasingly Sich einander Neckereien zu. To one another.

日照新妝水底明 Goldne Sonne webt um die Golden sunlight weaves around (The sun reflects their Gestalten, their forms, painted beauty clearly Spiegelt sie im blanken Wasser Mirrors them in the shining water. at the bottom of the wider. water.) 風飄香袖空中舉 Ihre Kleider, ihre süssen Augen, Their dresses, their sweet eyes, (The wind makes Und der Wind hebt kosend das And the wind lifts the breeze perfumed sleeves blow Gewebe in the air.) Ihrer Ärmel auf und führt den From their arms and bears the Zauber magic Ihrer Wohlgerüche durch die Of their pleasing fragrance Luft. through the air.

岸上誰家遊冶郎 Sieh, was tummeln sich für Look, racing along, what (Who are these schöne Knaben handsome lads, wandering young men) An dem Uferrand auf mutigen On the river bank, on spirited Rossen, horses, 三三五五映垂楊 Zwischen dem Geäst der Between the branches of the (Gathering by the Trauerweiden weeping willows willow trees?) Traben sie einher. They canter along. 紫騮嘶入落花去 Das Ross des einen wiehert auf The horse of one of them whinnies (Their horses disappear Und scheut, und saust dahin, And shies and tears away, into the flowers;) Und zerstampft die And tramples the fallen flowers. hingesunkenen Blüten.

68 The Chinese translation is by Ching-wah Lam from Mitchell, Gustav Mahler: Songs and Symphonies of Life and Death, 267.

69 Mitchell, Gustav Mahler: Songs and Symphonies of Life and Death, 271.

70 The English translation is adapted from Mitchell, Gustav Mahler: Songs and Symphonies of Life and Death, 273.

52 Table 4.1 – continued: Chinese original, Bethge’s paraphrase, and an English translation 採蓮曲 (Lotus- Am Ufer At the Shore plucking Song) 見此踟躕空斷腸 Und die schönste von den And the loveliest of the maidens (Seeing this makes one Jungfraun sendet sends [of the girls] sorrow in Lange Blicke ihm der Sorge Long glances of care for him. vain.) nach. Ihre stolze Haltung ist nur Lüge: Her proud bearing is only pretence. In dem Funkeln ihrer grossen In the flashing of her large eyes, Augen, Wehklagt die Erregung ihres The tumult of her heart laments. Herzens.

Bethge’s paraphrase contains four stanzas. The first two stanzas paint a joyful picture, parallel to the first two sections in the Chinese poem. The first stanza describes the young ladies gathering at the river, plucking lotus, and laughing and teasing with one another. The second stanza describes the girls’ beauty and fragrance. The happiness is interrupted in the third stanza, which includes the third section and the first phrase in the last section; the third stanza introduces the young men’s entering and leaving the river scene. The last stanza in Bethge’s paraphrase thus focuses solely on the girl’s heartbrokenness. Besides the differences in structure, Bethge’s paraphrase uses more descriptive words. The form in the Chinese poem, just seven characters in each phrase and eight phrases total, is replaced with freely composed verses. The difference is especially obvious in the last stanza; the girl’s feelings for the young man are portrayed overtly – “And the loveliest of the maidens sends long glances of care for the man” and “In the flashing of her large eyes, the tumult of her heart laments.” These characteristics in the paraphrases are common in Das Lied von der Erde, perhaps owing to the different natures of Tang poetry and modern German poems. Table 4.2 includes Bethge’s paraphrase, Mahler’s version, and an English translation.

Table 4.2: Bethge’s paraphrase and Mahler’s alterations71 Am Ufer (Bethge)72 Von der Schönheit (Mahler)73 Beauty74

71 * Indicates that Mahler made a change in the line.

72 Mitchell, Gustav Mahler: Songs and Symphonies of Life and Death, 271.

53 Table 4.2 – continued: Bethge’s paraphrase and Mahler’s alterations Am Ufer (Bethge) Von der Schönheit (Mahler) Beauty Junge Mädchen pflücken Junge Mädchen pflücken Young maidens are plucking Blumen Blumen flowers An dem Uferrande. *Pfücken Lotosblumen an dem Plucking lotus-flowers by the Uferrande. river’s edge. Zwischen Blättern sitzen *Zwischen Büschen und Amid the bushes and leaves sie Blättern sitzen sie, they sit, Und sammeln Blüten, *Sammeln Blüten in den Schoss Gathering flowers in their laps, Blüten in den Schoss und und rufen and calling teasingly rufen Sich einander Neckereien Sich einander Neckereien zu. To one another. zu.

Goldne Sonne webt um die Gold’ne Sonne webt um die Golden sunlight weaves around Gestalten, Gestalten, their forms, Spiegelt sie im blanken Spiegelt sie im blanken Wasser Mirrors them in the shining Wasser wider. wider. water. Sonne spiegelt ihre schlanken Sunlight mirrors their slender Glieder, limbs Ihre Kleider, ihre süssen *Ihre süssen Augen wider, And their sweet eyes, Augen, Und der Wind hebt kosend *Und der Zephir hebt mit And the breeze lifts with Schmeichelkosen wheedling caresses das Gewebe ihrer Ärmel Das Gewebe ihrer Ärmel auf, The fabric of their sleeves, auf und führt den Zauber Führt den Zauber Bears the magic Ihrer Wohlgerüche durch Ihrer Wohlgerüche durch die Of their pleasing fragrance die Luft. Luft. through the air.

Sieh, was tummeln sich für O sieh, was tummeln sich für O look, racing along, what schöne Knaben schöne Knaben handsome lads, An dem Uferrand auf Dort an dem Uferrand auf There on the river bank, on mutigen Rossen, mut’gen Rossen, spirited horses, Weithin glänzend wie die Afar off shining like the sun’s Sonnenstrahlen; rays; Zwischen dem Geäst der *Schon zwischen dem Geäst der Now between the branches of Trauerweiden grünen Weiden the green willows Traben sie einher. Trabt das jungfrische Volk They canter along, lads in the einher! flush of youth!

73 Mitchell, Gustav Mahler: Songs and Symphonies of Life and Death, 272.

74 The English translation is from Mitchell, Gustav Mahler: Songs and Symphonies of Life and Death, 273.

54 Table 4.2 – continued: Bethge’s paraphrase and Mahler’s alterations Am Ufer (Bethge) Von der Schönheit (Mahler) Beauty Das Ross des einen wiehert Das Ross des einen wiehert The horse of one of them auf fröhlich auf, whinnies joyfully, Und scheut, und saust Und scheut, und saust dahin, And shies and tears away, dahin, Über Blumen, Gräser wanken Over the flowers and the grass hin die Hufe his hooves are scudding, Und zerstampft die *Sie zerstampfen jäh im Sturm They trample in sudden hingesunkenen Blüten. die hingesunk’nen Blüten. onslaught the fallen flowers. Hei! Wie flattern im Taumel Hey! Look at its mane flapping seine Mähnen, frenziedly, Dampfen heiss die Nüstern! Its nostrils steaming hotly.

[Gold’ne Sonne webt um die [Golden sunlight weaves around Gestalten, their forms, Spiegelt sie im blanken Wasser Mirrors them in the shining wider.] water.]

Und die schönste von den Und die schönste von den And the loveliest of the maidens Jungfraun sendet Jungfrau’n sendet sends Lange Blicke ihm der *Lange Blicke ihm der Long glances of yearning after Sorge nach. Sehnsucht nach. him. Ihre stolze Haltung ist nur *Ihre stolze Haltung ist nur Her proud bearing is only Lüge: Verstellung. pretence. In dem Funkeln ihrer In dem Funkeln ihrer grossen In the flashing of her large eyes, grossen Augen, Augen, In dem Dunkel ihres heissen In the darkness of her passionate Blicks glance. Wehklagt die Erregung *Schwingt klagend noch die The tumult of her heart still ihres Herzens. Erregung ihres Herzens nach. surges painfully towards him.

As shown in Table 4.2, Mahler not only expanded the text into five stanzas but also changed the title from “Am Ufer” to “Von der Schönheit.” The new title therefore reveals more than a location; it indicates the girls’ significant character – their beauty. The alterations in the first stanza make only minor differences. In the second phrase, for example, Mahler inserted “pflücken Lotosblumen” to clarify the type of flowers. This alteration indicates that Mahler might have access to the source of Bethge’s paraphrase, since the word “Lotosblüten” appears in

55 Hans Heilmann’s “An den Ufern des Jo-yeh” in Chinesische Lyrik (1905). It is not clear whether Mahler consulted Heilmann’s version, but this alteration suggests the possibility.75 In the second stanza, a phrase “Sonne spiegelt ihre schlanken Glieder,” is added to more explicitly describe the girls’ body image. Furthermore, some alterations change the nuance in words. The “dress” is omitted in the fourth phrase in Mahler’s version; instead, the phrase “Ihre süssen Augen wider” focuses more on the girls’ facial features. In the next phrase, Mahler replaced “der Wind” with “der Zephir” to portray the gentleness and warmth of the breeze. The third stanza includes only the third section of the Chinese poem, in which the young men enter with their horses. “Weithin glänzend wie die Sonnenstrahlen” is inserted after the second phrase, emphasizing the men’s attractiveness and energy. In addition, Mahler used “der grünen Weiden” to replace “der Trauerweiden.” As a result, they appear between the branches of “the green willows” instead of “the weeping willows.” These alterations thus describe the young men in a more positive light. The fourth stanza is parallel to the first half of the fourth section of the Chinese poem, which describes the horses trampling flowers while the young men are leaving. The composer added “Über Blumen, Gräser wanken hin die Hufe” after the second phrase in this stanza. The departure is therefore depicted more explicitly, with the flowers and grass being trampled down; furthermore, this added detail also anticipates the girl’s sorrow. In the next phrase, Mahler changed the phrase “Und zerstampft die hingesunkenen Blüten” into “Sie zerstampfen jäh im Sturm die hingesunk’nen Blüten.” The alteration emphasizes that the men leave suddenly and stormily. Moreover, the composer added two more phrases to the end of this stanza, “Hei! Wie flattern im Taumel seine Mähnen, / Dampfen heiss die Nüstern!” The frenziedly flapping mane and the steaming nostrils of the horse reiterate the men’s departure as a sudden change to the maidens. Between the fourth and the fifth stanzas Mahler repeated the phrases “Gold’ne Sonne webt um die Gestalten, / Spiegelt sie im blanken Wasser wider” to refocus attention on the maidens. In the fifth stanza Mahler replaced “Sorge” (care) with “Sehnsucht” (longing) in the

75 Kii-ming Lo also argues that Mahler’s work goes beyond Bethge’s paraphrases and presents a closer outlook of Eastern philosophy, although he refers to the entire work rather than this specific alteration. In his article “Chinesische Dichtung als Textgrundlage für Mahlers Lied von der Erde,” Lo explains that Das Lied von der Erde interpreted the essential aspect of Tang poetry, an attitude towards life, instead of Bethge’s words and therefore presented the poetry more effectively; see Kii-ming Lo, “Chinesische Dichtung als Textgrundlage für Mahlers Lied von der Erde,” in Das Gustav-Mahler-Fest Hamburg 1989, ed. by Matthias Theodor Vogt, 509-29 (Bärenreiter, 1991).

56 second phrase; the girl’s desire for the man is portrayed more directly. In the next phrase “Lüge” (falsehood, lie) is replaced with “Verstellung” (presentation); thus the girl tries to hide her feelings rather than to lie. The fourth phrase, “In dem Funkeln ihrer grossen Augen,” is followed by a new phrase, “In dem Dunkel ihres heissen Blicks.” By adding a new phrase with a parallel structure, Mahler adds emphasis to the girl’s infatuation for the young man. The same emphasis appears in the last phrase, “Schwingt klagend noch die Erregung ihres Herzens nach” – the tumult of the girl’s heart surges “painfully.” These alterations present more vividly the girl’s love and the pain of seeing the loved one leave. The emphasis on the strong emotions thus portrays first the positive then the negative side of the power of love. This movement contains fewer themes than the other movements. An opening figure and one theme are used predominately. The opening figure (see Example 4.1) is characterized by trills, dotted rhythms, and woodwind timbres. It carries a joyful, festive mood and also functions to signal the beginning of a section. An articulation pattern (the second beat in the second measure of Example 4.1), two legato notes and followed by two staccato notes, becomes an important figure in this movement, bringing energy and youth to the music.

Example 4.1: The opening figure (flutes, mm. 1-4)

Theme 1 (see Example 4.2) predominates throughout this movement, despite the change of mood in different sections. It is based on a G-major pentatonic scale. The pentatonic scale provided the music a Chinese-like character and reflects the origin of the text.

57

Example 4.2: Theme 1 (first flute, mm. 7-13)

Examination of the text shows the composer’s emphasis on the girl’s obsession with the man. Musical analysis shows the musical presentation of this topic. Table 4.3 provides the formal and tonal design of this movement.

Table 4.3: Tonal analysis of “Von der Schönheit” Section Measure Key Tempo marking Text (Incipit) number Introduction 1-6 G major Comodo Dolcissimo Stanza 1 7-23 G major Etwas fließend Junge Mädchen pflücken Blumen, Stanza 2 24-29 G major Gold’ne Sonne webt um die Gestalten, 30-42 E major A tempo Sonne spiegelt ihre schlanken Glieder, (ruhiger) Interlude 43-49 G major Allmählich belebend Interlude 50-61 C major Più mosso subito (March I) (Marschmäßig) Stanza 3 62-74 C major Noch etwas O sieh, was tummeln sich für schöne flotter – Immer Knaben fließener Interlude 75-87 E-flat Allegro (March II)76 major / C minor Stanza 4 88-95 F major Immer fließend Das Ross des einen wiehert fröhlich auf, 96-103 B-flat Tempo I subito Gold’ne Sonne webt um die Gestalten, major (Andante) spiegelt sie im blanken Wasser wider.

76 The first march is indicated in the score at m. 53 with the tempo marking “Più mosso subito (Marschmäßig).” Both marches are marked in the text in Mitchell, Gustav Mahler: Songs and Symphonies of Life and Death, 272.

58 Table 4.3 – continued: Tonal analysis of “Von der Schönheit” Section Measure Key Tempo marking Text (Incipit) number Stanza 5 104-24 G major Ganz ruhig Und die schönste von den Jungfraun sendet Coda 124-44 G major

“Von der Schönheit” begins with an energetic introduction (mm. 1-6) dominated by the opening figure. Stanza 1 starts at m. 7 with a moderate tempo, the first flute, first oboe, and first clarinet playing Theme 1. The vocal line mainly employs conjunct motion; the smoothness in the vocal line makes the music sound peaceful. The music thus presents a joyful atmosphere in a controlled way. In this stanza, nature not only serves as the scene but also has symbolic meaning; the maidens’ peaceful emotions are reflected by the beautiful lotus-flowers, and this calmness is reflected in the music. Stanza 2 does not start with a different key; the first two phrases of Stanza 2 are still in G major. The G-major section ends with fragments of Theme 1 in mm. 27-29. The opening figure in m. 30 begins a new section in E major, in which the rest of Stanza 2 is played in a similar fashion to the first stanza. Stanza 2 concludes with an interlude at m. 43. The blurred line between Stanzas 1 and 2 and the clear division after Stanza 2 thus group the first two stanzas more closely. The music connects the text in the first two stanzas; the depictions of the maidens at the river (in Stanza 1) and of their beauty and fragrance (in Stanza 2) are presented as a single section in the music. The interlude between Stanzas 2 and 3 consists of two sections, mm. 43-49 in G major and mm. 50-61 in C major. This interlude is significant in terms of changing the key and the musical character; in particular, the prominent use of brass instruments adds force to the music. Furthermore, the glissando in the harps (mm. 45-50) intensifies excitement and busyness. Theme 1 is played by more instruments and with a faster tempo; the character of the theme is thus transformed into one of frenzy and excitement. Tension builds to direct the audience’s attention to the forthcoming section. Stanza 3 starts at m. 61 in an agitated mood. In the text, the young men ride into the picture and interrupt the maidens’ peaceful working day.77 Continuing the growing tension and fast tempo from the interlude, Stanza 3 presents in music the maidens’ excitement at noticing the

77 The seeds of lotus-flowers are edible and commonly used in Chinese cooking, for making soup in particular. Therefore, the girls might be collecting lotus-flowers as part of their responsibility for their households.

59 opposite sex. Stanza 3 is also marked in music as a march, which confirms the rising excitement in this stanza. Again, nature is used symbolically here; the presence of horses and the excitement in the music reveal the young men’s energy. A short interlude (mm. 75-87) connects Stanza 3 to Stanza 4. The interlude maintains the large scoring, especially featuring brass instruments, and the fast tempo; the high tensions in music are thus continued into the next stanza. In Stanza 4, the vocal line is sung to ascending and descending lines; the flowing movement thus expresses the vigorous activity. The text of this stanza describes the young men riding away and one of the horses trampling on flowers and grass while leaving. Nature again portrays personal feelings – the horse trampling the petals symbolizes the girl’s feeling of being hurt. The clarinets are used to imitate a horse’s whinny in m. 91 (see Example 4.3). The tempo increases to its fastest in mm. 93-94 with the marking “immer noch drängender” (more and more forward-pressing). The last measure of Stanza 4, however, suddenly slows down and reduces the excitement in the music. This dramatic change in music thus reflects the girl’s infatuations and disappointment.

Example 4.3: Imitation of a horse’s sound (clarinets, mm. 90-91)

The frenzied section emphasizes the lively action and turmoil of Stanzas 3 and 4, in which the young men enter and leave the picture, causing the loveliest girl’s heartbreak. On the other hand, the shifts of tonality set these two stanzas apart from each other. The key areas in Stanzas 1 and 2 feature sharp keys like G major and E major; Stanzas 3 and 4, however, contain flat keys such as E-flat major, C minor, F major, and B-flat major. Mahler’s musical design thus accentuates first the excitement and then the sorrow caused by love. Part of the opening figure returns in mm. 96-97 for the lines that Mahler used as a refrain in mm. 96-103; this return signals the end of excitement. Functioning as a ritornello, the opening

60 figure brings back the more peaceful mood of Stanzas 1 and 2. A more complete opening figure is played in mm. 104-5, and this is followed by the last stanza, in which the girl laments her admired one’s leaving. The tonality also returns to G major, and the moderate tempo resumes. Contrasting to the previous agitated section that represents the girl’s anxiety, this calmer section portrays the girl’s disappointment and sorrow. The contrast between Stanzas 1, 2, and 5 and Stanzas 3 and 4 also coincides with the presence of the young men. In other words, the young men are accompanied with higher musical tension when they interrupt the maidens’ peaceful lotus-plucking activity. After they leave, the maidens’ activity becomes mundane again. This contrast is clearly reflected in the music. Furthermore, as in German, Bewegung means motion and emotion; physical motion can reflect emotional fluctuation.78 The men’s physical movement – cantering, racing, and rushing – thus concretizes their impact on the maiden’s emotional response. Stuart Feder, one of Mahler’s biographers, provides a different interpretation of the last stanza: Sehnsucht, or the sense of longing, is explicit as the movement ends with the desire of “the loveliest of the maidens” for the “handsome lad,” whose horse “whinnies joyfully . . . and tears away.” Both text and music exude eroticism as all the senses are evoked. More than this is the potent expression of sexuality – in both masculine and feminine aspects and, again, in text and music alike.79

Although words like “Sehnsucht” and “whinnies joyfully” could be related to sexuality, the sexual implication does not seem explicit in the text and the music. Nevertheless, Feder continues to relate this interpretation to Mahler’s life: With respect to sexuality, one may seek some biographical reference to the composer’s life as the seasons turn in Das Lied, the flowers and “golden sunlight” in Von der Schönheit suggest the metaphoric potency of spring and summer. Mahler had been apprehensive about marrying Alma when he was – as he put it – in the autumn of his own life. In this respect Von der Schönheit may be viewed as an artifact of mourning that looks back vividly on a more potent time of life.80

78 This idea is taken from Douglass Seaton’s lecture on Schubert’s setting of Gretchen am Spinnrade; by setting music with constant motion to the text, Schubert expresses movement in the spinning wheel as well as Gretchen’s heartache.

79 Feder, 148.

80 Feder, 148.

61 The connection between this movement and the composer’s personal life seems speculative. This instance shows how Feder used musical works as evidence for psychoanalysis and how this method can be unconvincing. In the current movement, the musical design allows the composer direct the audience’s attention to Stanzas 3 and 4, in which a group of young men disrupt the maidens’ day and emotional peace. Furthermore, when one of the men attracts the loveliest maiden and causes her sorrow by leaving, Mahler uses music to reflect the sadness that follows her infatuation. In the overall context of the speaker’s intellectual journey in contemplating life, the girl’s strong feeling of loss in this movement can by extension symbolize the power of obsessions in life in general. This movement seems to concern someone else’s story, but the story could motivate the speaker to relate to other obsessions in his own life. Watching the girl’s affliction, the speaker thus understands the power of obsessions and learns not to be obsessed with ephemeral or material things.

62 CHAPTER 5

“DER TRUNKENE IM FRÜHLING”: CONVERSING WITH NATURE

In the course of his journey the speaker has expressed different emotions that have been evoked by various occasions or other people’s stories. In “Der Trunkene im Frühling” he returns to his sense of alienation. The current movement thus leads the journey into a more introspective state and prepares the audience for the last movement. It is important to understand how this movement continues the journey and shifts the focus back to the speaker’s inner self. Mahler’s musical design reveals his emphasis on the speaker’s conversation with a bird and the inspiration that comes from nature. Li Tai-Po’s “春日醉起言志” (“Feelings upon Awakening from Drunkenness on a Spring Day”) manifests a pessimistic attitude towards life. This attitude reflects the misfortunes of the poet’s life experience.81 Behind a pessimistic outlook, the poem actually shows the speaker’s passion for a better world; his pessimism arises from his disappointment with this world in contrast to his happier hopes. This second layer of meaning, however, is not preserved in the German paraphrase. The Chinese poem contains twelve phrases of five characters; every pair of phrases forms a section. The last character of each section rhymes with an “ng” sound. The speaker expresses his thoughts or feelings in these six sections. In the first section, he regards work as meaningless, since life is but a dream. In the second section, he decides to drink all day and sleep. When he wakes up in the third section, he hears a bird chirping among the flowers. In the fourth section he asks the bird whether spring has come. In the fifth section, as the speaker hears the bird’s answer, he feels a sense of loss because he has been an outcast. After this short contact with nature, the speaker isolates himself again and returns to drinking. In the last section the speaker sings to the moon and attempts to forget everything. In this soliloquy the speaker expresses his pessimism about life, and such a disappointment indicates that he expected more from society. Bethge’s paraphrase clearly portrays the speaker’s pessimistic attitude and the use of alcohol. Nevertheless, the original poem’s deeper meaning does not appear in the paraphrase.

81 See the introduction of Li Tai-Po’s biography in Chapter 1.

63 Table 5.1 shows the Chinese poem (with a translation), Bethge’s paraphrase, and an English translation.

Table 5.1: Chinese original, Bethge’s paraphrase, and an English translation 春日醉起言志 (Feelings Der Trinker im Frühling83 The drunkard in spring84 Upon Awakening from Drunkenness on a Spring Day)82 處世若大夢 Wenn nur ein Traum das If existence is but a dream, (Living in this world is like Dasein ist, a dream,) 胡為勞其生 Warum dann Müh’ und Plag’? Why then toil and fret? (Why should I exhaust myself and work so hard?) 所以終日醉 Ich trinke, bis ich nicht mehr I drink till I can drink no (Therefore I decide to be kann, longer, drunk all day.) Den ganzen lieben Tag. The whole livelong day.

Und wenn ich nicht mehr And when I can drink no trinken kann, longer, Weil Leib und Kehle voll, Since belly and gullet are full, 頹然臥前楹 So trauml’ ich hin vor meiner Then I stagger to my door (And lie listless by the front Tür pillar of the house.) Und schlafe wundervoll! And sleep wonderfully!

覺來盼庭前 Was hör’ ich beim Erwachen? What do I hear when I awake? (When I wake up I look at Horch! Listen! the front of the house.) 一鳥花間鳴 Ein Vogel singt im Baum. A bird sings in the tree. (A bird is chirping among the flowers.) 借問此何時 Ich frag ihn ob schon Frühling I ask him if the spring is here; (I ask him what time in a sei, year it is now.) Mir ist als wie im Traum. I feel as if I were dreaming.

82 The Chinese translation is adapted from Lam Ching Wah’s in Mitchell, Gustav Mahler: Songs and Symphonies of Life and Death, 307.

83 Mitchell, Gustav Mahler: Songs and Symphonies of Life and Death, 309.

84 The English translation is adapted from Mitchell, Gustav Mahler: Songs and Symphonies of Life and Death, 311.

64 Table 5.1 – continued: Chinese original, Bethge’s paraphrase, and an English translation 春日醉起言志 (Feelings Der Trinker im Frühling The drunkard in spring Upon Awakening from Drunkenness on a Spring Day) 春風語流鶯 Der Vogel zwitschert: Ja! The bird twitters ‘Yes! (The bird answers that it is Der Lenz sei kommen über Spring came overnight!’ spring.) Nacht! 感之欲嘆息 Ich seufze tief ergriffen auf, Deeply moved, I sigh. (I am moved and want to sigh) Der Vogel singt und lacht! The bird sings and laughs!

對酒還自順 Ich fülle mir den Becher neu I fill my glass again, (I fill my own glass of wine,) Und leer ihn bis zum Grund And drain it to the dregs, 浩歌待明月 Und singe, bis der Mond And sing, until the moon (I sing and wait for the erglänzt shines bright moon to come out.) Am schwarzen Himmelsrund. In the black sky.

曲盡已忘情 Und wenn ich nicht mehr And when I can sing no longer, (And when I finish the song singen kann, I have forgotten everything.) So schlaf ich wieder ein. Then I go back to sleep; Was geht mich denn der For what does spring matter to Frühling an! me? Lasst mich betrunken sein! Let me be drunk!

Bethge’s poem contains six stanzas, but they do not correspond to Li’s six sections. Besides expressing the speaker’s hopeless view of life, the paraphrase includes more details. In the first stanza, after the speaker claims that work is meaningless, he explains the reason why he sleeps all day – he cannot drink more. In the second stanza the speaker again cannot drink more, so he sleeps at his door. This idea of his having drunk as much as he is able does not appear in the Chinese poem. It returns in Bethge’s paraphrase repetitively to provide an explanation why the speaker goes to sleep. Moreover, this explanation portrays the speaker as having given up on hope. The next two stanzas are similar to the middle section of the Chinese poem, which describes the speaker waking up and conversing with a bird. These two stanzas expand the

65 original with details such as the bird’s answer “Ja!” and the overnight arrival of spring. The bird’s singing and laughing at the end of Stanza 4 contrasts to the speaker’s gloomy mood. The fifth stanza remains similar to the original, in which the speaker starts pouring wine into his glass and singing to the moon. The last stanza presents a different scene from the original; it provides a more pessimistic end for the poem. The speaker goes back to sleep because he can no longer drink. He continues to express that the season does not matter to him – “Lasst mich betrunken sein!” In the Chinese poem the speaker uses drinking to forget unhappy thoughts but is essentially hopeful. In Bethge’s poem the speaker drinks for the sake of drinking because he has given up on the world completely. The speaker’s lack of hope perhaps stems from the fact that the original speaker’s optimism is lost in the translation. Table 5.2 compares Bethge’s paraphrase, Mahler’s version, and an English translation.

Table 5.2: Bethge’s paraphrase and Mahler’s alterations85 Der Trinker im Frühling Der Trunkene im Frühling The drunkard in spring88 (Bethge)86 (Mahler)87 Wenn nur ein Traum das *Wenn nur ein Traum das If Life is but a dream, Dasein ist, Leben ist, Warum dann Müh’ und Warum denn Müh’ und Plag’? Why then toil and fret? Plag’? Ich trinke, bis ich nicht Ich trinke, bis ich nicht mehr I drink till I can drink no mehr kann, kann, longer, Den ganzen lieben Tag. Den ganzen lieben Tag! The whole livelong day.

Und wenn ich nicht mehr Und wenn ich nicht mehr And when I can drink no trinken kann, trinken kann, longer, Weil Leib und Kehle voll, Weil Kehl’ und Seele voll, Since gullet and soul are full, So trauml’ ich hin vor *So trauml’ ich bis zu meiner Then I stagger to my door meiner Tür Tür Und schlafe wundervoll! Und schlafe wundervoll! And sleep stupendously!

Was hör’ ich beim Was hör’ ich beim Erwachen? What do I hear when I awake? Erwachen? Horch! Horch! Listen! Ein Vogel singt im Baum. Ein Vogel singt im Baum. A bird sings in the tree.

85 * Indicates Mahler made a change in the line.

86 Mitchell, Gustav Mahler: Songs and Symphonies of Life and Death, 309.

87 Mitchell, Gustav Mahler: Songs and Symphonies of Life and Death, 310.

88 The English translation is from Mitchell, Gustav Mahler: Songs and Symphonies of Life and Death, 311.

66 Table 5.2 – continued: Bethge’s paraphrase and Mahler’s alterations Der Trinker im Frühling Der Trunkene im Frühling The drunkard in spring (Bethge) (Mahler) Ich frag ihn ob schon Ich frag’ ihn ob schon Frühling I ask him if the spring is here; Frühling sei, sei, Mir ist als wie im Traum. Mir ist als wie im Traum. I feel as if I were dreaming.

Der Vogel zwitschert: Ja! Der Vogel zwitschert: Ja! The bird twitters ‘Yes! Der Lenz sei kommen über Der Lenz ist da, sei kommen Spring is here – came Nacht! über Nacht! overnight!’ Ich seufze tief ergriffen auf, *Aus tiefstem Schauen lauscht’ In deepest wonder I listen ich auf, Der Vogel singt und lacht! Der Vogel singt und lacht! The bird sings and laughs!

Ich fülle mir den Becher neu Ich fülle mir den Becher neu I fill my glass again, Und leer ihn bis zum Grund Und leer’ ihn bis zum Grund And drain it to the dregs, Und singe, bis der Mond Und singe, bis der Mond And sing, until the moon erglänzt erglänzt shines bright Am schwarzen *Am schwarzen Firmament! In the black firmament. Himmelsrund.

Und wenn ich nicht mehr Und wenn ich nicht mehr singen And when I can sing no longer, singen kann, kann, So schlaf ich wieder ein. So schlaf’ ich wieder ein. Then I go back to sleep; Was geht mich denn der Was geht mich denn der For what does spring matter to Frühling an! Frühling an’? me? Lasst mich betrunken sein! Lasst mich betrunken sein! Let me be drunk!

Mahler employed the six stanzas in Bethge’s version but changed a few words. These alterations nuance the meaning of the poem. Mahler first changed the title “Der Trinker im Frühling” into “Der Trunkene im Frühling.” Both “Trinker” and “Trunkene” mean a drunkard. “Trinker” more actively describes a drunk person, but “Trunkene” focuses more on the state of being drunk. The composer’s alteration thus portrays the speaker as someone who is currently drunk rather than an alcoholic. In the next alteration Mahler replaced “Dasein” with “Leben” in the first stanza to indicate more explicitly the speaker’s problem in one’s life rather than in existence, which includes the outer world and nature. The alteration reveals that what troubles the speaker is his life rather than the outer world. In the second stanza “So trauml’ ich hin vor meiner Tür” is replaced with “So trauml’ ich bis zu meiner Tür.” This alteration creates motion; rather than stumbling drunkenly at the door,

67 the speaker is now on the way to the door and stumbling as he goes. The composer thus described the drunk speaker more vividly with his awkward movement. In the fourth stanza “Ich seufze tief ergriffen auf” is changed into “Aus tiefstem Schauen lauscht’ ich auf.” Bethge’s phrase shows deeper afflictions: “Deeply moved, I sigh.” Richard Specht describes this phrase as “almost . . . a summary of his [Mahler’s] own nature.”89 Stephen Hefling seems to refer to this character trait when he describes Mahler’s habit of immersing himself in his own thoughts: “. . . Mahler would frequently remain motionless in one spot for hours on end, ‘lost to the world’ in daydreaming, music, and later, literature.”90 Mahler’s phrase changed the verb from “seufzen” to “lauschen.” Instead of sighing, the speaker now listens with deepest wonder. The alteration reveals the speaker’s hope for change in the current situation. Besides presenting a more positive attitude, the alteration reflects Mahler’s intent of choosing words suitable for a musical experience. The word “lauschen” fits the musical context when the audience is indeed listening to the music, as opposed to reading a poem. The music to this phrase will be discussed again in a later section of this chapter. The last alteration reflects the composer’s preference in words. In the fifth stanza Mahler changed “Himmelsrund” into “Firmament.” The word “Himmelsrund” was used in the Middle Ages when people thought of sky as a round disc. This word is also more commonly used in poetry or other literary works. “Firmament,” on the other hand, is more modern and colloquial. Mahler perhaps changed this word simply to make the text seem less artificial. The central themes include an opening figure and three melodies. The opening figure of this movement (see Example 5.1) has a festive character, derived from its two musical elements. The woodwind instruments play a series of grace notes and trills (Example 5.1 only shows the first oboe part), which create a busy atmosphere. The horn call alternates between quarter notes and triplets at first, and then the triplets become sixteenth notes to heighten the excitement. These two elements combine into an exciting and heroic figure. This opening figure also functions as a ritornello.

89 Richard Specht, “Feuilleton: Das Lied von der Erde,” in Mahler and His World, ed. by Karen Painter (Princeton and Oxford: Princeton University Press, 2002), 337.

90 Stephen E. Hefling, “Aspects of Mahler’s Late Style,” in Mahler and His World, 203.

68

Example 5.1: Opening figure (first oboe and horns in F, mm. 1-4)

It is noteworthy that this opening theme also clearly symbolizes the birds. The text has not addressed birds in this opening section. By situating the birds in the background from the beginning, the composer sets up the audience’s anticipation of birds and nature. This is one of the several instances in the cycle in which Mahler provides the audience a musical experience not available for the poetry reader. Another example in this movement appears in Stanza 4, which will be discussed later. Theme 1 features an arch shape with two shorter notes in the middle. The ascending line in the first four notes builds up the anticipation for the speaker’s statement of significant ideas. The shape of this melody appears like a rocket, but the tempo marking “zurückhaltend” (moderate, reserved) indicates a slower tempo than that in a typical rocket. A rocket gesture’s energy and a slower tempo thus shape the passionate character of this theme. Furthermore, the tenor’s first phrase, in which the speaker compares life to a dream, is set to this theme. Theme 1 thus also conveys the speaker’s introspective thoughts.

Example 5.2: Theme 1 (tenor, mm. 4-5)

The rhythmic pattern of a dotted quarter note followed by an eighth note is characteristic of Theme 2. The longer values of the notes slow down the tempo and give Theme 2 a calmer character than Theme 1. The leap between the last two notes (a minor seventh in this example) is

69 another feature of this theme. This upward leap creates a declamatory effect and proposes a question, as the pitch rises at the end of a question in most languages.

Example 5.3: Theme 2 (tenor, mm. 6-8)

Theme 3 is an extended version of Theme 2. It repeats the rhythmic pattern of Theme 2 several times with four descending eighth notes in the middle. Retaining the declamatory character of Theme 2, Theme 3 symbolizes a speech in both vocal and instrumental parts.

Example 5.4: Theme 3 (first violins, mm. 8-11)

Table 5.3 provides an overview of the structure. Musical analysis shows that Mahler’s musical design directs the audience’s attention to the middle sections, Stanzas 3-5. The speaker’s contact with nature in these three stanzas is therefore the focus of this movement.

Table 5.3: Formal, tonal, and thematic analyses of “Der Trunkene im Frühling” Stanzas Measure Key Text Thematic material number 1-3 A major (Introduction) Opening figure Stanza 1 4-5 B-flat Wenn nur ein Traum das Dasein ist, Theme 1 major 6-8 A major Warum denn Müh’ und Plag? Theme 2 8-11 F major (Interlude) Theme 3 12-15 G minor Ich trinke, bis ich nicht mehr kann, Theme 3 Den ganzen lieben Tag! Theme 2 15-17 A major (Interlude) Opening figure

70 Table 5.3 – continued: Formal, tonal, and thematic analyses of “Der Trunkene im Frühling” Stanzas Measure Key Text Thematic material number Stanza 2 18-21 B-flat Und wenn ich nicht mehr trinken Theme 1 major kann, Weil Kehl’ und Seele voll, Theme 2 22-25 F major (Interlude) Theme 3 26-28 D minor So tauml’ ich bis zu meiner Tür Theme 3 Und schlafe wundervoll! Theme 2 29-32 A major (Interlude) Opening figure Stanza 3 32-34 B-flat Was hör’ ich beim Erwachen? Theme 1’ major 35-44 A major Horch! Bird call (piccolo) Ein Vogel singt im Baum. Theme 1’ Theme 3 (violin) Ich frag’ ihn ob schon Frühling sei, New theme – 1 Bird call (piccolo) Mir ist als wie im New theme – 2 Bird call 45-46 F major Traum. Stanza 4 47-50 B-flat Der Vogel zwitschert: Ja! Ja! Theme 1 major Transparent texture and speech-like singing (Ja) 51-64 D-flat Der Lenz ist da, sei kommen über Theme 3 major Nacht! Bird call (with tonal Aus tiefstem Schauen lauscht’ ich New theme – 3 shifts) auf, Bird call Der Vogel singt und lacht! Bird call Stanza 5 65-71 C major Ich fülle mir den Becher neu Theme 3 Und leer’ ihn bis zum Grund Und singe, bis der Mond erglänzt Am schwarzen Firmament! Theme 2 72-73 A major (Interlude) Opening figure 74 G minor (Interlude) Stanza 6 74-83 B-flat Und wenn ich nicht mehr singen Theme 1 major kann, Und wenn ich nicht mehr singen Theme 3 kann, So schlaf’ ich wieder ein. 84-86 E-flat Was geht mich denn der Frühling Theme 2 major an’? Lasst mich betrunken 87 A major sein! 88-89 A major (Postlude)

71

As already discussed, the movement begins with the energetic opening figure that implies the surrounding of nature and foretells the speaker’s encounter with a bird. In Stanza 1 the speaker poses his questions about life. The tonal shift from A major to B-flat major at m. 4 exemplifies one of this movement’s features – the constant tonal shifts as shown in Table 5.3. Stanza 1 also displays all three themes. Stanza 2 is similar to Stanza 1 musically; it opens with the opening figure and contains all three themes. In this stanza the speaker continues drinking and sleeping as a pessimistic outcast. In the next two stanzas the speaker hears a bird and nature pulls him out of his deep thoughts; his conversation with the bird reveals nature’s inspirational power. Mahler’s musical design in these two stanzas accentuates their significance in the movement. Stanza 3 presents a drastically different mood. Theme 1 is recognized only by its rhythmic pattern (see Example 5.5). The melodic shape now has little motion, portraying the speaker’s contemplative mood. The opening horn call is played here by the first oboe and the grace notes by the second oboe; the opening figure thus resembles a bird’s sound and reflects the text. The solo violin plays Theme 3 (see Example 5.6), indicating the speaker’s contemplation from the background. At the end of the stanza the speaker sings, “Ich frag’ ihn ob schon Frühling sei, mir ist als wie im Traum” to a melody that is reminiscent of Theme 2, but the melodic shape changes so much that the theme can be regarded as a new theme (see Example 5.7). Birdcalls are now more explicitly present in the piccolo part (see Example 5.8). Presenting a dark mood and a bird’s sound, the music thus portrays the speaker’s gloomy mood while talking to the bird.

Example 5.5: Tenor, mm. 32-34

Example 5.6: Solo violins, mm. 36-41

72

Example 5.7: Tenor, mm. 39-45

Example 5.8: Piccolo, mm. 41-44

Stanza 4 retains the sorrowful mood and birdcalls. The music to the phrase “Der Vogel zwitschert: Ja! Ja!” has a transparent texture, which helps to convey the speaker’s soliloquy and the bird’s presence (see Example 5.9). The speaker’s reiteration of the bird’s answer – “Ja! Ja!” – is set to two pitches to simulate a bird’s speech. Furthermore, the piccolo and the oboe are both used to depict the birds in this phrase. The bird’s answer draws the speaker’s attention to the overnight arrival of spring. An upward octave leap creates an uplifting mood and portrays the beauty of spring in mm. 50-51 (see Example 5.10). This effect also contrasts to the speaker’s depressed mood. At the end of this stanza, Mahler uses another octave leap to portray the happiness of the bird in mm. 62-63 (see Example 5.11). As in Stanza 3, Mahler uses music to paint the pictures presented in the text; the composer’s musical design successfully draws the audience’s attention to these two stanzas. Stanza 4 also includes the audience in the speaker’s experience through the musical setting. When the speaker listens to the bird “with the deepest wonder” in the third phrase of Stanza 4 (see Example 5.12), his pessimistic mood is portrayed by the lack of motion in the vocal line (mm. 56-58). The word “lausche” in the next phrase directs the audience’s attention to listen to the music – at this moment the flute and the piccolo are playing birdcalls in mm. 57-58

73 and mm. 59-61, respectively. Mahler’s lyrical alteration and musical design together allow the audience to listen to the bird with the speaker. The song thus provides the music’s audience an experience not available to the poetry reader.

Example 5.9: Piccolo, oboe, and tenor, mm. 47-49

Example 5.10: Tenor, mm. 50-51

Example 5.11: Tenor, mm. 62-63

74

Example 5.12: Piccolo, flutes, and tenor, mm. 56-61

Stanza 5 still belongs to the middle section, although nature does not play an important part in this stanza; here the speaker withdraws from the world and resumes drinking. The speaker pours drinks and sings to the moon, as in the Chinese poem. Themes 3 and 2 are sung in their original form. Stanza 5 concludes the middle section. In other words, the speaker leaves his inner world to converse with the bird and appreciates nature in Stanzas 3 and 4, and he ignores nature again when he returns to inner thoughts in Stanza 5. The boundaries of the middle section (Stanzas 3-5) are also marked by the use of the opening figure in the interludes (mm. 29-32 and mm. 72-74) before and after this section. Besides using the opening figure, the interlude after Stanza 5 also includes glissandos in the harp (see Example 5.13). The glissandos add excitement to the music and conclude the movement with a splendid ending.

75

Example 5.13: Harps, mm. 72-73

In Stanza 6, Themes 1 to 3 are used in the original forms. The speaker returns to his pessimism and states his desire to escape in drink. The speaker’s passionate side is nowhere seen in the music, overtly or implicitly. The movement ends with a busy postlude (mm. 88-89), but the speaker’s low spirit still resounds in the audience’s mind. As this musical analysis has shown, this movement focuses on the middle section. Mahler’s emphasis on Stanzas 3-5 manifests the importance of nature, although at the end of this movement the speaker returns to drinking and pessimism. This change of attitude should not imply that the inspiration of nature is meaningless. Rather, the significance of nature goes beyond one movement; nature will help the speaker gain a deeper understanding of life in the next movement. The significance of nature is manifested here in the speaker’s sober moment, although only briefly. As in the previous movements, nature provides the speaker space for contemplation. In “Der Trunkene im Frühling,” the speaker withdraws from the world, but nature, symbolized by the bird, inspires him to ponder life. This movement thus continues to use nature as an inspirational source and directs the speaker’s journey into the next movement, “Der Abschied,” in which the speaker carries on his musings and eventually reaches his understanding about life.

76 CHAPTER 6

“DER ABSCHIED”: FAREWELL TO ALL

He turned the manuscript over to me to study. . . . When I brought it back to him, almost unable to utter a word, he turned to the Abschied and said: “What do you think? Is this to be endured at all? Will not people make away with themselves after hearing it?”91

In this passage Bruno Walter describes Mahler’s question “Will not people make away with themselves after hearing it?” Indeed, this pessimistic movement portrays the speaker’s disappointment and frustrations in the world and his desperate wish of going away. This movement sets two poems, both closely related to nature. In the first poem, the speaker is waiting for a friend alone on a mountain. In the second poem, the speaker narrates two friends’ conversation about withdrawing into nature. Mahler chose these two poems to create musical settings that accentuate the eternal presence of nature, which symbolizes the speaker’s desire to relinquish the material world and transcend life and death. “Der Abschied” incorporates Mong Kao-Jen’s “宿業師山房待丁大不志” (“Staying at a Teacher’s Mountain Retreat, Awaiting a Friend in Vain”) and Wang Wei’s “送別” (“Farewell”). These two poems both reflect their authors’ most successful genre – pastoral poetry; both poems use objects in nature to emulate the characters’ emotions. These two poems describe the speaker first waiting for his friend in vain and then deciding to retreat from the world. The desire to withdraw oneself could be interpreted as reflecting the composer’s own experience, but this is not my intention.92 The connection between the text and the composer’s life merely assists us to apprehend Mahler’s preference in poems and his empathy with the speaker. Coming from a city called Xiang-yang in Xiang Province (now Hu-bei Province), Mong Kao-Jen (689-740) was one of the representative poets of the Tang Dynasty. Pastoral poems, of which more than 260 remain extant, characterize his style. In these poems he expresses nostalgia for Xiang-yang by recapturing the residents’ life styles, friendships among people, and scenic

91 Mitchell, Gustav Mahler: Songs and Symphonies of Life and Death, 342; quoted from Bruno Walter, Gustav Mahler, 59-60.

92 Written in 1908, Das Lied von der Erde has been connected to Mahler’s unfortunate experiences in 1907, including his resignation from the Vienna Court Opera, his daughter’s death, and his heart problem.

77 views of the mountains, rivers, moon, and boats. Therefore he was given the nickname Mong Xiang-Yang.93 Mong’s “Staying at a Teacher’s Mountain Retreat, Awaiting a Friend in Vain” depicts the speaker’s anticipation of meeting a friend on a mountain. Mong paints pictures in which the sun is setting, the valley darkening, and the woodcutters going home. These images present a quieting world, evoking the speaker’s isolated feeling. Furthermore, the concept of returning symbolizes reunion, which contrasts to the speaker’s loneliness. The images of the pine trees and the cold evening, of the sounding wind and streams, and of the roosting birds reaffirm the speaker’s loneliness, since observing his surroundings is his only way to pass time, as he is waiting alone for his friend. After all these portrayals, Mong finally arrives at the last two lines, the most important part of this poem, which depict the speaker’s whereabouts: “The person I expect to stay the night here has not yet come. I carry my single qin and wait on the path bordered by rattan groves.” Since the first six lines have set up a mood of sorrow and seclusion, the speaker’s feelings need no more descriptions than one adjective “single” to describe qin, which can also mean “lonely.” Mong’s skill in presenting images thus allows him to illustrate emotions vividly. Using scenic images to depict emotional states, this poem well represents Mong’s style. Wang Wei (701-761) was also one of the highly-respected poets in the Tang Dynasty, as demonstrated by his nickname “Poetry Buddha.” His reputation is partly due to the vivid images in his poems. Wang and Mong were not only contemporaries but also good friends and colleagues who shared a similar style. Among Wang’s pastoral poems, more than 400 were preserved. In these poems he skillfully portrays the sublimity of nature, details of objects, and the colors, sounds, and motions in nature. He once served at the court, but he was not treated well there. The portrayal of nature thus expresses Wang’s desire to leave court life behind, become one with the nature, and transcend the material world.94 Wang’s “Farewell” presents two friends’ farewell. One character asks his friend’s destination, and the friend pessimistically expresses his disappointment in the world and wish for escape. Retreating to nature provides him hope. Understanding his friend’s decision, the main

93 Pei-chi Tong, ed., 中國古典文學叢書: 孟浩然詩集箋注 (Chinese Classic Literature: Poems by Mong Kao-Jen) (Shang Hai, China: Shanghai Ancient books publisher, 2000), 1-8.

94 Tie-min Chen, ed., 王維集校注 (Poems by Wang Wei with Annotations), (Beijing, China: Chung-hua Publisher, 2005), 1-11.

78 speaker stops his inquiry but affirms that their friendship will last forever like clouds.95 The images used to depict emotional status in this poem are “the Southern Mountain” and “the white clouds.” Both of them symbolize sublimity: the mountain portrays absolute solitude and the clouds eternal existence. Besides imagery, Wang uses the succinct conversation to depict two speaker’s friendship – they understand each other so well that small talk or redundant words have no place in their conversations. As in the first movement, nature is described as ever- present, especially in comparison with the brevity of humans’ life. Nature serves as a symbol that goes beyond life and death. The Chinese originals (with a separate translation), Bethge’s paraphrase, and an English translation are shown in Table 6.1:

Table 6.1: Chinese original, Bethge’s paraphrase, and an English translation 宿業師山房待丁大不志(Staying In Erwartung des Freundes97 The farewell98 at a Teacher’s Mountain Retreat, Awaiting a Friend in Vain )96 夕陽度西嶺 Die Sonne scheidet hinter The sun is going down (The sun has passed the Western dem Gebirg. behind the mountains. summits;) 群壑倏已暝 In alle Täler steigt der Abend In every valley evening is (The valleys suddenly become nieder descending dark,) 松月生夜涼 Mit seinen Schatten, die voll With its shadows, which are (The moon above the pine trees Kühlung sind. full of coolness. makes the evening very cold,)

95 In Chinese poetry, clouds can carry a different symbolic meaning from that which we would expect in Western literature. While clouds are commonly seen as transitory in Western literature, they are often to be understood as a permanent phenomenon in Chinese texts. Despite the fact that clouds appear in different shapes every day, they are a natural object that will always show up in the sky. Furthermore, they can be seen by people from anywhere. The clouds can have one more implication in Chinese poetry; as the clouds sometimes cover the sun, they can mean the manipulative people in the court who deceive the emperor. In Wang Wei’s “Farewell,” the clouds most likely have the first two meanings: their friendship will always be there and it will accompany the departed friend no matter where he goes.

96 The Chinese translation is by Ching-wah Lam from Mitchell, Gustav Mahler: Songs and Symphonies of Life and Death, 267.

97 Mitchell, Gustav Mahler: Songs and Symphonies of Life and Death, 334.

98 The English translation is adapted from Mitchell, Gustav Mahler: Songs and Symphonies of Life and Death, 337.

79 Table 6.1 – continued: Chinese original, Bethge’s paraphrase, and an English translation 宿業師山房待丁大不志(Staying In Erwartung des Freundes The farewell at a Teacher’s Mountain Retreat, Awaiting a Friend in Vain ) O sieh, wie eine Silberbarke O look! like a silver bark schwebt Der Mond herauf hinter den The moon floats up behind dunkeln Fichten. the dark spruces. Ich spüre eines feinen Windes I sense a delicate breeze Wehn. shivering

風泉滿清聽 Der Bach singt voller The brook sings (And the sounds of the wind and Wohllaut durch das Dunkel melodiously through the streams fill my ears.) darkness Von Ruh und Schlaf . . . Die Of rest and sleep, the arbeitsamen Menschen laborious people. Gehn heimwärts, voller Are going home filled with Sehnsucht nach dem Schlaf. longing for some sleep.

樵人歸欲盡 (The woodcutters are almost home;) 煙鳥棲初定 Die Vögel hokken müde in The birds huddle wearily on (The birds in the mist are den Zweigen. their branches. roosting.) Die Welt schläft ein. . . . The world is falling asleep. . . . Ich stehe hier und harre I am standing here and waiting 之子期宿來 Des Freundes, der zu kommen For a friend, who promised (The person I expect to stay the mir versprach. me that he would come. night here has not yet come.)

Ich sehne mich, o Freund, an I long, O my friend, to be by deiner Seite your side, Die Schönheit dieses Abends To enjoy the beauty of this zu geniessen. evening. Wo bleibst du nur? Du lässt Where are you? You leave mich lang allein! me long alone!

孤琴候蘿徑 Ich wandle auf und nieder mit I wander to and fro with my (I carry my single qin and wait der Laute lute on the path bordered by rattan groves.)

80 Table 6.1 – continued: Chinese original, Bethge’s paraphrase, and an English translation 宿業師山房待丁大不志 In Erwartung des Freundes The farewell (Staying at a Teacher’s Mountain Retreat, Awaiting a Friend in Vain ) Auf Wegen, die von weichem On pathways which billow Grase schwellen. with soft grass. O kämst du, kämst du, O come, you, unfaithful ungetreuer Freund! friend!

送別 (Farewell)99 Der Abschied des Freundes100 下馬飲君酒 Ich stieg vom Pferd und reichte I alighted from the horse and (Please dismount from the ihm den Trunk handed him the drink horse and drink some wine.) 問君何所之 Des Abschieds dar. Ich fragte of farewell. I asked him (I ask you where you want to ihn, wohin where he was going, go.) Und auch warum er reisen And also why he wanted to wolle. Er travel. 君言不得意 Sprach mit umflorter Stimme: He spoke with a veiled voice: (You say you have achieved Du, mein Freund, ‘Ah! my friend – nothing.) Mir war das Glück in dieser Fortune was not kind to me in Welt nicht hold. this world!

歸臥南山陲 Wohin ich geh? ich wander in Where am I going? I am (And want to live alone by the die Berge, going to wander in the Southern mountain.) mountains, Ich suche Ruhe für mein I seek rest for my lonely einsam Herz. heart! Ich werde nie mehr in die I shall never again go seeking Ferne schweifen, the far distance. 但去末復問 Müd ist mein Fuß, und müd ist My heart is tired, and my soul (As you wish, please go. I will meine Seele, is tired. not question you any more.) Die Erde ist die gleiche The earth is the same überall, everywhere. 白雲無盡時 Und ewig, ewig sind die And the white clouds are (But our friendship lasts weißen Wolken . . . forever, forever. forever, like the white clouds in the sky.)

99 The Chinese translation is adapted from Ching-wah Lam from Mitchell, Gustav Mahler: Songs and Symphonies of Life and Death, 330.

100 Mitchell, Gustav Mahler: Songs and Symphonies of Life and Death, 335.

81 Bethge’s paraphrase of the first poem remains rather close to Mong Kao-Jen’s original. It starts with descriptions of the sinking sun and descending valley. The images from the original poem’s third line are expanded with more details, describing objects more closely or explaining hidden meanings. For example, the third line in Chinese, “The moon above the pine trees makes the evening very cold,” is expanded into four lines, each focused on an object: coolness, a boat, the moon, and the breeze. More importantly, the last lines in the German paraphrase clearly express the speaker’s longing to see his friend: “Ich sehne mich, o Freund, an deiner Seite / Die Schönheit dieses Abends zu geniessen.” The speaker’s sorrow is also depicted outwardly in the last line, “O kämst du, kämst du, ungetreuer Freund!” The expansions and explanations of the German paraphrase alter the mood in the original poem, in which the terse, compact verses create a rather mysterious character in the Chinese poem that does not transfer to the more explicitly emotional German text. The second poem also remains close to the Chinese original but adds more detail and explanation. For example, the speaker’s friend explains his purpose of going into the mountain and adds that he has no desire for anything in the world, “Ich werde nie mehr in die Ferne schweifen / Müd ist mein Fuß, und müd ist meine Seele.” The original poem does not provide overt explanations about his heart’s fatigue, since the scenic images communicate the emotional content sufficiently. Moreover, the last lines, “Die Erde ist die gleiche überall / Und ewig, ewig sind die weißen Wolken . . .” further use the earth’s permanence to contrast the brevity of human life. The German elaboration, as the first poem, clarifies the picture but disturbs the mysterious character of the Chinese poem. Table 6.2 compares Bethge’s paraphrase and Mahler’s alterations and an English translation of the German text used in the music.

Table 6.2: Bethge’s paraphrase and Mahler’s alterations101 In Erwartung des Freundes Der Abschied (Mahler)103 The farewell104 (Bethge)102

101 * Indicates that Mahler made a change in the line.

102 Mitchell, Gustav Mahler: Songs and Symphonies of Life and Death, 334.

103 Mitchell, Gustav Mahler: Songs and Symphonies of Life and Death, 336.

104 The English translation is from Mitchell, Gustav Mahler: Songs and Symphonies of Life and Death, 337.

82 Table 6.2 – continued: Bethge’s paraphrase and Mahler’s alterations In Erwartung des Freundes Der Abschied (Mahler) The farewell (Bethge) Die Sonne scheidet hinter dem Die Sonne scheidet hinter dem The sun is going down behind Gebirg. Gebirg. the mountains. In alle Täler steigt der Abend In alle Täler steigt der Abend In every valley evening is nieder nieder descending, Mit seinen Schatten, die voll Mit seinen Schatten, die voll Bringing its shadows, which Kühlung sind. Kühlung sind. are full of coolness. O sieh, wie eine Silberbarke O sieh, wie eine Silberbarke O look! like a silver bark schwebt schwebt Der Mond herauf hinter den *Der Mond am blauen The moon floats up through dunkeln Fichten. Himmelssee herauf. the blue lake of heaven. Ich spüre eines feinen Windes Ich spüre eines feinen Windes I sense a delicate breeze Wehn. Weh’n shivering *Hinter den dunklen Fichten! Behind the dark fir trees.

Der Bach singt voller Wohllaut Der Bach singt voller Wohllaut The brook sings melodiously durch das Dunkel durch das Dunkel through the darkness. Die Blumen blassen im The flowers grow pale in the Dämmerschein. twilight. Von Ruh und Schlaf . . . Die Erde atmet voll von Ruh’ The earth takes deep breaths und Schlaf. of rest and sleep; Alle Sehnsucht will nun All desire now turns to Träumen, dreaming. Die arbeitsamen Menschen Die müden Menschen geh’n Weary people go homewards, gehn heimwärts, heimwärts, voller Sehnsucht nach dem Um im Schlaf vergess’nes So that, in sleep, they may Schlaf. Glück learn anew Und Jugend neu zu lernen! Forgotten joy and youth. Die Vögel hokken müde in den *Die Vögel hocken still in The birds huddle silent on Zweigen. ihren Zweigen. their branches. Die Welt schläft ein . . . *Die Welt schläft ein! The world is falling asleep!

Es wehet kühl im Schatten A cool breeze blows in the meiner Fichten. shadow of my fir trees. Ich stehe hier und harre des Ich stehe hier und harre meines I stand here and wait for my Freundes, der zu kommen mir Freundes. friend. versprach. Ich harre sein zum letzten I wait for him to take a last Lebewohl. farewell. Ich sehne mich, o Freund, an Ich sehne mich, o Freund, an I long, O my friend, to be by deiner Seite deiner Seite your side, Die Schönheit dieses Abends Die Schönheit dieses Abends To enjoy the beauty of this zu geniessen. zu geniessen. evening.

83 Table 6.2 – continued: Bethge’s paraphrase and Mahler’s alterations In Erwartung des Freundes Der Abschied (Mahler) The farewell (Bethge) Wo bleibst du nur? Du lässt Wo bleibst du? Du lässt mich Where are you? You leave mich lang allein! lang allein! me long alone! Ich wandle auf und nieder mit Ich wandle auf und nieder mit I wander to and fro with my der Laute meiner Laute lute Auf Wegen, die von weichem Auf Wegen, die von weichem On pathways which billow Grase schwellen. Grase schwellen. with soft grass. O kämst du, kämst du, ungetreuer Freund! O Schönheit, o ewigen O beauty! O eternal-love-and- Liebens, Lebens, trunk’ne life-intoxicated world! Welt!

Der Abschied des Freundes105 Ich stieg vom Pferd und *Er stieg vom Pferd und He alighted from his horse reichte ihm den Trunk reichte ihm den Trunk des and handed him the drink of Abschieds dar. farewell. Des Abschieds dar. Ich fragte *Er fragte ihn, wohin er führe He asked him where he was ihn, wohin going, Und auch warum er reisen *Und auch warum es müsste And also why it had to be. wolle. Er sein. Sprach mit umflorter Stimme: *Er sprach, seine Stimme war He spoke, his voice was umflort: veiled: Du, mein Freund, Du, mein Freund, ‘Ah! my friend – Mir war das Glück in dieser *Mir war auf dieser Welt das Fortune was not kind to me in Welt nicht hold. Glück nicht hold! this world!

Wohin ich geh? ich wander in Wohin ich geh’? ich geh’, ich Where am I going? I am die Berge, wand’re in die Berge. going to wander in the mountains, Ich suche Ruhe für mein Ich suche Ruhe für mein I seek rest for my lonely einsam Herz. einsam Herz! heart! Ich wandle nach der Heimat, I am journeying to the meiner Stätte! homeland, to my resting place; Ich werde nie mehr in die *Ich werde niemals in die I shall never again go seeking Ferne schweifen, Ferne schweifen. the far distance. Müd ist mein Fuß, und müd ist *Still ist mein Herz und harret My heart is still and awaits its meine Seele, seiner Stunde! hour!’

105 Mitchell, Gustav Mahler: Songs and Symphonies of Life and Death, 335.

84 Table 6.2 – continued: Bethge’s paraphrase and Mahler’s alterations Der Abschied des Freundes Der Abschied (Mahler) The farewell (Bethge) Die Erde ist die gleiche *Die liebe Erde allüberall The dear earth everywhere überall, Blüht auf im Lenz und grünt Blossoms in spring and grows aufs neu! green again! Allüberall und ewig blauen Everywhere and forever the licht die Fernen, distance shines bright and blue! Und ewig, ewig sind die *Ewig . . . ewig! Forever . . . forever . . . weißen Wolken . . .

The composer’s alterations in the first poem, “In Erwartung des Freundes,” start with the division of the fifth line, “Der Mond herauf hinter den dunkeln Fichten,” into two lines; furthermore, “am blauen Himmelssee” was inserted to describe how the moon floats up through “the blue lake of heaven.” A few lines later, “Von Ruh und Schlaf . . . Die arbeitsamen Menschen / Gehn heimwärts, voller Sehnsucht nach dem Schlaf” is relocated and rephrased into “Die müden Menschen geh’n heimwärts, / Um im Schlaf vergess’nes Glück / Und Jugend neu zu lernen!” The hope to learn new things in retreat from the world is thus inserted into the text. Before this replacement, Mahler inserted two lines that describe the weariness of the flowers and the earth. The lines concerning the speaker’s anticipation of the friend mostly remained unchanged, although Mahler did insert several lines expressing the speaker’s desire to see the friend specifically in order to bid farewell. These bridge the two poems, since the second poem is about farewell. To end the first poem, he replaced “O kämst du, kämst du, ungetreuer Freund!” with a different line, “O Schönheit, o ewigen Liebens, Lebens, trunk’ne Welt!” This alteration changes the poem’s focus from the speaker’s anxiety and disappointment to the beauty, life, and love of the eternal world. In short, Mahler’s alterations in the first poem enriched Bethge’s version and made the speaker’s attitude more positive. In the second poem Mahler made fewer but more critical alterations. In the beginning, he changed the pronoun from “ich” to “er.” This alteration significantly changes the perspective from which the scene is narrated – the speaker becomes a narrator rather than a participant in the conversation. Stuart Feder explains this alteration, “In this Mahler placed himself equidistant

85 between the one who left and the one who remained behind, identifying with both.”106 In other words, the change of pronoun switches our perspective from that of either character to that of the narrator. The next alteration is also subtle but significant; Mahler changed “Und auch warum er reisen wolle” to “Und auch warum es müsste sein.” The main question changes from the reason for traveling to a sense of compulsion – “and why it has to be.” Feder explains the change, “And in answering his own question – warum es müsste sein, why it had to be – in Das Lied von der Erde, Mahler mastered his all-too-human loss, creating his personal artistic vision of ‘world without end.’”107 This alteration reveals the character’s acceptance that travel is necessary, although the destination remains uncertain. A few lines later “Ich wandle nach der Heimat, meiner Stätte” was inserted, accentuating the speaker’s longing for home or homeland. Another minor alteration occurs in the insertion of an adjective “Die liebe Erde,” emphasizing the dearness of the nature. Some major alterations conclude the poem: “Blüht auf im Lenz und grünt aufs neu! / Allüberall und ewig blauen licht die Fernen.” As at the end of the first poem, Mahler emphasizes the eternal presence and the energy of the world. At the very end, “Und ewig, ewig sind die weißen Wolken . . .” is replaced by simply “Ewig . . . ewig!” As noted before, the meaning of symbol is different in Western literature and Chinese texts. The composer might have omitted the image of clouds because using a transitory symbol to describe friendship did not seem appropriate. The repetition of “eternal” creates an open, unresolved ending, which is reflected by the lack of resolution in music. This open ending is significant and will receive more discussion in the musical analysis that follows. Corresponding to the division of two poems, “Der Abschied” is also divided into two sections musically. The structures of the two sections will be shown in later sections (Table 6.3 and Table 6.4). The significance of nature in poetry is manifested in Mahler’s music to reveal the speaker’s philosophical understanding of life. The first three figures all symbolize isolation and loneliness; each is always played by a single instrument. The turn-figure (Example 6.1) usually opens a section. Example 6.2 shows a counter figure of the turn-figure. These two figures are combined and developed into a longer

106 Feder, 151.

107 Feder, 151.

86 phrase that functions as an ending signal, identified in the following discussion the ending figure (see Example 6.3).

Example 6.1: Turn figure (oboe, m. 3)

Example 6.2: Counter of the turn figure (oboe, mm. 28-30)

Example 6.3: Ending figure (oboe, mm. 41-43)

Another significant musical figure (Example 6.4) consists of alternations of two notes, which generates a hypnotic effect. This rocking figure first appears in the harp parts in mm. 17- 18, and it will be used more prominently than in the second stanza. The rocking figure returns in mm. 34-37 by the harps. The last words of Stanza 1, “dunklen Fichten,” are sung to this figure. The darkening, fatigued world is well depicted through the use of this figure in a slow tempo. The figure had also appeared in other movements, where it had different effects and usages; it creates a hypnotic effect in “Der Einsame im Herbst” and a festive, busy mood in “Von der Jugend.” An ecstasy figure shown in Example 6.5 is reminiscent of the ecstasy motive in Wagner’s Tristan und Isolde. Related to Isolde’s ecstatic love after Tristan’s death, this ecstasy figure has mingled meanings of death and love. Mahler was, of course, intimately familiar with Wagner’s music, but determining whether this figure is intentionally quoted from Wagner is beyond the scope of my thesis. I will focus more on the figure’s function and usage instead.

87

Example 6.4: Rocking figure (harps, mm. 39-42)

Example 6.5: Ecstasy figure (first horn in F, mm. 87-91)

Another figure is significant in the second half of the movement (see Example 6.6). This figure is only one-measure long, and it is usually used repetitively. It stops the flow and creates a static effect. This theme may reflect the speaker’s feeling of lethargy.

Example 6.6: Static figure (clarinets, mm. 323-24)

These figures are crucial to understanding “Der Abschied,” and the variety of Mahler’s uses of these elements is also characteristic of this movement. Besides the melodic figures, other

88 important musical elements include word-painting, the use of recitative, and change of the speaker. Table 6.3 provides an overview of the structure of the first poem in “Der Abschied.”

Table 6.3: Structure of the first poem in “Der Abschied” Measure Key Thematic Text number material Introduction 1-18 C minor Long drones, 1 turn figure, ending figure. Stanza 1 19-26 C minor Turn figure, Die Sonne scheidet hinter dem Gebirge. (Recitative counter of the In alle Täler steigt der Abend nieder 1) turn figure. Mit seinen Schatten, die voll Kühlung sind. 27-54 C minor Counter of the O sieh! Wie eine Silberbarke schwebt turn figure, Der Mond am blauen Himmelssee turn figure, herauf. ending figure, Ich spüre eines feinen Windes Weh’n rocking figure Hinter den dunklen Fichten! Stanza 2 55-80 F major Turn figure, (C major) Der Bach singt voller /C major rocking figure Wohllaut durch das Dunkel. (F major) Die Blumen blassen im Dämmerschein. 81-99 F major Rocking (Interlude) figure, ecstasy figure 100-129 F major Rocking Die Erde atmet voll von Ruh’ und figure, turn Schlaf. figure, ecstasy Alle Sehnsucht will nun Träumen, figure Die müden Menschen geh’n heimwärts, Um im Schlaf vergess’nes Glück Und Jugend neu zu lernen! 130-46 Unstable Turn figure (as Die Vögel hokken still in ihren birdcall), Zweigen. rocking figure, ending figure 147-49 D minor Die Welt schläft ein! Stanza 3 150-57 F major Ending figure, (Interlude) rocking figure 158-165 F major Turn figure, Es wehet kühl im Schatten meiner (Recitative counter of the Fichten. 2) turn figure, Ich stehe hier und harre meines ending figure Freundes. Ich harre sein zum letzten Lebewohl.

89 Table 6.3 – continued: Structure of the first poem in “Der Abschied” Measure Key Thematic Text number material (Stanza 3) 166-287 Bb Rocking Ich sehne mich, o Freund, an deiner major figure, ecstasy Seite figure Die Schönheit dieses Abends zu geniessen. Wo bleibst du? Du lässt mich lang allein! Ich wandle auf und nieder mit meiner Laute Auf Wegen, die von weichem Grase schwellen. O Schönheit, o ewigen Liebens, Lebens, trunk’ne Welt! Interlude 288-302 C major Turn figure, rocking figure

Introduction 1 opens this movement with two distinctive elements: low drones played by the contrabassoon, horns, tam-tam, harps, cellos, and contrabasses; and the turn-figure played by the first oboe. The long drones are used to imitate the tam-tam, a Chinese instrument.108 This section functions as a ritornello, as it will return to signal the beginning of the movement’s second half. The long drones and the turn figure situate a lonely speaker in a quiet world. This soft, somewhat foreboding opening (mm. 1-18) sets up the sorrowful atmosphere for the first poem, in which the speaker is waiting for a friend at sunset. When Stanza 1 starts at m. 19, the alto voice joins and the scoring is reduced to a flute and the cellos. The first section in Stanza 1 (mm. 19-26) is clearly a recitative, as many scholars have noted.109 Recitative is not usually used in a symphonic song, but here it creates a soliloquy that not only suits the images in the first three lines of the first stanza but also accentuates the speaker’s loneliness, since it establishes the quality of a monologue in which the singer expresses emotions. The motionless melodic shape further reveals the speaker’s heavy-hearted mood. The

108 Donald Mitchell also discusses the sound of tam-tam in his Gustav Mahler: Songs and Symphonies of Life and Death, 340, 355.

109 Paul John Whitworth clearly points this out in a figure on page 272 in his “Aspects of Mahler’s Musical Language: An Analytical Study,” Ph.D. diss., Cornell University (Ann Arbor, MI: University Microfilms International, 2002). He also includes the form analyses by Donald Mitchell and Stephen Hefling, both of whom agree about the three recitatives in Der Abschied.

90 rest of Stanza 1 retains stillness and tranquility by applying a small orchestra and a serene vocal line. Stanza 2 continues the serene atmosphere of the first stanza but the energy is slightly rising; an increase of motion is reflected in the music from m. 55 through the tempo change and the use of the rocking figure. The figure presents consistent alternations of two notes, but, exemplified by the first harp’s part illustrated in Example 6.7, the constant change between a triplet and a duplet creates irregularity and an animated mood. In this opening section of Stanza 2, the rocking figure is continually played by clarinets, harps, and violas in mm. 55-77.

Example 6.7: First harp, mm. 55-58

Two more examples of word painting are worth discussion in Stanza 2. In m. 118 the phrase “Die müden Menschen” is portrayed by a motionless melodic line (see Example 6.8). In this phrase, the only change of pitch is an interval of a minor second. The three repeated quarter notes help express the stasis. The people’s fatigue is delicately depicted by the minimal movement in the music, both melodically and rhythmically. Another example of word painting appears with the phrase “Die Vögel hokken still in ihren Zweigen.” The birdsong is first played by the oboe and then the flute; as shown in Example 6.9, this melody is derived from the turn figure. Whitworth indicates the presence of the birdsong, but he describes the birdsong as “stylized” because “the birdsong is neither ‘real’ birdsong, nor an attempt to re-create real birdsong.”110 One might disagree with Whitworth and consider the birdsong as a quite faithful imitation. Whether the birdsong is stylized or faithful, the musical representation of a bird’s sound is hard to miss. These two examples demonstrate Mahler’s portrayal of human feeling and nature, respectively.

110 Whitworth, 298.

91

Example 6.8: Alto, mm. 118-19

Example 6.9: Birdsong (oboe and flute, mm. 139-46)

When Stanza 3 begins, Mahler uses another recitative to express the speaker’s lonely monologue. As before, Recitative 2 features the solo flute and alto voice. Again, it also comprises the first three lines in the stanza. As previously discussed, Mahler inserted the word “Lebewohl” at the end of Recitative 2 to anticipate the next poem. The use of recitative also reflects the sadness upon farewell. Recitative 2 closes with a shortened ending figure in m. 165. The next section, from m. 166, has a faster pace, in which the music moves to a climax at m. 229. The speaker’s mental condition is depicted by the musical climax; he is overwhelmed by longing. The pervasive presence of the ecstasy figure here reinforces the climatic moment. Another distinctive character of this section is more prominent use of the harps; the plucking sound evokes some Chinese plucking instrument such as a zheng. This sound definitely suggests

92 the poem’s Eastern origin. The climax will then lead to the postlude (mm. 288-302) of the first poem. In the first half of “Der Abschied” (mm. 1-302), Mahler uses thematic materials, monologue in recitative, and word painting to depict nature and lonesomeness. Nature serves mostly as an environment in which the speaker reflects alone. The relationship between nature and loneliness will become more intimate in the second poem. Moreover, many of the musical elements from the first half will be used in the second half.

Table 6.4: Structure of the second poem in “Der Abschied” Section Measure Key Thematic material Text number Introduction 303-22 C minor Turn figure, counter 2 of the turn figure, Introduction 323-73 C minor Static figure, ecstasy 3 figure Stanza 1 374-81 C minor Static figure Er stieg vom Pferd und reichte (Recitative ihm den Trunk des Abschieds 3) dar. Er fragte ihn, wohin er führe Und auch warum es müsste sein. 382-93 C minor Static figure, counter Er sprach, seine Stimme war of the turn figure, umflort: ending figure 394-409 C minor Static figure, counter Du, mein Freund, (change of of the turn figure, Mir war auf dieser Welt das narrator) turn figure Glück nicht hold! Stanza 2 410-29 C minor Counter of the turn Wohin ich geh’? Ich geh’, ich figure, ecstasy wand’re in die Berge. figure, turn figure, Ich suche Ruhe für mein ending figure einsam Herz! 430-59 F major Rocking figure, turn Ich wandle nach der Heimat, figure meiner Stätte! Ich werde niemals in die Ferne schweifen. Still ist mein Herz und harret seiner Stunde! 460-508 C major Die liebe Erde allüberall Blüht auf im Lenz und grünt aufs neu! Allüberall und ewig (ewig) blauen licht die Fernen,

93 Table 6.4 – continued: Structure of the second poem in “Der Abschied” Section Measure Key Thematic material Text number (Stanza 2) 509-66 C major Rocking figure Ewig . . . ewig! 567-72 C major Rocking figure (Postlude)

As shown in Table 6.4, the form of the second half is reminiscent of the first half; a recitative is used to emphasize the emotional side of the speaker, in this case his reclusive mood. The introduction comprises two section, mm. 303-22 and mm. 323-73. Mahler gave Introduction 2 a heavier sound than Introduction 1 by replacing the oboe with the English horn for the turn- figure. Moreover, by using a different instrument to play the same figure, Mahler marks the beginning of a different poem with a similar atmosphere in this new poem. Introduction 3 is a long section that incorporates different elements. The static figure is omnipresent in Introduction 3, played repetitively by various instruments. The expansive use of few musical elements creates a lethargic character for the introduction; the music remains passive and motionless. Such stasis reflects that the speaker has decided to relinquish the material world in the forthcoming poem. Like the recitatives in the first poem, Recitative 3 appears immediately after the introduction and includes three lines. This recitative, however, presents an even more sorrowful soliloquy. The accompaniment is reduced to merely long notes in the cellos and contrabasses; the flute in Recitatives 1 and 2, which created some movement there, does not play here. The speaker narrates two friends’ farewell in these three lines. They drink, and one asks the other his reason for leaving. Mahler’s use of a recitative here thus expresses his own interpretation of this farewell – it is filled with sorrow. The farewell seems heartbreaking. With a short interlude (mm. 381-85), the narrator says, “Er sprach, seine Stimme war umflort,” to introduce the departing character’s words. Mahler again expresses his interpretation in music; the pitches in this phrase barely move (Example 6.10). The motionless melody again indicates the character’s heavy-hearted mood. This phrase also prepares for the change of speaker in the next phrase.

94

Example 6.10: Alto, m. 392

The departing character begins to speak at m. 398 with a rather high note for the alto voice, a C5. In the beginning of the section the presence of larger leaps clearly indicates the change of speaker. His statement starts with his disappointment in the world. In the beginning of Stanza 2 he continues to express his feeling of being lost in the world, and his mood becomes more solemn. The music shows this by another motionless melodic line in mm. 410-14 (Example 6.11). The lack of motion in this phrase not only indicates the character’s heavy mood but also contradicts the verb “go.” In other words, the idea of going somewhere is negated by the melody’s inactivity. In this contradiction Mahler expresses the character’s pessimism. Furthermore, the woodwinds play the figure shown in Example 7.2, but the minor harmony darkens the figure’s color to reveal the character’s mood.

Example 6.11: Alto, mm. 410-14

Just when the music seems hopelessly sorrowful, the character’s mood lightens in the third to fifth lines in Stanza 2. The ending figure (shown in Example 6.3) in the first clarinet in mm. 424-25 signals an approaching end, and the character expresses his thoughts with a slightly more positive attitude, indicated by the change of key from C minor to F major at m. 430. The rocking figure returns in the English horn, clarinets, and first harp. The turn figure is played by the violins and the first flute. This combination provides a feeling of comfort, since it has already been used in this movement. This comfort is reassured when the character says, “Ich wandle nach der Heimat, meiner Stätte!” With this different attitude, the character seems to be more willing to accept the situation. He can now relinquish the world and set himself free into nature.

95 The narrator returns at m. 460, and he has gone beyond the story of two friends’ farewell – his focus has shifted to the world. The key changes again from F major to C major, further signaling the positive side of the narrator’s thought. He describes the sublime world in which the earth blooms and grows green. The long phrases depict the permanence and broadness of the world. The sublimity of the world is also illustrated by a figure shown in Example 6.12. This figure is played by the harp and the celesta, instruments whose sound can be related to heaven. The combination of the arch-shape melody and the choice of instruments creates an unearthly sound, representing the eternal presence of nature and the speaker’s hope to go beyond life and death, since only nature can outlive humanity.

Example 6.12: Second harp, mm. 495-98

From m. 509 to m. 566, the only text is “ewig,” repeated seven times. As shown in Example 6-13, this word is sung to a melody with very little motion. The repetition, which Adorno described as stuttering, and the slow pace paint a world that is broad and eternal.111 Through repetitions of the same word, the music approaches the end. The tonality of this word has been discussed widely; the lack of tonal resolution reflects the poem’s opening ending and the world’s eternity.112 From m. 567, the text ceases and the movement ends with a peaceful section, in which not much action takes place and long-sustained notes present the eternal earth.

111 Theordo W. Adorno, Mahler: A Musical Physiognomy, translated by Edmund Jephcott (Chicago and London: The University of Chicago Press, 1992), 154.

112 Further discussion see Hermann Danuser, “Musical Manifestations of the End in Wagner and in Post-Wagnerian Weltanschauungsmusik,” 19th-century Music 18 (1994): 64-82.

96

Example 6.13: Alto, mm. 521-26

Through the composer’s skillful word painting, orchestration, and use of genres, “Der Abschied” presents an intimate journey bridging two poems. In this movement, the speaker experiences disappointment with the world and then decides to withdraw from the material world. Nature becomes the speaker’s hope to transcend beyond the material world; he therefore retreats to nature and uses objects in nature, clouds, to describe the two friends’ long-lasting friendship. Moreover, the free use of form and recitative in a symphonic song symbolize a farewell to the conventional forms, whether the farewell is from the speaker or the composer. This movement is the destination of the work; through the various experiences in the first five movements, the speaker reaches a deeper understanding of life in this movement. The life of the earth is eternal, but that of humankind is ephemeral. Death is not frightening, for it can be a relief. He has come to understand that once he renounces the obsession with reputation and material, life can be free and positive, as shown in the change from minor to major tonality. At the end the speaker bids farewell to the world and turns to nature for a transcendent life. All that is left is the word “ewig” resounding in an open space.

97 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS

Combining seven poems originally from ancient China, Mahler’s Das Lied von der Erde presents the speaker’s intellectual journey. Consideration of this source provides the hearer a new way of thinking about this work, 超然 (chao-ren), as mentioned in the introduction to this study. Although this point of view cannot necessarily be translated into Western terms, the transcendental thinking the speaker eventually chooses makes an effective connection with Eastern philosophy. In Das Lied von der Erde, nature serves as a bridge between two cultures, a symbol that both ancient Chinese and early twentieth-century Europeans can share. Nature plays a significant role, although differently in each movement, to symbolize important concepts, to provide the speaker a space to think, or to inspire the speaker’s contemplation. Das Lied von der Erde thus connects two cultures to express a philosophy that values spirituality over materialism. Tracing the original poem reveals mistranslation of certain symbols and misattribution of the poet. The original poet of “Der Einsame im Herbst” was misattributed by Gautier, and the family name “Tao” was mistranslated into “porcelain” in “Von der Jugend.” Fusako Hamao’s article present logical reasoning of the process and provides important information for this issue. The examination of the texts shows that Chinese poems are written in a symbolic, concise fashion, whereas Bethge’s poems as well as Mahler’s versions present a more amply descriptive style. This difference arises from the different styles of Tang poetry and contemporary German poetry. Nevertheless, the translations often preserve important symbols that are in the Chinese original. These symbols sometimes create an exotic impression, such as the ape in “Das Trinklied vom Jammer” and the lotus-flower in “Von der Schönheit.” These similarities, differences, and mistranslations all become part of the history of Das Lied von der Erde. The music, on the other hand, reveals the composer’s creative approach in composition. The structural designs of most movements cannot be determined solely by tonal or formal analysis; for instance, the constant changes of keys do not correspond to divisions in the poem, as discussed in Chapters 1 and 2. This thesis thus uses the poetic structure as the main frame to recognize the forms. Mahler’s use of thematic material in this work is particularly noteworthy. His memorable melodies easily draw a listener’s attention. Recognizing themes thus becomes an

98 important key to comprehending and interpreting Das Lied von der Erde. Moreover, variations or mutations of the thematic materials are also crucial in analyzing the music. Mahler’s musical setting of these poems not only reveals his interpretation but, more importantly, incorporates the audience into such a journey. That is to say, Mahler’s musical design often transforms the text into musical surroundings to allow the audience to experience the speaker’s feelings or observations and perhaps space to develop their own. These features present Mahler’s idiosyncratic style of composing in the later stage of his life. Employing the analyses of the different texts and music, my thesis traces the course of the speaker’s intellectual journey. He begins the journey by questioning the meaning of life in “Das Trinklied vom Jammer der Erde.” As the journey continues into various scenes, the speaker reflects upon life from various angles. He experiences sorrow through a girl’s story in “Der Einsame im Herbst.” After such a distressing movement, the speaker joins a party with friends in “Von der Jugend.” A story about a maiden falling in love with a young man soon follows in “Von der Schönheit.” The happy moments end, however, at the fourth movement. The speaker returns to his personal misery in “Der Trunkene im Frühling” and drinks excessively. His journey eventually leads him to deeper understandings of life in “Der Abschied,” in which he resolves to relinquish the material world, retreat into nature, and look beyond life and death.

99 BIBLIOGRAPHY

Research guides

Filler, Susan M. Gustav and Alma Mahler: A Guide to Research. New York: Garland Publishing, 1989.

Namenwirth, Simon Michael. Gustav Mahler: A Critical bibliography. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz, 1987.

Music scores

Mahler, Gustav. Das Lied von der Erde: The Song of the Earth. Vienna: Universal Edition, 1962.

Mahler, Gustav. Das Lied von der Erde: für eine hohe und eine mittlere Gesangstimme mit Klavier. Vienna: Universal Edition, 1989.

Wagner, Richard. Tristan und Isolde, Complete Orchestral Score. New York: Dover Publications, 1973.

Background – Biography

Adler, Guido. Gustav Mahler. Vienna: Universal Edition, 1916.

Adorno, Theodor W. Mahler: A Musical Physiognomy. Translated by Edmund Jephcott. First published in Germany as Mahler: Eine musikalische Physiognomik. Frankfurt am Main: Suhrkamp Verlag, 1971. Chicago and London: The University of Chicago Press, 1992.

Engel, Gabriel. Gustav Mahler: Song-Symphonist. New York: Bruckner Society of America, 1932.

Feder, Stuart. Gustav Mahler: A Life in Crisis. New Haven and London: Yale University Press, 2004.

Franklin, Peter. The Life of Mahler. New York: Cambridge University Press, 1997.

Mahler, Alma. Trans. By Basil Creighton. Gustav Mahler: Memories and Letters. New York: The Viking Press, 1946.

Mitchell, Donald. Gustav Mahler: the Early Years. London: Faber & Faber, 1958.

Walter, Bruno. Gustav Mahler. Vienna: Reichner, 1936.

100 Background – the sources of the texts

Bi, Ming-hui. (畢明輝) “關於馬勒<<大地之歌>>唐詩歌詞之解譯研究的綜述.” [“An Overview of Identifying the Sources of Texts of Mahler’s Das Lied von der Erde.”] 人民 音樂 [Renmin Yingyue, Music for the People] 419 (2001): 41-44.

Chen, Tie-min, ed. 王維集校注 [Poems by Wang Wei with Annotations]. Beijing, China: Chung- hua Publisher, 2005.

Chu, Yue-yuan and Chin-cheng Chu, ed. 中國古典文學叢書: 李白集校注 [Chinese Classic Literature: Poems by Li Tai-Po]. Shang-hai, China: Shanghai Ancient books publisher, 1998.

Hamao, Fusako. “The Sources of the Texts in Mahler’s Das Lied von der Erde.” 19th-century Music 19 (1995): 83-95.

Li, Xiu-jun. (李秀軍) “馬勒<<大地之歌>>音樂學研究中的幾個問題.” [“Several Problems in Musicological Research of Mahler’s Das Lied von der Erde.”] 中國音樂季刊 [Zhungguo Yingyue Jikan, Musical Quarterly in China] (2007, 02): 68-9, 91.

Qian, Renkang. “大地之歌歌詞溯源” (“Tracing the Origin of the Texts of Das Lied von der Erde.”) Yinyue Yishu: Shanghai Yinyue Xueyuan Xuebao (Art of Music: Journal of the Shanghai Conservatory of Music) (2000, 02): 12-19.

______. “試解<<大地之歌>>中兩首唐詩的疑案” [“An Attempt to Solve Two Unidentified Poems from the Tang Dynasty in Das Lied von der Erde.”] 音樂愛好者 [Yinyue Aihao Zhe] (Music Lover) (1999, 05): 60-61.

Ruan, Ting-yu, ed. 錢起詩集校注 (Annotation and Collection of Chien Chi’s Poems). Taipei, Taiwan: National Publisher, 1996.

Tong, Pei-chi, ed. 中國古典文學叢書: 孟浩然詩集箋注 [Chinese Classic Literature: Poems by Mong Kao-Jen]. Shang Hai, China: Shanghai Ancient books publisher, 2000.

Wagner, Margarete. “Chinesische Flöte kontra Lied von der Erde: Über unterschiedliche Formen von Textbearbeitung.” Nachrichten zur Mahler-Forschung 51 (2004): 21-37.

Yian, Bao-yu. (嚴寶瑜) “馬勒<<大地之歌>>德文歌詞詞譯以及與原唐詩的比較” [“The Comparison between the German Translation and the Original Chinese Poems in Mahler’s Das Lied von der Erde.”] 中央音樂學院學報 [Zhungyang Yinyue Xueyuan Xuebao, Journal of the Central Academy of Music] (2000:3): 19-27.

101 Music – Analysis

Agawu, Victor Kofi. “Mahler’s Tonal Strategies: A Study of the Song Cycles.” Journal of Musicological Research 6 (1986): 1-47.

______. “Prolonged Counterpoint in Mahler.” In Mahler Studies, ed. by Stephen Hefling, 217- 47. Cambridge University Press, 1997.

Berlioz, Hector. Treatise on Instrumentation. Enlarged and revised by Richard Strauss, translated by Theodor Front. First published in 1844/5; New York: Edwin F. Kalmus, 1948.

Carner, Mosco. “Form and Technique in Mahler’s ‘Song of the Earth’.” In Of Men and Music. by Carner, M. London: Williams, 1944.

Danuser, Hermann. “Musical Manifestations of the End in Wagner and in Post-Wagnerian Weltanschauungsmusik.” 19th-century Music 18 (1994): 64-82.

Hefling, Stephen. “Aspects of Mahler’s Late Style.” In Mahler and His World, ed. by Karen Painter, 199-223. Princeton and Oxford: Princeton University Press, 2002.

Revers, Peter. “Aspekte der Ostasienrezeption in Gustav Mahlers Das Lied von der Erde.” In Musik als Text 2, ed. by Tobias Plebuch and Hermann Danuser, 376-83. Germany: Bärenreiter, 1998.

Specht, Richard. “Feuilleton: Das Lied von der Erde.” In Mahler and His World, ed by Karen Painter, 333-37. Princeton and Oxford: Princeton University Press, 2002.

Tischler, Hans. “Mahler’s ‘Das Lied von der Erde’.” Music Review 10 (1949): 111-14.

Tücke, Berthold. “Konzentrische Kreise: Mahlers materiales Komponieren als Kompendium einer neuen Musik.” Musik-Konzepte 106 (1999): 57-99.

Wheaton, J. Randall. “The Diatonic Potential of the Strange Sets: Theoretical Tenets and Structural Meaning in Gustav Mahler’s Der Abschied.” Ph.D. diss., Yale University, 1988.

Whitworth, Paul John. “Aspects of Mahler’s Musical Language: An Analytical Study.” Ph.D. diss., Cornell University. Ann Arbor, MI: University Microfilms International, 2002.

Zeller, Hans Rudolf. “Zum Lied von der Erde.” Musik-Konzepte (1989): 180-87.

Music – comprehensive study of the work

Danuser, Hermann. Gustav Mahler: Das Lied von der Erde. Munich: Wilhelm Fink, 1986.

Hefling, Stephen. Mahler: Das Lied von der Erde. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2000.

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______. “Das Lied von der Erde: Mahler’s Symphony for Voices and Orchestra or Piano.” The Journal of Musicology 10 (1992): 293-341.

______. “Das Lied von der Erde.” In The Mahler Companion, ed. by Andrew Nicholson and Donald Mitchell, 438-66. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1999.

Mitchell, Donald. Gustav Mahler: Songs and Symphonies of Life and Death: Interpretations and Annotations. Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1985.

Music – music-text relationship and the discussion of the texts

Huang, Yuan. (黃元) – “馬勒的”大地之歌”與中國唐詩” [“Mahler’s Das Lied von der Erde and Chinese Poetry in the Tang Dynasty.”] 解放軍藝術學院學報 [Jiefangjun Yishu Xueyuan Xuebao, Journal of the Academy of Arts] 17 (1999): 26-29.

Jiang, Yimin. “Die chinesische Flöte von Hans Bethge und Das Lied von der Erde von Gustav Mahler: Vom Textverständnis bei der Rückübersetzung.” In Ostasienrezeption zwischen Klischee und Innovation: Zur Begegung zwischen Ost und West um 1900, ed. by Walter Gebhard, 331-54. Bayreuth: Iudicium, 2000.

Lo, Kii-ming. “Chinesische Dichtung als Textgrundlage für Mahlers Lied von der Erde.” In Das Gustav-Mahler-Fest Hamburg 1989, ed. by Matthias Theodor Vogt, 509-29. Kassel and New York: Bärenreiter, 1991.

Qian, Renkang. “大地之歌詞曲縱橫談.” (“The Text and Music of Das Lied von der Erde.”) Yinyue Yanjiu (Music Research) (2001,01): 27-36.

Music – interpretation

Barry, Barbara R. “Eternal Return in Das Lied von der Erde.” In The Philosopher’s Stone: Essays in the Transformation of Musical Structure, ed. by Barbara Barry, 203-21. Pendragon, 2000.

Birchler, David C. “Nature and Autobiography in the Music of Gustav Mahler.” Ph.D. diss, University of Wisconsin at Madison, 1991.

Draughon, Francesca Lurana. “Mahler and the Music of fin-de-siècle Identity.” Ph.D. diss., University of California at Los Angeles. Ann Arbor, MI: University Microfilms International, 2002.

Franklin, Peter. “Music, Oblivion, and Recollection: A Cinematic Perspective on the Case of Mahler.” In Resonanzen: Erinnern in der Musik, ed. by Andreas Dorschel, 149-161. Vienna: Universal Edition, 2007.

103 Hu, Haiping. “Das Lied von der Erde: The Culmination of Mahler’s Artistic Life.” Ph.D. diss., University of California at Los Angeles, 1991.

Jiang, Pu-qi. “An Integration of Ancient Chinese Poetry and Western Post-Romantic Music: A Study of Gustav Mahler’s Das Lied von der Erde.” DMA diss., University of Cincinnati, 2003.

Kenkel, Konrad O. “Gustav Mahler’s Song of the Earth: Farewell or Escape?” In Focus on Vienna 1990: Change and Continuity in Literature, Music, Art and Intellectual History, ed. by Erika Nielsen, 125-30. Munich: Wilhelm Fink, 1982.

Lee, Owen Jay. “Mahler’s Das Lied von der Erde, the Portrayal of a Crisis.” Ph.D. diss., University of California at Los Angeles, 1990.

Mitchell, Donald. “New Light on Das Lied von der Erde.” In Colloque International Gustav Mahler, ed. by Henry-Louis de La Grange, 20-30. Paris: Association Gustav Mahler, 1986.

Sculthorpe, Peter. “The Song of the Earth: Some Personal Thoughts.” In On Mahler and Britten: Essays in Honor of Donald Mitchell on his Seventieth Birthday, ed. by Philip Reed et all, 110-14. Boydell & Brewer, 1996.

Wenk, Arthur Bampton. “The Composer as Poet in Das Lied von der Erde.” 19th-century Music 1 (1977): 33-47.

Wollschläger, Hans. “Abschied from Das Lied von der Erde: Mahler’s Late Work.” Musik & Ästhetik 1, 3 (1997): 5-19.

Yian, Bao-yu. (嚴寶瑜) “是”世紀末情緒”還是唐詩意境? – 談馬勒<<大地之歌>>的音樂內 涵” (“The Musical Content of Das Lied von der Erde: Fin-de-siècle or the Mood in Tang Poetry?”) Yinyue Yanjiu (Music Research) 2 (2000): 17-23.

104 BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH

Shih-Ni (Sidney) Sun Shih-Ni (Sidney) Sun received her Bachelor of Arts degree in foreign languages and literatures from National Chiao Tung University, Hsinchu, Taiwan, in 2000. Two years later she came to the United States for higher education. She received her Master of Arts degree in Comparative Literature from the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, North Carolina, in 2004; her Master of Music degree in Saxophone Performance from University of North Carolina at Greensboro, North Carolina, in 2006; and the Master of Music degree in Historical Musicology at Florida State University in May 2009.

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