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Het Tapissierspand: Interpreting the Success of the Antwerp Tapestry Het Tapissierspand: Interpreting the Success of the Antwerp Tapestry Market in the 1500s by Allison Celia Evans Department of Art, Art History and Visual Studies Duke University Date:_______________________ Approved: ___________________________ Hans Van Miegroet, Supervisor ___________________________ Neil De Marchi ___________________________ Thomas Robisheaux ___________________________ Filip Vermeylen Dissertation submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in the Department of Art, Art History and Visual Studies in the Graduate School of Duke University 2012 ABSTRACT Het Tapissierspand: Interpreting the Success of the Antwerp Tapestry Market in the 1500s by Allison Celia Evans Department of Art, Art History and Visual Studies Duke University Date:_______________________ Approved: ___________________________ Hans Van Miegroet, Supervisor ___________________________ Neil De Marchi ___________________________ Thomas Robisheaux ___________________________ Filip Vermeylen An abstract of a dissertation submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in the Department of Art, Art History and Visual Studies in the Graduate School of Duke University 2012 Copyright by Allison Celia Evans 2012 Abstract During the 1550s, a warehouse was constructed in Antwerp with funds from both the city government and a private investor. This building, the Tapissierspand, became the global center for selling and distributing tapestries of extraordinary beauty, exquisite craftsmanship, and exorbitant cost. The construction of the building indicates that the very nature of how tapestries were made and purchased was changing in the 1550s. Although Antwerp’s fairs had long been convenient locations for agents to find luxury items that might please their wealthy clients, like with many luxury trades, tapestry sales were shifting from strictly commissioned sales to include on spec sales. The Tapissierspand was the ideal place for a dealer to purchase multiple already-made tapestries and load them onto the waiting ships in Antwerp’s busy harbor for export and resale abroad. The city’s export registers document that thousands of yards of tapestry were shipped this way. The regulatory environment in Antwerp was much less strict than in other cities and this permitted freer interactions within guilds and across industries. The city was for this reason a desirable location for craftsmen to work and sell. But because the strict royal ordinances delivered throughout the 1530s and 1540s were frequently uninforced, workers in the industry were forced to find other ways to manage the large risk inherent in the tapestry trade. The development of the Tapissierspand in Antwerp was an effort on the part of merchants and the city to abate risk. The city could continue to entice merchants if it could provide iv the right opportunities and environment. However, by the sixteenth century, the constant hyper-vigilance the city had experienced throughout the fifteenth century during frequent times of war and financial difficulty shaped the way the city and its occupants viewed business. In a large sense, everything came down to risk, and how to manage it and minimize it. At a time of upheaval and mismanagement, survival and financial success through the reduction of risk became of primary importance. Tapestry weaving carried inherent—and large—risks. Raw materials were expensive, and workshops often did not have the capital needed for on spec weaving. The purchase of on spec tapestries without any guarantees of quality or origin was risky for buyers. Thus the Tapissierspand’s story is one of people seeking to maximize economic advantage and minimize risk. The Tapissierspand allowed buyers and sellers to minimize risk by facilitating exchange of knowledge, assessment of quality, negotiation of prices and commissions, and extension of credit. This dissertation will examine the historical precedents in Antwerp that allowed the Tapissierspand to develop, and the ways in which the Pand functioned to expand trade while reducing risk for both buyers and sellers by reducing the risks inherent in the industry. v Table of Contents Abstract ................................................................................................................... iv List of Tables ............................................................................................................ x List of Figures .......................................................................................................... xi Archive Abbreviations ........................................................................................... xvi Acknowledgements .............................................................................................. xvii Introduction ............................................................................................................. 1 Objective ................................................................................................................ 1 Overview ............................................................................................................... 4 Documentation and Sources ................................................................................ 8 Chapter 1. The Development of the Antwerp Tapestry Market .............................. 11 A History of the Antwerp Tapestry Market.........................................................12 The Early Period: Fairs as Marketplaces ................................................... 12 The Sale of Tapestries at Fairs .................................................................... 14 Financial Transactions at Fairs .................................................................... 17 Lines of Credit, Increasing Debts ................................................................ 17 Emergence of the Wholesale Market .......................................................... 20 The Middle Period—From Fairs to Panden ........................................................21 The Growing Demand for Luxury Goods in the southern Netherlands..... 21 The Dominican Pand .................................................................................. 24 The Need for More Space ............................................................................ 28 Tapestry Weavers and the Artistic Environment in Antwerp ........................... 30 Early Organization of the Guild of Tapestry Weavers ................................ 32 vi Guild Troubles in Bruges: A Forerunner to the Tapestry Edict of 1544 .... 34 Conflicts Among Other Guilds .................................................................... 35 Bargaining Power of the Weavers and Merchants ..................................... 36 The Regulatory Environment in Antwerp .................................................. 38 Concerns for Authenticity: The Edict of 1539 and Its Implications for Antwerp ................................................................................................... 39 Expansion of the Industry: The 1544 Statute ............................................. 43 The Role of Foreign Merchants in the Development of the International Tapestry Trade: Fueling Demand for the Tapissierspand ................................ 48 The Appeal of Antwerp to Foreign Merchants ........................................... 48 Where Were the Tapestries Going? ............................................................ 54 The Export Logs from Antwerp to the Iberian Peninsula, 1553-1554 ........ 59 Shipping the Tapestries Abroad ................................................................. 64 Chronic Problems with Shipping ................................................................ 65 Growth of the Tapestry Industry under Royal Patronage ................................. 68 Royal Patronage further Afield: Tapestries at the Court of Henry VIII ...... 71 Chapter 2 The Emergence of the Tapissierspand ................................................. 73 A New Marketplace for Tapestries: the Royal Decree of 1549 .......................... 75 Gilbert Van Schoonbeke’s Role in the New Tapissierspand ............................. 77 Potential Sites for the New Pand ....................................................................... 79 Development of the Schuttershoven ........................................................... 80 Construction of the Building .............................................................................. 83 Occupation of the Building and Exclusivity of the Pand: Tightening Control .. 85 Day-to-Day Functioning ..................................................................................... 90 Quality, Negotiations, Networks: The Expanded Roles of the Pand ................. 92 vii A Note on the Levels of Quality: The Development of Discernment ........ 95 City-of-Origin Marks and Stamps of Quality .............................................. 96 The de Moors: An Example of the Tapissierspand’s Familial and Intra-city Networks ............................................................................................... 100 The Rise of the Tapestry Dealer and Merchant Entrepreneur: Their Role in the Pand ................................................................................................ 104 Ancillary Services in the Pand .......................................................................... 110 Chapter 3: Developments within the Industry: Innovations in Design and
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