UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA PUBLIC

MAGAZINE ISSUE 15 WINTER 2016DIPLOMACY SUB-SAHARAN AFRICA

publicdiplomacymagazine.com PUBLIC DIPLOMACY IN SUB-SAHARAN AFRICA EDITORIAL POLICY EDITORIAL BOARD Authors interested in contributing to Public Diplomacy Magazine should contact PUBLIC DIPLOMACY MAGAZINE EDITOR-IN-CHIEF PRODUCTION the editorial board about their proposals. SEEKS CONTRIBUTIONS FOR Sarah Valeria Salceda Nick Salata, Chromatic. Inc Articles submitted to Public Diplomacy EACH THEMED ISSUE BASED Magazine are reviewed by the editorial SENIOR EDITORS FACULTY ADVISORY BOARD board, composed entirely of graduate ON A STRUCTURED SOLICITA- Nastasha Everheart, Managing Editor Nicholas J. Cull, Director, students enrolled in the Master of Public TION SYSTEM. SUBMISSIONS Heba Gibani, Layout & Digital Editor Master of Public Diplomacy Program, USC Diplomacy program at the University of MUST BE INVITED BY THE EDI- Erica McNamara, Marketing Editor Jian (Jay) Wang, Director, Southern California. Articles are evaluated TORIAL BOARD. 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USC Center on Public Diplomacy but edit submissions for basic formatting and stylistic consistency only. Editors reserve INTERNATIONAL ADVISORY BOARD the right to make changes in accordance with Sean Aday, Director, Institute for Public Diplomacy and Global Communication, Associate Public Diplomacy Magazine style specifctions. Professor of Media, Public Afairs, and International Afairs, George Washington University Simon Anholt, Editor Emeritus, Journal of Place Branding and Public Diplomacy Geofrey Cowan, Professor, Annenberg Family Chair in Communication Leadership, USC Harris Diamond, CEO, McCann Erickson ABOUT PD MAGAZINE Pamela Falk, Foreign Afairs Analyst and Resident UN Correspondent, CBS News Kathy R. Fitzpatrick, Professor, Associate Dean for Graduate Programs and Research School Public Diplomacy Magazine is a publication School for Communication and Journalism. of Journalism and Mass Communication, Florida International University of the Association of Public Diplomacy Its unique mission is to provide a common Eytan Gilboa, Professor of International Communication, Bar-Ilan University Scholars (APDS) at the University of Southern forum for the views of both scholars and Howard Gillman, Provost and Executive Vice Chancellor, University of California, Irvine California, with support from the USC Center practitioners from around the globe, in order to Guy Golan, Associate Professor of Public Relations/Public Diplomacy, S.I. Newhouse School on Public Diplomacy at the Annenberg explore key concepts in the study and practice of Public Communications, Syracuse University School, USC Dana and David Dornsife College of public diplomacy. Public Diplomacy Magazine Cari Guittard, Principal, Global Engagement Partners, Adjunct Faculty, Hult IBS and USC of Letters, Arts and Sciences School of is published bi-annually, in print, and on the Annenberg School for Communication and Journalism International Relations, and the Annenberg web at www.publicdiplomacymagazine.com Markos Kunoalakis, President and Publisher Emeritus, Washington Monthly William A. Rugh, US Foreign Service (Ret.) Crocker Snow, Edward R. Murrow Center for Public Diplomacy, Tufts University Nancy Snow, Professor of Communications, California State University, Fullerton Adjunct Professor, IDC-Herzliya Lauder School of Government, Diplomacy & Strategy; ABOUT APDS Adjunct Professor USC Annenberg School for Communication and Journalism The USC Association of Public Diplomacy and related felds in pursuit of professional Abiodun Williams, President, Hague Institute for Global Justice Scholars (APDS) is the nation's frst development, and cultivate fellowship and Ernest J. Wilson III, Dean of USC Annenberg School for Communication and Journalism, student-run organization in the feld of camaraderie among members. Founder of Third Space Institute public diplomacy as a practice and study, For more information, please visit provide a forum for dialogue and interaction www.pdscholars.org. among practitioners of public diplomacy CULTURE PUBLIC-PRIVATE GOVERNMENT 1 WINTER 2016 | @PD_Mag WINTER 2016 | @PD_Mag 2 PUBLIC DIPLOMACY IN SUB-SAHARAN AFRICA

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INTRODUCING OUR LETTER FROM WINTER 2016 ISSUE: “PUBLIC DIPLOMACY IN THE EDITOR SUB-SAHARAN AFRICA" ISSUE 15, WINTER 2016 This issue of Public Diplomacy and others have adjusted their public Magazine showcases public diplo- diplomacy eforts in response. macy in Africa: its practice and pos- In this issue, we present case sibilities. It is our frst frst region- studies highlighting both the suc- al issue, and one that we hope will cesses and failures of public diplo- serve as a starting point for further macy eforts in Sub-Saharan Africa. dialogue about the continent. We feature pieces on various forms The remnants of colonization of flm diplomacy, the NBA’s sports have created a popular conception diplomacy, and an examination of of Africa as a continent ravaged by China’s public diplomacy eforts in poverty, starvation, and war; a re- sub-Saharan Africa, among other gion consistently being aided by the key examples. wealthy West. However, the twenty We would like to thank the frst century has seen a grand stand USC Center on Public Diplomacy, the against this impression. The forma- USC Dornsife School of Internation- tion of the African Union in 2001 al Relations, and the USC Master of sought to combat misconceptions Public Diplomacy program for their about the region and take a stand continued support and shared in- against inefectual Western aid pro- terest in our mission. We would also grams. In 2010, President Barack like to express our deepest gratitude Obama’s Young African Leader’s Ini- to all of the authors for their con- tiative formally recognized the need tributions; it is with their help that for dynamic and diferent involve- we are able to help further the study ment in Sub-Saharan Africa. Many of and interest in public diplomacy. non-proft agencies, government aid programs, and non-governmental agencies have since begun to refocus their missions to rebuf the view of a “helpless Africa.” These are two Sarah Valeria Salceda examples among many that demon- Editor-in-Chief strate how African nations have be- gun demanding that the world looks at them diferently and how the U.S. CULTURE PUBLIC-PRIVATE GOVERNMENT 5 WINTER 2016 | @PD_Mag WINTER 2016 | @PD_Mag 6 PUBLIC DIPLOMACY IN SUB-SAHARAN AFRICA TABLE OF CONTENTS

08 52 67 83 CULTURE PUBLIC - PRIVATE GOVERNMENTAL BOOK REVIEW & & DIPLOMACY PARTNERSHIP DIPLOMACY ENDNOTE

08 Ethiopian Diaspora Fellowship 33 Film & Cultural Diplomacy: 57 Building A Sustainable Africa: 77 British Military & Public Diplomacy: Harnessing the The Nollywood Case An Interview with Diplomacy in Nigeria Power of Diaspora Millennials for Ethiopia Hope Obioma Opara Jennifer Burney by Sarah Chung & James Hall Rediate Tekeste & Meseret Hailu Bret Schafer 38 Igbo, Nollywood, & Diplomacy: 15 Basketball Diplomacy in Africa: The Role of the Igbo in Nollywood 63 Open Africa 83 Democratic Transitions: An Interview with Amadou Gallo Fall by Uchenna Onuzulike Claire Allison Conversations with World Leaders Bret Schafer A Excerpt Review Amanda Lester 46 Images of Empowerment: 68 They Will Have to Kill Us First: 20 Framed: Representations of the Women Taking Charge An Infographic Western Imagination of Africa Jonathan Torgovnik Leah Takele An Introduction to Crisis Kathryn Mathers 87 Diplomacy: Justifying Paul Kagame: Genocide, Trauma, Historical The Ulwazi Program: Chinese Public Diplomacy in Gastrodiplomacy in Sub-Saharan 52 70 Memory and Public Diplomacy 27 A Model for Public Participation Africa, an Interview with Wilbert Jones by Sub-Saharan Africa: Challenging Douglas Becker Jung Hwa-Kang & Erica McNamara through Digital Technology & our Ideas of Public Diplomacy Cross-Cultural Exchange Cobus van Staden Niall and Grant McNulty

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CAN THE VAST ETHIOPIAN DIASPORA IN AMERICA INTRODUCTION diaspora and Ethiopia. BE ACTIVATED TO SERVE AS A BRIDGE When exploring the various DIASPORA DIPLOMACY BETWEEN THE U.S. & ETHIOPIA? diplomatic eforts between Sub-Saharan UTILIZES INDIVIDUALS Africa and America, the infuence of the RESIDING OUTSIDE OF THEIR African migrants within the United States ORIGINAL HOMELAND FOR A CASE STUDY ON ETHIOPIAN-AMERCANS RETURNING TO THEIR HOME of America cannot be overlooked. Diaspora COUNTRY FOR SERVICE-ORIENTED PROJECTS WITH THE 501(c)3 diplomacy utilizes individuals residing THEIR KNOWLEDGE SHARING ORGANIZATION ETHIOPIAN DIASPORA FELLOWSHIP outside of their original homeland for ABILITIES AND TAPS INTO THEIR their knowledge sharing ability and taps DEEP DESIRE TO CONNECT TO into their deep desire to connect to their 1 THEIR COUNTRY OF ORIGIN. country of origin. Consequently, diplomatic CONSEQUENTYLY, DIPLOMATIC engagement through diaspora communities is a transnational dimension of public ENGAGEMENT THROUGH diplomacy.2 As migration increases— DIASPORA COMUNITIES IS A especially from countries experiencing low TRANSNATIONAL DIMENSION economic opportunity, high confict areas, OF PUBLIC DIPLOMACY. and various open avenues of migration (places with diversity visas and asylum programs for refugees, for example)— BACKGROUND diaspora diplomacy becomes an integral part of public diplomacy, international Ethiopia has the 13th largest ETHIOPIAN security, and international development population in the world with an estimated conversations.3 Ethiopia is particularly 98 million people.6 Through visible noteworthy for being home to the second development projects including the new (and largest population in Africa. Similarly, the frst) train in Sub-Saharan Africa and the Ethiopian diaspora is the second largest substantial Nile Dam Project, which promises African diaspora in the U.S. and plays an an estimated 6,000 megawatts of electricity increasingly important role in diaspora for domestic use and for export, Ethiopia is DIASPORA diplomacy between the U.S. and Sub- currently making headlines as one of the Saharan Africa.4 fastest growing economies in the world.7,8 Within the context of the Ethiopian Due to its rapid economic growth and eforts Diaspora Fellowship, the term “diaspora” from the current government, Ethiopia has is defned as the dispersion of any people the potential to become a middle-income from their original homeland.5 Ethiopian country by 2025, having dubbed itself the new Diaspora Fellowship (EDF) is a 501(c)(3) “African Lion”.9 However, despite current & organization that equips young Ethiopian growth, the decades of prior confict, lack FELLOWSHIP professionals residing in the U.S. with of investment, and isolation from the global leadership, service, and creative storytelling economy have kept Ethiopia’s per capita skills before sending them to Ethiopia to income 173 (out of 189) in the world.10,11 This serve with partner organizations for fve- dissonance between current growth and far- PUBLIC DIPLOMACY month fellowships. EDF serves as an agent reaching poverty, compounded with various HARNESSING THE POWER OF DIASPORA for positive change by connecting these other factors, keeps the Ethiopian people talented professionals with organizations and the diaspora in a state of fuctuation MILLENNIALS FOR ETHIOPIA and people in Ethiopia through between economic migration and a desire to transformative service opportunities. return for economic opportunity back home. Through the scope of its work, EDF serves as an Ethiopians have migrated to the Rediate Tekeste & Meseret Hailu organizational bridge between the Ethiopian U.S. for generations due to a long list of CULTURE PUBLIC-PRIVATE GOVERNMENT 9 WINTER 2016 | @PD_Mag WINTER 2016 | @PD_Mag 10 PUBLIC DIPLOMACY IN SUB-SAHARAN AFRICA

push factors, including war, famine, and opportunity and 72% identifed as belonging asset, instead of a risk. Additionally, EDF two major regime changes. Due in part to two or more cultures with a strong desire curriculum is designed to invest and teach PEOPLE & PARTNERS to these factors, Ethiopia lost 75% of its to maintain ties to their country of origin.19 a new generation that they are culturally skilled workers between 1980 and 1991, The new generation of Ethiopian-Americans empowered as opposed to culturally Currently, the fellowship embraces one of the starkest examples of “brain self-identifed as service-oriented leaders: defcient, which is a common discourse about people-to-people diplomacy, where drain” ever recorded.12,13,14 In efect, 86% of respondents reported having served immigrant children.20 As Kivama explains the fellows participate in everyday work these factors have led to global expansion or volunteered in their schools, communities, in her work, historically marginalized activities alongside the permanent staf. of the Ethiopian diaspora. Conservative or professional lives. Meanwhile, 77% of the communities—like immigrants and children They ride public transportation, eat lunch, estimates state that 300,000 frst and surveyed diaspora considered leadership a of immigrants—actually exist in a place of and are generally integrated into local life second generation Ethiopians currently live skill or quality they possessed. Additionally, tremendous advantage and cultural wealth in a way that members of the diaspora in the United States.15 The other end of that 89% of the respondents engaged with the because they have had the opportunity to live, seldom do during short, vacation-oriented range estimates the diaspora population to social and political afairs of Ethiopia by learn, and work in multiple nations.21 In visits. Partner organizations are commonly be around 400,000, making Ethiopia second regularly reading news about the country. addition, they have the unique perspectives surprised by the fellows’ ability and only to the Nigerian diaspora in terms of Additionally, many were also able to list and experiences for solving problems in a willingness to integrate into local customs overall population in the United States, and 2-3 news sources that were distinct from constantly changing world. With this asset- as well as speak the local language (even even then only by a few thousand people. American mass media. A common sentiment based framework in mind, the staf of EDF if at minimal levels). Local staf and 16,17 Though the Ethiopian diaspora has drawn from the survey showed that many built a program highlighting the strength managers are also often surprised to hear grown over the years at a rapid rate, they were looking for an experience to engage with of the diaspora and their knowledge sharing about the fellows’ family lives in America, are still considered one of the youngest Ethiopia in a personal or meaningful way. opportunities, their skills as service-oriented the struggles of growing up as immigrant immigrant groups in the U.S.18 leaders, and their ability to serve as cultural children, and their intrinsic desire to be ANALYSIS OF ABOUT 400 translators. “Ethiopian.” Additionally, fellows working THE NEW GENERATION RESPONSES RECIEVED WITHIN Currently, there are fve Ethiopian at organizations with international and TWO WEEKS SUPPORTED THE Diaspora Fellows in Addis Ababa serving at fve local staf often see themselves as “cultural EDF capitalizes on the new diferent partner organizations. The fellows are translators” who can interpret social cues generation of millennial diaspora who were ANECDOTAL RESPONESES from all over the U.S. and are 22-31 years old and help communication between people of raised as the Ethiopian narrative began to THE EDF TEAM HAD BEEN with varying levels of familiarity with Ethiopia. vastly diferent cultures. change. Experientially, these individuals RECIEVING, CONFIRMING THAT For instance, one fellow was born and raised in As an organization, EDF staf are a step removed from the memories THE NEW GENERATION WAS Ethiopia until he was 15 year old; another had supports local partner organizations and experiences of famine and confict- READY, ABLE, AND WILLING not been to Ethiopia until the frst day of her looking to network and reach the diaspora ridden regime changes. Prior to launching TO BE CULTURAL AND SERVICE- fellowship experience. Partner organizations population by providing brief overviews in December of 2014, the EDF team sent a include Telemed Services LLC, a tele-medical of the culture, desire, and diferences 23-item survey designed for Ethiopian- ORIENTED AMBASSADORS TO healthcare provider; the International within the Ethiopian-American diaspora. American diasporas between the ages of THEIR COUNTRY OF ORIGIN. Leadership Academy of Ethiopia, a school Additionally, for many partner organizations, 20 and 33. These items included questions focused on educating through culturally the fellows are their organizations' frst about diaspora members’ places of birth, THE FELLOWSHIP relevant, locally rooted, globally minded long-term contact with the diaspora education, desire to return to Ethiopia, curriculum; Endurance Youth Association, community, as most volunteers or interns previous experience returning to Ethiopia, The Ethiopian Diaspora Fellowship an organization focused on providing income in Ethiopia tend to be White Americans or barriers to serving and living in Ethiopia, and was created in response to the need to address generating and micro fnancing opportunities White, European professionals. Overall, how they culturally and professionally self- a human resource capacity issue, to engage for young people; Selamta Family Project, EDF partner organizations are beginning identify. Analysis of about 400 responses Ethiopian diaspora to help understand their a new model of family integration through to see the beneft of utilizing the diaspora received within two weeks supported the diaspora identity, and to build a platform placing orphans with marginalized women population as agents of change within anecdotal responses the EDF team had and network for the diaspora to play a role to create stable families; and Whiz Kids their organizations due to their diversifed been receiving, confrming that the new in developing bridges between Ethiopia and Workshop, an award-winning USAID-funded, knowledge and experience. generation was ready, able, and willing to be the United States. The fellowship is built entertainment-education station with shows cultural and service-oriented ambassadors on three organizational pillars: leadership, focused on topics like the promotion of health FUTURE & GOVERNMENT to their country of origin. service, and creative storytelling. These and character growth. The fellows are all placed In the survey, 84% of respondents pillars are used to frame and process the in diferent organizations based on their skills Though EDF is a non-governmental said they would consider a fellowship experience of returning to Ethiopia as an and interests. organization, the Ethiopian government CULTURE PUBLIC-PRIVATE GOVERNMENT 11 WINTER 2016 | @PD_Mag WINTER 2016 | @PD_Mag 12 PUBLIC DIPLOMACY IN SUB-SAHARAN AFRICA

has shown an interest in the program and Findings and Advance Tables. Working Paper No. its curriculum. In October 2015, the EDF ESA/P/WP.241. Executive Director and the class of 2015 7 Veselenovic, Milena. "A Grand Dam with the fellows met with the Minister of Foreign Power to Light up Africa - CNN.com." CNN. Cable Afairs, Dr. Tedros Adhanom; his Chief of News Network, 20 Oct. 2015. Web. Staf, Ambassador Mulie; and Mr. Demeke 8 Kushkush, Isma'il. "Ethiopia, Long Mired in Atnafu Ambulo, the Minister Counselor Poverty, Rides an Economic Boom." The New York of Diaspora Afairs. The meeting was an Times. The New York Times, 03 Mar. 2015. Web. Rediate Tekeste Meseret Hailu opportunity for EDF fellows to share their 9 Ibid. Founder Program Director experience as young diaspora members, as 10 International Monetary Fund. Report on Executive Director well as their experience with the program. Selected Countries and Subjects. IMF. April 2015. Though the government has multiple Web. initiatives focused on supporting and 11 “Ethiopia’s Economy Registers Growth.” 2014. [email protected] [email protected] encouraging the diaspora, young millennial AllAfrica, 2014. Web. professionals have often been left out of 12 Lyons, Terrence. "Confict-generated Diasporas Rediate is a frst generation Ethiopian- Meseret is originally from Addis Aba- the conversation. As EDF continues to and Transnational Politics in Ethiopia." Confict, American and founder of Ethiopian Di- ba, Ethiopia and the program director grow, a strategic relationship with the Security & Development 7.4 (2007): 529-49. Web. aspora Fellowship. She started EDF as of the Ethiopian Diaspora Fellowship Ethiopian government can help reach the 13 Terrazas, Aaron Matteo. "Beyond Regional a medium to build bridges between the program. After receiving her BS and BA diaspora globally and provide a program Circularity: The Emergence of an Ethiopian young educated diaspora and Ethiopia. and curriculum that supports service to the Diaspora." Migration Policy Institute [Washington from the University of Denver, Meseret country, as well as a better understanding of DC] 1 June 2007. Web. Rediate has worked for social action or- attended Regis University, where she the diaspora’s collective identity. 14 "ETHIOPIA: IOM and Government Wooing Skills ganizations including the Clinton Ini- received her MS in Biomedical Sciences. and Funds from Diaspora." IRINnews. IRIN News, 5 tiative, America Reads Program leading She then went on to work as an afli- Apr. 2004. Web. FOOTNOTES education eforts through community ate faculty member at two institutions: 15 RAD Diaspora Profle: The Ethiopian Diaspora in partnerships in low-income areas. She 1 Trent, Deborah Lee. American Diaspora Diplomacy: the United States. Rep. Washington DC: Migration Regis University and Red Rocks Com- U.S. Foreign Policy and Lebanese Americans. Rep. Policy Institute, 2014. Print. spent time in Ethiopia working as a munity College. As a faculty member, 125th ed. The Hague: Cligendael: Netherlands 16 Lyons, Terrence. "Confict-generated Diasporas journalist for World Vision Ethiopia, and she discovered her love of teaching and Institute of International Relations, 2012. Web. and Transnational Politics in Ethiopia." Confict, then building a communication depart- mentoring students. Currently,Meseret Discussion Paper In Diplomacy. Security & Development 7.4 (2007): 529-49. Web. ment at Selam Children’s Village. Redi- is a Ph.D student in the Morgridge Col- 2 Fiske de Gouveia, Philip. ‘The Future of Public 17 RAD Diaspora Profle: The Ethiopian Diaspora in ate discovered her passion for storytell- lege of Education at the University of Diplomacy”. Madrid Conference on Public the United States. Rep. Washington DC: Migration ing while working as an international Diplomacy. The Present and Future of Public Policy Institute, 2014. Print. Denver, where she is researching access Diplomacy: A European Perspective. 2006. 18 Ibid. Field Producer/Production Coordinator to education for marginalized women 3 Trent, Deborah Lee. American Diaspora Diplomacy: 19 Ethiopian Diaspora Fellowship Survey. for Girl Rising, and completing an in- in Ethiopia. After graduation, Meseret U.S. Foreign Policy and Lebanese Americans. Rep. Ethiopian Diaspora Fellowship, 2014. Web. ternship in Uganda and Ethiopia with is interested in working as a professor 125th ed. The Hague: Cligendael: Netherlands 20 Kiyama, Judy Marquez. "College Aspirations the renowned Population Media Center. and researcher. Through EDF, Meseret Institute of International Relations, 2012. Web. Limitations The Role of Educational Ideologies She currently combines her interest for hopes to equip Ethiopians in the Di- Discussion Paper In Diplomacy. and Funds of Knowledge in Mexican American communication and culture as a Com- 4 RAD Diaspora Profle: The Ethiopian Diaspora in Families." American Educational Research Journal aspora with the skills and opportu- the United States. Rep. Washington DC: Migration 47.2 (2010): 330-356. munication Consultant for Integrate nity to serve their country of origin in Policy Institute, 2014. Print. 21 Ibid. Africa. She received her B.A in Interper- a meaningful way. She is particularly 5 Vertovec, Steven. "The Political Importance of sonal and Intercultural Communications excited to see how Fellows and organi- Diasporas." Migration Policy Institute [Washington at Arizona State University and her Mas- zations dedicated to women’s advocacy DC] 1 June 2005. Web. ter of Communication Management de- will mutually beneft from one another. 6 United Nations, Department of Economic and gree at University of Southern California. Social Afairs, Population Division (2015). World Population Prospects: The 2015 Revision, Key CULTURE PUBLIC-PRIVATE GOVERNMENT 13 WINTER 2016 | @PD_Mag WINTER 2016 | @PD_Mag 14 HOW IS THE NBA USING BASKETBALL AS A In 2010, the NBA opened an DIPLOMATIC TOOL IN AFRICA? ofce in Johannesburg. Why did the NBA decide the time was AN EVALUATION OF BASKETBALL WITHOUT BORDERS right to establish a permanent presence in Africa?

Gallo Fall: A number of players like Hakeem Olajuwon and Dikembe Mutombo have joined the league and changed the NBA’s history with the continent, going back to Hakeem being drafted number one overall. So we always knew that there was tremendous talent in the continent. Then in 2003, we launched the Basketball Without Borders campaign. Fast-forward 10 years and we have seen the potential, hunger, and passion young people across the continent have for our sport. There are an increasing number of young players coming into our league through programs like Basketball Without Borders, providing the perfect opportunity for us to better work with these passionate young athletes and to connect with our fans. At the end of the day, our number one priority is to grow our fan base BASKETBALL Amadou Gallo Fall, a native of Senegal, is globally. The NBA has opened ofces in all leading the NBA’s eforts to expand and corners of the world, but Africa is rising and build the NBA and basketball in Africa. we have always felt a connection with the Previously, he worked for the Dallas continent. Mavericks as the Director of Player Personnel and Vice President of International Afairs. How did you frst become involved Fall now oversees the NBA’s grassroots in the NBA in Africa? DIPLOMACY basketball development initiatives and its partnerships with marketing, media, and GF: I worked for the Dallas Mavericks for 12 consumer product companies. This position years prior to moving to the league [ofce]. has allowed him to work with Basketball I was part of Basketball Without Borders Without Borders, the NBA and FIBA’s global from the very beginning. I have always had elite basketball development program, to a passion for the continent, its youth, and bring social change in the areas of health, basketball. When the position was created education, and wellness. Public Diplomacy and the thought process matured, I was INAN INTERVIEW AFRIC WITH A Magazine editor, Bret Schafer, had the asked while I was still with the Mavs if I opportunity to interview Mr. Fall about his would have interest. I said that this was a AMADOU GALLO FALL experience working at the NBA Africa ofce job I would take even if I was not being paid in Johannesburg, his work with Basketball a dime because it combines all my interests. Without Borders, and the August 2015 NBA My interests are (1) having an impact in game in Johannesburg. Africa and its future development; and (2) Bret Schafer using sport as a tool for connecting with CULTURE PUBLIC-PRIVATE GOVERNMENT 15 WINTER 2016 | @PD_Mag WINTER 2016 | @PD_Mag 16 PUBLIC DIPLOMACY IN SUB-SAHARAN AFRICA

youth and community building. This job When I got to DC and my school, it was travel all over the world to spread goodwill citizenship and push young people to take provided opportunities to do both. It is complicated. My coaches would speak to and teach the values of the game. I think this education seriously. exciting, what we have been able to achieve. me and I couldn’t understand a word. But is helping bring diferent cultures together. Across the continent, our focus The future remains very bright. I moved to experience is the best teacher and I had no now is to really spread the Jr. NBA league Johannesburg in May 2010, but I started the other choice. I was thrown into the fre, so What programs does the NBA into as many countries as possible. It is position in January 2010. to speak. I remember my coach picking me employ in Africa to help facilitate school based and the objectives remain the up at 11pm at DC International Airport and cultural exchanges? same: it is about ofering young people the Growing up in soccer-crazed saying “Hey, see you tomorrow at school.” opportunity to participate in basketball Senegal, how were you frst It is a huge wake-up call when you realize GF: Basketball Without Borders remains while learning life lessons. exposed to basketball? And how you just have to adjust. our fagship basketball development did that eventually translate The cultural diferences were huge program. The frst one in Africa was in As the NBA’s ambassador to into you coming to the U.S. on a because I came from a French-speaking 2003. Essentially, we take 100 kids from Africa, obviously your main job basketball scholarship? country. Nothing prepares you for having to over 35 countries across the continent to is to promote the game on the write a dissertation in English. Language is Johannesburg for a week where we teach continent. But do you also feel GF: I literally stumbled on the game. always something that you overcome with them fundamentals of the game. Our NBA that you’re somewhat of a cultural We all grow up playing soccer. I had a time and experience. But I took any cultural players, coaches, and team personnel serve ambassador – both in terms of brother who was studying in France and challenge as an opportunity. I realized that as mentors and coaches. We also integrate explaining the U.S. to Africans came back one summer and brought it all really depends on the mindset you life skill elements and seminars so that and, conversely, explaining Africa me a basketball. He was being harassed have. If you are driven to succeed, you are children can learn these very important life to Americans? in the streets by clubs wanting him to focusing on what you are trying to achieve lessons. Some of our players share important play – he’s taller than me. He thought rather than what may be standing in the past experiences, talking about trials and GF: By staging games like the NBA Africa he was too tall for soccer and decided way. So any challenges that may come can be tribulations and how they got to where they Game we had in August, which brought a to try this game. When I got exposed opportunities to grow. I was so excited to be are. We also partner with local and global team made up of players from all over the to it, I realized that my size was an in the position I was in: playing basketball, NGOs who are working in the health feld, world to play against NBA players from asset. I started late and made up for it a going to school, meeting people from all for example, to help amplify their message. Africa right here in Johannesburg, we little with my size. I met a Peace Corps over the world, and of course being in a city That is what Basketball Without Borders expose players to the culture here and the volunteer who suggested that I should like Washington, DC. really does. We also do a lot of work in the vibrancy of a city like Johannesburg. Most try to go to the U.S. and play basketball community, building legacy projects such of the participants left saying that this was at the college level. He facilitated In a broader sense, do you think as hospitals and playgrounds. We want to a life-changing experience. That is usually everything. A coach from the University sports can and should play a role in provide places where children can learn and the case: players and coaches that travel of the District of Columbia sent me a diplomacy? play. to the continent tend to feel that way. So letter having never seen me play – he We have launched other programs we are ambassadors, so to speak. Our role just saw that I was 6’8. I made it to DC GF: They do. Based on my personal since arriving in South Africa, such as the remains about empowering young people, and it was an eye-opening experience experience, every day has shown me the role Royal Bafokeng Jr. NBA partnership here contributing to youth development using and obviously a game changer for me. and the signifcance of sport as a conduit to in the North West Province of South Africa. our game as a platform. I am very fortunate That is when I discovered the real power bring people together and resolve confict. Essentially, it is again about basketball as a to be able to have an impact working for the of sport: basketball allowed me to Our game exposes young people to the tool to engage people around positive social NBA. achieve at a high level and put me in a character traits of respect, perseverance, activities using the game and its values as position to have an impact on the lives and tolerance because you are supposed to pillars. We also partnered with ExxonMobil The NBA held its frst ever game of young people. work within a team and sometimes you have and launched a program in Abuja, Nigeria in Africa this summer. Can you to forget your own individuality in order to called Power Forward. Same objectives: talk about that experience, and the Can you explain the cultural work as a group. a youth, school-based program teaching reaction of both the NBA players challenges you faced in the The NBA teaches these values the fundamentals of the game but at the who participated and the local United States and how basketball through a partnership with the U.S. State same time teaching them life skills. In fans? helped to bridge cultural divides? Department. Our Sports Envoy program partnership with USAID, we also launched a has been running since 2005. Players, team program in Senegal called Live, Learn, and GF: For the local fans, it was a spectacle. For GF: When I arrived, I barely spoke English. personnel, and coaches from the NBA and Play, where we partnered with local NGOs me, it was the culmination of more than I could read it better than I could speak it. WNBA are trained as ambassadors who to use basketball as a conduit to promote three decades of the NBA being involved in CULTURE PUBLIC-PRIVATE GOVERNMENT 17 WINTER 2016 | @PD_Mag WINTER 2016 | @PD_Mag 18 PUBLIC DIPLOMACY IN SUB-SAHARAN AFRICA

Africa. Hakeem, Manute, and Dikembe laid just one entity where everyone thinks and THE COMPLEX RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN AFRICA the groundwork. All the players and coaches acts the same. There are a lot of things going who have visited the continent since 2003 on, a lot of exciting places to visit. We just AND THE WEST IS EXPLORED ON A HUMAN SCALE through Basketball Without Borders have came back this weekend from Dar es Salaam, THROUGH THE PERSONAL EXPERIENCES. come to the continent, visited multiple Tanzania, where we launched our sixth Jr. countries, and really contributed to the NBA program on the continent. From there, A DOCUMENTARY FILM THAT TAKES VIEWERS ON growth of the popularity of the NBA in Africa. we went to Rwanda to talk about doing the A JOURNEY THROUGH THE WESTERN Also, having an increasing number of players same thing. It is amazing, the growth I see IMAGINATION OF AFRICA from the continent playing in the league – every time I travel to one of these countries. a few of them have actually gone through They are vibrant and excited about all the the Basketball Without Borders program. things that are possible to achieve. For me, That is really created an unbelievable level that is the exciting piece—to be in front of of interest. Among the players that have these young people and help them see that come to Africa through the program are basketball combined with education can Chris Paul, Bradley Beal, Kenneth Faried, enable them to achieve great things. We just to name a few on the world team – they have the opportunity to instill a sense of all have the same testaments to make: it is a responsibility toward their community—to good experience and they would love to do it make them understand that they are the again. ones who are going to build Africa. The same The players from Africa come thing that Luol Deng, Serge Ibaka, all these almost every year and they are very proud guys from Africa are doing. They are coming to welcome their colleagues in the NBA and back every summer and doing programs in to be a part of history. Nowadays, there are their home countries that are geared toward not a lot of things you can consider historic, this model: using their life experience to but here we have a unique opportunity to do inspire the next generation and give back to something truly historic and authentic that their communities. The number of players the NBA is very proud of. Just looking at the from Africa is going to continue to rise in our number of people who attended the game or league because we are truly committed to were able to watch it on television—it was growing the sport on the continent. aired in 215 countries around the world—it was amazing. Here on the ground, it was a What is next for the NBA in sold-out arena shortly after we made tickets Africa? Where do you see the available. That speaks to peoples’ interests: program fve years from now? fans have a heart for basketball and the NBA. We are looking forward to bringing bigger GF: We are going to continue to grow. We events to the continent for a long time to are going to focus on grassroots, one country come. at a time. We are going launch our Jr. NBA leagues in all 54 countries. We are going to Do you think sending more African continue to invest in youth participation among both boys and girls. We are going to FRAMED:REPRESENTATIONS OF THE WESTERN players to the NBA might help the perception of Africa in the U.S.? continue to increase our television footprint and grow the number of fans that enjoy IMAGINATION GF: Times are diferent. A lot has changed watching the best athletes in the world on a since I went to the U.S. for the frst time in daily basis. Certainly, as the number of fans OF AFRICA the early 90s and, honestly, I do not want to and participants grow, our business is going speak to perceptions necessarily. It is more of to grow. We came here and we decided to an education process. People will realize that lead with basketball because the game is at Kathryn Mathers Africa is 54 countries and territories. It is not the center of everything we do. CULTURE PUBLIC-PRIVATE GOVERNMENT 19 WINTER 2016 | @PD_Mag WINTER 2016 | @PD_Mag 20 PUBLIC DIPLOMACY IN SUB-SAHARAN AFRICA

FRAMED is a documentary flm that CAUSES OF INEQUALITY. They Know It’s Christmas which was followed young African standing alone and, despite takes viewers on a journey through the by an American’s version, USA for Africa’s being armed, fundamentally defenseless and Western imagination of Africa, exploring Here I want to explore just why such We are the World. The success of Band in need of outside support.9 Jason Russell and why the media rarely shows Africans representations matter. Like Zine, I have Aid led to the massive fundraising concert the Invisible Children campaign mobilized changing their own societies and what it previously written about the ways that the Live AID, which exemplifed the power this image in a new form of political activism, means to erase images of African agency.1 presence of Africans in most representations that celebrity diplomacy has for creating “clicktivism,” through their KONY 2012 This complex relationship between Africa of or about the continent are positioned to buzz and fundraising around an issue. The campaign.10 This was ostensibly a political and the West is explored on a human create an absence of African agency.3 This same representational tropes about Africa, lobbying movement focused on getting the scale through the personal experiences absence suggests important questions when especially the image of the starving child American government’s commitment to a of Boniface Mwangi, a dynamic young considering the impact of representations would also inform Geldof and Bono’s man hunt for Joseph Kony who, according to Kenyan photojournalist-turned-activist, of Africa on various foreign policy and public campaign in 2000 against third world debt. Russell’s narrative, was the reason why so and a young American blogger, Pippa diplomacy initiatives. I argue that the more Fifteen years ago the unlikely many Ugandan children had been recruited who transforms from a high schooler star present Africa and Africans are in public alliance of Bob Geldof and Bono ultimately as child soldiers and then abandoned to the struck with Africa to an outspoken critic diplomacy driven by popular culture and the did push American representatives to stand streets of Kampala where he “discovered” of “voluntourism” after a revealing trip to goals and aspirations of young Americans, across party and political lines to support them. These dual images of an isolated child Tanzania. the more absent they become in the debt reduction, if not debt cancelation, with a gun and an evil man rode KONY 2012 Woven into their drama are workings of government and in legislature for poor nations around the world.7 Their through social media and poster/sticker scenes and interviews with Kenyan that can address the structural causes of success might appear to be a success for campaigns all the way to the Capitol. This writer Binyavanga Wainaina and South inequality. celebrity engagement in political activism, prompted U.S. leaders to commit forces to African-born sociologist Zine Magubane, While I cannot test this proposition and for the power of images to change policy hunting down Kony in a short-lived burst of who bring alive the impact of Western here, it is this relationship that has driven and infuence foreign relations and the ways action. The efort was highly misdirected, as misrepresentations. Binyavanga grew up my own research and the desire to make a that national governments engage with so many Ugandan and other commentators in post-colonial Kenya and experienced the flm like FRAMED. It is a flm that seeks to each other. But this particular moment of who know the region pointed out at the negative impact of increasing humanitarian re-imagine Africans in the American psyche celebrity diplomacy did not stand alone. It time.11 interventions in the lives of Kenyans. and possibly even in American policy and was a part of Jubilee 2000, a global struggle Zine, the flm's pop culture provocateur, diplomacy. to end third world debt by mobilizing THIS WAS THE DECADE OF unveils the archive of Africa’s portrayals in activists from across the global South. The AFRICA IN AMERICA. THIS, Hollywood flms, news, and advertising, and CELEBRITY DIPLOMACY "end the debt" campaign was just one part shows us how the marketing of sufering of a major North-South anti-globalization THOUGH, WAS AN AFRICA plays out. Zine describes in depth the It is hard to imagine a conversation movement that bought together players THAT HAD VERY LITTLE TO DO processes by which Africans are made about development and humanitarian aid, from all sides of the political spectrum to WITH THE PEOPLE OR SOCIAL invisible in a diverse range of images, especially in Africa, without considering the fght against the perceived fgure head of AND POLITICAL REALITIES ON especially those meant to evoke sentiment impact of something now called celebrity global labor outsourcing, the World Trade 2 4 8 THE CONTINENT ITSELF AT THIS and help for these same people. diplomacy. While there are questions about Organization. In other words, Geldof OR ANY OTHER TIME. when such forms of intervention began, and Bono were part of a serious and highly THAT THE MORE PRESENT it is hard to dispute the central role of Bob politicized global movement. Their goal to AFRICA AND AFRICANS ARE Geldof in forging a peculiar relationship cancel third world debt was informed by and The decade separating these two IN PUBLIC DIPLOMACY DRIVEN between the politics of aid, development, supported by a multitude of diverse players. campaigns had a real, albeit limited, social and celebrity in the late 20th century.5 and political impact. This was the decade BY POPULAR CULTURE AND Geldof’s relationship with foreign aid YOUTH ACTIVISM of AmericanS in Africa. This, though, was THE GOALS AND ASPIRATIONS began in the mid-1980s and relied heavily an Africa that had very little to do with the OF YOUNG AMERICANS, on the image of the starving child, entirely More than a decade after the partial people or social and political realities on the THE MORE ABSENT THEY isolated from any form of familial or social success of the anti-debt campaign, another continent itself at this or any other time. support and dependent on the good will of image of an isolated child generated a policy Representations of Africa could be seen in BECOME IN THE WORKINGS 6 OF GOVERNMENT AND IN outsiders for salvation. From this image, decision, or at least the appearance of one, in the most unexpected places, from reality he generated real traction in a fght against the U.S. This was an all too familiar image in television shows like Survivor and American LEGISLATURE THAT CAN famine in Ethiopia: he founded Live AID with American representations of Africa: a child Idol to the ways celebrities and everyday ADDRESS THE STRUCTURAL the enormously popular Band Aid single, Do holding a gun, the equally pathetic isolated people were thinking about adoption CULTURE PUBLIC-PRIVATE GOVERNMENT 21 WINTER 2016 | @PD_Mag WINTER 2016 | @PD_Mag 22 PUBLIC DIPLOMACY IN SUB-SAHARAN AFRICA

and the responsibilities of motherhood; AFRICAN NATIONS SEEMED POLICY AND DIPLOMATIC granted replacement of substantive policy big screen productions like The Constant TO HAVE A SEAT IF NOT INITIATIVES BETWEEN THE and diplomatic initiatives between the Gardner, Blood Diamond, Sahara, Machine Gun AT THE TABLE AT LEAST IN UNITED STATES AND AFRICAN United States and African nations with the Preacher; on the small screen, where ER went THE ROOM WHERE POLICY NATIONS WITH THE DO- do-gooding projects of young Americans. to the Sudan; and magazines like Vanity Fair Here again is an absence made possible by edited by Bono.12 In fact Bono and Oprah CONVERSATIONS WERE GOODING PROJECTS OF a kind of presence. Not only have Africans were everywhere talking about Product TAKING PLACE. YOUNG AMERICANS. been relegated to the backdrop of projects (RED)™ starting in 2006. Americans were for solving African problems but the work bombarded with image of Africa as a place The HIV/AIDS pandemic on the continent There was a clear love afair being of the state both in the West and in Africa of simultaneous beauty and disaster. What should of course have been a priority but forged between the American public and has become a backdrop to the multiple, all of these representations had in common the extent to which it dominated discourse Africa via celebrities from felds as diverse isolated individual projects of driven and was the idea that Africa was a place of about Africans might very well have done as entertainment, environmentalism, the compassionate young Americans. This has helplessness and Africans needed our help. more harm than good. academy, and public policy. Images of Afri- been ably supported by college level funding ca both refected and created this love afair. opportunities and other forms of collegiate POLICY IMPLICATIONS THE IMPACT LOOP This engagement was, however, marked by support for spending summers, semesters, a remarkable ability to sideline and ignore and even years while at college abroad, The decade between Jubilee 2000 This reliance on tropes of sufering African specifcities let alone African initia- counting towards service credit for various and KONY 2012 saw an increasing distancing and helplessness linked to the AIDS tives, political activism and engagements, programs in anything from global health to from serious political discussion on Africa. pandemic helped make Africa the perfect and local social and technological solutions international relations, to public policy and In my book, Travel Humanitarianism and place to save. So it was not just that HIV/ to the problems Americans were trying to social entrepreneurship certifcates, etc. Becoming American in Africa, I describe a AIDS dominated the airwaves when it came solve. In fact more often than not those powerful shift in the conversation about to Africa but that Africa itself became a hot problems Americans were “solving” had SOCIAL MEDIA BASED Africa in the United States post 9/11. In commodity. At least Africa as an imagined very little to do with the reality of lived ex- ACTIVISM (CLICKTIVISM) IS 2000, Bono and Geldof could make their space on which Americans could discover periences on the continents and so, “solu- REPLACING MORE POLITICAL plea to the United States’ congress for debt themselves and fnd ways to be good, even tions” found almost no traction. relief especially for African nations. They great, global citizens. I suggest that this was Here is where the problem of images AND INSTITUTIONAL could speak to a Washington that had at partly made possible by the ways that Africa becomes clearly a problem of policy and DIPLOMATIC AND POLICY least watched Secretary of State Albright and – always homogeneous and singular – was international relations far outside the orbit RELATIONS IS EMBODIED President Bill Clinton travel widely in Africa everywhere on television screens, in movie of image-makers and media agencies. IN THE IMAGE OF MICHELLE and talk about growing democracies and theaters, online, in school fundraisers, and Africa is consistently represented as being OBAMA IN THE WHITE better yet new consumers of middle class in the lives of young Americans who focked without people who have agency. The HOUSE HOLDING UP A life. African nations seemed to have a seat to places like Kenya, Tanzania, and South problems of the continent have no history if not at the table at least in the room where Africa to volunteer and to study. Superstars or specifcity. Identifying people to work #BRINGBACKOURGIRLS SIGN. policy conversations were taking place. in flm, literature, technology, and even with, local agencies already working on By 2002, it was almost impossible to hear diplomacy went to the continent to show the ground, requires support or even just In the years that we have been about Africa except in relation to HIV/AIDS. how much they cared. Simply put, Africa understanding what exactly is needed in developing FRAMED in order to challenge Linked to that of course were the familiar was “HOT!” any given place on the continent. But that is the disappearances of Africans and and comfortable images of poverty, lack of now irrelevant because the story has already African initiatives in global conversations education, and cultural traditionalism. HIV/ WHILE AFRICA IS NO LONGER been told through this onslaught of popular about African aid and development, the AIDS was linked primarily to the latter two THE HOT TOPIC IT HAS BEEN, media and forms of activism. Yet even while conversation with my students has changed. factors. This lent itself to a lack of discussion THE LASTING EFFECT OF THIS the popular culture heyday for the continent I have gone from asking students to critically about the structural and political causes of died down soon after KONY 2012, the desire evaluate the use of certain images about the struggles Africans were facing. This shift EXPLOSION OF POP CULTURE to help this place has simply grown stronger Africa, to the way celebrity has functioned was refected in PEPFAR, an aid program AROUND THE IDEA OF A and more determined. to interpret supposedly African needs, that, despite a great deal of criticism, has HOPELESS CONTINENT IS While Africa is no longer the hot to looking critically at their own profles come to be seen as the highlight of George THE TAKEN FOR GRANTED topic it has been, the lasting efect of this on social media and their own travel and W. Bush’s presidency.13 REPLACEMENT OF SUBSTANTIVE explosion of pop culture around the idea service plans. As Africa’s profle rose and of a hopeless continent is the taken for fell in social and news media, the idea that CULTURE PUBLIC-PRIVATE GOVERNMENT 23 WINTER 2016 | @PD_Mag WINTER 2016 | @PD_Mag 24 PUBLIC DIPLOMACY IN SUB-SAHARAN AFRICA

one young committed person could make a FRAMED is not seeking to replace pushes them to focus on problems in their 11 Baker, Katie JM. "Think Twice Before Donating change in the lives of Africans has remained the images of Africa that abound, especially own country frst, often uncomfortable ones to Kony 2012, the Charitable Meme Du Jour." consistent and in fact seems to have grown. since we are ironically in an era of multiple like racism and income inequality. And in the Jezebel. 7 Mar. 2012. So students are forming their own non- representations, multiple sources from end we fnd Boniface on the coast of Kenya, 12 Peretti, Jacques. "Madonna, Mercy and Malawi: profts, running their own research and the West and the South of images of Africa taking part in a unique photography work- Her Fight to Adopt a Second African Child." The primary care projects, evaluating the needs and Africans. Even a little work online shop between high school kids in Mombasa Guardian, 12 June 2009. Web. of Africans all from a relatively comfortable fnds numerous ways in which Africans and in Chicago. This is how FRAMED will 13 Hughes, Dana. "George W. Bush's Legacy on and well-funded position in their colleges. themselves are representing their lives show that it is possible to change percep- Africa Wins Praise, Even From Foes." ABC News. The idea that committed individuals’ and spaces. Such attempts to subvert tions and spark new conversations between ABC News Network, 26 Apr. 2013. Web. social media based activism (clicktivism) is dominant discourses through new or the next generation of Africans and Ameri- replacing more political and institutional diferent imaginaries seldom work to shift cans, and inspire more informed and efec- diplomatic and policy relations is embodied the idea of Africa, as with other places tive choices about social change. in the image of Michelle Obama in the White condemned to existing almost entirely for House holding up a #bringbackourgirls the stories westerners tell about their own FOOTNOTES sign. This was a compelling example of actions and personalities. It is not the image clicktivism, one that had a grassroots we are trying to change, so much as the 1"FRAMED." About The Film. FRAMED The Film. foundation in Nigeria as young Nigerians relationship between the westerner in that 2 Magubane, Zine, Simians. Savages, Skulls, and themselves rose against their own image to the people around them. This is Sex: Science and Colonial Militarism in Nineteenth- government’s inaction against Boko Haram why FRAMED is so much about a particular Century South Africa in Donald S. Moore, Jake Kosek and other forms of violence against young conversation between one African and and Anand Pandian Race, Nature, and the Politics of girls. Yet the adoption of this hashtag in one American, rooted in the analytical Diference Durham: Duke University Press. 2003. the West not only did little to construct a work of Zine Magubane and Binyavanga 3 Mather, K. 2012. “Mr Kristof I Presume: Kathryn Mathers genuine political response to this problem Wainaina. Through this challenging set of saving Africa in the footsteps of Nicholas Senior Lecturing but, I would argue, undermined the original relationships and journeys between the U.S. Kristof.”Transition 107 W.E.B. Du Bois Institute for Fellow campaign itself. Instead it turned a politically and Kenya, especially, we hope to shift that African and African American Research rooted and motivated protest against a narrative, reframe the story so that young 4 Cooper, Andrew F. Celebrity Diplomacy. Routledge. specifc government into a generic ‘global’ Americans who think that saving Africans 2008. campaign based entirely on sentiment. is about going there to help consider that 5 Hall, Bruce S., Ami V. Shah, and Edward R. Kathryn Mathers is a Senior Lecturing Fel- I do not want to suggest that perhaps the work needs to be done at home. Carr. “Bono, Band - Aid, and Before: Celebrity low in the International and Comparative the current White House has no policy, Humanitarianism, Music and the Objects of its diplomatic or otherwise, in relation to WE HOPE TO SHIFT THAT Action” in Andrews G J, Kingsbury, P and Kearns Studies Program, Duke University. Her Africa. I argue, however, that the presence NARRATIVE, REFRAME THE R A. Soundscapes of wellbeing in popular music writing on the cultural politics of humani- of sentimental, social media, and youth STORY SO THAT YOUNG Burlington, VT: Ashgate. 2014. tarianism appears in both scholarly and based projects in Africa works to make AMERICANS WHO THINK 6 Kleinman Arthur and Joan Kleinman. “The popular forums. She is researching ideas the real structural issues underlying these Appeal of Experience; the Dismay of Images: of Africanness and whiteness in encoun- causes invisible. Yet they may well be THAT SAVING AFRICANS IS Cultural Appropriations of Sufering in Our ters between South African artists and solvable through actual political and policy ABOUT GOING THERE TO HELP Times.”’ Daedalus 125: 1-23. 1996. shifts within western governments. This is CONSIDER THAT PERHAPS THE 7 Give us the Money. Director Bosse Lindquist, western audiences. She has a BA Honors in familiar work when it comes to images, as WORK NEEDS TO BE DONE AT Producer: David Herdies, Produced by: Momento African Studies and an M.Phil. in Archae- FRAMED explores in depth. But the current HOME. Film. 2012. ology and Sociology from the University iteration essentially works to prevent 8 Ben Cashdan, Trevor A.Manual, Trevor Ngwane, of Cape Town and a PhD in Socio-Cultural constructive and real engagement with Njongonkulu Ndungane, James D. Wolfensohn. In a pivotal act of the flm Boni- Anthropology from UC Berkeley. Her work African states and on the ground organizers Two Trevors go to Washington. 2000. face takes the “reverse journey” taken by in South Africa included voted education and organizations. 9 Schepler, Susan. “The Rites of the Child: Global so many young Americans, from Africa to Discourses of Youth and reintegrating Child and evaluation of educational and cultural America, where he presents a provocative, FRAMED: DEVELOPING A Soldiers in Sierra Leone” Journal of Human Rights 4: programs during profound political and powerful challenge to young people to think PATHWAY FORWARD 197-211. 2005. social change. about their motives for going overseas and 10 "About | Invisible Children." Invisible Children. CULTURE PUBLIC-PRIVATE GOVERNMENT 25 WINTER 2016 | @PD_Mag WINTER 2016 | @PD_Mag 26 PUBLIC DIPLOMACY IN SUB-SAHARAN AFRICA

A DISCUSSION ABOUT THE EVOLVING ROLE OF teaching style from the way that you were educated? Do you focus GASTRODIPLOMACY IN AFRICAN CUISINE more on culture or teaching the technique? PRESIDENT OF THE WILBERT JONES COMPANY, A GOODS AND BEVERAGE PRODUCT DEVELOPMENT Wilbert Jones: When I do my lectures and AND MARKETING BUSINESS, FOUNDED IN 1993 seminars with students and faculty, I like to meet them where they are. What I mean by that is that, of course they are in a structured academic environment, but if I am going to Kendall College (Chicago, IL) to teach, most of my class is basically just feeding them, seeing where their heads are, and asking them questions such as where were you born? Where were you raised? What inspired you to cook? Did you learn to do things from your grandmother? Why do you really want to be a chef? And it is amazing, because I think this transformation comes when you get 30-40 people in the room and you have that approach. If I am talking about a region in Africa that they are not familiar with or either a certain kind of ingredient, then I will bring that ingredient to start talking to each of the students based on their history: whether they are from Louisiana or upstate of New York. From that angle, the Wilbert Jones is the President of The Wilbert students would start really feeling that they GASTRO - Jones Company, a goods and beverage are thinking out of the box. I think this is product development and marketing very good approach to take because then business, founded in 1993. Jones was everyone has something to contribute. formerly a food scientist at Kraft Foods' biotechnology department from 1985- What type of food culture have you 1993. He received a B.S. in chemistry from seen in Africa? Loyola University of Chicago and studied DIPLOMACY at the Ecole de Gastronomic Francasie WJ: Well, it depends again on your Ritz-Escofer in Paris, France. Jones is the connection. Are you Muslim? Sitting down author of several cookbooks and in 2015 with your family? Is it a feast? Will there published, Images of America: Chicago Blues. be several dishes? If you are urban, such as Public Diplomacy Magazine editors Jung- in Dakar, Senegal, you are probably eating Hwa Kang and Erica McNamara interviewed the way we do in America: breakfast, lunch, Mr. Jones to discuss the evolving role of and dinner. You are eating on the run or gastrodiplomacy in African cuisine. you might go out to dinner and have a few INAN INTERVIEW AFRICA WITH WILBERT JONES courses here and there, so it just depends You have been doing a lot of on your background. If you go more into the lectures, seminars, and teaching rural pockets, you might have just two meals particularly on African cuisine. a day: you have something in the morning Jung-Hwa Kang & Erica McNamara How do you diferentiate your and something later in the day. There CULTURE PUBLIC-PRIVATE GOVERNMENT 27 WINTER 2016 | @PD_Mag WINTER 2016 | @PD_Mag 28 PUBLIC DIPLOMACY IN SUB-SAHARAN AFRICA

are lots of root vegetables, grains, and, to in general as a gastrodiplomat? culture drives a lot of what is available. some extent, it depends on the region you are in. There might not be a lot of game in WJ: People have misconceptions about what You have already mentioned pockets that are desert driven, so they are the cuisine is all about. For one, they just do the importance of ingredients getting their proteins from non-meat. So not know a whole a lot about it. Most people and spices in African foods. Are it depends on where you are, the economic do not really go to Africa for the culinary there any other components background, and what’s available. experience as they would go to Europe or you want to emphasize that are Asia or South America. In Africa, you worry necessary to understand African When you went to Africa, a about street food, about eating something cuisine? lot of their great cuisine was safe, and about reactions to certain not introduced to the West or ingredients you are not familiar with. WJ: I would also look at what the youth other countries. Knowing that, are doing. They are doing a lot of what when you are working in the ETHIOPIA WAS PART OF THE we are doing in this country. A lot of the United States or other Western SPICE TRADE ALONG WITH millennials in the United States, unless countries, do you fnd any MOZAMBIQUE AND DURBAN, you have gone into culinary school, have no stereotyped representations of SOUTH AFRICA, COMING IN interest in cooking. In the United States, African food that you want to FROM THE INDIAN OCEAN you have prepared food everywhere— no change or correct? ALL THE WAY BACK ALONG TO one is really cooking from scratch. You have THE ATLANTIC PART, SO ALL all these youths who are not expressing an WJ: One of the biggest issues when I am OF THOSE SPICES WERE SO interest in keeping their cuisine going. And doing lectures about Africa is that so many INFLUENCED BY INDIA. the question would be, after the cuisine falls ingredients are not available in the United apart, what about the culture? The youth do States, so we have to substitute a lot of For example, looking at Kenya, they not want to look at old, traditional customs those things in our recipes, especially for have very little vegetables but there is lots and how things were done a certain way, West African and Senegalese recipes. So I of game there. I remember when I was so all of this kind of falls by the wayside. fnd myself substituting a lot of spices and putting together my lectures for Kendall Since there are not a lot of cookbooks and other ingredients and, consequently, we College, I was just so overwhelmed, because continent infuence the way you publications about Africa to begin with— do not get the dish as authentic as we want you need a two-year course to actually cover present your information when you basically hand down recipes from one students to taste it. But at the same time, all the territories and cuisines because you give lectures on Kenyan generation to another—so if the youth are they will understand the technique and they there is just so much! You try to cherry pick cuisine, for example? not picking that up, that is going to be gone will understand the background of some of the best cases so that there will be enough too. the cultures. information for the students and the faculty WJ: Absolutely, from a cultural standpoint, to walk away with, but Africa is just huge. not many recipes are written down, so we There are a lot of travel shows A working defnition We cannot even say “African would go to villages or markets to watch to Africa, advertising safaris of gastrodiplomacy is cuisine,” because we are talking about 57 what they cook and how they prepare and the stereotypical image of communicating culture and countries on the second largest land on items, and those recipes go back hundreds Africa. However, you do not see national identity through food. earth, and there is so much within that. For and hundreds of years. The way people many food-based programs or You were just discussing the example, if you look at South Africa, there do certain techniques, eat certain things cookbooks coming to or from the importance of ingredients and are probably 15 diferent kinds of cuisines with certain kinds of seasonings, and use continent. Do you think there how you lose a lot of that nuance within the 12 diferent regions there. Africa certain spices and ingredients for certain is perceived lack of interest in and authenticity because you is huge! It is almost like looping together products are all tied to culture. In North African cuisine that afects the are substituting ingredients. America by saying “America only has one Africa, it is heavily Muslim, so clearly, lack of information available? When you are lecturing, do you type of cooking.” But in America, you have that is a refection of the culture there, fnd that people have any idea Cajun Creole, Southern traditional, East where alcohol is not consumed and pork WJ: I think it is because of fear. Typically one what constitutes African food? Coast, New England, West, and South West is forbidden. When you start looking and is afraid of even going to the market. Street And do you fnd there are certain cooking. cherry picking countries, such as Morocco food has a very big presence throughout the stereotypes that they perceive and places like that, you are just not going continent, but you have tourists who do not about African food or your work Does your knowledge of the to fnd those ingredients. For the most part, want to be a part of that. So what do they CULTURE PUBLIC-PRIVATE GOVERNMENT 29 WINTER 2016 | @PD_Mag WINTER 2016 | @PD_Mag 30 PUBLIC DIPLOMACY IN SUB-SAHARAN AFRICA

do? They check themselves into a luxurious went to the market safely, and it was almost so all of those spices were so infuenced by not possible in some places. Still, South hotel and have heavily European-inspired like an Anthony Bourdain experience, India. So when you have samosas, whether Africa is doing a great job. They are tied food, and not African cuisine. So they do not getting the real inside track on what the it is in Ethiopia or in Durban, South Africa, into a lot of the global food trade shows, get a chance to be exposed to culture at that authentic cuisine is about. It would be the when you open up these pastries, you say, including a really big one called the SIAL level because of the lack of understanding same caliber if you go to the Caribbean— “This tastes just like Indian cuisine.” (www.sial.fr), one of the world's largest and the fear that’s in place. you have these beautiful resorts, with food/beverage trade shows, an excellent heavily European-inspired food, but you Do you think that diaspora place to explore food/beverage tends and Your new book is on African get a local person at the resort to take you communities are one of the innovation of new ideas. Kenya has come on street food. What inspired you to experience what the locals eat and get an reasons we have more ethnic board and is promoting their tea. Ethiopia to choose this theme? understanding of the customs of the locals cuisines or is it just global is promoting their cofee. as well as what the cuisine is about; so that business? I think the countries need to start WJ: I was going to write a book on African inspired me. We are still in the proposal looking at things from a legal standpoint. cuisine. However, on my last trip to Africa, stage; I am still pulling recipes and doing WJ: It is not a completely a black and white What I mean by that is to obtain an I noticed that some of the most authentic research. answer. I would say if we went Nando’s international patent or claim to what they experiences were coming from the street today, it would probably be 30% more South are doing. For example, you can only use food. I found that some of the chefs at the From your travel and Africans there than other people. There will the term “Champagne” when a product resorts were going out to eat the street food experience, what are three types be some who are there because they want to is from France; products originating from after they cooked for their hotel patrons. So of cuisine or emerging markets try, it because of the write-ups. But, I think other countries have to be called something I joined some of the chefs at the hotels and for gastro-cuisine and gastro- it comes down to marketing and business. else. If African nations were able to do that tourism that could introduce the In the case of Nando’s in South Africa, the kind of thing, it would give them a global Western world to the African restaurateurs are asking: “How would our presence and it would go a long way in terms palette? product go over if the local people from of national cuisine branding. your country did not support it? How can we WJ: You know, you can always tell when a have a global presence that works?” It could What is your future plan for trend is about to come on when you see what be seen as an incredible opportunity to African gastrodiplomacy? stores like Crate and Barrel and Sur la Table educate people and let them see the cuisine have available. And all of them have their from your eyes. WJ: I will continue to educate myself. I have own brand of a tagine. Tagine is Moroccan another planned trip to Africa from May to cuisine, a signature style of cooking. People June, 2016, where I will go, for the frst time, are obviously buying them in America, USC recently had a visit from the to the Kalahari Desert. I am going to be with because they keep making and selling President of Ghana. During his the bushmen and see up close, up front, them. So I think the tagine technique will visit, President John Mahama what fruits they are eating, what animals really kick of. I recently did a post about spoke about nation branding they are eating and I will be with them in a chicken tagine, with great photos, which using the example of Ghanaian the Kalahari Desert for about 3-4 days. So you can probably fnd on my Facebook. chocolate, which has relatively less that will be very exciting to see what the I am also starting to see an interest international recognition than, for bushmen have been eating to have survived in Ethiopian honey wine that is infused and example, Swiss chocolate, where for thousands of years. I will also be doing very easy to make. I am hoping that will be they import cocoa from Ghana. more lectures. As I continue along with something. It is very popular in Ethiopian As a food product developer and the African street food book, there will be restaurants. In terms of Ethiopian food a marketing consultant, how lectures and workshops I will be giving, and you see in American restaurants, it is would you advise the Sub-Saharan I am also going to get back into television, probably their samosas—pastries that are African countries to market their in addition to doing some YouTube videos. wrapped and flled with savory fllings such national cuisines? as chicken and vegetables or just straight lentils. Ethiopia was part of the spice trade WJ: When asking questions like this, one along with Mozambique and Durban, South must always remember the level of wealth Africa, coming in from the Indian Ocean disparity within the continent. Nation all the way back along to the Atlantic part, branding and cuisine branding are simply CULTURE PUBLIC-PRIVATE GOVERNMENT 31 WINTER 2016 | @PD_Mag WINTER 2016 | @PD_Mag 32 PUBLIC DIPLOMACY IN SUB-SAHARAN AFRICA

AFRICA'S DIVERSE CULTURAL MAKE-UP IS EXHIBITED The continent of Africa is made up powerful medium. For example, flm can of a great number of ethnic cultures, each depict human rights abuses and repression IN FILMS OF MULTIPLE GENRES THAT TACKLE THE of which encompasses diferent tribes and in a way that challenges audience members MYRIAD ISSUES FACING THE CONTINENT languages. This diverse cultural make- to empathize and consider how justice up is exhibited in flms of multiple genres could be served and wounds healed. Cinema that tackle the myriad issues facing the brings people together and creates a forum FILMS ARE A MEDIUM THROUGH WHICH CULTURAL DIPLOMACY & continent. Films are a medium through for individuals on both sides of the lens. INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS CAN BE CONDUCTED, SINCE which cultural diplomacy and international Film can empower the audience with the THEY REFLECT & CONVEY SOCIETAL VALUES relations can be conducted because they knowledge that personal commitment can & PROMOTE UNDERSTANDING refect and convey cultural and societal make a diference. values and promote understanding of Often, flms bring up issues that the other when presented before large cannot be reached through other, more audiences at flm festivals and the like. A traditional mediums of discourse. They good example of the transformative value often revolve around new issues and help of flm can be seen in the case of Nollywood to start a discussion in societes around and its impact on Nigerian foreign policy. them, a discussion that can lead to change. Films can foster the growth of civil society, FILM AS CULTURAL DIPLOMACY mutual cooperation, and understanding by serving as a fexible, universally accepted Each year, flmmakers around Africa vehicle for rapprochement, even between produce thousands of flms, confrming countries where diplomatic relations have the key position flm holds as a product been strained or are absent. of strategic and artistic relevance. It is an artistic medium that imbibes and conveys FILM FESTIVALS AND the values and beliefs of the culture within PUBLIC DIPLOMACY which and for which it is made. Because of the signifcant cultural diversity in Film festivals are a platform for FILM & Africa, flmmakers there have a multitude cross-cultural dialogue, bringing together of approaches to flm production and professionals from diferent countries storytelling. to exchange ideas and experiences. They Films can be used as a tool of cultural juxtapose works by revolutionaries, cultural diplomacy, which is defned as the exchange fgures, environmentalists, and political of ideas, information, art, and other aspects advocates of all types. Exhibiting the of culture among nations and their people continent’s cultural diversity is often a in order to foster mutual understanding. motivation that unites directors from every CULTURAL Popular culture and art play important corner of Africa, pushing them to produce roles in how a country is perceived by the their work. world, but flm is unique because it is easily accessible and often watched by people FILMS OFTEN EXPLORE DIFFI- who might otherwise have no contact with art. Unlike other art forms, flm produces CULT SOCIAL AND POLITICAL a sense of immediacy because the pictures ISSUES THROUGH VARYING DIPLOMACYTHE NOLLYWOOD CASE tell stories that viewers can see unfolding. VIEWPOINTS. THIS CONTRIB- Film's unique ability to create the UTES TO THE DEVELOPMENT OF illusion of life and reality can ofer the world CROSS-CULTURAL DIALOGUE new perspectives, especially those from AND MUTUAL UNDERSTAND- Hope Obioma Opara cultures and places that have traditionally been marginalized. It is an extremely ING BETWEEN COMMUNITIES, CULTURE PUBLIC-PRIVATE GOVERNMENT 33 WINTER 2016 | @PD_Mag WINTER 2016 | @PD_Mag 34 PUBLIC DIPLOMACY IN SUB-SAHARAN AFRICA

WHICH REINFORCES THEIR To know someone else means to see flms submitted to flm festivals in Africa crimes such as bunkering, kidnapping, PEACEFUL CO-EXISTENCE. oneself in him or her. Film allows people explore these issues and work through soft fraud, and electoral manipulation. to understand the values and culture of a power to bring change. Previously, movies had portrayed Nigeria in community. People often take for granted For instance, B for Boy, a flm a bad light. To counter this, the government To fully evaluate the role of flm the cultural spaces in which they move produced by the Nigerian director Chika evaluated the movies produced in Nigeria festivals, one must look at the contribution around, because in such familiar terrain, Anadu and set in his home country, is a and encouraged flmmakers to showcase they make to a country’s soft power, they understand what is going on and why. contemporary drama about one woman's the country's value systems, rather than and its efcacy as a method for cultural It can be hard to imagine that someone from desperate need for a male child. It explores supernatural rituals. With a clear message engagement and exchange. These festivals a diferent culture, stepping into one’s own, the discrimination of women in the name and actions in terms of what it does and usually feature flms that were produced in might fnd it strange and confusing. It can of culture and religion. This mindset is does not support in Nigerian flm content, the previous year, and welcome entries from also be hard to recognize that someone’s lack predominant in eastern Nigeria where the government hopes that its cultural diferent genres, including documentary, of experience and understanding about one’s women are not allowed to inherit properties diplomacy work will enhance the country's short flm, religious, political, and cultural. cultural space limits their ability to make from their father; however, legislators are image in the international arena, expedite In screening such a diverse range of flms, their own choices and express themselves. now in the process of passing a law that the government's initiatives for national festivals can act as an instrument for positive This is because in a foreign cultural space, would allow women to inherit. Another flm, progress, and add value to Nigerian society. change by encouraging conversation around one tends to feel a loss of control that only I CRY, deals with the issue of female genital social, political, and cultural problems. returns when one has become familiar with mutilation, a harmful cultural tradition that FILM CAN ALSO BE A TOOL FOR the new surroundings. This is why flm is still being practiced in secret in Nigeria. RE-BRANDING A COUNTRY, AS FILM AND CULTURE festivals play a pivotal role for real cultural The Clan’s Wife is a flm produced THE NOLLYWOOD FILM INDUS- exchange. by a Ugandan flmmaker Hassan Mageye. A community’s culture consists This piece contributed a major push for the TRY HAS BEEN FOR NIGERIA. of conventional patterns of thought and IN A FOREIGN CULTURAL SPACE fght against wives being inherited. This is a behavior, including values, beliefs, rules of ONE TENDS TO FEEL A LOSS OF common practice in Uganda where widows Nigeria's successful motion picture conduct, political organization, economic CONTROL THAT ONLY RETURNS are forcibly inherited, along with other industry enhances the country's image activities, and the like, which are passed on property, by male in-laws upon the death of abroad through both formal and informal from one generation to the next by learning WHEN ONE HAS BECOME a husband. The Clan’s Wife tells a compelling means. Nollywood contributes to Nigeria's – not by biological inheritance. Culture is FAMILIAR WITH THE NEW story of how the practice of wife inheritance GDP and is one of the largest employers learned and dependent on being brought up SURROUNDINGS. THIS IS WHY claimed many lives in the area of Ankole in in the country, as well as being the second within a framework – a cultural space. Many FILM FESTIVALS PLAY A PIVOTAL a time when AIDS was less well understood. highest-producing flm industry in the flm festivals present works that refect ROLE FOR REAL CULTURAL The storyline revolves around one tragic world. People from all over Africa and the traditions, customs, and rituals of the EXCHANGE. family who contracts the deadly disease the world watch Nollywood flms. Often, inhabitants of diferent countries and in doing through the forced sharing of a wife. Films Nollywood stars are invited to attend special so, infuence the host audience’s cultural of this sort attempt to discourage some of events outside Nigeria as representatives of development and understanding of the other. The culture of a nation may only these harmful traditions and encourage the country and the industry. This has given In this sense, cinema presents develop in a dialogue with other cultures. change by bringing these issues into the the industry a staggering amount of soft inexhaustible possibilities for getting Such flms, while observing closely the life public spotlight. power. acquainted and sympathizing with people of strangers, may be imbued with common of other nationalities and religions. Looking human problems, troubles, joys, and FILM AND NATION-BRANDING: A THIS UNILATERAL BROADCAST- at the screen and into another, sometimes adversities. They will play a role in exploring NOLLYWOOD CASE STUDY ING IS TRANSFORMED INTO foreign world, audiences can recognize what the most difcult socio-political problems, AN AVENUE OF MULTILATERAL all humans share – joys, sorrows, hopes, and encouraging tolerance, and emphasizing the Film can also be a tool for re-branding adversities. shared human experience. These flms can a country, as the Nollywood flm industry has LEARNING THROUGH THE USE Films often explore difcult social and also be a tool of advocacy, reconciling with been for Nigeria. The Nigerian government OF FILM FESTIVALS, WHICH political issues through varying viewpoints. the past to shape a better present and future. has made citizen diplomacy a central part SERVE TO INFORM AND INFLU- This contributes to the development of cross- In Africa, some harmful traditions of its foreign policy strategy – the frst time ENCE AN AUDIENCE WITHIN cultural dialogue and mutual understanding that have been practiced for hundreds of it has enunciated a clear-cut foreign policy AND WITHOUT AFRICA, AND between communities, which reinforces years are no longer in step with modern objective. Nigeria's image abroad has been BECOMING A MAJOR ELEMENT their peaceful co-existence. civilization's values and beliefs. Some of the battered by corruption, abject poverty, and CULTURE PUBLIC-PRIVATE GOVERNMENT 35 WINTER 2016 | @PD_Mag WINTER 2016 | @PD_Mag 36 PUBLIC DIPLOMACY IN SUB-SAHARAN AFRICA

OF CULTURAL DIPLOMACY as Google and Yahoo, etc. HOW DOES THE IGBO USE NOLLYWOOD AS A WORLDWIDE. Nigerian flms and the Nigerian flm industry have enhanced the world’s TOOL OF CULTURAL DIPLOMACY? Some Nollywood stars have understanding and respect for Nigeria, but enhanced Nigeria’s image through their this unilateral broadcasting is transformed EXAMINING HOW THE IGBO LANGUAGE AND CULTURE HAVE philanthropic eforts. For example, into an avenue of multilateral learning HELPED SHAOPE NIGERIA'S FILM INDUSTRY AND ADVANCED IN- Stephanie Okereke Linus works in through the use of flm festivals, which serve TERACTIONS WITH OTHER AFRICAN COUNTRIES. collaboration with corporations to provide to inform and infuence an audience within treatment for women with vesicovaginal and without Africa, and becoming a major fstula, a medical condition that has ravaged element of cultural diplomacy worldwide. many women in Nigeria. Many other Nollywood stars advocate fghting violence against women, an end to child marriage, against rape, and campaigning for each girl's right to an education. The Nollywood flm industry has also attracted major Hollywood talent, for example, the American comedian and actor Danny Glover, also known as Hope Obioma Childish Gambino, took part in an upcoming Opara flm about the Ebola virus. President

THE NIGERIAN FILM INDUS- TRY HAVE ENHANCED THE WORLD’S UNDERSTANDING Hope Obioma Opara is the President/ AND RESPECT FOR NIGERIA, Founder of the Eko International Film BUT THIS UNILATERAL BROAD- Festival (www.ekoif.org), and the CASTING IS TRANSFORMED Managing Director of Supple Commu- IGBO, INTO AN AVENUE OF MULTILAT- nications Limited and Flonnal Limited. ERAL LEARNING THROUGH THE He holds a Masters of Business Admin- USE OF FILM FESTIVALS istration and he is a member of the Ni- gerian Institute of Management (NIM). Nollywood has also produced some He is also an Associate Registered Prac- international ambassadors who represent titioner in Advertising (ARPA) in the , the Nigerian people for nongovernmental Advertising Practitioners Council of NOLLYWOOD agencies such as UNICEF and Amnesty Nigeria. Having attended flm festivals International, and major corporations across Europe, Hope was inspired to es- such as Land Rover motor manufacturing tablish a flm festival in Nigeria in order company and Unilever consumer goods company. The industry also contributes to foster the growth and development content to multi-national cable networks of the “Nollywood” flm industry. In like MultiChoice Africa, the biggest cable addition, he founded Supple Magazine &THE ROLE DIPLOMACY OF THE IGBO IN NOLLYWOOD TV network in South Africa, and StarTimes, (www.supplemagazine.org), a cable TV based in China. Movies hailing publication devoted to covering the from Nollywood can be found on popular global flm industry and international online platforms such as Iroko TV, Afrinolly, Uchenna Onuzulike and Netfix, as well as search engines such flm festivals. CULTURE PUBLIC-PRIVATE GOVERNMENT 37 WINTER 2016 | @PD_Mag WINTER 2016 | @PD_Mag 38 PUBLIC DIPLOMACY IN SUB-SAHARAN AFRICA

INTRODUCTION African cultures. It is not uncommon for Igbo while some Igbo speakers can be found period, and the Nollywood era.9,10 The flmmakers to collaborate with other ethnic in parts of the Cross River, Akwa-Ibom, emergence of Nollywood has been credited This article explores how the Igbo, groups in Nigeria in order to make a flm. In Bayelsa, and Rivers states. The spoken to the 1992 flm Living in Bondage, but an ethnic group located in the Southeastern the same vein, Nollywood flmmakers have language is specifcally Igbo, although there earlier accomplishments set the stage. part of Nigeria, construct their ethnic collaborated with other African countries, are a variety of dialects. The Igbo population 11,12,13,14,15 The Yoruba travelling theatre identities using Nollywood within the especially with Ghana, in producing movies. is estimated to be over 25.2 million.3 The movement of the 1980s, led by director framework of cultural diplomacy.1,2 This These collaborations allow for cultural Igbo are not new to migration and their lives Chief Hubert Ogunde and his contemporary article uses cultural diplomacy as a lens to exchange and dialogue among Africans. and identity have long been impacted by the Ola Balogun, foregrounded Nollywood.16,17 underline how the Igbo and their culture They also advance and promote inter- diaspora.4 Also, Onitsha Market Literature helped have contributed to Nollywood. The Igbo ethnic and intercultural competence among set the stage for some notable Nollywood have been stereotyped regarding their love Africans. IGBO ENTREPRENEURSHIP genres such as the supernatural, which was of wealth as well as their entrepreneurship. evidenced in Living in Bondage. Ironically, they used this spirit of AN IGBO PRIMER “The Igbo admire ‘the man of entrepreneurship to transform the Nigerian energy, the gogetter...’ and that the ALTHOUGH DATED, A 2006 flm industry and propel it to the world stage. The Igbo are one of three major qualities stressed in children’s upbringing SURVEY CONDUCTED BY THE Examining the role of Nollywood as a form of ethnic groups in Nigeria. The other two are property, money, honesty, and loyalty to UNESCO INSTITUTE FOR STA- Igbo cultural diplomacy demonstrates how are the Hausa-Fulani and the Yoruba. Even kinsmen.”5 Ndigbo “are the most energetic the second-generation Igbo children who though the Igbo people can be found in parvenus who have successfully challenged TISTICS (UIS) RANKED NOL- use Nollywood movies to connect to their every state in Nigeria, their primordial or the established order of supremacy which the LYWOOD AS THE SECOND- ancestral home and culture and how the ancestral homeland is concentrated in the Yoruba occupied in the elitist professional LARGEST FILM PRODUCER IN Igbo language and culture have helped shape states of Abia, Anambra, Ebonyi, Enugu, civil service establishments.”6 The phrase THE WORLD, JUST BEHIND BOL- the Nigerian flm industry. It highlights and Imo, all of which are in Southeastern Igbo Entrepreneurship was derived from Igbo LYWOOD. HOLLYWOOD WAS how Nollywood facilitates and advances Nigeria. Other areas of homeland are the (culture) and entrepreneurship. This simply PLACED THIRD. THE SURVEY AC- interactions between Igbo culture and other Aniocha and Ika areas of the Delta state, means planning, organizing, coordinating, and controlling other factors of production, COUNTED THAT BOLLYWOOD and production processes in Igbo learning PRODUCED 1,091 FEATURE culture. Therefore, an Igbo entrepreneur is LENGTH FILMS, NOLLYWOOD a person who does not only coordinate other MADE 872 (ALL IN VIDEO FOR- factors of production, but who from time MAT) WHILE HOLLYWOOD to time seeks opportunities to make proft MADE 485 MAJOR FILM through his/her innovativeness, creativity, customers’ satisfaction, and efcient PRODUCTIONS. utilization of scarce resources in a consistent cultural pattern.7 In addition, “The Igbo The flm was developed by a trio entrepreneurs have dominated Nigeria and of indigenous Igbo. It was produced by even across the national boundary, such as Okechukwu Ogunjiofor, directed by Chris South Africa, Cameroon, Ghana, Mali, and Obi Rapu [as Vic Mordi], and marketed Gambia, China, and so on.”8 by Kenneth Nnebue’s Nek Video Links Limited. Even though this flm was made THE EMERGENCE OF in the Igbo language, it catapulted Nigeria’s NOLLYWOOD flm industry across the globe. Nnebue’s marketing entrepreneurship is particularly The frst flm screening in Nigeria notable: he used videocassettes he imported took place at Glover Memorial Hall in from Taiwan to dub Living in Bondage Lagos in August 1903. Since then, flm for mass production. He marketed what productions in Nigeria have continued to became a household movie and then he evolve through the colonial period, the made subsequent movies. This led to other independence period, the indigenization cinematographers – both professionals CULTURE PUBLIC-PRIVATE GOVERNMENT 39 WINTER 2016 | @PD_Mag WINTER 2016 | @PD_Mag 40 PUBLIC DIPLOMACY IN SUB-SAHARAN AFRICA

can be reproduced.”23 “Video flm has help provide inter-ethnic and inter-cultural transformed how contemporary African communication. For example, diferent flmmakers tell their stories.”24 The Igbo ethnic and cultural groups appear on the oral communication and material culture set at the same time. They work together are ever-present in both in Igbo-language producing movies and it increases their and English version movies. Some of the inter-ethnic and inter-cultural competency. facets are attire, artifacts, proverbs, idioms, Two of the most prominent and Igbo sound bites. Igbo proverbs are not Nollywood flms, Living in Bondage (1992) only vital to the propagation of Igbo culture and Osuofa in London (2003/2004), are based in all its implications; they are a factor in on Igbo culture and people. As indicated formal and familiar speeches and in other earlier, Living in Bondage is credited by forms of popular communication. many as the flm that made the Nigerian The almost compulsory use of flm industry successful. Osuofa in London is Igbo idioms (akpaalaokwu), proverbs (ilu), arguably the most popular Nollywood movie and parables (ukabuilu) “has elevated the ever made.27 Many Nollywood audiences language to the status of a living art of are familiar with Osuofa in London, one of popular communication.”25 In the Igbo the most popular Nollywood flms, and traditional setting, when people come to can relate to it. Even though the flm was talk, especially about important issues, made in English, it is full of Igbo aesthetics, they use idioms, proverbs, and other forms culture, and sound bites. The flm was shot of expression to introduce or explain their in Nigeria and in London representing the matters. Often, the speakers expect the transnational lives of the Igbo. Igbo culture listener to understand these forms of speech is manifested in their language, mode of without being explicit.26 dress, food, belief system, norms and value and amateurs – to engage in video flm Onuzulike articulates the term “video system, etc. Many people of African descent productions. Now, other African countries flm” as “any movie or motion picture THE IGBO IMPACT ON that are familiar with Nollywood movies are emulating Nnebue in making movies in produced mainly in video format while NOLLYWOOD tend to imitate the Igbo cultural cues that video format. adhering to particular cinematic values are common in them. New technologies, such as video and conventions.”19 However, Nollywood Igbo-language flms and Igbo Igbo culture encompasses religious technology, have provided the Nigerian flm has produced movies on celluloid including English movies help advance Igbo across objects; art, artifacts, and symbols; music industry with the tools to engage in cultural The Amazing Grace (2006)20 and Half of a Africa and beyond. Igbo flm productions and dance; proverbs, idioms, riddles, and diplomacy, including interactions between Yellow Sun (2013).21 Due to the high cost various Nigerian and other African ethnic of celluloid, Nigerian flmmakers resort to and cultural groups. Nollywood portrays video. Africa both in positive and negative ways. Although dated, a 2006 survey Nonetheless, one of the most important conducted by the UNESCO Institute for things is that the proliferation of video Statistics (UIS) ranked Nollywood as the technology has made it possible for the Igbo second-largest flm producer in the world, and Africans in general to tell their own just behind Bollywood. Hollywood was stories. placed third. The survey accounted that Right now, making Nollywood movies Bollywood produced 1,091 feature length has been transforming from videocassettes, flms, Nollywood made 872 (all in video to analog video, and to digital equipment. format) while Hollywood made 485 major The Nigerian forms of flm production flm productions.22 have been tagged “home video,” “video,” Due to the Igbo entrepreneurial and “video flm.” The term "video flm" is quest, “the video flm phenomenon has the outcome of combining television and created an environment in which [Igbo], cinema.18 Expanding Haynes’s defnition, Nigerian and other African cultural contexts CULTURE PUBLIC-PRIVATE GOVERNMENT 41 WINTER 2016 | @PD_Mag WINTER 2016 | @PD_Mag 42 PUBLIC DIPLOMACY IN SUB-SAHARAN AFRICA

imageries. Some of them are the observation subtitled in English and is set in London. of Igbo traditional rites including "Ime The flm received the 2015 Africa Magic ego " (bride price) as well as "Igba nkwu" Viewer's Choice Awards (AMVCA) Best (also known as ‘wine carrying’) and the Local Language Igbo award. This is another observation of Kola. “The kola nut[s] … are boost for our Igbo-language flm producers. eaten at every formal gathering and during Also, the flm won the 2014 Africa Movie family and social visits. As Ndigbo would Academy Awards (AMAA) for Achievement say, ‘He who brings kola brings life.’ in Soundtrack and the 2014 Nollywood Also, Igbo presence in Nollywood Movies Awards (NMA) for Best Indigenous helps disseminate Igbo culture to second- Movies and the Best Diaspora Movie. Also in generation Igbo children living in the 2010, Chineze Anyaene, an Igbo residing in diaspora who want to reconnect with their the United States, produced the Nollywood own culture. Since many Nollywood movies flm Ije: the Journey, which was shot on are made in the English language yet 33mm celluloid.31 contain a strong presence of Igbo cultural cues, young viewers can identify with the IGBO NOLLYWOOD STARS Igbo cultural elements in the movies. These remarks correspond with a research project Some notable Igbo male stars done in the Washington, DC area by this include Pete Edochie; Anayo Modestus author in 2014. I interviewed 12 young Igbo Onyekwere, popularly known as Kanayo residing in the DC area in order to ascertain O. Kanayo; Nonso Diobi; Mike Ezuruonye; how they construct and negotiate their James Ikechukwu Esomugha, widely known ethnic and transnational identities in the as Jim Iyke; Nkem Owoh, popularly known United States. The participants indicated as Osuofa; John Okafor, widely known as that they use Nollywood movies to maintain Mr.Ibu; Kenneth Okonkwo is widely known ties to Igbo culture and heritage.28 The as Andy Okeke from his very popular movie participants identifed with the culture Living in Bondage; Osita Iheme is popularly cultural diplomacy. Igbo language. Such movies such as Living because they live and experience Igbo known for playing the role of ‘Pawpaw’ in THE CHALLENGES in Bondage (1992), Ikuku (1995) and Rattle culture through their parents, through the breakthrough flm Aki na Ukwa, and his Snake (1994) refect the evolving Igbo Igbo organizations, through peers, through co-star, Chinedu Ikedieze, is widely known There are some challenges facing culture.35,36 Productions in Igbo language social interactions, as well as in their own for playing alongside Iheme in several other Igbo Nollywood producers. Specifcally, illuminate the beauty of Igbo language and respective homes.29 movies.32 Igbo flmmakers prefer producing flms in culture. Some of the notable Igbo flm female English. This has led to accusations about IGBO PRESENCE IN NOLLY- stars include Genevieve Nnaji; Stephanie the Igbo’s lack of loyalty to their language WOOD HELPS DISSEMINATE Okereke; Patience Ozokwor (aka Mama and culture. Igbo flmmakers argue that IGBO CULTURE TO SECOND- G); Uche Jumbo, Ashley Nwosu, Clarion there is no market for Igbo-language flms. CONCLUSION Chukwurah; Ngozi Ezeonu; Omoni Oboli; Another concern is the portrayal of Igbo GENERATION IGBO CHILDREN Judith “AfroCandy” Mazagwu; and so many culture. Due to the hasty production and Nollywood has become the LIVING IN THE DIASPORA WHO others. On September 2009, Nneji made small budgets of most Nollywood movies, highest sector of employment besides WANT TO RECONNECT WITH an appearance on The Oprah Winfrey Show the producers are likely to overlook the government in Nigeria for the Igbo. THEIR OWN CULTURE. as one of the most famous people in the depicting Igbo culture correctly; they may Commercial success of English-language world and was featured amongst popular improvise elements that are not a true Nollywood flms was engineered by Igbo stars in sports and entertainment.33 “The representation of Igbo or African cultures entrepreneurship. At the same time, by Diaspora Igbo have been engaging highlight of the show was when Oprah in general. Also, they may reinforce some producing Nollywood flms in English in in Nollywood production. For example, Igbo played a montage of movies featuring the negative stereotypes of the Igbo, Nigeria, order to reach a global audience, Igbo- London-based Nollywood flm producer popular actress Genevieve Nnaji, whom she and other African cultures. These types of language flm production is undermined. Obi Emelonye made an Igbo-language called ‘the Julia Roberts of Africa.’”34 This issues may hinder cultural diplomacy. The The production of English-language flms flm Onye Ozi (The Messenger, 2013);30 it is is one of the great examples of the Igbo’s Igbo are best portrayed to the world in their was targeted for a wider audience across CULTURE PUBLIC-PRIVATE GOVERNMENT 43 WINTER 2016 | @PD_Mag WINTER 2016 | @PD_Mag 44 PUBLIC DIPLOMACY IN SUB-SAHARAN AFRICA

Africa. Even though the Igbo have played a M.M. 1947, p. 88. Ibo Village Afairs. Sidwick and Glassboro, NJ: Goldline and Jacobs Publishing. Gold, 1994 dvd). tremendous role in establishing Nollywood, Jackson, London. 18 Haynes, 2005. on the other hand they have been faulted 6 Olutayo, O. A. (1999). The Igbo Entrepreneur 19 Onuzulike, 2010, p. 2. for not using Igbo language or promoting it in the Political Economy of Nigeria, African 20 The amazing grace (2006), Wrs: Jeta Amata and in their movies. Study Monograph, 20(3), 147–174, p. 150, cited in Nick Moran, Dir: Jeta Amata [English Language], LeVine, R. 1966. Dreams and Deeds: Achievement 100 mins. PRODUCTIONS IN IGBO Motivation in Nigeria. The University of Chicago 21 Half of a yellow sun (2013), Wr: Chimamanda LANGUAGE ILLUMINATE THE Press, Chicago and London. Ngozu Adichie, Dir: Biyi Bandele [English BEAUTY OF IGBO LANGUAGE 7 Orugun, J. J & Nafu, A. T. (2014). An Exploratory Language], 106 mins. Study Of Igbo Entrepreneurial Activity And 22 UNESCOPRESS, (2009), “Nollywood rivals AND CULTURE. Business Success In Nigeria As The Panacea For Bollywood in flm/video production,” Economic Growth And Development, International http://portal.unesco.org/en/ev.php URL_ Onuzulike, In conclusion, Igbo entrepreneurship Journal of Scientifc & Technology Research, 3(9), 158- ID=45317&URL_DO=DO_TOPIC&URL_ Uchenna Ph.d helped produce the flm that is credited for 165, p. 159. SECTION=201.html. Accessed 10 May 2015. Adjunct Professor ushering in Nollywood as well as subsequent 8 Ibid. 23 Onuzulike, U. (2014). Nollywood video Howard University movies. The Igbo producers used Igbo- 9 Mgbejume, O. (1989). Film in Nigeria: African media flm’s impact on Nigerian and other African language and English-language Nollywood monograph series. Nairobi, environments and cultures. Explorations in Media movies to showcase Igbo language, cues, Kenya: African Council on Communication Ecology, 13(3&4), 285-298, p. 294. sound bites, cultural codes, and values. Education. 24 Ibid, p. 286. Uchenna Onuzulike (Ph.D., Howard Uni- Even though Nollywood may reinforce some 10 Okon, I. I. (1990, March). Film in Nigeria: 1990- 25 Onuzulike, 2010, p. 79, as cited in Ene, 2007. versity) is an adjunct instructor in How- negative stereotypes, it can also enable 1979 (An historical survey) Film 26 Onuzulike, 2010. ard Universtiy’s Department of Strategic, people to highlight their culture, heritage, News, 6, 8-10. 27 Ogoro, K. (Producer & Director). (2003/ 2004). Legal & Management Communication; and identity for themselves. 11 Abah, A, L. (2008). One forward, two steps Osuofa in London [Motion picture. Nigeria: backward: African women in Nigerian video-flm. Kingsley Ogoro Productions. Pepperdine University's Washington D.C. FOOTNOTES Communication, Culture & Critique, 1(4), 335-257. 28 Onuzulike, U. (2014). Ethnic and Transnational Program; and the School of Media Arts 12 Haynes, J. (2000). Introduction. In J. Haynes Identities in the Diaspora: A Phenomenological and Design at James Madison University, 1 According to Nicholas Cull, “Cultural diplomacy (Ed.), Nigerian video flms (pp. 1-36). Athens, OH: Study of Second-Generation Igbo-American where he was a Doctoral Fellow during the may be defned as an actor’s attempt to manage Ohio University Center for International Studies. Young Adults, (Unpublished doctoral dissertation, 2013-14 academic year. His research in- the international environment through making 13 Haynes, J. (2005). “Nollywood”: What’s in a name? Howard University): 10-12. terests lie in (critical) intercultural com- its cultural resources and achievements known Making African movies. Retrieved 29 Ibid. overseas and/or facilitating cultural transmission from http://www.nollywood.net/Essays 30 Onye Ozi, dir. by Obi Emelonye (2013; Nollywood munication; media literacy; social media; abroad.” See Cull, N. J. (2009). Public diplomacy: 14 Onuzulike, U. (2007), ‘Nollywood: The infuence Film Factory, 2013 dvd). ethnic and diasporic identities; transna- Lessons from the past. USC Center on Public of the Nigerian movie industry on 31 Ije: the Journey (2010), directed by Chineze tional media and globalization; second- Diplomacy at the Annenberg School University African culture’, The Journal of Human Anyaene. Xandria Distributions. generation Africans in the U.S., specif- of Southern California. Los Angeles, CA: Figueroa Communication: A Journal of the Pacifc and Asian 32 Obindigbo.com (July 2015). 10 Richest Igbo cally the Igbo; and the interrelationships Press for more. Communication Association, 10 (3), 231-242. Nollywood Actors, http://obindigbo.com. of religion, culture, folk belief, language, 2 Nollywood, Nigeria's booming flm industry, is 15 For more on the flm, see Ogunjiofor, O. ng/2015/07/10-richest-igbo-nollywood-actors/ the world's third largest producer of feature flms. (Producer), & Mordi, V. (Director). (1992). Living 33 CNN, African Voices (March 29, 2011). Genevieve Nollywood, and cultural diplomacy. Dr. For more see http://www.thisisnollywood.com/ in bondage [Motion picture]. Nigeria: NEK Video Nnaji: Nollywood's Julia Roberts. Source: http:// Onuzulike’s 2014 dissertation, Ethnic and nollywood.htm. Links. www.cnn.com/2011/WORLD/africa/03/29/nigeria. Transnational Identities in the Diaspora: 3 Minorityrights.com, Nigeria-Igbo. http:// 16 McCall, J. C. (2002). Madness, money, and genevieve.nnaji/ A Phenomenological Study of Second- minorityrights.org/minorities/igbo/ movies: Watching a Nigerian popular 34 Udoh, E. (2009). Vanguard. Nigeria: Oprah Generation Igbo-American Young Adults, 4 Onuzulike, U, (2010). Nollywood Video Film: video with the guidance of a native doctor. Africa Winfrey Celebrates Nollywood. Source: http:// won the Outstanding Dissertation Award Nigerian Movies as Indigenous. VDM Verlag Dr. Today, 49(3), 79-94. allafrica.com/stories/200910050020.html Müller, Germany. 17 Onuzulike, U. (2015). What’s wrong with Igbo- 35 Owoh, N. (Producer & Director). (1995). Ikuku of the National Communication Associa- 5 Olutayo, O. A. (1999). The Igbo Entrepreneur language Nollywood flm? In A. P. (Hurricane) [Motion picture]. Nigeria: Andy Best tion’s African American Communication in the Political Economy of Nigeria, African Study Nwauwa & C. J. Korieh (Eds.), Perspectives on the Electronics. and Culture Division and the Black Caucus. Monograph, 20(3), 147–174, p. 150, cited in Green, Igbo: Multidisciplinary approaches (pp. 237-248). 36 RattleSnake, dir. by Amaka Igwe (1994; Crystal CULTURE PUBLIC-PRIVATE GOVERNMENT 45 WINTER 2016 | @PD_Mag WINTER 2016 | @PD_Mag 46 PUBLIC DIPLOMACY IN SUB-SAHARAN AFRICA

SHOMPOLE, KENYA MAASAI TRIBE ELDERS AND WOMEN GATHER FOR A FORUM ON SEXUAL REPRODUCTIVE HEALTH METHODS AND ALTERNATIVE RIGHTS OF PASSAGE FOR YOUNG GIRLS THAT WOULD STOP FEMALE CIRCUMCISION. IMAGES OF

AFRICA:KENYA, SENEGAL, & UGANDA A PHOTO ESSAY KWALE, KENYA Johnathan Torgovnik A WOMEN'S COOPERATIVE GROUP USES OXEN FOR Photography is a powerful medium for storytelling, social activism, and public PLOWING LAND, A diplomacy, capable of documenting not only the lives of distant peoples and cul- JOB TRADITIONALLY PERFORMED BY MEN, tures, but also encouraging us, the viewer, to think diferently about certain issues AS AN INCOME or themes. In the following pages, Public Diplomacy Magazine has curated a collec- GENERATING ACTIVITY. tion of images by international photographer Jonathan Torgovnik, of Reportage by THIS INCOME ENABLES Getty Images, who traveled to Kenya, Senegal, and Uganda to showcase empow- WOMEN TO DECIDE ered women in sub-Saharan Africa. His photographs reveal women in charge of FOR THEMSELVES their lives, and ofer a counter-narrative to stereotypical imagery of women’s mar- HOW TO SPEND MONEY ON FAMILY ginalization and oppression. The images reprinted below (under Creative Com- PLANNING OPTIONS, mons license: CC BY NC 4.0) represent notable examples of the power of visual HEALTH SERVICES, AND storytelling to inform, inspire and infuence global perceptions of women in Africa. EDUCATION FOR THEIR CHILDREN.

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MOMBASA, KEURMASSAR, SENEGAL FEMALE COMMUNITY LEADERS MEET WITH LOCAL RELIGIOUS LEADERS TO KENYA DISCUSS ISSUES RELATING TO WOMEN'S RIGHTS, REPRODUCTIVE HEALTH AND A MOBILE CLINIC FAMILY PLANNING. THIS IS PART OF AN ADVOCACY PROJECT TO SENSITIZE PROVIDES WOMEN IN THE RELIGIOUS LEADERS TO WOMEN'S ISSUES. RURAL AREAS FAMILY PLANNING OPTIONS LIKE CONTRACEPTIVE IMPLANTS AND CERVICAL CANCER SCREENING.

SAHRE BOCAR, SENEGAL WOMEN PARTICIPATING IN THE TOSTAN COMMUNITY EMPOWERMENT PROGRAM LEARN ABOUT THEIR RIGHTS TO HEALTH CARE, FREEDOM FROM VIOLENCE, AND HOW DISEASES ARE SPREAD AND PREVENTED. THEY ALSO DISCUSS THE HEALTH RISKS OF HARMFUL PRACTICES NAIROBI, KENYA SUCH AS FEMALE GENITAL MEMBERS OF THE NAIROBI YOUNG AND OLD COOPERATIVE MAKE INCOME CUTTING AND CHILD GENERATING PRODUCTS THAT ARE SOLD AT LOCAL MARKETS, ENABLING MARRIAGE. THE WOMEN TO HAVE SOME FINANCIAL INDEPENDENCE AND MAKE THEIR OWN DECISIONS ON FAMILY PLANNING OPTIONS. CULTURE PUBLIC-PRIVATE GOVERNMENT 49 WINTER 2016 | @PD_Mag WINTER 2016 | @PD_Mag 50 PUBLIC DIPLOMACY IN SUB-SAHARAN AFRICA

MBALE, UGANDA KAMPALA, UGANDA: A COMMUNITY HEALTH MEMBERS OF THE MUVUBUKA AGUNJUSE YOUTH CLUB PROVIDE OUTREACH IN WORKER VISITS A KAMPALA'S SLUMS; HERE THEY ARE SEEN VISITING A GROUP OF MECHANICS WOMAN AT HOME THEY MET ON THE STREET TO DISCUSS FAMILY PLANNING ISSUES AND SEX TO PROVIDE FAMILY EDUCATION. PLANNING SERVICES AND INFORMAITON TO WOMEN IN THE COMMUNITY. THIS PROACTIVE PROGRAM IS SUPPORTED BY REPRODUCTIVE HEALTH UGANDA.

KAMPALA, UGANDA MEMBERS OF THE MUVUBUKA AGUNJUSE YOUTH CLUB PROVIDE OUTREACH IN KAMPALA'S SLUMS; HERE THEY ARE SEEN VISITING A GROUP OF MECHANICS APAC, UGANDA THEY MET ON THE WOMEN FROM THE YOUNG MOTHERS GROUP LEARN FAMILY PLANNING STREET TO DISCUSS INFORMATION FROM A COMMUNITY HEALTH WORKER. THE PROGRAM FAMILY PLANNING IS SUPPORTED BY REPRODUCTIVE HEALTH UGANDA, A PROGRAM FOR ISSUES AND SEX WOMEN'S EMPOWERMENT. EDUCATION. CULTURE PUBLIC-PRIVATE GOVERNMENT 51 WINTER 2016 | @PD_Mag WINTER 2016 | @PD_Mag 52 PUBLIC DIPLOMACY IN SUB-SAHARAN AFRICA

WHAT IS THE ULWAZI PROGRAM & HOW IS IT OVERVIEW Consulting, trained them to create digital audio and visual material such as recorded BENEFITING THE COMMUNITIES Born of political shifts and oral histories and photographs. Together IN DURBAN, SOUTH AFRICA? a changing, post-apartheid policy with library staf, feldworkers were then environment that advanced a participatory taught to add this content, in both English approach to heritage, the Ulwazi Program and Zulu, to the Ulwazi Program Wiki, THE AUTHOR GATHERED INFORMATION THROUGH INTERVIEWS, is a South African library initiative set up using their local libraries and the Ulwazi GOVERNMENT PUBLICATIONS, CONFERENCE PROCEEDINGS, by the eThekwini Municipality’s Libraries Program’s central ofce at the municipal AND THE PROGRAM WEBSITE. and Heritage Department to “preserve and library in Durban as submission points. disseminate indigenous knowledge of local The libraries also serve as Internet access communities in the greater Durban area.”1 points where communities can browse the It creates a collaborative online database of Ulwazi Wiki and the Internet. They can local indigenous knowledge as part of the also contribute to the Wiki if they have public library’s digital resources, relying user accounts. Since 2010, the Ulwazi Wiki on community participation for delivering has allowed for submissions via cell phone content and posting the content on the through a program where contributors are web.2 The project is a collaborative, online, paid in cell phone credit if their submissions local knowledge resource in English and are accepted.5 Zulu (the most commonly used languages in Durban), in the form of a “Wiki,” much like AIMS OF THE ULWAZI PROGRAM Wikipedia, but localized for the eThekwini Municipality. Greyling designed the Ulwazi The program was established in Program model based on her experience as 2008 in Durban, KwaZulu-Natal, South a librarian. The primary aims of the Ulwazi Africa. It was the brainchild of a former Program, as a library-afliated initiative, senior librarian for software applications are thus the preservation, organization, at the eThekwini Municipal Library, Betsie and dissemination of knowledge on a wide Greyling. Greyling worked with McNulty scale, which as Greyling explained, “is what Consulting to translate her conceptual libraries do.” She also expressed concern thinking into a practical project.3 The about “losing young people from the Ulwazi Program is the frst project of its libraries” and saw a program that provided ULWAZI kind in South Africa because it promotes a locally-generated content, delivered via “democratized collection policy” through a medium that was attractive to youth, the library with the use of basic digital media namely the Internet and cell phones, as a tools and community participation.4 drawcard. She believed that if she could implement a program that included these THE ULWAZI PROGRAM MODEL aspects, it would entice people back to the library.6 The Ulwazi Program model uses the PROGRAM:A MODEL FOR PUBLIC PARTICIPATION existing public library infrastructure, social THE PROGRAM PROMOTES A THROUGH DIGITAL TECHNOLOGY & CROSS- technologies, and volunteer “feldworkers” "DEMOCRATIZED COLLECTION from local communities served by the OF POLICY" THROUGH THE LI- library. Fieldworkers are trained in digital CULTURAL EXCHANGE media skills, digital media management, BRARY WITH THE USE OF BASIC and oral history methodology. To get DIGITAL MEDIA TOOLS AND the program started, Greyling selected COMMUNITY PARTICIPATION. Niall & Grant McNulty feldworkers from communities within the municipality and, with the help of McNulty CULTURE PUBLIC-PRIVATE GOVERNMENT 53 WINTER 2016 | @PD_Mag WINTER 2016 | @PD_Mag 54 PUBLIC DIPLOMACY IN SUB-SAHARAN AFRICA

Key to the program is the use of fve-year strategic documents that direct • The empowerment of local communi- IT OFFERS THE POTENTIAL TO new technologies to preserve and circulate all municipal activities and are reviewed ties to use ICTs; and● PROMOTE CROSS-CULTURAL local knowledge. It achieves this through annually in consultation with stakeholders • Policies that support the respect, pres- UNDERSTANDING, INCLUSIV- an online repository to which local and communities. Municipal IDPs are ervation and promotion of cultural and ITY AND ACCOMMODATE A communities contribute digital content. The informed by both national governmental linguistic diversity, and the generation program thus deals with both preservation policy and local circumstances. The plans of local content to suit the linguistic BROAD ARRAY OF MATERIALS 11 and the provision of access to resources. In are implemented at the municipal level and and cultural context of the users. an article that Greyling co-authored, she aim to address locally-defned needs but ACHIEVEMENTS mentioned that, by “providing an online, must also follow the national government’s Indigenous knowledge as a concept and contextually-based information service policy.10 In this way, the Ulwazi Program formal policy only came to Greyling’s The Ulwazi Program has had many to local communities, public libraries in promoted, and was the product of, multi- attention after she had conceptualized the accomplishments. It has established a Africa will ensure future-oriented access to stakeholder engagements. Ulwazi Program. However, she no doubt digital library of local history and knowledge cultural heritage resources through twenty- saw synergies between what she hoped to in English and Zulu. This library comprises frst century information communication THE ULWAZI PROGRAMME achieve with the program and the mandate over 800 articles and is currently larger technologies (ICTs).”7 In another article, STROVE TO ENABLE LOCAL for museums and libraries, as detailed in than the Zulu Wikipedia. The project has she argued that the Ulwazi Program seeks COMMUNITIES TO BECOME the national Indigenous Knowledge Systems trained over 20 feldworkers in digital to enable local communities to become Policy. The policy encourages indigenous media management and digital skills and part of the global information society. The PART OF THE GLOBAL INFOR- and local communities to “actively record has collaborated with, and given training to program’s model is based on the idea that MATION SOCIETY. THE PRO- and share their contemporary history, students at four underserviced peri-urban access to a digital knowledge resource of local GRAMME MODEL IS BASED culture and language” and emphasizes and rural schools. By providing access to a relevance facilitates the growth of digital ON THE IDEA THAT ACCESS TO the creative use of new technologies to locally relevant resource in a local language, and information literacy skills, promotes “support indigenous and local community the program has promoted and supported A DIGITAL KNOWLEDGE RE- 12 the preservation of local knowledge, and SOURCE OF LOCAL RELEVANCE development.” digital and reading literacy. In recognition creates potential economic empowerment of the project’s eforts, in 2012 it received of communities through skills development FACILITATES THE GROWTH OF INDIGENOUS KNOWLEDGE? a Telkom Highway Award for Community and knowledge provision.8 DIGITAL AND INFORMATION Engagement through Technology. LITERACY SKILLS, THE PRESER- The Ulwazi Program’s interpretation of MULTI-STAKEHOLDER VATION OF LOCAL KNOWL- indigenous knowledge is loosely defned FOOTNOTES ENGAGEMENTS AND POLICY EDGE, AS WELL AS POTENTIAL and fexible, although it is limited to ECONOMIC EMPOWERMENT the geographic boundaries of eThekwini 1 “About the Programme.” About the Programme. The Ulwazi Program model is based Municipality.13 It ofers the potential to Ulwazi Programme, 8 January 2012. Web. on community needs as identifed by the OF COMMUNITIES THROUGH promote cross-cultural understanding and 2 Ibid. municipal library, inputs from a number SKILLS DEVELOPMENT AND inclusivity, and to accommodate a broad 3 ‘eThekwini’ is the Zulu name for Durban. of stakeholders, and various national and KNOWLEDGE PROVISION. array of materials. The program has recorded eThekwini Municipality is the municipality that international policies. According to Greyling, numerous aspects of local history and culture runs the city of Durban. through library surveys from various The Ulwazi Program model was including personal, family, and group 4 Following the establishment of the program, library-using communities, the municipal also informed by various national and histories, aspects of material culture unique the Presidential National Commission on the library was “made aware of the needs in the international policy documents such as the to the Durban area, and a wealth of cultural Information Society and Development (PNC communities: their lack of digital literacy, Geneva Plan of Action, generated by the practices relating to food, rites of passage, on ISAD) aimed to create a similar project on a their lack of empowerment, the lack of digital World Summit on the Information Society, ceremonies, and celebrations, among other national level, the National Digital Repository skills, their lack of knowledge of their own which called for: things. It is seen, and used, as a valuable (NDR), and approached Betsie Greyling to elicit communities, the fact that their indigenous source of local information representing the her perspective on how the national project should knowledge was getting lost at an alarming • Free or afordable access to informa- diferent cultural groupings found within function. Through community participation, the rate.”9 The program follows the eThekwini tion and knowledge via community the municipal borders, and as a platform NDR aimed to “collect, preserve, promote and Municipality’s Integrated Development access points (such as a digital library for digital dialogue and cross-cultural and disseminate South Africa’s cultural heritage” Plan (IDP). The Municipal Systems Act 132 service); linguistic exchange of knowledge. The (National Digital Repository, n.d.). of 2000 requires that all municipalities • The development of Information Com- program currently receives over 60,000 5 “About the Programme.” About the Programme. in South Africa develop IDPs, which are munication Technology (ICT) skills; visitors per month. Ulwazi Programme, 8 January 2012. Web. CULTURE PUBLIC-PRIVATE GOVERNMENT 55 WINTER 2016 | @PD_Mag WINTER 2016 | @PD_Mag 56 PUBLIC DIPLOMACY IN SUB-SAHARAN AFRICA

6 Betsie Greyling, interview, 2009 December 02 Information Society and Development. World PUBLIC-PRIVATE PARTNERSHIPS TO BUILD MORE 7 Greyling E. H. and S. Zulu. “Content Summit on the Information Society (WSIS) Documents: Development in an Indigenous Digital Library: A 42-44, n.d. Booklet. SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT PROGRAMS IN Case Study in Community Participation.” IFLA 12 Indigenous Knowledge Systems: Visions and goals SUB-SAHARAN AFRICA Journal 36.1 (2010): 30-39. Print. for an Indigenous Knowledge Systems (IKS) Policy for 8 Greyling, E. H. “Content Development in an South Africa. Pretoria: Department of Science and Indigenous Digital Library: a Model for Community Technology, 2005. Print. FROM A FORMER NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC EMERGING EXPLORER Participation.” Proceedings of IST-Africa 2009 13 Betsie Greyling, interview, 2009 October 08 Conference. 6-8 May 2009, Kamapala, Uganda. 14 South Africa. eThekwini Municipality. IDP IIMC International Information Management Review 2009/2010. Durban, 2009. Web. Corporation, 2009. Web. 15 “About NDR.” National Digital Repository. 9 Betsie Greyling, interview, 2009 October 08 National Digital Repository, 12 October 2012. Web. 10 Deputy Head of eThekwini Libraries and Heritage, interview, 2009 October 30 11 Presidential National Commission on the

Grant McNulty Niall Mcnulty Research Fellow Consultant BUILDING A [email protected] [email protected]

Grant McNulty is a post-doctoral research Niall McNulty is an experienced manager fellow of the Archive and Public Culture Re- and consultant (McNulty Consulting) with a search Initiative (University of Cape Town) background in the implementation of inno- and runs his own digital media consultancy, vative technology solutions for academic and McNulty Consulting. He has a Master's de- local government initiatives. As co-founder SUSTAINABLE gree in Zulu (University of KwaZulu-Natal) of the Ulwazi Programme, Niall worked for and completed a PhD thesis (University of several developing a community-based digi- Cape Town) on the production and mobilisa- tal library of indigenous knowledge. His fo- tion of the past in contemporary KwaZulu- cus is now on transforming education in Af- Natal. He has a comprehensive understand- rica through the use of relevant technology. ing of the intersection of digital technologies Niall is a 2016 fellow of the Institute for Open AFRICAAN INTERVIEW WITH JENNIFER BURNEY and cultural heritage in Africa, as well as of Leadership (Creative Commons). the history and post-apartheid transforma- tion of museums, archives and libraries in South Africa. Sarah Chung & Bret Schafer

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sustainable development programs in Sub- small source that is held and maintained by The second beneft of irrigation is Subaran Africa. In particular, her work has the household, or a group of households. slightly more complex. With irrigation, demonstrated the need for greater cross- people are able to produce crops that they cultural understanding of labor between How do you see this as a could not farm otherwise. The nutritional developed and developing economies and sustainable solution to the value of fruits and vegetables, for example, countries. larger social issue of economic means that they are in high demand and development? sell for high prices, even in extremely poor Your research largely focuses areas. Ultimately, producing these sorts of on achieving global food JB: Smallholder agricultural productivity crops helps to create market linkages that security and mitigating climate can be addressed in several ways, and I eventually put the rural sector in touch with change. How would you describe certainly would not claim that any one urban consumers. Basic marketing, even the biggest environmental strategy is the sole solution. Smallholder through cellphones, can give these people problems facing Sub-Saharan irrigation has several characteristics that higher profts. The combination of counter- Africa due to climate change, are well matched to the particular realities season production and linking higher- and how is this impacting of Sub-Subaran Africa. From a physical value crops to local nutrition outcomes and domestic agriculture? point of view, Sub-Subaran Africa has a lot higher prices lead to a higher return on both of groundwater that could likely be used in land and labor in these systems – and it’s all Jennifer Burney: There are many big a sustainable manner. What is remarkable based on smallholder irrigation. environmental issues at play in Sub- is that the more we learn about the region’s Subaran Africa. Of the ones attributable physical hydrology, the more it seems suited IT IS IMPORTANT TO REMEMBER Jennifer Burney is an Assistant Professor to climate change, the biggest is taking to a smallholder irrigation system. THAT AGRICULTURE IS A BIG at the School of Global Policy and Strategy place in the semi-arid regions. The semi For farmers with either their own PART OF LIFE IN SUB-SAHARAN at the University of California at San Diego arid tropics have seen greater temperature little wells or a common neighborhood well and a former National Geographic Emerging changes relative to the global average, to irrigate their plots, smallholder irrigation AFRICA. THE BOTTOM LINE IS Explorer. She is a physicist-turned- and precipitation changes that are mostly is suitable because the water yields in the THA LARGE SEGMENTS OF THE environmental scientist whose research negative relative to other places over the region are not very high – unlike what POPULATION ARE EITHER PRIN- focuses on simultaneously achieving global past 50 or 60 years. The semi-arid regions is necessary in giant irrigation schemes. CIPALLY OR PARTIALLY AGRICUL- food security and mitigating climate change. worldwide are home to most of the world’s The physical reality is that there is water TURAL, AND THIS SECTOR IS A Burney designs, implements, and evaluates poorest populations, almost all of which available, which is the frst step. LARGE COMPONENT OF THE technologies for poverty alleviation and are dependent on rain-fed agriculture. The Some people might ask, why bother agricultural adaptation and studies the confuence of poverty, low productivity, and with agriculture at all? It is important to GDP. links between energy, poverty, and food climate change outpaces any autonomous remember that agriculture is a big part of life and nutrition security; the mechanisms by adaptation. This is the major issue at the in Sub-Subaran Africa that cannot be skipped In your research, you have which energy services can help alleviate moment. over, even though some governments have brought up the success of the poverty; the environmental impacts of food historically tried. The bottom line is that Green Revolution in Asia, where production and consumption; and climate Using examples from your large segments of the population are either governments and international impacts on agriculture. Much of her current feldwork, can you defne principally or partially agricultural, and this agencies responded to major research focuses on the developing world. smallholder irrigation and sector is a large component of the GDP. famines of the 1960-1970s In October 2015, Burney sat down what factors you took into There are many advantages to with large-scale investments with Public Diplomacy Magazine editor Bret consideration to evaluate and irrigation, beginning with the fact that it in irrigation, improved crop Schafer to discuss her current feldwork, develop sustainable strategies? allows for year-long production. Semi-arid varieties, fertilizer, and modern which studies the impacts of solar regions are monsoonal, which means that crop technology. How would irrigation on smallholder farmers and JB: There is no one defnition, but the term there is one dry season and one rainy season. you compare this approach to their environment in the West African smallholder agriculture usually involves With most people growing rain-fed crops, the “African Green Revolution” nation of Benin. Her research and work family health farms of a few hectares or less. production is limited. Irrigation allows for in terms of similarities and in food security, land use dynamics, and Smallholder irrigation is a system where production during the dry season, which diferences, advantages and climate adaptation highlight the need for the water source is either co-located with means that farmers can both consume disadvantages? What strategies public-private partnerships to build more or very close to the feld. This is typically a produce and seel it all year long. from the Green Revolution in Asia CULTURE PUBLIC-PRIVATE GOVERNMENT 59 WINTER 2016 | @PD_Mag WINTER 2016 | @PD_Mag 60 PUBLIC DIPLOMACY IN SUB-SAHARAN AFRICA

were applicable in Sub-Saharan to be going well. My hope is that these larger information is, the more economically do not have a very good understanding of Africa and what strategies were actors become involved in diferent orphan efcient it becomes. Having this kind of how labor is being spent in smallholder inapplicable? crops in addition to corn. information available would also enable agricultural communities. Researchers Another issue is that agriculture in private investment, reduce risks, drive and aid agencies spend a lot of time JB: The crops of the Green Revolution Sub-Subaran Africa is not just crops. You costs down for shareholders, and aid discussing technology and strategies to were rice and wheat, which was at least in have a lot of pastoralists or semi-pastoralists entrepreneurial ventures. Some actors raise productivity and incomes, but these part the secret to their success. Those two – people who engage with a mix of crops and have begun to work on this matter, but solutions are more labor intensive than staples alone were farmed over an enormous livestock production. This is one of the ways I think that making the mapping of this what farmers are already doing. This failure area by an incredible number of people in which the region is more diverse than resource clear and publicly available would to account for labor and time costs probably drawing from that land base. What began some other places. There has been a recent be a mechanism that would beneft all the explains why lots of seeming winner ideas as centralized development of new cultivars focus on the growth of protein crops, such parties involved. have not been widely successful. was able to be rolled out to a very large area as soy, and an integration of smallholder and many people. The same opportunity pastoral activities including herd resilience In the communities you have What have you learned from does not exist in Sub-Subaran Africa. For and chicken and egg production and I researched, have smallholder working with Sub-Saharan one thing, the range of diets across Sub- think this will be an important point for irrigation strategies provided communities to implement Subaran Africa is more diverse, and people development and investment focus. continuous socioeconomic growth? these strategies, and in reverse, depend on a wider range of cereal and root what have they learned from crops. There is also a regional variation to How can international agencies JB: We have found that the solar irrigation the process of working with take into consideration, from western to and governments play a role in project in Benin has had positive and your team to introduce a new eastern to southern Africa. So there is no investing in these initiatives signifcant impacts on overall standards of irrigational method in their one-size-fts-all. without hindering the opportunity living, economic activity, and a range of food communities? for farmers to become security and nutrition metrics. The other AGRICULTURE IN SUB-SAHARAN economically independent? thing we fnd is that in this implementation, JB: It is worth keeping in mind that almost AFRICA IS NOT JUST CROPS. smallholder irrigation seems to be saving all of this work has been done in Benin, YOU HAVE A LOT OF PASTORAL- JB: One of the most difcult aspects of labor and time. The system allows people which is admittedly a small slice of West thinking about how to promote smallholder to spend less time to get the same or larger Africa, but I have found that the important ISTS OR SEMI-PASTORIALISTS -- irrigation is getting a clear view of the amounts of water. We’ve learned a lot of things do not change. There are a lot of PEOPLE WHO ENGAGE WITH A groundwater hydrology. Normally, private exciting things about what happens when similarities in values that are important MIX OF CROPS AND LIVESTOCK frms or bilateral aid agencies that drill wells people who have been time constrained to people: prioritizing health, taking care PRODUCTION. THIS IS ONE OF may have some knowledge of the local lay suddenly have more time—they start other of family members, and wanting to secure THE WAYS IN WHICH THE RE- of the land, but it depends on the company little businesses. health, happiness, and success for their GION IS MORE DIVERSE THAN and the area in which they work. In any children. Working here has also taught SOME OTHER PLACES. case, this knowledge, most of which is held FARMERS ARE SIMPLY MORE me a tremendous amount about dryland by oil frms, tends to be held very closely. CONNECTED TO THE ENVI- agriculture and ecology. In a low-capacity government setting, there RONMENT THAN JUST ABOUT The so-called “orphan” crops such as often isn’t a lot of knowledge about the Do you think that these plantains, sweet potatoes, yams, and millet hydrology at very local scales. ANYONE ELSE, ON A DAY-TO- similarities are unique to Africa? are staples in most regions in Sub-Subaran In my opinion, hydrological mapping DAY LEVEL. WHAT WE BRING Africa, but there has not been much efort would be an investment to the public good TO THESE COLLABORATIONS JB: I have found that it is more of a developed to invest in them, which is unfortunate. that could be done either by international IS SIMPLY TECHNICAL ASSIS- vs. developing world context, but one which Large swaths of eastern and southern Africa organizations, or even by government TANCE, SO THAT THEY CAN is not necessarily unique to Africa. In the grow corn, and work currently being done investment or bilateral aid branches. This SURMOUNT ANY INFORMA- developed world, most people are used to by the Alliance of Green Revolution in Africa would mean that individual farmers (or living their lives, and their jobs don’t usually is looking to breed and make accessible farmer groups, or community development TIONAL BARRIERS. connect them in any deep way to the local new varieties of corn specifcally suited to organizations) would no longer have to bear fora and fauna. Sub-Subaran Africa, following the model the cost of hiring a hydrogeophysicist to This actually stands in contrast to But farmers are simply more con- developed in Asia to its limits. While it is come survey. Costs, knowledge, and access other agricultural innovations. One issue nected to the environment than just about still a little too early to tell, this efort seems are restrictive, and the more available this that has come up in the past is that we often anyone else, on a day-to-day level. They CULTURE PUBLIC-PRIVATE GOVERNMENT 61 WINTER 2016 | @PD_Mag WINTER 2016 | @PD_Mag 62 PUBLIC DIPLOMACY IN SUB-SAHARAN AFRICA have the knowledge of what grows and what original intent. Other communities can TOURISM IS THE WORLD’S LARGEST JOB CREATOR can be eaten, where it can be sold and for think about the broad scale co-benefts that what price. What we bring to these collab- come from these projects, but this comes FORMING THE BASIS FOR OPEN AFRICA’S MODEL orations is simply technical assistance, so with an understanding that a cost-beneft that they can surmount any informational analysis is inherently limited when it comes HELPING RURAL PEOPLE RECOGNIZE THEIR POTENTIAL BY barriers. Discussions are participatory and to considering the impact of projects. IMPROVING THEIR ATTRACTIVENESS, BRANDING WHAT collaborative because there would be no THEY HAVE, & PROFESSIONALLY GIVING IT point to any of this if people couldn’t grow Would you evaluate your work in EXPOSURE ON THE WEB what they choose, and beneft from it. the region as having improved awareness of the issues Do you think the work you have surrounding climate change? done in Benin can be expanded to diferent regions in Sub- JB: As I mentioned earlier, farmers are very Saharan Africa to provoke well-connected to the physical environment greater socioeconomic growth and any changes therein. When it comes within the entire region? to causes and attributions of those trends, everyone traces it back to the developed JB: Yes, we do. We spend a lot of time world and people know a surprising amount thinking about what it would look like to about climate change. It’s just not political do this elsewhere and we think it can be or controversial in the same way there. achieved. There is a pervasive belief that developing communities should be allowed to develop What can other developing without being hampered by economically countries facing similar restrictive climate regulations, but also circumstances take away an understanding of what’s at the root of from the Sub-Saharan African the problem. Having said that, we have communities that have been very surprised by how excited people developed and implemented are about solar power, even though their these sustainable tools? response is not necessarily based on carbon dioxide levels. Diesel generators are seen as JB: There is an interesting way to answer disgusting and foul smelling, and people try this question, and it lies in government not to inhale those fumes. This reaction is “siloization.” What this means is that visceral and driven by the now as opposed individual ministries or departments are to a desire for mitigation, but it’s been very carrying out their own cost-beneft analyses interesting to gauge the response to energy within silos, which takes place in both sources. developing and developed countries. The end result of this is a lot of cross-sectoral benefts. For example, solar-powered water pumping could be considered an agricultural or a rural energy project. The energy from OPENRECOGNIZING THE AFRICA POWER OF BRANDING that can be used for lighting or even to power systems for drinking and irrigating AS A UNIFYING PROCESS water. That impact will raise productivity, which will improve nutritional metrics and which becomes a health intervention. Spillovers in this vein have improved Claire Allison nutrition, and had benefts far beyond the CULTURE PUBLIC-PRIVATE GOVERNMENT 63 WINTER 2016 | @PD_Mag WINTER 2016 | @PD_Mag 64 PUBLIC DIPLOMACY IN SUB-SAHARAN AFRICA

Despite being blessed with stunning attract customers. Although at the time the helps rural people recognize their potential capacity through a tailor-made program. natural wonders, most of Africa’s vast Internet was only in its infancy, de Villiers and improve their attractiveness through It also enables routes to implement local rural areas are sorely lacking in economic had the foresight to see the role technology clustering their products, branding what tourism development projects that range opportunity. Of the limited income earning could play in changing people’s lives. The they have, and professionally giving this from hiking trails to packaged experiences options available to them, tourism is one initiative thus went the web route, starting exposure on the web and via social media. utilizing whatever features are competitively of the best, except that entrepreneurs on by integrating geographic information The process starts with the Big unique to given areas. their own are individually insufciently system (GIS) technology with the Internet. Five, named after Africa being famous strong to draw customers to remotely This integration, which at the time was for hosting the world’s largest mammals. REGIONAL PARTNERSHIPS & located destinations. Open Africa is a social groundbreaking, was achieved in 1999 and This entails asking those gathered in a NATION BRANDING enterprise that inspires people to come resulted in the frst Open Africa route being community to name their biggest features together through a systematized method launched that year. of interest. Initially this is usually met A key element of the program is the that allows them to combine their products with blank stares in what is generally promotion of trade within the network, into more easily marketable routes that AFRICA IS IN A UNIQUE PO- a depressed environment, until with done through the www.openafrica.org are then networked for the purpose of SITION TO CAPITALIZE ON prompting someone remembers why the website. Every route is profled, along with constantly managed ascendancy. TOURISM. IT IS THE BIRTH- place was inhabited in the frst instance; the key attractions of the region, and all of Tourism is the world’s largest this triggers more thoughts and still more, the businesses that form part of the route. job creator and forms the basis for Open PLACE OF HUMANKIND AND until in no time a list of 15 to 20 items of In addition to online marketing, routes are Africa’s model. Africa is in a unique position HOSTS MOST OF THE WORLD’S unique characteristics have been identifed assisted with brochures, signage, and other to capitalize on tourism. It is the birthplace ANIMAL AND PLANT SPECIES amidst mounting excitement. These are marketing material and campaigns that put of humankind and hosts most of the world’s WITHIN MAGNIFICENT LAND- distilled into their meaningfulness as them at the forefront in utilising modern animal and plant species within magnifcent SCAPES AND CLIMATE. THE potential attractors and with it a mindset technology’s benefts. landscapes and climate. The continent’s CONTINENT’S PEOPLE ARE EX- change among locals developes into prideful To achieve its objectives, Open people are extraordinarily friendly and recognition that they are not as badly of as Africa enters into a range of partnerships hospitable, yet, despite occupying one TRAORDINARILY FRIENDLY AND they thought they were. at both a local and a national level, and has quarter of the earth’s land surface area, HOSPITABLE, YET, DESPITE OC- The focus is on strengths rather than developed a particular skill in facilitating Africa hosts less than 5% of global tourists. CUPYING ONE QUARTER OF weaknesses and in this way many a remotely public-private partnerships. Projects are THE EARTH’S LAND SURFACE located community rediscovers assets often implemented in partnership with ABOUT OPEN AFRICA AREA, AFRICA HOSTS LESS either forgotten or overlooked as having any local and provincial governments through THAN 5% OF GLOBAL commercial value culturally, historically, funds sourced from corporations and The organization was established aesthetically, in terms of biodiversity or elsewhere. At a local level, partnerships in 1995 under the patronage of former TOURISTS. any number of other interesting reasons. are also facilitated between the private South African President Nelson Mandela to Basically, this puts their feet on the frst sector-driven route associations and local meet the increasingly urgent need for job Today there are 64 routes in a network rung of the tourism ladder. governments. These partnerships often creation in rural Africa. Rural entrepreneurs that spans the six countries of South Africa, Recognizing the power of branding lead to new and innovative development are largely excluded from the economic Namibia, Zambia, Swaziland, Mozambique as a unifying process, Open Africa assists initiatives that would not be possible mainstream and the unemployment rate and Lesotho, and includes more than 2,500 routes to develop a clear identity that without collaboration. is as high as 70% in some areas. With little enterprises that employ over 28,000 people. not only helps to distinguish them in the hope and few opportunities, many migrate Open Africa believes that rural areas market, but also brings them together. RECOGNIZING THE POWER to cities, placing additional stress on urban in Africa with their biodiversity, stunning The process is interesting and after they OF BRANDING AS A UNIFY- areas where living conditions are less than beauty, and spiritual equanimity have have identifed their main attractions and ING PROCESS, OPEN AFRICA ideal. immense potential as attractive visitor strengths consideration is given how these The founder, Noel de Villiers, destinations for city dwellers. Furthermore, compete with other tourist destinations. ASSISTS ROUTES TO DEVELOP conceptualized Open Africa in 1993. The materialising this potential requires A route brand is the outcome, which leads A CLEAR IDENTITY THAT NOT concept was elegantly simple. Following the little more than the existing indigenous to an increased feeling of solidarity and ONLY HELPS TO DISTINGUISH example of the famous Western Cape wine knowledge and skills available within unity among community members across THEM IN THE MARKET, BUT routes, he aimed to cluster community level remote communities. diferent age and ethnic groups. ALSO BRINGS THEM TOGETHER. tourism products into branded collectives By providing a framework within Thereafter, Open Africa mentors that increase their appeal and ability to which people can collaborate, Open Africa local route associations and helps build their CULTURE PUBLIC-PRIVATE GOVERNMENT 65 WINTER 2016 | @PD_Mag WINTER 2016 | @PD_Mag 66 PUBLIC DIPLOMACY IN SUB-SAHARAN AFRICA

One example of this is in the rural to ofer, in particular within their remote town of Howick, Kwazulu-Natal funded areas. jointly by a local corporate Barclays Absa In the case of Namibia, the national and the Embassy of Finland. Open Africa government knew that tourism was one of facilitated a process where the route the few sectors where they had a distinct association went into partnership with the competitive advantage. Also realizing the local Umngeni Municipality. The association potential the sector has for development, wanted to exploit the tourism potential of they wanted to fnd ways of spreading the town’s main attraction, the Howick these benefts to rural communities. To Falls, while the municipality realized they do this they initiated a regional route could beneft from the expertise of the development program thus enhancing and private sector. The municipality ofered diversify experiences in Namibia while the association the opportunity to lease enhancing their competitive position the land where the falls are located and globally. Thereafter they went even further the association developed a new tourism in extending the collaborative theme by product that allows visitors access to the developing a route that spans adjacent base of the falls through a guided walk. area in four neighbouring countries, The Howick Gorge Walk employs two local thus to enhance the attractiveness of the THEY WILL youths and the income generated from this surrounding region as a whole. is used for other local development projects. For more information about Open Africa INSTITUTIONALIZING THE and the work it does in southern Africa, visit OPEN AFRICA MODEL www.openafrica.org The Open Africa model has been HAVE TO KILL recognized throughout southern Africa as a tool for sustainable rural development, and the Namibian government adopted it in 2013 as part of a bigger rural development program. The reason why it is favored is that it works from the bottom up, imposes nothing from the outside, and focuses on a region’s strengths rather than its weaknesses. It has Claire Allison USAN INFOGRAPHIC FIRST DESCRIBING proved to be transformative in many ways, Marketing Manager and brings a variety of role-players together Open Africa THE MUSIC BAN IN MALI in a unifed way to focus their energy on revitalizing their culture and heritage, and to conserve their biodiversity as the Leah Takele underlying asset that attracts customers. Claire is Open Africa’s marketing man- The entire process contributes to Leah Takele is a graphic designer + creative director based in Los Angeles. ager. As a trained journalist also with PR a community, and ultimately, a nation’s She has spent her professional career working to expand her creative ver- soft power by identifying and celebrating skills and a passion for social issues and satility in a variety of industries ranging from fashion to entertainment to what makes them unique in an increasingly desire to play a role in driving change, restaurant marketing. Leah has a passion for communicating about social globalized world. It allows diferent what she does here allows her to ap- issues through design for the purpose of spreading awareness and sparking stakeholders to be unifed behind a common ply her talents in favor of marginalized creative motivation. vision whilst retaining their sovereign communities to whom such skills are identities. It provides a way of showcasing usually unavailable. the best of what a community or nation has More information can be found by visiting leahtakele.com CULTURE PUBLIC-PRIVATE GOVERNMENT 67 WINTER 2016 | @PD_Mag WINTER 2016 | @PD_Mag 68 PUBLIC DIPLOMACY IN SUB-SAHARAN AFRICA

CULTURE PUBLIC-PRIVATE GOVERNMENT 69 WINTER 2016 | @PD_Mag WINTER 2016 | @PD_Mag 70 PUBLIC DIPLOMACY IN SUB-SAHARAN AFRICA

ARE PUBLIC DIPLOMACY STRATEGIES CURRENTLY INTRODUCTION in the 21st century. After all, except for China, several other rising powers are EMPLOYED BY THE CHINESE GOVERNMENT The discussion of public diplomacy setting up partnerships in Africa. These EFFECTIVE TOOLS IN ENGAGING has to include the acknowledgement that the include Turkey, the United Arab Emirates, THE AFRICAN CONTINENT? core concepts underlying it emanate from and Malaysia. The fact that China shapes Western liberal ideas of the state and its these options and occupies a central place relationship with the public. Formal public in Africa’s discussion of its own future MANY OF THE MECHANISMS SET UP BY WESTERN POWERS DURING THEIR diplomacy as it is currently exercised by indicates that China occupies a position of INITIAL APPEAL TO FOREIGN PUBLICS DURING THE LATE NINETEENTH non-Western emerging powers uses many soft power in Africa. AND EARLY TWENTIETH CENTURY HAVE INFLUENCED of the same mechanisms set up by Western According to Joseph Nye’s classic CHINA’S OUTREACH TO AFRICA powers during the twentieth century. This is defnition, soft power is the ability of a true when one looks at non-Western public country to structure a situation so that diplomacy among non-Western publics as other countries develop preferences or well. Indeed, many of the mechanisms set defne their interests in ways consistent up by Western powers during their initial with its own.1 However, I would argue that appeal to foreign publics during the late this position of infuence does not primarily nineteenth and early twentieth century come from formal public diplomacy tools. have infuenced China’s outreach to Africa. Nor does it come from key factors Nye saw These include the use of language teaching, as constituting soft power: the appeal of a student scholarships, agricultural and country’s domestic culture, political values, medical aid, and the establishment of an and foreign policy.2 ofcial media presence to communicate All of these are arguably either directly with the target public. controversial or unknown among Africans. In addition, as I illustrate below, even A ROOT CAUSE OF CHINA’S when opportunities come up to promote DISCURSIVE CENTRALITY IN AF- Chinese domestic culture directly to African RICA’S CONVERSATION ABOUT audiences, the People’s Republic of China ITS 21ST CENTURY OPTIONS (PRC) government tends to eschew them in CHINA'S favor of elite engagement. SHOULD BE SOUGHT IN THE Instead, I argue that a root cause CONTINENT’S TOXIC RELATION- of China’s discursive centrality in Africa’s SHIP WITH THE WEST, AND CHI- conversation about its 21st century options NA’S ROLE AS A DEVELOPMENT should be sought in the continent’s toxic PUBLIC DIPLOMACY relationship with the West, and China’s role MODEL THAT REFUTES WESTERN as a development model that refutes Western IDEAS ABOUT DEVELOPMENT. ideas about development. China-Africa relations should therefore lie at the heart of However, one can also argue that current discussions about public diplomacy China’s symbolic presence in Africa far and smart power, not only because China is outstrips the infuence generated by an emerging power in African geopolitics, these tools. For all the funds directed at but also because its presence throws Africa’s INCHALLENGING AFRICA OUR IDEAS OF Confucius Institutes and malaria centers by relations with traditional Western powers the Chinese government, and for all their into sharp relief. PUBLIC DIPLOMACY undoubtedly useful work, they cannot be said to dominate or even fundamentally CHINESE POPULAR CULTURE afect the way China’s engagement is & PUBLIC DIPLOMACY: THE Cobus van Staden narrated in Africa and how that narrative ROAD NOT TAKEN afects Africa’s understanding of its options CULTURE PUBLIC-PRIVATE GOVERNMENT 71 WINTER 2016 | @PD_Mag WINTER 2016 | @PD_Mag 72 PUBLIC DIPLOMACY IN SUB-SAHARAN AFRICA

As I mentioned above, the formal carries them as a friendly gesture, and that a chance for the Chinese government to AMERICAN FOREIGN POLICY mechanisms of Chinese public diplomacy they operate as a loss leader to facilitate draw on pre-existing positive perceptions of TODAY IS "ESSENTIALLY" A in Africa are not fundamentally diferent Chinese investments by Multichoice’s China (however fctional), while providing GIANT TOOL BOX FROM from those of Western powers. One parent company, Naspers. a relatively inexpensive and crowd- WHICH PRACTITIONERS PULL notable diference lies in media. Chinese In fact, far from standing as proof pleasing forum for popular engagement. state-owned media has been present on of the popular appeal of Chinese media in Engaging with African martial arts fans THE EQUIVALENT OF HAM- the African continent since the Cold War, Africa, the presence of these channels on the could have also provided markets for new MERS AND NAILS, TWEETS AND but it has rapidly expanded its presence DSTV network should be seen as a form of Chinese media content. However, none BLOGS, CARROTS AND STICKS, over the last few years. As Western news engagement with the African elite. The DSTV of this happened. Whether this was a AND A FULL RANGE OF DIPLO- outlets were shrinking their bureaus, China package ofering the service costs about $60 result of ignorance regarding kung-fu’s MATIC ECONOMIC, MILITARY, Central Television (CCTV) established a per month, which is outside the reach of popularity among Chinese embassy staf, POLITICAL, LEGAL, EDUCATION- sizeable new studio in Nairobi and hired most African viewers. This is further borne embarrassment about the pulpy narrative prominent African journalists and anchors out by the Chinese government’s response and exoticizing clunkiness of early kung-fu AL, AND CULTURAL INSTRU- to work alongside Chinese reporters. The to Chinese media that is actually popular in flms, or a suspicion of entertainment media MENTS TO ACHEIEVE THE GOAL ofcial state news agency, Xinhua, has 24 Africa. Since the heyday of Bruce Lee, kung- as a whole, Chinese authorities chose not to OF ADVANCING NATIONAL bureaus across the continent and China fu flms have enjoyed wide popularity in focus on kung-fu flm and rather to focus SECURITY AND DEFINING OUR Radio International broadcasts in English, Africa. I conducted research into the history their energies on positioning news media as VALUES AND OBJECTIVES IN Swahili, Hausa, and French. of kung-fu flms in South Africa and found the face of China. THE WORLD.4 that kung-fu flm fandom provided many The PRC government is not CHINA-AFRICA ENGAGEMENT Africans with their frst encounter with fundamentally opposed to using TAKES PLACE OVER SUCH A China, and that they continue to inform entertainment in its diplomacy. It has Compared to this approach, China seems WIDE ARRAY OF FIELDS THAT popular African perceptions of China to funded the dubbing of Chinese soap operas relatively dated, with state media dutifully this day.3 These flms were accessible into Swahili for broadcast in East Africa. In reporting on ofcial state visits. So where DRAWING ON KUNG-FU FILMS and entertaining, while also addressing addition, China-Africa engagement takes does China’s centrality in the current AS A FORM OF PUBLIC DIPLO- the experience of oppression. As a result, place over such a wide array of felds that African conversation come from? I would MACY WOULD ONLY HAVE martial arts became a popular hobby in many drawing on kung-fu flms as a form of public argue that one core cause is the emotional AUGMENTED AN ALREADY township communities. Both as a sport and diplomacy would only have augmented impact of Chinese economic success in RICH FIELD OF ENGAGEMENT a flm genre, martial arts also created rare an already rich feld of engagement Africa. Scholars of China-Africa relations, COVERING EVERYTHING FROM spaces of shared enjoyment among working covering everything from malaria to soccer especially as they relate to media, have class white and black communities during stadiums. Corporate Chinese entertainment taken diferent approaches to articulating MALARIA TO SOCCER and after apartheid. companies – notably StarTimes and the this infuence. For example, Jaroslaw Jura STADIUMS. Hong Kong conglomerate PCCW – also and Kaja Kaluzynska have shown that East THE CHOICE OF HUMORLESS already have a notable presence in Africa. African press coverage of China-Africa The more pertinent question, NEWS MEDIA OVER ACTION relations overwhelmingly tend towards the however, is whether this media expansion is ENTERTAINMENT – WHETHER ELITE ENGAGEMENT coverage of economic issues, and that this having any impact. While ofcial audience coverage tends towards positive framing numbers for these services in Sub-Sahara CONSCIOUS OR THROUGH The choice of humorless news of China as a whole.5 They argue that Africa are difcult to obtain, all indications CONTINGENCY – REVEALS media over action entertainment – whether economic reporting about China exceeds are that Chinese media is not connecting THAT CHINA IS NOT NECESSAR- conscious or through contingency – reveals purely informational needs and contributes with audiences. For an upcoming book ILY THAT INTERESTED IN DIRECT that China is not necessarily that interested to narratives of China as an economic and project I conducted an interview with an ENGAGEMENT WITH AFRICAN in direct engagement with African publics. development role model. executive at Multichoice – a South African It echoes China’s preference for direct These narratives far exceed Nye’s satellite TV provider that carries CCTV PUBLICS. government-to-government links over the conception of economic power as hard and maintains a strong presence across broad arsenal of tools characterizing US power. Rather, the narrative of China’s Africa. He acknowledged that the two CCTV From my outsider perspective, public diplomacy in the age of smart power. development should be seen as a form channels they carry on their Digital Satellite kung-fu seemed to provide a promising As Tara D. Sonenshine put it in this magazine: of soft power. Iginio Gagliardone, Nicole Television (DSTV) network in Southern opportunity for the Chinese government to Stremlau and Daniel Nkrumah have argued Africa are not proftable. He said Multichoice connect with local African publics. It ofered that Chinese media communicates three CULTURE PUBLIC-PRIVATE GOVERNMENT 73 WINTER 2016 | @PD_Mag WINTER 2016 | @PD_Mag 74 PUBLIC DIPLOMACY IN SUB-SAHARAN AFRICA

interlinking roles for China in Africa: that LIE AFRICA’S RELATIONSHIP regions, it still lags behind the United States more of South Africa’s patrimony out of the of partner, prototype, and persuader.6 WITH THE WEST. in many African countries. For example, a country. A series of recent controversies In each case, China occupies a complex recent poll in South Africa showed that while related to China in South Africa, including position of being at once ahead of Africa and China enjoyed 52% approval, 74% of South the government’s refusal to grant a visa to yet equal to it. This narrative underlies the In this context, China’s role as a Africans approved of the United States.7,8,9 the Dalai Lama and the proposed inclusion rhetoric of win-win development and the funder of African infrastructure is far from This disparity is not refected in the South of Mandarin in South African school oft-repeated reminder from the Chinese a simple economic role, and its infuence in African government’s relationship with curricula, have essentially used China as a government that China is a developing public diplomacy should also be read outside China, which is rapidly growing on both the stick with which to beat the South African country. China occupies a complicated space of pure economic discourse. China’s real government and party level. For example, government. In these cases China fnds itself of being at once developed and developing public diplomacy impact lies in the way it the Chinese Communist Party has reportedly defned by anti-government resentments and as such it ofers an alternative narrative activates and changes certain narratives that agreed to build an African National Congress because it essentially gave up the chance to of development from the West’s – and, underlie Africa’s relationship with the West. party academy based on its own facility for communicate directly with African publics. importantly, the funds to achieve it. While China’s interaction with the training of junior party leaders. While The more pertinent issue, however, China therefore occupies a powerful Africa goes back to the 1700s, constant this has the potential to cement high-level is whether China cares. Is China’s weak position in African discourse: that of the anti- day-to-day interaction is a relatively recent ties between elites, it has very little potential relationship with African publics a problem West. It represents an objective example of phenomenon. In its partnership with Africa, to cement positive perceptions about China for China as long as it has a strong a non-Western country that developed itself China stepped into a landscape largely among ordinary South Africans. relationship with African elites? At present, not through implementation of Western shaped and despoiled by Europe and the the kind of high-level engagement that paradigms, but by following development West. This is not only true for the physical ONE OF THE PITFALLS OF drives Chinese engagement in African paradigms based on indigenous culture. landscape, where Chinese companies’ CHINESE ELITE ENGAGEMENT IS infrastructure, extraction, and banking According to this narrative, China serves appetite for investment in high-risk high- EXACTLY THIS PERCEPTION THAT sectors does not seem to demand much as a powerful refutation of the idea that the return environments like South Sudan was popular engagement. However, I would West is the source of all development and due to the fact that oil and mineral reserves ITS RELATIONSHIP WITH AFRICA argue that this weak relationship might modernity and that nobody can pass into in stable countries had long before been IS ESSENTIALLY A RELATIONSHIP well become a problem for China. In 2013, a modernity if they do not also pass through locked up by Western companies, mostly WITH AFRICA’S LEADERS. riot took place in Tanzania, which disrupted the West and adopt its standards. to no great development outcomes for their the building of a Chinese-constructed There are many holes to pick in African hosts. In fact, the opposite is frequently gas pipeline between the rural Mtwara this narrative, not least of which is that it true. One of the pitfalls of Chinese elite Province and the capital Dar Es Salaam. tends to confate disparate Western actors. CHINA THEREFORE OCCUPIES A engagement is exactly this perception that Local reports blamed a breakdown of trust However, that does not diminish the POWERFUL POSITION IN AFRI- its relationship with Africa is essentially a between the Tanzanian government and narrative’s power in African elite discourse. relationship with Africa’s leaders. This is due the impoverished local communities that In addition to the idea that the West will CAN DISCOURSE: THAT OF THE to the fact that many African societies are wanted a larger stake in the profts from not fund African development is the post- ANTI-WEST. structured by a breakdown of trust between the natural gas extracted in their province, 2008 perception that it simply cannot. U.S. governments and publics. This breakdown rather than having that gas refned in President Barack Obama’s stalled Power It is also true for a discursive of trust is clearly seen in South African Dar Es Salaam. However, much reporting Africa electrifcation project is a stark landscape where countries are constructed debates around wildlife poaching. In current about the incident framed it as protests reminder that even if one does not believe as singular actors with national identities, research, I am in the process of tracing the against a Chinese-funded (rather than a anti-Western conspiracy theories and rather than as chaotic assemblages of construction of China in online comments government-driven) project.10 In many of accepts that the West sincerely wants to individuals, governments, and corporations. about elephant and rhino poaching, which these cases, China is dragged into conficts invest in African development, numerous In other words, the space where public has gained momentum due to Chinese rooted in lapses in local governance or institutional and fnancial barriers exist diplomacy shapes perceptions of countries. demand for illegal wildlife products. In conficts between local stakeholders. that make that dream impossible. In this space, China’s status as the anti- these comments, China is not only blamed West becomes especially important. for fuelling the trade (whereas the world’s THE FIRST STEP TO ANSWERING CHINA’S REAL PUBLIC DIPLOMA- While this plays out among African second main market for illegal ivory – the THIS QUESTION IS TO TAKE A CY IMPACT LIES IN THE WAY IT publics, it is a particularly powerful among United States – is almost never mentioned), HARD LOOK AT THE REALITIES ACTIVATES AND CHANGES CER- elites. In fact, while recent Pew surveys have but it is also portrayed as colluding with shown that China is more popular among an essentially corrupt and untrustworthy OF AFRICAN POLITICAL CUL- TAIN NARRATIVES THAT UNDER- Africans than among residents of other South African government in order to funnel TURE, AND TO STOP THINKING CULTURE PUBLIC-PRIVATE GOVERNMENT 75 WINTER 2016 | @PD_Mag WINTER 2016 | @PD_Mag 76 PUBLIC DIPLOMACY IN SUB-SAHARAN AFRICA

ABOUT AFRICA AS ANYONE’S nor Kung Fu: Economy and Business as Chinese HOW CAN BRITISH EDUCATIONAL EXCHANGE BACK YARD. Soft Power in Africa”. African East-Asian Afairs Issue 1. PROGRAMS WITH NIGERIA HELP IMPROVE THE As more and more Chinese nationals 6 Gagliardone, I., Stremlau, N. & Nkrumah, D. NIGERIAN MILITARY’S DEFENSE AND move to Africa, and Chinese business 2012. “Partner, Prototype, or Persuader? China’s COUNTERINSURGENCY ABILITIES? engagement with the continent becomes Renewed Media Engagement with Ghana”. more complex, the impact of this kind of Communication, Politics and Culture, Vol. 45 China-baiting becomes more serious. The 7 A survey dated 23 July 2015 found that China A LOOK AT BRITISH & NIGERIAN MILITARY OFFICER UNIVERSITY Chinese government has already been forced enjoyed a 70% approval rating in Africa, EXCHANGES PROGRAMS & PEOPLE-TO-PEOPLE DIPLOMACY. to physically rescue Chinese nationals from compared to 57% in the Asia/Pacifc region and various African trouble zones. Therefore, Latin America, 52% in the Middle East and 41% directly engaging with African publics in Europe. http://www.pewresearch.org/fact- and building relationships based on the tank/2015/07/23/5-charts-on-americas-very- experiences of non-elite Africans could be positive-image-in-africa/ seen as a new form of smart power: using the 8 http://www.pewglobal.org/2015/06/23/2-views- power of China as a non-Western development of-china-and-the-global-balance-of-power/ model to minimize anti-China stereotyping in 9 http://www.pewglobal.org/2015/06/23/1- Africa. americas-global-image/ However, the more fundamental 10 See for example http://www.reuters. question that confronts both Chinese and com/article/2013/05/25/tanzania-pipeline- Western practitioners of public diplomacy idUSL5N0E60D620130525 in Africa is how to overcome the breakdown of trust between African governments and African publics. How does one avoid one’s direct appeal to publics either being obstructed by governments, or tainted through association with them? The frst step to answering this question is to take a hard look at the realities of African political BRITISH culture, and to stop thinking about Africa as anyone’s back yard. FOOTNOTES

1 Nye, J.S. 2008. “Public Diplomacy and Soft Cobus Van Power”, The Annals of The American Academy of MILITARY Political and Social Science, Vol. 94 Staden 2 ibid. Co-Founder 3 Van Staden, C. 2014. “Virality, Diplomacy and China-Africa Proect the Uses of Media: A Historical Comparison of Hong Kong and Japanese Media in South Africa”. Cobus van Staden is a lecturer in me- In Mine, Y. & Cornelissen, S. (eds.) Africa and Asia: dia studies at the University of the Wit- Entanglements in Past and Present Conference watersrand in South Africa. He is the Proceedings, Doshisha University. DIPLOMACYBRITISH MILITARY DIPLOMACY IN NIGERIA co-founder, with Eric Olander, of the 4 Sonenshine, T.D. 2015. “Is ‘Smart Power’ Smart, China-Africa Project, the largest mul- and Does it Work?”. Public Diplomacy Magazine, timedia resource on China-Africa rela- Summer 2015, p.14. tions on the web. James Hall 5 Jura, J. & Kaluzynska, K. 2013. “Not Confucius, CULTURE PUBLIC-PRIVATE GOVERNMENT 77 WINTER 2016 | @PD_Mag WINTER 2016 | @PD_Mag 78 PUBLIC DIPLOMACY IN SUB-SAHARAN AFRICA

In June 2013, the telephone rang in answers to his military masters.1 However, the world. In theory, this fnancial approach Nigerians he was unable to train or equip. the ofce of the British Defense Adviser when deployed to a country he works for is thoroughly logical, forcing inter- (DA) in Abuja. the High Commissioner, who directs his departmental cooperation and providing BRITISH ENGAGEMENT “Colonel Hall,” said a voice down work and oversees his diplomatic impact.2,3 clear guidelines on the use of scarce IN NIGERIA the line, “Smithers here at the Ministry of The High Commissioner is the leading voice resources. In practice, the use of such funds Defense. What are you doing about Boko for the Foreign and Commonwealth Ofce is unavoidably bureaucratic and subject Within the constraints of politics and Haram?” (FCO) and sets the overall parameters. both to the whims of government ministers resources, the British military was engaged Smithers was a senior civil servant All other government agencies bow and the vagaries of inter-departmental in Nigeria to a signifcant extent in the years in London’s Ministry of Defense (MOD), and to his coordinating authority. The DA politics. Obtaining money from them can be before Chibok.5 The activity orchestrated a man with whom I had never previously supports the direction of Her Majesty’s ludicrously hard early in the fnancial year by the DA was driven by the policy goals of spoken. I explained that with no political Government (HMG) as expressed by the when money is tight and excessively simple the FCO. These in turn refected the HMG or military direction to do otherwise, no High Commissioner. at the end when an embarrassment of riches view of Nigeria: a vast and accelerating particular fnancial or military resources, One consequence is that the emphasizes earlier over-optimism. market ofering an important commercial and a sum total of four uniformed but resources available for use by defense In addition to the routine difculty opportunity to a Britain mired in recession. unarmed British staf based in the country, I diplomats can be very much out of line with of resourcing military activities, the British It was access to Nigeria’s wider economy, was not currently proposing to do anything the aspirations for military activity. The DA operated under a second constraint. As dominated by oil and corruption as it was, about Boko Haram. Smithers seemed Government funds the MOD for peacetime a matter of policy, it was extremely difcult that formed one key objective. At the same disappointed. London was, apparently, and the defense budget is provided only in to provide military equipment or training to time, the Nigerian diaspora, reportedly “concerned.” I agreed that events in the order to make military assets available for foreign armed forces thought to have been numbering over a million, played a key role north were indeed concerning. We parted operations. When real wars occur extra guilty of human rights abuses. The Nigerian in life in the UK. Nigerians retain a generous cordially with a shared agreement to remain resources are allocated by the Treasury to military, for all their close relations with love for the UK and deeply resent the widely concerned. support them. The MOD uses its core money the British, had been routinely accused of held view that they are simply a source There is no easy means to balance to man, train and equip the military, not to abuses, in particular during the suppression of telephone scams and corruption. For support to a friendly nation like Nigeria act in support of broader diplomatic aims. of dissent in the Niger Delta. The security HMG, Nigeria therefore represented both with the desire to sanction behavior that, response to Boko Haram had only worsened a signifcant trading partner, a diplomatic seen from the West, is unpalatable. In a THIS INDEED WAS THE CORE these concerns and several human rights ally at the UN, and a threat resulting from complex world it is sometimes inevitable organizations issued reports on reported internal instability, large scale corruption that two sets of logic collide; unscrambling CONUNDRUM FACING BRITISH atrocities.4 For HMG, the consequences and population movement. such contradictions is a task to tax the DIPLOMATS IN NIGERIA AS THE were clear. The export of military All these factors coincided in HMG toughest politicians and diplomats. This NATION FACED THE EMERGING equipment that could be used for abuse was policy dominated by trade and by the need indeed was the core conundrum facing HORRORS OF BOKO HARAM: never licensed. Military training was rarely to encourage stability. Because of the British diplomats in Nigeria as the nation HOW TO HELP A FRIENDLY authorized and, when it was, came with constraints of human rights rules, the DA faced the emerging horrors of Boko Haram: POWER NATION, WHILST SI- caveats designed to reduce the risk that had little role in the trade mission; defense how to help a friendly power nation, whilst support might contribute to further abuses. sales were almost non-existent. Economic simultaneously managing the pressure MULTANEOUSLY MANAGING Such policy guidance is a matter of growth was an area of deep concern to the to condemn the unacceptable. Military THE PRESSURE TO CONDEMN critical importance for HMG, and therefore, FCO and to DFID, but not an area of defense diplomacy played its role in navigating the THE UNACCEPTABLE. to the DA and there is no question of expertise. The MOD’s main role was divide. the necessity of such direction; the therefore in promoting stability. This sound fnancial logic can make consequences, however, can sometimes be THE MACHINERY OF BRITISH life hard for the DA. When the FCO wanted faintly ludicrous. On one occasion, London BRITISH MILITARY & PUBLIC MILITARY DIPLOMACY MOD to act in support of policy in Nigeria turned down a license to export 75 rifes to DIPLOMACY IN NIGERIA there was no military budget for the purpose. the Nigerian Mobile Police, an organization Military diplomats occupy a Money had to come from specialist funds whose human rights reputation is deservedly As 2011 and 2012 passed, there was fascinating place within the machinery of designed to meet the need. The best known poor. The FCO’s own rules simultaneously general agreement amongst most Western Western diplomacy. National approaches of these was the Confict Pool, a fund jointly required that armed Mobile Policemen diplomats that the Nigerian military, far vary in detail but for most nations the managed by the FCO, DFID (Department for should guard diplomats travelling to high- from being a part of the solution to Boko principles are similar. In the British model, International Development), and MOD with risk areas. In consequence, the DA often Haram, was part of the problem. Police had the Defense Adviser (DA) is paid for and the purpose of reducing instability around moved under the armed protection of lost control of large areas and the military, CULTURE PUBLIC-PRIVATE GOVERNMENT 79 WINTER 2016 | @PD_Mag WINTER 2016 | @PD_Mag 80 PUBLIC DIPLOMACY IN SUB-SAHARAN AFRICA

routinely used as internal security forces, Program still running today.6 Amongst rejected the idea of soft efects and the need sailors spent long hours demonstrating was the only force able to operate with any other tasks, NSRP brings together separated to encourage the cooperation of the local non-combat skills such as frst aid, fre- efect. The excesses of behavior by both parties to the confict to discuss ways to population. Their natural approach was to fghting, and boarding drills designed for police and military were, to a Western eye, address the violence. The DA helped NSRP use conventional force to achieve physical counter piracy and fsheries protection roles. responsible for a growing radicalization of to link Nigerian ofcers with key community destruction of an enemy; British military Often such visits also allowed outreach to the population. Boko Haram was moving leaders. eforts were designed to counter this local communities, particularly schools and rapidly from being a thoroughly unpleasant DFID and the British Council worked thinking. orphanages. Apart from generating good terrorist organization to being a very particularly closely together. DFID, mostly To achieve this, two types of military public relations, ship visits also enabled signifcant paramilitary force. The Nigerian as a result of the legal limitations on funding activity were enabled by MOD UK. Most high-level diplomacy. Both the Nigerian Army saw the battle as a fght for national military activity, tended not to work directly important for the long-term relationship CDS and the National Security Adviser survival, a war in which military victory with host armed forces. The DA spent between the two countries, Nigerian attended lunches on board Royal Navy was a necessity and physical defeat of the long hours discussing how best to make ofcers of all ranks were ofered the chance vessels, allowing the High Commissioner enemy a practical possibility. To the British complimentary the spending of Overseas to undertake military education courses opportunities to talk privately and at length mind, educated or embittered by years of Development Aid funds with those of the in the UK. All of these courses were based with senior leaders whose time was often engagement in Iraq and Afghanistan, this Confict Pool. Usually, such eforts were on leadership and academic study, all hard to obtain. looked simplistic. With Boko Haram easily advisory; DFID would bring together NGOs, participants did their best to encourage able to recruit new fghters and operating civil leaders, and military men to discuss a Western approach to the challenges of SERVICEMEN CAN COMMUNI- from the remote north, the idea that it would the issues and look for solutions, assisting counterinsurgency. Most critical was the CATE AND SHARE TRUTHS THAT all be over by Christmas (a phrase used with the Nigerian military with an education attendance of young ofcers to initial PROFESSIONAL DIPLOMATS unconscious irony by an Army Brigadier in process that would help change the nature training, in particular at the Royal Military August 2011) seemed at best naïve. From of the battle and bring Nigerian tactics Academy Sandhurst. At a more senior level, OFTEN CANNOT. a British perspective, the complexity was into line with the doctrine of the Western the Royal College of Defense Studies hosted compounded by the successive kidnap and militaries. The limitations of ODA funding one Nigerian ofcer every year, many of For a paper on public diplomacy, murder of two British citizens. made it impossible for DFID to contribute whom went on to senior commands. The there has been precious little so far that directly to Nigerian military training, but Nigerian Chief of Defense Staf of the is specifc to the concept. There is a good ONE CONSEQUENCE IS THAT great strides were taken to reach out to time, Admiral Ola Ibrahim, was himself an reason for this: the DA had never heard of THE RESOURCES AVAILABLE the military and several pioneering eforts alumnus. The importance of the resulting public diplomacy! British DAs receive an FOR USE BY DEFENSE DIPLO- were made to bring leading civilian experts personal relationships was critical and excellent general training for their business on counterinsurgency in front of military the value of his friendship in particular but, amidst the months of preparation, I MATS CAN BE VERY MUCH audiences. was considerable. The UK was able to pass have no memory of the topic being raised; OUT OF LINE WITH THE ASPIRA- The DA played a coordinating role in diplomatically difcult messages through a and in all honesty, I doubt this matters. The TIONS FOR MILITARY ACTIVITY. all this. The British military team in Nigeria genuinely close friend. There is no doubt the role of Defense diplomats varies as widely consisted of just four men. The DA and his investment in such courses paid dividends. as the relationships between nations, but Apart from the three departments assistant worked in the High Commission; The British military also dispatched a for the British in Nigeria, the relationship discussed so far (FCO, DFID, and MOD), a the second pair were funded by the Confict small number of training teams into Nigeria. was one of sometimes irritable but deep number of other UK agencies were present Pool as a Training Team (BMATT) and Without exception, these were intended friendship. Whilst the UK was often and involved in issues of security. On worked from within the Nigerian Defense to educate rather than train. Examples frustrated by the corruption and violence, the cultural side of public diplomacy, the Headquarters. While the DA’s role was to included instruction in counterinsurgency our Nigerian hosts were equally irritated British Council made key contributions, advise the High Commissioner on military doctrine, disaster management, and wider by our constant lecturing and a widespread encouraging links to the UK, funding afairs and diplomatic links, the BMATT’s defense management processes. Civilians perception that we were unwilling to help exchanges and education programs and role was to provide training, an activity presented many of these courses. Once them face down the existential threat posed supporting stabilization programs. Several driven by one principle: that the UK would again, the constraints of human rights rules by Boko Haram. Despite this, the nations Nigerian military ofcers beneftted from have greatest efect by contributing to meant that there was little tactical training remained close friends. Parts of HMG funding to undertake academic courses in military education with the specifc intent of provided to troops. sometimes seemed to feel, as poor Smithers the UK, particularly in counter-terrorism improving the behavior of troops in confict Of particular diplomatic importance, demonstrated, that the UK should be able studies. Another, particularly good, example environments. Passing the message was a number of British warships visited Lagos to solve all these complications. The truth, of the Council’s more direct work is the not easy: the Nigerians were not keen on during the period providing signifcant of course, was that the problem was almost Nigerian Stabilisation and Reconciliation receiving human rights lectures and largely opportunities for defense diplomacy. British completely out of our hands; we could tinker CULTURE PUBLIC-PRIVATE GOVERNMENT 81 WINTER 2016 | @PD_Mag WINTER 2016 | @PD_Mag 82 PUBLIC DIPLOMACY IN SUB-SAHARAN AFRICA and infuence, but we could not and did not of the 14 April 2014. A BOOK REVIEW try to direct events. 6 Nigerian Stability and Reconciliation Program - http://www.nsrp-nigeria.org/ Finally, there is one advantage for the defense diplomat over his civilian counterpart that the diplomatic profession would do well to remember. The shared profession of arms allows for human relationships between servicemen of diferent nations that are hard to explain to the non-military audience. Open and frank conversations are common amongst DAs from countries separated by deep political disagreements. Servicemen can communicate and share truths that professional diplomats often cannot. In my third week in Nigeria I attended a barbeque with a number of fellow ofcers, amongst them men from Britain, Nigeria, America, Russia, China, Iran, Pakistan, and India. We enjoyed, to use an English phrase, a “cracking evening.” I liked them all, James Hall although I trusted some more than others. Retired Colonel We were able to talk, to share common experiences, and to enjoy the company. I am still in touch with all of them. Just possibly, such human relationships somewhere, one Colonel (Retired) James Hall was born in day, will help stop a misunderstanding, save a life, or even stop a war. I like to think so. Tanzania and brought up in the United Kingdom. He was educated at Pembroke College, Oxford where he read Modern FOOTNOTES History before attending the Royal Mili- tary Academy Sandhurst and commis- 1 British Defense Attachés deployed to sioning into the Light Infantry. Colonel Commonwealth Nations are referred to as DEMOCRATIC Defence Advisers. Hall has served as a Battalion Command- 2 To date British Defense Attaches and ing Ofcer and has undertaken opera- Advisers have almost universally been men. tional tours that include the Falklands 3 British Ambassadors to Commonwealth Islands, Northern Ireland, the Balkans Nations are referred to as High as well as Iraq and Afghanistan. His last Commissioners. military appointment was as Defence 4 Nigeria: Stars on their shoulders: Blood TRANSITIONS:CONVERSATIONS WITH WORLD LEADERS on their hands: War crimes committed by Adviser at the British High Commission the Nigerian military. A report by Amnesty in Nigeria between 2010 and 2013. Now International, 2 June 2015, Index number: retired he is working on defence related AFR 44/1657/2015. issues in the Middle East and Africa. 5 257 schoolgirls were kidnapped from the town of Chibok in Borno State on the night Amanda Lester CULTURE PUBLIC-PRIVATE GOVERNMENT 83 WINTER 2016 | @PD_Mag WINTER 2016 | @PD_Mag 84 PUBLIC DIPLOMACY IN SUB-SAHARAN AFRICA

The International Institute for THIS IS ONE OF THE WAYS IN traditional elements of the culture into The chapter covering South Africa’s Democracy and Electoral Assistance, an WHICH THE REGION IS MORE Ghana’s political infrastructure. Rawlings transition to democracy contains interviews intergovernmental organization devoted DIVERSE THAN SOME OTHER argues that the international community, with President F. W. de Klerk (in ofce to supporting democratic institutions PLACES. LEADERS “COULD in its attempts to spread democracy, often 1989-1994) and President Thabo Mbeki (in and processes throughout the world, “[undermines] the very objective that ofce 1999-2008). De Klerk succeeded P. commissioned a collection of interviews NO LONGER GET AWAY WITH they are trying to achieve.”2 For example W. Botha as President of South Africa in with political leaders to commemorate its ‘FOOLISHNESS’ OR HARDHEAD- he claims that, post-transition, Western 1989 and soon ended a ban on opposition 20th anniversary in 2015. The interview EDNESS BY REFUSING TO LIS- governments and the media manipulated parties, freed political prisoners, and began subjects include thirteen leaders from nine TEN TO THE PEOPLE.” Ghana’s image so as to market it as a negotiations with newly-liberated Nelson countries that recently transitioned from “success story” to Africa and the world, while Mandela and the African National Congress authoritarian rule to democratic governance. corruption still ran rampant.3 This can be (ANC). Both De Klerk and Mandela were Democratic Transitions: Conversations In the interview, Rawlings describes the seen as public diplomacy eforts attempting eventually awarded Nobel Prizes for fnding with World Leaders, edited by Sergio Bitar, international pressure on Ghana to create to positively infuence world opinion of the a compromise that would end apartheid former Chilean senator and Minister of a multiparty system, most notably from Western push for democratization in Ghana, in South Africa. In his interview, De Klerk Mining, Education, and Public Works, and the U.S. State Department. Rawlings which according to Rawlings contributed to emphasizes the importance of intranational Abraham F. Lowenthal, senior fellow at argues that the one-party system in place a gap between image and reality. dialogue to South Africa’s transition to the Brookings Institution and Professor of between 1981 and 1991 in Ghana was a Kufuor, a founding member of the democracy, and criticizes the imposition of International Relations at the University of participatory democracy, albeit without New Patriotic Party, was elected president in Western models on other countries without Southern California. Democratic Transitions a formal constitution, in spite of the fact 2000. He attempted to reconcile the politi- regard to their traditions and religions. explores the role of political leadership in that Western governments regarded it as cal divisions haunting Ghana by establish- He also makes the case that it is a duty of a nation’s transition to democracy. The non-democratic. Similar pressure came ing a National Reconciliation Commission countries neighboring other countries collection is intended to be an inspiration from neighboring countries in Africa, where and repealing the Criminal Libel Law that mired in confict to use their power and and guide for contemporary leaders. Two democratic movements were picking up had restricted media freedom. However, infuence to push conficting sides towards chapters of the book focus on Sub-Saharan momentum and gaining regional infuence, several of Kufuor’s actions set unfortunate compromise. Africa, with cursory treatment of public so that leaders “could no longer get away precedents, such as excluding members of In his interview, Mbeki, who diplomacy issues. with ‘foolishness’ or hardheadedness by certain opposition parties from cabinet po- succeeded Mandela in 1999 as leader of the refusing to listen to the people.”1 This sitions and intervening in judicial appoint- ANC and president of South Africa, details should be acknowledged as an example ments and processes. After his re-election the extent to which the ANC cultivated A GHANAIAN CASE STUDY of public diplomacy. In the late 1990s, in 2004, Kufuor completed his second and international solidarity against apartheid, Rawlings established multiparty elections, fnal term as president and, per Ghana’s reaching out to governments, religious The chapter covering Ghana’s agreed to presidential term limits, and 1992 constitution, peacefully turned over groups, trade unions, and private citizens transition to democracy includes interviews eventually ceded power to the winner of the power to the new president, John Atta Mills. all over the world using public diplomacy with President John Agyekum Kufuor (in 2000 election, Kufuor. In his interview, Kufuor acknowledges the tools. This international solidarity, Mbeki ofce 2001-2009) and his predecessor impact of international pressures on Gha- explains, was instigated by the ANC, but Jerry J. Rawlings (in ofce 1993-2001). THE INTERNATIONAL COM- na’s initial movements toward democracy, spread mostly by people outside South After gaining independence from Britain MUNITY, IN ITS ATTEMPTS TO particularly after the fall of the Berlin Wall Africa, such as those in Britain and Sweden in March 1957, Ghanaians elected Kwame SPREAD DEMOCRACY, OFTEN in 1989 and the spread of the “forces of lib- who “felt a responsibility” to take a Nkrumah prime minister of Ghana, but eralism.”4 Kufuor is less critical than Rawl- stand.5 This international public support Nkrumah turned authoritarian, restricting “[UNDERMINES] THE VERY OB- ings of the Western powers’ desire to spread for the anti-apartheid movement was a free speech and banning opposition JECTIVE THAT THEY ARE TRYING democracy, but he emphasizes the impor- critical factor in South Africa’s “negotiated parties. He was overthrown in a military TO ACHIEVE.” tance of frst bolstering the foundations transition.”6 Additional pressure on coup in February 1966 and replaced by Kof of democracy by encouraging the creation apartheid South Africa from economic Abrefa Busia, whose administration lasted Interestingly, Rawlings claims that of political parties and educating citizens sanctions imposed by governments was only three years. In 1979 and 1981, as the the architects of the new governmental about their rights, which is a clear call for compounded by international corporate economy deteriorated, Rawlings led coups structure in Ghana adopted the English increased public diplomacy eforts. divestment and boycotts by private citizens. frst against the military government and language terms of democracy, but not the Unmentioned in this book is the then against the democratically elected corresponding functions. He may have seen A SOUTH AFRICAN CASE STUDY extent to which these leaders’ participation Prime Minister, Hilla Limann. this as a missed opportunity to incorporate in international exchange programs may CULTURE PUBLIC-PRIVATE GOVERNMENT 85 WINTER 2016 | @PD_Mag WINTER 2016 | @PD_Mag 86 PUBLIC DIPLOMACY IN SUB-SAHARAN AFRICA have impacted their political activities and book in itself is an instrument of public di- AN INTRODUCTION TO CRISIS DIPLOMACY & their countries’ democratic transitions. plomacy, adding depth to our understand- Early in their careers, both Kufuor and ing of each featured country and its leaders, ENDNOTE De Klerk participated in the International and attempting to shape our perception of Visitor Leadership Program (IVLP), the U.S. their national narratives. State Department’s premier international exchange program. Designed for mid- FOOTNOTE: career professionals who exhibit leadership qualities, participants of the IVLP visit 1 Democratic Transitions: Conversations with Washington, D.C. for a primer on democracy World Leaders. Eds. Sergio Bitar and Abraham F. and American history, then meet with their Lowenthal. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University counterparts in other American cities of Press. 2015. their choosing. Mbeki also studied abroad— 2 Democratic Transitions. in Moscow, London, and Manchester— 3 Democratic Transitions. before becoming president of South Africa. 4 Democratic Transitions. In fact, four of the thirteen political leaders 5 Democratic Transitions. interviewed for this book participated in 6 Democratic Transitions. IVLP, another was a Fulbright scholar, and 7 Democratic Transitions. nine total studied abroad in Europe and the United States before becoming a driving political force at home. With such a strong connection between many of these leaders and the United States, another layer of U.S. public diplomacy’s infuence emerges. By overlooking this factor, the authors miss the opportunity to draw a connection between U.S. public diplomacy eforts and the decision of each nation to transition to democracy. Amanda Lester Although the editors do not use pub- Masters Of lic diplomacy terms to describe the forces Public Diplomacy JUSTIFYING driving democratization in Ghana or South Africa, public diplomacy tools played a sig- nifcant role in laying the foundations for democracy and inspiring these political transitions. Likewise, although the editors Amanda Lester is a frst-year gradu- do not characterize these movements in ate student of Public Diplomacy at USC. such terms, their conclusions demonstrate the continued need for public diplomacy ef- Prior to this, she worked in market re- PAULGENOCIDE, TRAUMA, KAGAME HISTORICAL forts to ensure smooth and full transitions search at a start-up company in Austin, to democracy. The editors also argue that Texas. She holds a B.A. in Plan II Honors MEMORY & PUBLIC DIPLOMACY all democracies are unfnished projects and (liberal arts and sciences) and a B.M. in that leadership plays an important role in Music Performance from the Univer- shaping their futures. De Klerk claims that sity of Texas at Austin. Currently she is he does not want to “present [him]self as a hero,” but this collection of interviews does a Contributing Researcher at the USC Douglas Becker precisely that for each of its subjects.7 This Center on Public Diplomacy. CULTURE PUBLIC-PRIVATE GOVERNMENT 87 WINTER 2016 | @PD_Mag WINTER 2016 | @PD_Mag 88 PUBLIC DIPLOMACY IN SUB-SAHARAN AFRICA

the nature of the genocide as historical future genocidaires, pose a security risk for being merely motivated by power politics INTRODUCTION memory is itself crisis diplomacy. But Rwanda. Therefore, as a victim of genocide, is to miss the key element of Rwanda as this article presumes the crisis is not the Rwanda is justifed in violating a neighbor’s an international “spokes-nation” against The Reverend Rick Warren has genocide, but the ongoing challenge of sovereignty to pursue those who have or genocide. Based on its ability to infuence called Paul Kagame “the face of emerging Rwandan interventionist foreign policy could in the future commit genocide. Sudanese politics, it seems to adopt a fght African leadership.” In his April 30, 2009 and the growing authoritarianism of its In this case, Kagame is what Elizabeth role, albeit under the normative principles Time Magazine hagiography of Kagame, current President. By citing the crisis of Jelin terms a “memory entrepreneur.”2 of countering genocide. the liberal evangelist minister also the Genocide, Kagame is seeking to justify What is at stake in this memory is the As a memory entrepreneur, Kagame considered the Rwandan President as his own rule. Fear of one crisis is to defuse justifcation of Kagame’s own government has carved out a Rwandan brand that embodying reconciliation, and unique in the other. The crisis that is the democracy (and increasingly autocratic behavior), and highlights its unique position as a survivor his willingness to listen to opposition and defcit in Rwanda is masked by the crisis of Rwandan military aggression against the of the Genocide. Its involvement in Darfur learn from it. This would come as a surprise a potential future genocide—a future based DRC. Memory entrepreneurship is a central is conditioned by its palpable sense of to Victoire Ingabire, who was imprisoned on the historical memory of Kagame as element of the instrumentality of memory abandonment and neglect during the 1994 by the Rwandan President for suggesting savior of the nation. It will serve as a case discourse. There is a specifc goal in mind Genocide. Indeed, the West did not save that Hutus also sufered as a result of the study in understanding the importance of in the citation of the memory. Memory Rwanda from the Genocide; Kagame did. 1994 Genocide. Ingabire, a political rival of historical memory as a means to mask one is even potentially altered (with a typical That Kagame not only committed numerous Kagame’s, was prosecuted under the Anti- crisis behind the veil of a previous crisis. contestation of this memory alteration) atrocities during the war, that there are Genocide Law that charged that her speech to support the new policy. The constant allegations of atrocities in the widening war was a “coded message meant to appeal to HISTORICAL MEMORY emphasis on the physicality of the Genocide, in eastern Congo following the Rwandan ethnic Hutu,” and that she was intending to with both its corporality and physicality Genocide, and that his rule is increasingly overthrow the government.1 Memory can play two distinct roles on display through the presence of dead autocratic, is not a part of this narrative. Kagame is lauded both as a savior of in the formulation and legitimation of bodies as memorials, has compelled Jessica Kagame as savior of the nation, as an the nation and as an autocrat with an iron foreign policy. First, it is a lens through Auchter to argue that Rwanda is haunted by American ally and proxy, and as the one fst on the nation. The iron fst is considered which leaders view their interests and the Genocide.3 leader willing to ensure that “never again” necessary by his supporters because the policy preferences. These experiences— is not just a slogan, presents him with a nation experienced the 1994 Genocide of either directly experienced or as narratives PEACEKEEPING & HISTORICAL space within his foreign policy that enables Tutsi and moderate Hutu at the hands of passed down through generations—play an MEMORY: RWANDA’S ROLE IN more aggressive use of Rwanda’s military. the political parties of Hutu Power, the essential role in understanding why certain DARFUR Interahamwe militia, the institutions of states choose their policies. Rwandan AS A MEMORY ENTREPRENEUR, the state such as the military, and a huge policy preferences are clearly infuenced Rwanda has sought to use its KAGAME HAS CARVED OUT number of ordinary Hutu citizens. The by its recent memory of the 1994 Rwandan position as a unique victim of genocide to A RWANDAN BRAND THAT 3-month genocide resulted in the deaths of Genocide. International inaction, the demonstrate its commitment to opposing it over 1 million Rwandans, the vast majority military victory of the Rwandan Patriotic on the African continent through its reaction HIGHLIGHTS ITS UNIQUE POSI- of whom were the Tutsi minority. Front (which ended the killing), and to crises across the continent. One example TION AS A SURVIVOR OF THE Kagame’s personal role in that victory all is how Paul Kagame has made use of his GENOCIDE. ITS INVOLVEMENT KAGAME IS LAUDED BOTH AS A cast a signifcant shadow over Rwandan nation’s involvement in the peacekeeping IN DARFUR IS CONDITIONED BY SAVIOR OF THE NATION AND policy preferences. mission in Darfur. Rwandan troops were ITS PALPABLE SENSE OF ABAN- AS AN AUTOCRAT WITH AN But memory is also used the frst African Union troops on the DONMENT AND NEGLECT DUR- instrumentally as an element of public ground there, and Rwanda has maintained IRON FIST ON THE NATION. diplomacy. It often is cited as an alternative the largest contingent in the joint AU/UN ING THE 1994 GENOCIDE. IN- to international law to justify actions. For peacekeeping force in the embattled region. DEED, THE WEST DID NOT SAVE Yet for Rwandans, the enduring example, Rwanda’s militarily intervened Rwanda’s ability to highlight RWANDA FROM THE GENO- legacy of the genocide remains an ongoing in the ongoing civil war in the Democratic Sudanese atrocities certainly serves its CIDE; KAGAME DID. crisis. Crises often have an immediate and Republic of the Congo (DRC). This is interests in the region. Its support for the emerging quality. For Rwandans, however, a violation of the DRC’s sovereignty new state of South Sudan and its desire to For example, Kagame uses the the genocide and its memory is an ongoing and therefore is illegal. But Kagame’s curtail Sudanese aggression in that region memory of the Genocide to blunt any crisis. It is a gnawing fear that remains justifcation for this intervention is that motivates its interest in the nation. But potential human rights cases against for a traumatized society. In many ways, Hutu living in Eastern Congo, who could be to consider the intervention in Darfur as him and his allies. When a French court CULTURE PUBLIC-PRIVATE GOVERNMENT 89 WINTER 2016 | @PD_Mag WINTER 2016 | @PD_Mag 90 PUBLIC DIPLOMACY IN SUB-SAHARAN AFRICA

charged the old RPF general with shooting Gourvetich argues that the crisis, with its region, South Africa accused the Rwandan Specifcally, he dismisses criticism of the law down President Habriyamana’s plane (the Hutu faces (largely people feeing reprisals President of aggression. Rwanda denied this as Westerners not understanding Rwanda event which triggered the 1994 Rwandan as well as legitimate justice), convinced accusation, but the United States withdrew and presuming political underdevelopment. Genocide), Kagame charged the French many in the West that the Hutu were the true a military aid package to the country. U.S. Yakaré-Oulé Jansen, in a 2014 piece in the Prime Minister, Dominique de Villepan, victims.6 That Kagame, allied with Ugandan President Barack Obama dispatched his Northwestern Journal of Human Rights, has with complicity and alliance with the Hutus President Museveni, armed Congolese rebel Special Envoy to the Great Lakes region, argued that the law is a violation of free press during the Genocide.4 He then condemned Laurent Kabila to eventually overthrow the Russ Feingold, to mitigate this split. But the principles under international law. Several the French magistrate who accused him of Mobutu Sese Seko regime in Kinshasa in the U.S.’s harder line has compelled Kagame to important test cases, particularly Agnès shooting down the plane, stating, “France Congo, adds to this image. tread more lightly on this issue. Uwimana-Nkusi and Saidati Mukakibibi gave the then government of Rwanda money Three successive rounds of civil war (which were eventually adjudicated at the to commit Genocide. If he (Bruguiere) is in Congo (the frst overthrowing Mobutu, the SQUASHING INTERNAL Rwandan Supreme Court), illustrate this credible, why doesn’t he investigate the role second overthrowing Kabila, and the third DISSENT: THE ANTI-GENOCIDE point well. And journalists critical of the of the French government and ofcials in the ongoing war in Eastern Congo) all have LAW President Paul Kagame have increasingly the Genocide?”5 Rwandan fngerprints on them. Kagame has found themselves targets of this law.7 Additionally, the International justifed these interventions with the same The essential tool that Kagame Citing the role of racist journalism in the Criminal Court is investigating war crimes historical memory argument. First, Hutu has used to quash internal criticism of his days prior to the Genocide, the President, and other violations of international genocidaires fed to Eastern Congo in the government is the Anti-Genocide law. It Paul Kagame, is using the historical memory humanitarian law in the Congo. Rwanda, hopes of returning to Rwanda to fnish their is enshrined in Article 13 of the Rwandan of the violence as a means to imprison whose military is heavily involved in the genocide. The ethnic killing continued in Constitution. It states that “Revisionism, potential opponents and critics. fghting there, faces potential judicial the camps as well. Kagame cited Mobutu’s negationism and trivialisation of genocide One reason this tactic is so efective is exposure at the court. These moves were support for the Hutu government as his are punishable by the law.” Modelled on that the Tutsi community in Rwanda is largely in part political hardball played against justifcation to intervene and aid Kabila’s the European principle that denial of the comprised of ex-patriates from before the an African President who has shown a coup. But the Rwandans also take advantage Holocaust is illegal and punishable, Rwanda Genocide. Considering the number of Tutsi willingness to challenge international of the resource rich Eastern Congo (with has passed a law to outlaw “Genocide killed in the Genocide, coupled with a large organizations and European leaders alike. its gold, coltan, copper, silver, and rare Ideology.” The Rwandan President has in-migration of Tutsi from neighboring But the support Kagame has received earth minerals) and even deprive the Kabila stated that the law, which carries a jail Burundi, Uganda, Tanzania, and the Congo, throughout Africa and in the United States is government of much needed resources to sentence of between ten and twenty-fve the impact of Tutsi who did not live in partially driven by the desire to respect the rebuild the nation. Kabila ordered Rwandans years, is necessary to ensure that genocide Rwanda during the Genocide is even more historical memory of Rwanda. Kagame sees to leave the country. Kagame responded by ideologies, including the denial of the 1994 signifcant. This is an imagined trauma the opportunity to raise Rwanda’s profle overthrowing Kabila’s government (the DRC Rwandan Genocide, are not allowed to more than an actual trauma, creating much and have the constraints on his state lifted is currently led by Kabila’s son Joseph) in the fourish. It ostensibly is intended to ensure more space for the government to defne as a result of the trauma. But this is only Second Civil War. Rwandan forces remain in a non-repetition of genocide. Human and determine the nature of memory. This with the tacit support of the more powerful the Eastern Congo, ostensibly to protect the rights groups such as Human Rights Watch includes a climate where Hutu are less likely nation: the United States. nation from reprisal Hutu killing, but the have countered that the Anti-Genocide to return to Rwanda, in part because the ex- plunder continues. law has been increasingly used to “target patriate Tutsi community has beneftted SECURITY THROUGH There are signs that Kagame’s use of and discredit [the government’s] critics.” economically (assuming ownership of INTERVENTION: KAGAME’S genocide as a historical memory discourse Amnesty International has weighed in that homes, businesses, and other property) CONGO PLUNDER THROUGH justifying intervention in the Congo is it is “vague and ambiguous,” meaning the from Hutus who fed the country (regardless THE EYES OF THE GENOCIDE fraying. In 2013, Rwandan support for the government is granted considerable latitude of their role in the Genocide). But most group M-23 drove it directly against two to determine when speech runs afoul of the importantly, memories are more malleable Following the Genocide, a mass of its more powerful allies: South Africa law. in people who did not actually experience exodus of Rwandans out of the nation into and the United States. South Africa, which Kagame’s defense of the law, which the trauma. camps in Eastern Congo developed into one had deployed a large segment of the UN he begrudgingly admitted has been too of the modern world’s greatest humanitarian peacekeeping force in the DRC, used this strict (a 2013 revision of the law lowered KAGAME’S LEGACY AND disasters. The images from these camps force to engage and defeat the Rwandan the maximum sentence to nine years POLITICAL FUTURE even compelled some western observers to backed rebels. Citing Kagame’s increased and requires a higher burden of proof for conclude that the Genocide was exactly the support for the rebels and the increase prosecution), has increasingly resided in The key question with Kagame’s opposite of what actually happened. Phillip in expropriation of resources from the the historical memory of the Genocide. future is a potential third term and the CULTURE PUBLIC-PRIVATE GOVERNMENT 91 WINTER 2016 | @PD_Mag WINTER 2016 | @PD_Mag 92 PUBLIC DIPLOMACY IN SUB-SAHARAN AFRICA

continued state-driven harassment 3 Auchter, Jessica. The Politics of Haunting and of political opposition. Kagame is Memory in International Relations. Routledge, constitutionally barred from running from 2014. a third term in 2017. The most consistent 4 Munyaneza, James. “French Premier Backed question Rwanda-watchers get is whether Genocide—Kagame.” The New Times. December the President will in fact suspend the 8, 2006. Constitution and run for a third term. 5 Ibid. His plans are unclear as of 2015. But 6 Gourevitch, Phillip. We Regret to Inform the outlawing of political parties that You that Tomorrow We Will be Killed With Our the President deems as “pro-genocide” Families: Stories from Rwanda. Picador, 1999. (which often are simply critical of his rule) 7 Jansen, Yakaré-Oulé (Nani). “Denying ensures that the next President will be Genocide or Denying Free Speech? A Case Study one of Kagame’s choosing. It is a concern of the Application of Rwanda’s Genocide Denial that increasingly draws the ire of the Laws”, 12 Nw. J. Int'l Hum. Rts. 191 (2014). international community. Part of the concern is the manner in which Kagame cites his own specifc role in ending the 1994 Rwandan Genocide as justifcation for his rule. It is not his only credential. He also speaks of turning Rwanda into a middle-level economy (he often compares it both to an African Silicon Valley as well as a Rwandan Singapore). Douglas Becker But his March 2011 trial in absentia against Assistant Teaching his own former Ambassador to the U.S, Professor Theogene Rudasingwa, which subsequently led to a 24 year prison term, is one of many cases that demonstrate Kagame’s use of his government’s security forces and court system against his opponents. Douglas Becker is an Assistant Teaching What is at stake is the dominant Tutsi Professor in the School of International narrative that the Hutu would even kill Relations. He most recently published their own President in order to carry out a chapter entitled “Memory, Trauma, genocide. This new evidence, calling for Identity, and Foreign Policy in Memory a new memory, challenges the image of and Trauma in International Relations President Kagame as the “man of peace” Rick Warren described. It also demonstrates (edited by Dovile Budrtye and Erica Re- the importance of historical memory and sende; 2013 Routledge). He teaches narrative in legitimating rule, in supporting courses on peace and confict issues, on specifc policies, and in the public diplomacy the importance of historical memory as and discourses which accompany them. elements of public diplomacy and im- FOOTNOTES age in foreign policy analysis, and on the international politics of corporate so- 1 Warren, Rick. Leaders and Revolutionaries: Paul cial responsibility. He received his Ph.D Kagame. Time Magazine. April 30, 2009. from the University of Connecticut in 2 Jelin, Elizabeth. State Repression and the Labors 2002. of Memory. University of Minnesota Press, 2003.

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