A TYPEFACE for the ADULT DYSLEXIC READER R.A. HILLIER for the Award of Doctor of Philosophy 2006
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A TYPEFACE FOR THE ADULT DYSLEXIC READER R.A. HILLIER For the award of Doctor of Philosophy 2006 ANGLIA RUSKIN UNIVERSITY A TYPEFACE FOR THE ADULT DYSLEXIC READER ROBERT ALAN HILLIER Thesis in partial fulfilment of the requirements of Anglia Ruskin University for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy. This research programme was carried out at Norwich School of Art and Design. Submitted: May 2006 Dr. Helen Boorman Dr. Sue Fowler Elaine Rushin John Bowman Natascha Frensch Barbara Lloyd-Smith Ann Brigden Ray Gregory Dr. Rosemary Sassoon Lucy Brownlow Kitty Guiver Ian Smythe Carol Coaker Dr. Janice Hart Prof. Caroline Strange Robert de Niet Prof. Bevé Hornsby Anastacia Tohill Gerry Downes Mike Hough Dr. Vernon Trafford Margaret Ely Jane Key Prof. Roger Watt Prof. John Everatt Judith Lainsbury Prof. Arnold Wilkins Prof. Rob Fiddy George MacLennan Simon Willmoth Margaret Fieldhouse Mike Oakes Thanks also to the 71 readers for their help and feedback without whom this research would not have been possible. Typographic specification This thesis has been set in Times New Roman using Microsoft Office Word software. Headline A: 24 pt Times New Roman bold. Upper and lowercase. Headline B: 18 pt Times New Roman bold. Upper and lowercase. Headline C: 14 pt Times New Roman bold. Upper and lowercase. Headline D: 12 pt Times New Roman bold. Upper and lowercase. Headline C: 10 pt Times New Roman bold. Upper and lowercase. Main text: 10/15 pt Times New Roman. Upper and lowercase. Ranged left. Unjustified over a measure of 120 mm and 140 mm. Captions: 7 pt Helvetica medium italics. Upper and lowercase. Centred. Footers: 8 pt Times New Roman. Upper and lowercase. Folios: 10 pt Times New Roman. Dedication: 18pt Sylexiad Serif Thin. Upper and lowercase. Chapter 19: 12/16 pt Serif Sylexiad. Upper and lowercase. Ranged left. Unjustified over a measure of 154 mm. CD Rom Anastacia Tohill constructed the CD Rom. The CD Rom was made in Director and can be accessed using the following system requirements: PC Windows XP and Mac 0SX. 2 ANGLIA RUSKIN UNIVERSITY ABSTRACT FACULTY OF ARTS, LAW AND SOCIAL SCIENCE PhD DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY A TYPEFACE FOR THE ADULT DYSLEXIC READER By ROBERT ALAN HILLIER June 2006 The investigation concerns a series of typeface legibility and readability studies which have resulted in the creation of a number of new typefaces including Sylexiad. Sylexiad is grounded and informed from a dyslexic viewpoint and is a typeface for the adult dyslexic reader. Sylexiad was developed by means of comparative typeface testing. This involved a series of formative and summative small-scale tests which accommodated two established word recognition models – word shape and parallel letter recognition. This novel method of measuring legibility and readability is called developmental typeface testing. The data was gathered by means of qualitative and quantitative techniques from dyslexic and non-dyslexic groups based at Norwich School of Art and Design and The University of East Anglia. These techniques included questionnaires, interviews and observations. The research was inductive and practice-based in approach. The findings identify which typographic characteristics adult dyslexic and non-dyslexic readers preferred and why. For the majority of non-dyslexic readers tested it was the combination of serif-style, lowercase forms, large x-heights, medium weight, variable strokes and normal inter- word spacing that was preferred. The non-dyslexic readers also favoured the form of Times New Roman. Conversely, for the majority of dyslexic readers tested it was the combination of handwritten style, uppercase forms, long ascenders and descenders, light weight, uniform strokes, perpendicular design and generous inter-word spacing that was preferred. The dyslexic readers also favoured the form of Serif Sylexiad. The conclusions have raised issues that confirm and contradict current typographic principles of legibility. In particular, from a dyslexic perspective, the word shape model has been challenged. The outcomes and issues that have been identified as a result of developmental typeface testing have therefore contributed to new knowledge within the field of dyslexia typographic research. ii Table of contents. Acknowledgements i Typographic specifications i CD Rom i Abstract ii Table of contents iii 1. The research – an introduction and overview. 1 1.1 Background 2 1.2 Research procedure and aims 3 1.3 Preliminary stage 4 1.3.1 Literature review 4 1.3.2 The design process and developmental typeface testing 5 1.3.3 Test typefaces 6 1.4 Phase One 6 1.5 Phase Two 7 1.6 Phase Three 7 1.7 Phase Four 8 1.8 CD Rom 8 1.9 Ethics 8 2. Dyslexia contexts. A review of literature. 9 2.1 Theoretical context 10 2.2 Introduction 11 2.3 What is Dyslexia? 11 2.3.1 Decode and encode 15 2.3.2 Meares-Irlen Syndrome 15 2.4 How we read 16 2.4.1 Eye movement 17 2.4.2 Word recognition models 18 2.4.3 Parallel letter recognition model 18 2.5 Reading and Dyslexia 20 2.5.1 Neuroanatomy 20 2.5.2 A developmental stage model of reading 22 2.5.3 Phonological difficulties 23 2.6 Conclusion 24 iii 3. Typographic contexts. A review of literature. 26 3.1 Introduction 27 3.2 Readability and legibility 27 3.3 Testing for legibility 30 3.3.1 Word shape model 33 3.3.2 Typographic legibility 34 3.3.3 Legibility and dyslexia 36 3.4 Conclusion 37 4. The design process and developmental typeface testing. 39 4.1 Introduction 40 4.2 Design of the study 40 4.2.1 Developmental typeface testing 40 4.2.2 Research process 41 4.3 Pre-design 42 4.3.1 A diary of misread words 2002-2006 42 4.3.2 Alphonomic difficulties 45 4.4 Word recognition and the design process 46 4.5 Legibility testing and its impact on the design process 47 4.6 Influences on the design process 48 4.6.1 Papazian’s paradigm of modules and similars 48 4.6.2 Silverman’s diagnostic dyslexia handwriting checklist 49 4.7 The design process and rationale for Dine 1 50 4.8 Formative and summative testing 50 4.8.1 Formative developmental typeface testing (Study Tests 1 – 3) 50 4.8.2 Summative developmental typeface testing (Study Tests 4 – 7) 54 4.8.3 Line spacing 55 4.9 Conclusion 56 5. Test typefaces and other typefaces. 58 5.1 Introduction 59 5.2 Arial 59 5.3 Times New Roman 59 5.4 Sassoon Primary 60 5.5 Tiresias InfoFont 60 5.6 Read Regular 61 5.7 MasLudica 61 5.8 Helvetica 61 5.9 Comic Sans 62 5.10 Olsen Regular 62 5.11 Cecilia 62 5.12 Trebuchet MS 63 iv 5.13 Peignot 63 5.14 Conclusion 63 6. The precursor fonts. Dine. 66 6.1 Introduction 67 6.2 Dine 1 67 6.2.1 Influences 67 6.2.2 Design concept 67 6.2.3 Design structure 68 6.2.4 Analysis and evaluation 68 6.2.4.1 Unfamiliarity 68 6.2.4.2 Space 69 6.2.4.3 Structure 69 6.2.4.4 Visual disturbance 69 6.3 Dine 2 70 6.3.1 Influences 70 6.3.2 Design concept 70 6.3.3 Design structure 70 6.3.4 Analysis and evaluation 71 6.3.4.1 Unfamiliarity 71 6.3.4.2 Space 71 6.3.4.3 Structure 71 6.3.4.4 Visual disturbance 72 6.4 Dine 3 72 6.4.1 Influences 72 6.4.2 Design concept 72 6.4.3 Design structure 72 6.4.4 Analysis and evaluation 73 6.4.4.1 Space 73 6.4.4.2 Structure 73 6.4.4.3 Visual disturbance 74 6.5 Conclusion 74 7. The outcomes of formative developmental typeface testing (Dine). 75 7.1 Introduction 76 7.2 Dyslexic issues 77 7.2.1 Reading difficulties 77 7.2.1.1 Slow reading 77 7.2.1.2 Decoding issues 78 7.2.1.3 Re-reading 79 7.2.1.4 Skip reading 80 7.2.1.5 Numeric issue 80 7.2.1.6 Reading difficulties and typographic preferences 81 v 7.2.2 Visual stress difficulties 81 7.2.2.1 Visual distortion 81 7.2.2.2 Tracking difficulties 81 7.2.2.3 Glare 82 7.2.2.4 Visual stress difficulties and typographic preferences 82 7.2.3 Comprehension (cognitive) difficulties 82 7.2.3.1 Retaining information 82 7.2.3.2 Concentration difficulties 82 7.2.3.3 Comprehension (cognitive) difficulties and typographic preferences 83 7.2.4 Psychological difficulties 83 7.2.4.1 Psychological difficulties and typographic preferences 83 7.2.5 Typographic difficulties 83 7.2.5.1 Typographic difficulties and typographic preferences 84 7.2.6 Dyslexic issues conclusion 84 7.3 Text formation issues 84 7.3.1 Individual characters 85 7.3.1.1 Character confusion 85 7.3.1.2 Serif and sans-serif confusion 86 7.3.1.3 Punctuation confusion 86 7.3.1.4 Impact on letterform design 86 7.3.2 Individual words 86 7.3.2.1 Letter alterations 86 7.3.2.2 Impact on letterform design 89 7.3.3 Individual sentences 89 7.3.3.1 Letter alterations 89 7.3.3.2 Impact on letterform design 90 7.3.4 Individual paragraphs 91 7.3.4.1 Qualitative factors 91 7.3.4.2 Quantitative factors 91 7.3.4.3 Impact on letterform design 91 7.3.5 Text formation issues conclusion 91 7.4 Typographic design issues 91 7.4.1 Typographic style 93 7.4.1.1 Serif typefaces 93 7.4.1.2 Sans-serif typefaces 93 7.4.1.3 Handwritten (oblique) typefaces 94 7.4.1.4 Impact on letterform design 94 7.4.2 Typographic form 94 7.4.2.1 Uppercase forms 94 7.4.2.2 Lowercase forms 95 7.4.2.3 Numeric forms 96 7.4.2.4 Impact on letterform design 96 vi 7.4.3 Typographic variables 97 7.4.3.1 Weight 97 7.4.3.2 Space 98 7.4.3.3 Size 99 7.4.3.4 Familiarity 99 7.4.3.5 Impact on letterform design 99 7.4.4 Reading issues 99 7.4.4.1 Rhythm, rhyme and repetition 99 7.4.4.2 Visual disturbance 100 7.4.4.3 Colour tints 101 7.4.4.4 Continuity and readability 101 7.4.4.5 Impact on letterform design 102 7.4.5 Typographic design issues conclusion 102 7.5 Dine design issues 102 7.5.1 Dine form 102 7.5.1.1 Monocase combination forms 103 7.5.1.2 Duocase combination forms 103 7.5.1.3 Uppercase forms 103 7.5.1.4 Lowercase forms 103 7.5.1.5 Unfamiliarity 104 7.5.1.6 Tone 104 7.5.1.7 Impact on letterform design 104 7.5.2 Dine variables 105 7.5.2.1 Weight 105 7.5.2.2 Space 105 7.5.2.3 Impact on letterform design 106 7.5.3 Dine reading issues 106 7.5.3.1 Visual disturbance 106 7.5.3.2 Legibility 107 10.5.3.3 Continuity and readability 107 10.5.3.4 Impact on letterform design 107 7.5.4 Situation and context 107 7.5.4.1 Test/Text 108 7.5.4.2 Pairs/Paris 108 7.5.5 Dine design issues conclusion 109 7.6 Conclusion 109 7.6.1 Key outcomes 109 7.6.2 Perceived views 110 7.6.3 Sylexiad development 112 8.