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Research Commons at the University of Waikato Copyright Statement http://waikato.researchgateway.ac.nz/ Research Commons at the University of Waikato Copyright Statement: The digital copy of this thesis is protected by the Copyright Act 1994 (New Zealand). The thesis may be consulted by you, provided you comply with the provisions of the Act and the following conditions of use: Any use you make of these documents or images must be for research or private study purposes only, and you may not make them available to any other person. Authors control the copyright of their thesis. You will recognise the author’s right to be identified as the author of the thesis, and due acknowledgement will be made to the author where appropriate. You will obtain the author’s permission before publishing any material from the thesis. Ecological, genetic and cultural status of Solanum aviculare, poroporo (Solanaceae) A thesis submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Science in Biological Science at The University of Waikato by GRAEME MORRIS WEAVERS 2010 Abstract Solanum aviculare, endemic to Australasia, is an opportunist pioneer secondary successional plant occupying disturbed and open lowland habitats, and was an important medicinal and cultural species to Māori known as poroporo. It is currently in „decline‟, the ecological decline appearing to correspond to a decline in knowledge and cultural use of the species. To gain understanding of the reasons for the decline, enhance ecological knowledge, assist conservation and cultural restoration of Solanum aviculare this research documented the successional role and cycle of regeneration dynamics and tactics, established morphological characteristics, investigated the genetic diversity and recorded cultural and conservation information. The successional status and role was identified. Growth data identified cohort development and inter-site differences, metadata found height and crown spread growth to be significantly correlated and likely part of an early reproduction and dispersal strategy. Germination of soil cores from differing depths confirmed a viable seed bank exists sufficient for species maintenance. Viable seed spread via animal gut passage was determined by germination and chemical tests, results showed rats passed higher rates of viable seed than birds. Seed germination trials with stratified and fresh seed confirmed temporal and depth behaviour, flowering observation documented temporal differences with the closely allied species Solanum laciniatum, indicating a relationship to stasis induction. Leaf morphology studies documented differences between the two allied species and proposed further nomenclature. Genetic diversity was investigated through the use of PCR/ISSR techniques. Chloroplast DNA was extracted by CTAB and DNA kit protocols. CTAB extraction was unable to effectively remove RNA, although use of DNA samples with high quantities of RNA confirmed that RNA was not an inhibiting factor in PCR production. The production of consistent reliable ISSR bands proved difficult, with no technical explanation found. ISSR findings indicate that Solanum aviculare is highly monomorphic, consisting of predominant invariant monomorphic loci. Twenty primers were tested with no polymorphic loci ii identified and no intra species variation documented. Indications were also that Solanum aviculare and Solanum laciniatum are inter species invariant on monomorphic loci. Monomorphic loci may possibly be the evolutionary markers of generic differentiation within Solanum. Surveys identified Solanum aviculare as uncommon and rare, existing mainly as single plants or small groups in the majority of areas surveyed. The Threatened and Uncommon Plant listing of Solanum aviculare as an „at risk declining‟ species is confirmed and a further Recommendation category proposed. Ecological decline and corresponding decline in cultural use and knowledge of Solanum aviculare was identified through specialist interviews; appearing to be related to removal from Māori of control over their land. The name poroporo being now associated mainly with non indigenous Solanum species. Māori cultural concepts in practice were highlighted as fundamentally important to reversing the decline, with an example of a successful traditional practice based (tikanga) integrative collaborative restoration program being documented. This research forwards that optimal collaborative solutions, programs integrating scientific and tikanga knowledge and practices, provide the best opportunity of reversing the declining trend and for increasing and maintaining knowledge associated with the traditional role of poroporo. iii Acknowledgements Help and expertise from others prior to and throughout the production of this thesis has been instrumental in its successful completion. Therefore I would like to acknowledge all those that have contributed to my undertaking and completing this research. Prior to enrolling at the University of Waikato I completed a Bachelor‟s at Te Whare Wananga o Awanuiarangi. The high quality of education and the infectious enthusiasm of the tutors and lecturers enabled and encouraged me to consider moving further academically into graduate research. In particular I would like to heart fully thank Brett Stephenson for his teaching professionalism, unfailing enthusiasm and confidence he displayed toward a „you can do it‟ attitude; Mere Roberts without whom I would not have been able to see the „light‟ and a future in graduate ecology; Reuban Cohen whose unflinching perseverance with me and my „difficult‟ relationship with mathematics and statistics bordered on the superhuman; Daniel (Dr. Dan the man) Hikuroa whose passion for earth science overflowed into all ecology, Ronnie Mc Hale who was able to instil in me an understanding of chemistry despite my profound ignorance and Mick Kearney who along with Craig Bishop, by shaping our second and third year assignments along that expected of graduate work, gradually opened my eyes to the possibility of what was possible to achieve. The collection of growth data in the Tarawera sites commenced in February/March 2008, much earlier than the normal research start date. This was undertaken due to the available and willing help from fellow Awanuiarangi students, and which proved to be fortuitous as >95% of the plants under study senesced during the winter. Therefore it would not have been possible to complete much of my growth dynamic data without the enormously generous help and encouragement from my friends and fellow „ecology peeps‟ Jean McCauley, Keriana Te Rire and Tracey Godfery. To Mieke Kapa who proved it could be done and was wonderfully encouraging that I could do it too, and whose peer reviewing of my chapters made me look a much better writer than I am: thanks so much. iv Derek and Kerry Gosling (thanks for putting up with me Kerry), without your patient help, expertise and guidance over the years, and in particular the generous use of your facilities for my seed germination experiments, I would not have been where I am today. Derek your wisdom passed on throughout all those long discussions may be starting to pay off! All of those who gave freely of their time and knowledge in my surveys, interviews and associated discussions, a heartfelt thanks for giving me your time, expertise and permission to use your information. I could not have successfully completed my work to the standard it is without your generous help. Des Heke- Kaiawha, thanks mate for being on the bus, and connecting me up to your whanau and aunty Debbie. To Peho Tamiana thanks for the weekend up the valley. That connection was long overdue and goes back a long way! Awesome, what a buzz you are Moana‟s uncle! To my dad Te Rake, mum Hine and all my sisters who have put up with me very patiently over the years. Awesome, it‟s worth getting old when you‟ve got good ones! Barry Snedden from Te Papa thanks for your patient help in allowing me to view Solander‟s journals and the information relating to your work on S. nodiflorum. To David Symon from Adelaide thank you so much for your generous help, advice and for sending me the translations and books. Peter Pozcai thanks for your generous help and advice to a fellow Archaesolanum nut! Māori Investments whose kind and generous help in issuing me with entry permits for the duration of my research was invaluable. All the DOC staff who helped me in my organisation, especially Paul Cashmore without whose help I would not have been able to collect anything and Gareth Boyt who generously helped me to access Ohutu, showed me plants I‟d never seen and how to avoid Urtica!! The Freemason‟s, Forest and Bird (Waikato) Valder Grant, Whakatane Historic Society and FRST Te Tipu Putaiao, all of whose extremely generous financial help was the key that allowed me to complete my research and writing. The staff of the library at Waikato University thanks for the inter-loans, and in particular Cheryl Ward whose guides to thesis formatting and always generous help enabled a computer illiterate to complete his writing to such a high standard. The staff of the Biological Sciences administration Gloria Edwards, Gillian v Dufty and Vicki Smith thanks for everything. The help and advice was always so generously given. The staff of the Scholarships office without whose help it would have been so much harder to have got the scholarship stuff right. Carol Robinson, especially, whose meticulous accounting and following up of my summer and FRST scholarships reduced stress enormously. To the University staff that saw something in my work that was worthy of financial support in Masters Fees, Masters Research and Summer Scholarship my heartfelt thanks. Without the support of the University I most likely would not have been able to complete this thesis. I miss my on campus time and fellow students! Thanks to Toni Cornes for all your help. Thanks to Stacey Foster, for without your generous help with the rats I could not have got the data I needed. A special thanks to Arvina Ram without whose most patient and generous help I would still be struggling with extractions and Fiona Clarkson who gave most generously and patiently of her time to help me get going with PCR.
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