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JANUARY 22001122

Prof. Yonah Alexander Diirector, Internatiional Center for Terroriism Studiies, and Seniior Fellow, Potomac Instiitute for Poliicy Studiies

The International Center for Terrorism Studies (ICTS)

Established in 1998, the activities of ICTS are guided by an International Research Council that offers recommendations for study on different aspects of terrorism, both conventional and unconventional. ICTS also serves as a coordinating body for a consortium of universities and think tanks throughout the world, namely the Inter-University Center for Terrorism Studies (IUCTS). ICTS is also affiliated with the Inter-University Center for Legal Studies (Washington, DC).

There exists the need to educate policy-makers, and the public in general, on the nature and intensity of the terrorism threat in the twenty-first century. As a member of the academic and research community, the Potomac Institute for Policy Studies has an intellectual obligation, as well as a moral and practical responsibility, to participate in the international effort to arrest the virus of terrorism. The purpose of the ICTS, therefore, is four-fold:

First, to monitor current and future threats of terrorism; Second, to develop response strategies on governmental and non-governmental levels; Third, to effect continual communication with policy-makers, academic institutions, business, media, and civic organizations; and Fourth, to sponsor research programs on critical issues, particularly those relating enabling technologies with policy, and share the findings nationally and internationally.

ICTS has sponsored, co-sponsored, and participated in more than 400 events in many countries, including the U.S., Albania, Argentina, Belgium, Brazil, Canada, Colombia, France, India, Israel, Japan, Jordan, Morocco, the Netherlands, Peru, Poland, Romania, Sri Lanka, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, Turkey, Ukraine, and the United Kingdom. ICTS has published more than 100 books and 30 reports and ICTS activities were covered extensively by television, radio, and press in more than 60 countries.

POTOMAC INSTITUTE FOR POLICY STUDIES I NTERNATIONAL C E N T E R F O R T E R R O R I S M S TUDIES 901 North Stuart Street Suite 200 Arlington, VA 22203 Tel. 703-562-4513, 703-525-0770 ext. 237 Fax 703-562-1000 [email protected] www.potomacinstitute.org

Special Update Report Terrorism in North, West, & Central Africa: From 9/11 to the Arab Spring

Prof. Yonah Alexander Director, International Center for Terrorism Studies, and Senior Fellow, Potomac Institute for Policy Studies

January 2012

Copyright © 2011 by Yonah Alexander. Published by the International Center for Terrorism Studies, at the Potomac Institute for Policy Studies. All rights reserved. No part of this report may be reproduced, stored or distributed without the prior written consent of the copyright holder.

Manufactured in the United States of America

About the Author

Professor Yonah Alexander Professor Yonah Alexander, PhD, serves as a Senior Fellow at the Potomac Institute for Policy Studies and Director of its International Center for Terrorism Studies. He is also a member of the Board of Regents. Concurrently, he is Director of the Inter-University Center for Terrorism Studies and Co-Director of the Inter-University Center for Legal Studies. Both are consortia of universities and think tanks throughout the world. In addition, Professor Alexander directed the Terrorism Studies program (George Washington University) and the Institute for Studies in International Terrorism (State University of New York), totaling 35 years of service. Educated at Columbia University (PhD), the University of Chicago (MA), and Roosevelt University of Chicago (BA), Professor Alexander taught at: The George Washington University, The American University, the Columbus School of Law at Catholic University of America, Tel Aviv University, The City University of New York, and The State University of New York. He also lectured at numerous institutions and universities including: Amman, Amsterdam, Ankara, Beijing, Berkeley, Berlin, Bonn, Brasilia, Brussels, Buenos Aires, Cairo, Caracas, Colombo, Geneva, Harvard, Istanbul, Jerusalem, Johannesburg, Kiev, Lausanne, London, Los Alamos, Madrid, Mexico City, Moscow, New Delhi, Oxford, Paris, Prague, Princeton, Rabat, Rome, Santiago, Seoul, Singapore, Stanford, Stockholm, Sydney, Tokyo, Toronto, Warsaw, and Yalta. His research experience includes such appointments as: Research Professor of International Affairs and Visiting Professor of Law, The George Washington University; Director, "Terrorism, Gray Area and Low Level Conflict," U.S. Global Strategy Council; Senior Fellow, The Institute for Advanced Studies in Justice, School of Law, The American University; Research Associate, School of Journalism, Columbia University; Senior Staff Member, Center for Strategic and International Studies, Georgetown University; Director, Institute for Studies in International Terrorism, State University of New York; and Fellow, Institute of Social Behavior Pathology, The University of Chicago. He is a member, International Institute of Strategic Studies (London) and other professional bodies. Additionally, he has served as academic advisor to governments and international organizations (e.g. UN, NATO, OSCE). Dr. Alexander is founder and editor-in-chief of three academic international journals: Terrorism; Minorities and Group Rights; and Political Communication and Persuasion. Since 2010, he has served as editor-in-chief of Partnership for Peace Review, a new journal under the auspices of NATO. He also has published over 100 books including Al-Qa’ida : Ten Year After 9/11 and Beyond; Terrorists in Our Midst: Combating Foreign Affinity Terrorism in America; Evolution of U.S. Counterterrorism Policy (three volumes); Turkey: Terrorism, Civil Rights, and the European Union; The New Iranian Leadership: Terrorism, Nuclear Ambition, and the Middle East Conflict; and Counterterrorism Strategies: Success and Failures of Six Nations. His works were translated into more than two dozen languages. Professor Alexander’s personal papers and collection on terrorism are housed at the Hoover Institution Library and Archives at Stanford University. He received numerous academic and professional awards and grants from private and public foundations (the most recent is the 2010 John Lyman Prize for the book, Terror on the High Seas: From Piracy to Strategic Challenge). Professor Alexander has appeared on many television and radio programs in more than 40 countries. His numerous articles and interviews were published in both the United States and the international press.

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Special Update Report Terrorism in North, West, & Central Africa: From 9/11 to the Arab Spring

Table of Contents

MAP-GRAPHIC: NEW TERRORISM HOTSPOT ...... 3

PREFACE: TERRORISM IN AFRICA, FROM 9/11 TO THE ARAB SPRING ...... 4

MAP-CHART: TERRORIST ATTACKS IN REGION SINCE 9/11 ...... 4

SELECTED RECOMMENDATIONS ...... 6

THE ARAB SPRING ...... 8

TUNISIA…...... 8 EGYPT ...... 11 LIBYA ...... 13 ALGERIA ...... 15 MOROCCO ...... 17 MAURITANIA ...... 19 MALI ...... 21 NIGER ...... 23 CHAD ...... 25

CHRONOLOGY: TERRORISM IN NORTH & WEST/CENTRAL AFRICA ...... 27

SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY ...... 37

2 Special Update Report - Terrorism in North, West, & Central Africa: From 9/11 to the Arab Spring

3 Special Update Report - Terrorism in North, West, & Central Africa: From 9/11 to the Arab Spring

PREFACE Terrorism in North, West, & Central Africa: From 9/11 to the Arab Spring By Yonah Alexander

We learn from history that nothing is permanent in world affairs. Empires, nations, and people rise and decline and others take their place. The only certainty is uncertainty and consequently a realistic analysis of factors that contribute to stability or instability of national, regional, and global security frameworks is critical. Tragically, the Maghreb — Algeria, Libya, Mauritania, Morocco, and Tunisia — as well as adjacent parts of the Sahel — Chad, Mali, and Niger — have emerged as one of the most worrying strategic challenges to the international community, and yet for decades these regions have mostly been overlooked by policy-makers in the West. Consider, for example, the empirical data generated since September 11, 2001. More specifically, for the past ten years terrorist attacks by al-Qa’ida in the Islamic Maghreb (AQIM) and other militant extremists in the Maghreb and Sahel have increased more than 500 percent from their low point in the period to hit a high of 204 attacks in 2009. In 2011, the number of terrorist attacks remains dangerously high, increasing from 2010’s total to reach 185 attacks for the year.

Terrorist Attacks in the Maghreb & Sahel Since 9/11

200 204 175 Tunisia 185 Maghreb (4 attacks) 178

150 Morocco 161 153 152 (9 attacks) Algeria Libya 125 (1,102 attacks) (1 attack)

100 S a h e l Mauritania 104 (27 attacks) Mali Niger Chad 75 (49 attacks) (38 attacks) (58 attacks)

50 55 44 25 31 21 Annual Terrorist Attacks in Region Since 9/11 0 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011

4 Special Update Report - Terrorism in North, West, & Central Africa: From 9/11 to the Arab Spring

Over the past decade, 1,288 terrorist bombings, murders, kidnappings, and ambushes- against international and domestic targets- claimed more than 2,000 lives and 6,000 victims in Algeria, Chad, Libya, Mali, Mauritania, Morocco, Niger, and Tunisia. Last year, intelligence reports and arrests confirmed AQIM has opened links with Latin cartels for ‘drugs-for-arms’ smuggling into Europe through terrorist-trafficking networks in the Sahel that include members of the Polisario Front. Recently, intelligence reports from officials in the region confirm that a variety of arms from the Libya conflict, including surface-to-air missiles, may have fallen into AQIM hands in the Sahel. What is particularly of grave concern is that AQIM, jointly with other al-Qa’ida affiliates and militant groups (e.g. al-Qa’ida in the Arabian Peninsula, AQAP, operating in Yemen, as well as al-Shabaab members in Somalia, Boko Haram militants based in Nigeria, and Polisario militants from Algeria) currently and for the foreseeable future, represent a most dangerous threat both regionally and inter-regionally. Clearly in the failed and fragile states bordering the Sahara, al-Qa’ida has established a safe haven and breeding ground for its activities. Two major concerns feed into this arc of instability that stretches from the Red Sea and is poised to reach to the Atlantic. First, is the lingering 35-year old Western Sahara conflict, which is creating an opening for AQIM’s expansion and also recruitment of hard-core Polisario members among the Sahrawi refugee camps in Algeria, further complicating the viability of a diplomatic resolution for the Western Sahara issue. And second, the dramatic and unprecedented “Arab Spring” revolutionary process that began in Tunisia, continued in Egypt, and exploded into a civil war in Libya. Apparently, al-Qa’ida and other terrorist groups in North, West, and Central Africa are already attempting to take advantage of the unstable events in the countries involved in their efforts to destabilize the region even further. The purpose of this updated report is to supplement three earlier special studies published in 2009, 2010, and 2011. The publication titled “Why the Maghreb Matters: Threats, Opportunities, and Options for Effective Engagement in North Africa” (March 2009) was co-sponsored by the Conflict Management Program of the John Hopkins University with the Potomac Institute for Policy Studies. This report was supported by a bipartisan panel of foreign policy experts, including General (ret.) Wesley Clark, Amb (ret.) Stuart Eizenstat, former Secretary of State Madeleine Albright, Professor William Zartman, and other distinguished academics and former diplomats. The panel’s special report recommended that the new US administration “look around the corner,” as President Barack Obama had advocated, and engage the region more effectively to prevent the brewing crisis in security before it erupts. More specifically, the report outlined threats, opportunities, and options for the United States to promote peace and prosperity, and prevent a growing peril in North Africa. The nations of the Maghreb have long been at the crossroads of history and currently hold great potential as a bridge between the Islamic world and the West. The region could benefit greatly from increased regional economic integration that would make it an appealing market for Europe and the United States. But it also faces serious challenges: a firm toehold by al-Qa’ida in the Sahara, inconsistent economic

5 Special Update Report - Terrorism in North, West, & Central Africa: From 9/11 to the Arab Spring growth, a growing restive young population, and regional disputes that impede economic and security cooperation, in particular the long-running dispute over Western Sahara. The other two special reports, namely, “Maghreb and Sahel Terrorism: Addressing the Rising Threats from al-Qa’ida and other Terrorists in North and West and Central Africa” (January 2010), and “The Consequences of Terrorism: al-Qa’ida and other Terrorist Threats in the Sahel and Maghreb” (January 2011), presented overviews of terrorism and dealt in some detail with the security challenges in the region and their implications. The current publication is updating the annual statistical data since 9/11 and focusing on chronological terrorist events in 2011. Moreover, a special analysis is presented on the Arab Spring’s developments, covering specifically: Tunisia, Egypt, Libya, Algeria, Morocco, Mauritania, Mali, Niger, and Chad. A team of analysts based at the ICTS conducted research with an effort to understand the security impact in the region and beyond. The team included Patrick Cheetham (UCLA), Evan Lundh (UCLA), Amy Glazier (Tufts University), Jesse Sedler (Emory University), and Daniel Idziak (College of William and Mary). Finally, on the basis of the material presented in this updated report some recommendations are offered to be considered with the hope of stimulating further research in this area.

SELECTED RECOMMENDATIONS: The key insights and recommendations underlined in the earlier studies appear event more relevant, and urgent, in light of the “Arab Spring” developments. They include the following steps that should be given close consideration by US policymakers and the international community in general: 1. Develop a comprehensive program in the affected countries to increase public awareness concerning the nature of jihadist terrorism as a form of low-intensity warfare being waged against the Maghreb and Sahel; how it affects the local populations; how it diverts resources away from economic development; and how it constrains political open space. 2. Strengthen the US intelligence mechanism in order to provide more effective collection and analysis of data related to al-Qa’ida’s terrorism in general in the region and beyond. And ensure that the information is used effectively by cooperating bodies in the region through providing equipment, training, and monitoring assistance. 3. Deny supporters of Islamic extremism in the Maghreb, Sahel, and elsewhere the capacity and freedom to engage in propaganda through effective information countermeasures, grassroots development investments, and open channels of communication with local leaders. 4. Expand US counterterrorism technical assistance to the area, particularly training for internal security bodies, police agencies, and the military, particularly under the umbrella of multilateral working groups to provide for adequate monitoring and transparency. 6 Special Update Report - Terrorism in North, West, & Central Africa: From 9/11 to the Arab Spring

5. Improve the level of security coordination between the countries in the region so they can more effectively share intelligence and interdict terrorist networks and supply lines on the ground. 6. Encourage the governments in the region to accelerate regional economic and social reforms with a “carrot-and-stick” approach to increase broadly the levels of economic cooperation between the nations and spur increased trade and commerce that contributes to economic growth and reduces poverty as an underlying factor in fueling social unrest and extremism. 7. Resolve the Western Sahara crisis, which is inhibiting both security and economic cooperation in the Maghreb and Sahel, and is driving a wedge between two of the region’s most influential nations—Morocco and Algeria. 8. Shut down the refugee camps run by the Polisario near Tindouf, Algeria because they are a recruiting ground for terrorists, traffickers, and other criminal enterprises. The US and international community should prioritize permanent refugee resettlement in line with existing international protocols and agreements. 9. Face the intellectual challenge of radical Islam directly with “home-grown” religious and intellectual leaders who are able to challenge the misuse of Islam and channel religious tendencies into more productive social development opportunities. 10. Raise the diplomatic, economic, political, and military costs to Iran high enough to outweigh the benefits of supporting terrorism and exporting jihadist terrorism elsewhere. In sum, a coherent and firm US policy vis-à-vis the threats of terrorism in Maghreb and Sahel would increase domestic public understanding and support in the US for sustained engagement with the nations of North and West/Central Africa. The updated documents incorporated in this report, particularly the statistical tables and terrorism chronology covering the period September 11, 2001 – December 31, 2011, make it clear that constructive and sustained engagement is vital, employing both “hard” (security, military, intelligence cooperation) and “soft” elements (economic and social development creating employment opportunities, education that equips students/trainees for jobs, and reduction of religious radicalism). Otherwise, the US, the EU, and our friends in the region will remain hostages to, and targets of the ideological, theological, and political terrorists for the remainder of the 21st century.

7 Special Update Report - Terrorism in North, West, & Central Africa: From 9/11 to the Arab Spring The Arab Spring Tunisia Overview: Inspired by the self-immolation of a frustrated, impoverished fruit vendor whose merchandise was confiscated by authorities, Tunisians took to the streets in December 2010 to protest the autocracy, corruption, and inequality of the Ben Ali regime. Thus began a movement dubbed the Jasmine Revolution, which inspired people in other Arab countries to rise up against their autocratic rulers in what became known as the Arab Spring. By January 14, 2011, 78 protesters were dead, 94 injured, and President Ben Ali’s 23-year rule ended as he left for Saudi Arabia. In the days that followed, a transitional government began the process of creating the functions of a democratic state. With moderate Islamists of the Ennahda Party (banned under Ben Ali) becoming a dominant political force, the emerging government is challenged with balancing liberal reforms and religion. Tunisia’s long border with Libya (which experienced extensive conflict in during the Libyan uprising) could serve as a point of transfer for weapons and militants into Tunisia. Tunisia’s tourism industry, which plays a vital role in the economy, must be revived and commercial connections expanded to produce employment for Tunisia’s unemployed. Outlook: One year later, Tunisia remains in an official state of emergency. There is a “general threat” of terrorism, and travelers to Tunisia have been warned that demonstrations with the potential for violence and injury are possible.1 Tunisia’s Jasmine Revolution initiated the Arab Spring, but has been marked by the absence of the large-scale violence seen by other countries such as Libya, Yemen, and Syria. The underlying problems which led to the Jasmine Revolution such as unemployment, particularly among youth, and corruption, must be addressed for Tunisia to prosper. Tunisia’s proximity to Europe and its position within Africa and the Arab world place it at a fertile commercial and cultural nexus. Tunisia has the opportunity to play an enhanced role in regional affairs as a connection point between Europe, Africa, and the Arab World. If governmental reforms are successful in bringing true democracy to Tunisia, rooting out corruption, and increasing employment, Tunisia may experience significantly enhanced growth as more of the labor force participates in economic activity and commercial ties with other countries expand. Tunisia’s connectivity to the world via broad access to the Internet and international travel routes is well established. For tourism levels to return to pre-uprising levels, Tunisia must remain free from civil unrest. The ouster of former president Ben Ali, who maintained an iron grip on power and kept fundamentalists out of a leading role in society, has re-injected political Islam to Tunisia’s political space. The Ennahda Movement has emerged as a powerful force, taking 90 out of 217 seats in the constituent assembly elected to draft a new constitution for Tunisia.

1 "Tunisia." Foreign and Commonwealth Office, January 3, 2012, . 8 Special Update Report - Terrorism in North, West, & Central Africa: From 9/11 to the Arab Spring

9 Special Update Report - Terrorism in North, West, & Central Africa: From 9/11 to the Arab Spring

In a situation similar to that in Egypt, where the Muslim Brotherhood is emerging as a potent political force in the wake of former president Hosni Mubarak’s departure from power, Tunisia must learn to manage the interplay between religion and government, which were separated since Tunisia’s independence in 1956. Tunisia has experienced terrorist attacks including a 2007 plot on the British and American embassies in Tunis. The alleged attackers were linked to the Algerian terrorists of the Group for Preaching and Combat which has evolved into AQIM. Tunisia shares an extensive border with Libya, which may lead to heightened threats due to the proliferation of small arms from the Libyan conflict. While Tunisia’s revolution was not the al-Qa’ida inspired uprising that Usama bin Laden had long advocated, both he and Anwar al-Awlaki praised the outcome. In a posthumous message, bin Laden said, “The sun of the revolution has risen from the Maghreb,” and “The light of the revolution came from Tunisia. It has given the nation tranquility and made the faces of the people happy.”2 In al-Qa’ida in the Arabian Peninsula’s magazine, Inspire, Awlaki sent a message of Muslim unity in the Arab Spring: “Our mujahedeen brothers in Tunisia, Egypt, Libya and the rest of the Muslim world will get a chance to breathe again after three decades of suffocation.”3 In its current situation, Tunisia sees Turkey as an example of how to blend secular institutions and Islam. Turkey, similar in its proximity to Europe and Muslim identity, may be an example for Tunisia to follow in its evolution into a democratic state. Turkey is managing secularism and democracy in its government and society, something that other states have not been able to balance. In conclusion, Tunisia must find a way to balance the role of Islam with secular social institutions and the rights of women in the emerging democratic order. Tunisia must also work to ensure that terrorism does not spread from other countries and take root in Tunisia, further damaging the tourism industry. The benefits gained from tourism are a powerful incentive for Tunisia to maintain close ties with Europe and to serve as a responsible member of the Mediterranean community. The problems of unemployment and corruption must be rooted out under the emerging democratic government in order for Tunisians to be satisfied with the outcome of their Jasmine Revolution.

2 Crilly, Rob. “Osama bin Laden Tape Praises Arab Spring Uprisings.” The Telegraph, May 19, 2011, < http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/al-qaeda/8522799/Osama-bin-Laden-tape-praises-Arab- Spring-uprisings.html>. 3 Burke, Jason. “Al-Qaida Leaders Welcome Arab Uprisings, Says Cleric.” The Guardian, March 31, 2011, .

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11 Special Update Report - Terrorism in North, West, & Central Africa: From 9/11 to the Arab Spring

Egypt Overview: Egyptians, who had long tolerated their authoritarian ruler Hosni Mubarak, were inspired by the success of the Tunisian demonstrators and took to the streets to demand basic freedoms, a reliable democratic process, economic improvement, and an end to corruption. In 18 days, Egyptians ended President Mubarak’s 30-year rule and have since faced the looming question of “what’s next?” The revolution, and the American response that was swift in embracing the protestors and abandoning their long-standing ally, Mubarak, has caused authoritarian leaders elsewhere to question American steadfastness. On the other hand, protestors monitoring America’s response to movements in other countries question America’s commitment to democracy. Egypt’s military is struggling to keep up with the speed at which newly empowered citizens want to see change. In the recent elections, the Muslim Brotherhood, the only well-organized national movement, and Salafist candidates representing the conservative core of Egyptian society, are the key players. In addition to questions about minority rights, an Islamist Egypt may change its relationships with other countries in the region, particularly Israel, with which relations have deteriorated over security in the Sinai. Outlook: Egypt faces demographics similar to other countries embroiled in the Arab Spring. With a median age of 24.3 a population growing at 1.96%, and youth unemployment at 24.8%, the country is filled with young, unemployed, and frustrated people. For any new government— secular, religious, or military—to be successful, it must address these issues in a substantial way. The downfall of America’s longtime ally Hosni Mubarak poses a series of challenges to America’s foreign policy makers. While the military was instrumental in the ouster of Mubarak, it is still unclear how it will respond to aspirations for Egypt’s future that will be shaped by a democratic process led by Islamic parties. If the military allows for a smooth transition of power to democratically elected leaders, the US will hopefully have an Egyptian partner whose interests reflect those of the people. The international community is uncertain of Egypt’s leadership due to the continuing sectarian violence, lawlessness in the Sinai, and tension between the new government and Israel. While US support for the protest movement demonstrated America’s preference for democracy, it gives other pro-Western autocrats cause for concern regarding the continuing loyalty of the US to their regimes. Within Egypt, questions remain over human rights, religion, and the status of women, many of whom were instrumental in the protest movement. In one case, Egyptian courts found that the military’s subjection of women to ‘virginity tests’ violated their rights. This incident, and other concerns including torture, magnify the issue of the military rulers’ respect for human rights. It is not yet certain that the military will abide by the transfer of power that will likely emerge from the new constitution being drafted by the new parliament, where Salafists and the Muslim Brotherhood hold the majority of seats. The new government may make significant changes in the country’s foreign policy. It is more sympathetic to Hamas, a US- designated terrorist organization. Egypt has permanently reopened its border with Gaza and served as a third party in prisoner swap negotiations between Hamas and Israel. Gaza’s Prime Minister, Ismail Haniya, who represents Hamas, stopped in Egypt during his first trip abroad since taking power, an indication of his close relationship with the new government. Many challenges lie ahead for Egypt and its new leaders.

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13 Special Update Report - Terrorism in North, West, & Central Africa: From 9/11 to the Arab Spring

Libya

Overview: The Libyan revolution against Colonel Muammar Gaddafi quickly followed the Jasmine Revolution. Gaddafi condemned the uprising in January of 2011, amidst reports of widespread unrest and demonstrations occurring in several Libyan cities, which transformed into open rebellion following severe government crackdowns. The Libyan Revolutionary Council (LRC) was created in late February to integrate the leadership and political outreach of the regime’s opponents. The rebels and regime forces engaged in a series of military engagements, but the rebels faltered when Gaddafi’s forces began to utilize air power against their forces. The United Nation (UN) and North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) debated a no-fly zone in Libya on humanitarian grounds. On March 17, the UN Security Council adopted Resolution 1973 approving the no-fly zone. European and American forces began a massive air campaign on March 18 against Gaddafi’s forces. By March 22, NATO took command of the operation and continued to strike against Gaddafi’s army and military institutions, including strikes on Tripoli. Ultimately, efforts to mediate a peace agreement proved futile as the LRC would not accept any resolution that allowed Gaddafi to remain in power. Continued NATO military pressure enabled rebel forces to press the ground attack while gaining diplomatic recognition and international support. Rebel forces captured Tripoli on August 21. By October 20, Sirte, the last Gaddafi stronghold, was captured and rebel forces apprehended and killed Muammar Gaddafi. The new Libyan government began to consolidate power and proposed democratic reforms to the constitution. The transition has not been as smooth as hoped as several powerful militias that opposed Gaddafi are contesting with the interim government for influence in the new Libya. The conflict between the new government’s military and militia forces continues as does the circulation of arms from weapons depots emptied during the conflict. Outlook: The frequency of conflicts between the NTC and local militias as well as inter-militia conflict has been increasing. These skirmishes and vigilante and revenge killings, threaten to destabilize the country and potentially lead to a renewed civil war. The NTC must also remove the vestiges of Gaddafi’s regime while maintaining government services. This predicament threatens the balance between legitimacy and functionality. There is also the daunting dilemma of retrieving advanced weapons, such as portable ground-to-air anti- aircraft missiles looted from Gaddafi armories during the rebellion which pose a potential threat to the Sahel. Terrorists could use them to destabilize the region’s transportation. The United States is initiating a buyback program to thwart such a scenario. Yet there is a great degree of hope for Libyan democracy. The NTC has pledged to write a new constitution following the election of a National Assembly. The constitution allocates 20 of the 200 seats to women and the National Assembly is expected to convene in June 2012. Libya continues to experience economic difficulties even though several international bodies have unfrozen Libya’s assets. This development has yet to improve the cash crisis on the grassroots level. Meanwhile, Libya’s oil infrastructure is steadily improving to help the regime recover much-needed income.

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15 Special Update Report - Terrorism in North, West, & Central Africa: From 9/11 to the Arab Spring

Algeria Overview: Algeria has many of the same issues as its neighbors: a young unemployed population, stifling and opaque bureaucracy, a rigid economic system, and a ruling elite who have remained in power since independence. Despite these similarities to neighbors Tunisia and Libya, only minimal protests have occurred, which resulted in the repeal of a 19-year state of emergency, proposed constitutional reforms to strengthen democracy, and information laws broadening freedom of speech. The Algerian civil war, which took place from the early 1990s to the early 2000s, has dulled the country’s enthusiasm for revolution. Conflicts between Islamist groups and government security forces have resulted in the deaths of more than 100,000 people. A further obstacle to protests is the strong Algerian security apparatus which is able to quell the protestors and rival ideological groups whose disagreements further splintered the Algerian population, thus preventing a unified movement. These factors seem to discourage widespread public resistance to the regime. The government’s concessions towards a fuller and freer democracy can be seen as a victory for reformers, but only if they are actually implemented. Elections are scheduled for May 2012. Outlook: Algeria has stood on the sidelines watching its neighbors’ transition from dictatorship to democratic reforms. Its recent history suggests that Algerian protests may never come, as the traumatic civil war has left its scars on the people. The wounds of that conflict, coupled with a strong Algerian security apparatus and a split opposition, underline the challenges that Algerian reformers must overcome. While the prospect of Arab Spring- style movement seems minimal, there is always the chance that some event will spark the population into action. The failure to enact promised reforms, widespread security actions against civilian groups such as the labor unions or moderate Muslim political parties, or manipulations of the coming election could throw the nation into turmoil and potentially damage the ruling regime. If economic conditions, unemployment, and low wages remain static, then the youth may see rebellion as the only means of change, potentially dragging Algeria down the same path as its neighbors.

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17 Special Update Report - Terrorism in North, West, & Central Africa: From 9/11 to the Arab Spring

Morocco Overview: The protests which became known as the February 20th Movement in Morocco have resulted in less violence and more reforms than in other Arab Spring countries. In response to popular protests calling for a parliamentary monarchy, a crackdown on corruption, and greater employment opportunities, Morocco's King Mohammad VI agreed to a number of demands, accelerating his reform agenda. Among key elements were a new constitution stipulating increased powers for parliament and the prime minister, judicial reforms, equality for women and minorities enshrined in law, new parliamentary elections (which were held in November 2011, resulting in a moderate Islamist party winning the greatest number of seats), and civil and social equality for women. Outlook: Morocco's economy is dominated by phosphate mining, agriculture, tourism, and low- value added consumer goods production, and is heavily dependent upon trade with Europe. An economic slowdown in Europe could mean increased domestic pressures in Morocco as fewer job opportunities become available to unemployed Moroccans. King Mohammad VI of Morocco is a hereditary monarch who enjoys a great deal of legitimacy among Morocco's people and his family has ruled since the 17th century. The king is the head of state and “leader of the faithful,” acting as both the religious leader and arbiter of the political process. The protests were not aimed at toppling the monarchy but pushing for government reform. The elections in November 2011 brought to power a coalition government led by the moderate Islamist Justice and Development Party (PJD). Morocco has a difficult relationship with Algeria, which supports the Polisario Front in its conflict with Morocco over the Western Sahara. The Morocco-Algeria border is closed and there is increasing concern that militants and smugglers are increasing their activities in the region. The shared threat of terrorism has led the intelligence services of the two countries to hold regular joint meetings on counterterrorism and engage their counterparts in the US, Europe, and the region. Members of the Polisario Front have been accused of coordinating criminal activities in the ungoverned areas along the borders of the Sahel and Maghreb countries, raising concerns that these areas may become terrorist breeding grounds as AQIM has increased its activities in the region. In conclusion, the Arab Spring has brought less upheaval to Morocco than it has brought to other countries because the government has agreed to some of the protesters’ demands and the monarchy enjoys the respect of the people. Morocco remains at risk from hard-line Islamists who seek to undermine the King’s role and from terrorists and criminal elements affiliated with AQIM. Continued high unemployment remains a pressing concern.

18 Special Update Report - Terrorism in North, West, & Central Africa: From 9/11 to the Arab Spring

19 Special Update Report - Terrorism in North, West, & Central Africa: From 9/11 to the Arab Spring

Mauritania Overview: Mauritania is a country of more than three million people. Its economy is heavily dependent upon agriculture, fishing, and iron-ore mining. The current leader of the country, President Mohamed Ould Abdel Aziz, came to power in a military coup in 2008 and was elected President the following year. Mauritania faces many of the same challenges which confront neighboring countries in the Arab World such as high unemployment and corruption. These issues are compounded by tensions between Mauritania's black and Arab populations. Slavery and human-trafficking remain persistent problems. Mauritania faces a growing threat from AQIM and Boko Haram. Also, the separatist group, the Polisario Front, which is in conflict with Morocco over the Western Sahara, as well as former fighters from the Libyan civil war, pose border security threats. There have been some protests for change in Mauritania but have thus far resulted in little tangible impact on the government and people of Mauritania. Youth using social media to organize rallies echo concerns similar to those of others across the Arab World: greater employment opportunities, political reform, and ending corruption. Outlook: The Arab Spring in Mauritania has thus far seen relatively low-level protests directed at reforming the government and enhancing economic opportunities. The first truly democratic elections in Mauritania took place in 2007, but the results of this election were nullified by a military coup in 2008. Mauritania has a long history of authoritarian rule and has complicated relationships with its neighbors. It is one of only three Arab countries to have recognized Israel, although relations have been suspended since 2009. The government of Mauritania has bounced between being criticized and supported by Western countries. It is one of the poorest countries in Africa with an extremely high youth-unemployment rate and has qualified for debt relief under the Heavily Indebted Poor Countries initiative, which eliminated Mauritania's foreign debt. Mauritania's relations with Senegal are in conflict over use of water from the Senegal River that serves as the border between the countries. Mauritanian blacks face widespread discrimination in educational and employment opportunities, and many have expressed their opposition to government efforts to implement a census which blacks claim places unfair requirements on proving citizenship. The threat posed by AQIM’s kidnapping activities in Mauritania, broad-based criminal trafficking, and incursions by militants from the Polisario Front have prompted the government to participate in US-supported joint anti-terror activities with Mali and others in the region. Mauritania faces the daunting challenges of developing its natural resources, creating jobs, and easing tensions between Mauritania's black and Arab populations while modernizing its society, infrastructure, and economy.

20 Special Update Report - Terrorism in North, West, & Central Africa: From 9/11 to the Arab Spring

21 Special Update Report - Terrorism in North, West, & Central Africa: From 9/11 to the Arab Spring

Mali Overview: Unlike most other participants in the Arab Spring, Mali has a relatively strong democracy. While there was a sizeable protest in the capital, Bamako, in March 2011, it was directed towards US and Western embassies rather than the central government. However, separatist movements in the northern reaches of the country were reignited in late 2011 as Tuareg rebels, who fought alongside Gaddafi in the Libyan Civil War, returned to Mali armed and prepared to make another effort at national determination. The Tuaregs, a nomadic group of about 1.5 million people spread throughout the Sahel region of Mali, Niger, Algeria, and Libya, have long-standing tensions with the government based in southern Mali. They complain of being treated like second-class citizens and receiving an inequitable share of wealth from the uranium-rich mines located in the north. Mali’s history is laced with rebellions by the Tuaregs, who have sparked uprisings as recently as 2007 to establish an independent state in the Azawad region of northern Mali. On October 16, as hundreds of Tuaregs returned to Mali with arms from the conflict in Libya, the Northern Mali Tuareg Movement joined forces with the National Azawan Movement, creating the National Movement for the Liberation of Azawad (MNLA). It soon became clear that this merger was the beginning of another armed conflict between the Tuaregs and the Malian government. In mid-January 2012, as the government’s military forces entered the north to begin negotiations for the release of al-Qa’ida hostages, MNLA launched an offensive in the town of Menaka. Although military officials claimed that they have successfully repelled the attack, this offensive may be an indication of a larger, longer term conflict between Tuareg nationalists and the Malian government. Outlook: Given the repeated occurrences of Tuareg rebellions in recent history, the Malian government may attempt to broker a lasting solution to this internal conflict. An inadequate state presence and porous borders in the Sahel pose problems for Mali’s security forces. AQIM has an established presence in the largely ungoverned north where there are also bases set up by international smuggling networks, some of which are tied to elements of the Polisario Front. While the threat of a countrywide uprising demanding the ouster of the current regime is largely nonexistent, the emergence of a sustained rebellion by the Tuareg will only compound the security issues that the government of Mali is currently facing.

22 Special Update Report - Terrorism in North, West, & Central Africa: From 9/11 to the Arab Spring

23 Special Update Report - Terrorism in North, West, & Central Africa: From 9/11 to the Arab Spring

Niger Overview: Niger experienced several events in 2011 which threatened its national stability. There is an active AQIM franchise based within its borders that has successfully attacked foreign visitors. Due to this threat, international development organizations, such as the Peace Corps, have withdrawn from Niger. There also remains an element of Tuareg (a nomadic ethnic minority) insurgency in northern Niger that is suspected of having ties to AQIM. In January 2011, Niger held its first national election since the coup which ousted former President Mamadou Tandja. Newly elected President Mahamadou Issoufou won after a runoff election in March 2011 in what was considered a genuinely free and fair election. Despite the election, Niger’s democracy is still on shaky ground as indicated by an attempted coup in early August. Niger’s international relations have suffered over the course of the Arab Spring. Niger did not take an official stance during the rebellion in neighboring Libya, although the government did issue statements declaring that Western military intervention and rebellion related violence has undermined security and economic conditions in the Sahel region. It has been estimated that 150,000 displaced persons fled Libya to Niger including many Tuareg militants who fought for Colonel Gaddafi’s forces. Bilateral relations between Libya and Niger have suffered in the wake of the Libyan rebellion since Niger granted asylum to Saadi Gaddafi—one of Muammar Gaddafi’s sons. Lastly, there is a bourgeoning humanitarian crisis in Niger and the larger Sahel as drought and poor harvest conditions threaten to plunge the region into famine. Outlook: It is difficult to assess the future of Niger as regional developments can significantly influence events within Niger itself. Niger is still confronting the aftermath of the Tuareg rebellion which ended in 2009 and is currently attempting to eliminate elements of AQIM within its borders. Both AQIM and Tuareg separatists have support in neighboring countries which could potentially exacerbate conditions in Niger, especially in the north. Politically, Niger has had a tumultuous past regarding government corruption. While the 2011 election was a promising development, there are no guarantees that President Issoufou will be able to stabilize the national political system. Niger’s economic outlook is promising as new oil discoveries could provide another avenue for trade growth (along with uranium). However, political and security instability in the region could have a harmful impact in developing the oil sector of Niger’s economy. China is currently expanding its ties to Niger in an effort to develop its oil infrastructure.

24 Special Update Report - Terrorism in North, West, & Central Africa: From 9/11 to the Arab Spring

25 Special Update Report - Terrorism in North, West, & Central Africa: From 9/11 to the Arab Spring

Chad Overview: From its 1,000-kilometer border with Libya, Chad was a frontline witness to the Arab Spring protests. Chad was ripe for political unrest as it held parliamentary elections for the first time in nine years and underwent a controversial presidential election. However, no unrest developed as incumbent President Deby Itno’s Patriotic Salvation Movement won 113 of 155 seats in the February 2011 elections and nearly 84% of the popular vote. The opposition boycotted the elections and vowed to unite against him, but there is no sign yet of protests similar to those in other African nations such as Tunisia, Egypt, Libya, Morocco, and Uganda. The revolution in Libya spilled over the border as Libya’s NTC accused Chad of supplying Muammar Gaddafi with fighters and weapons, a claim the Chadian government rejected. Outlook: Chad’s future holds a number of potential positives and negatives. In terms of politics, Chad held its first ever municipal elections in January 2012, demonstrating a shift towards greater democracy. Despite low voter turnout, this election can be a confidence booster if there is an increase in political participation in Chad leading to some degree of reform. Chad’s security situation is more complicated as a result of Muammar Gaddafi’s death. Prior to the Arab Spring, Libya and Chad had cordial relations, with Chad receiving both economic and military aid. There were reports during the rebellion in Libya that Chadian troops were fighting and moving weapons across the border into Libya. As a result, Chad and the Libya’s NTC have experienced more tension in their relationship. Chad must now deal with a lack of financial investment from Libya and confront the movement of weapons from Libya across the border into Chad. Many Chadians trapped in Libya are at risk of being persecuted as pro-Gaddafi fighters.

26 Special Update Report - Terrorism in North, West, & Central Africa: From 9/11 to the Arab Spring HRONOLOGY Incidents of C : Terrorism in the Maghreb & Sahel

Sept. 11, 2001 – Dec. 31, 2011 Algeria, Chad, Libya, Mali, Mauritania, Morocco, Niger, and Tunisia 200 204

175 185 178

150 161 153 152 125

100 104 75

50 55 44

25 31 ANNUAL TERRORIST ATTACKS IN MAGHREB & SAHEL REGION 21 (Algeria, Chad, Libya, Mali, Mauritania, Morocco, Niger, & Tunisia) 0 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011

Data Table: Terrorism Incidents in Maghreb & Sahel since Sept. 11, 2001

TIMELINE YEAR 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011

NORTH & WEST/CENTRAL Totals: 21 55 31 44 104 153 161 152 204 178 185 AFRICA NATIONS 1,288 attacks attacks attacks attacks attacks attacks attacks attacks attacks attacks attacks attacks ALGERIA 1,102 attacks 20 54 28 39 93 120 110 121 185 168 164 CHAD 58 attacks 3 6 28 14 6 1

LIBYA 1 attack 1

MALI 49 attacks 1 1 2 3 10 11 9 4 8

MAURITANIA 27 attacks 1 3 4 4 6 2 7

MOROCCO 9 attacks 2 5 2

NIGER 38 attacks 1 18 9 4 3 3

TUNISIA 4 attacks 1 1 1 1

27 Special Update Report - Terrorism in North, West, & Central Africa: From 9/11 to the Arab Spring INCIDENTS OF TERRORISM IN MAGHREB & SAHEL: Chronology from Sept. 11, 2001 to Dec. 31, 2011 — (Updated with 2011 incidents below) For full listing from 9/11/01 to 12/31/09, go to: http://www.potomacinstitute.org/attachments/524_Maghreb%20Terrorism%20report.pdf and from 1/1/10 to 12/31/10, go to: http://www.potomacinstitute.org/attachments/863_2011%20REPORT%20UPDATE%20Maghreb%20%20Sahel%20Terrorism.pdf

2011 Algeria

December 31, 2011 December 20, 2011 November 29, 2011 Armed men attacked a bar in Tirmitine, Armed men kidnapped a young Security defuse bomb in Afir, Boumerdès. Tizi Ouzou. The men extorted money agricultural worker in Aït Yahia Moussa, http://www.tsa- from the bar’s patrons and owner. Tizi Ouzou. algerie.com/divers/boumerdes-un- http://www.elwatan.com/actualite/tizi- http://www.elwatan.com/actualite/ait- terroriste-abattu-et-une-bombe- ouzou-incursion-terroriste-dans-un-bar- yahia-moussa-tizi-ouzou-un-jeune- desamorcee_18378.html 01-01-2012-153123_109.php agriculteur-kidnappe-22-12-2011- 152022_109.php November 20, 2011 December 25, 2011 Bomb hurts 3 soldiers, Mizrana, Tizi Ouzou. A woman was seriously injured when a December 16, 2011 http://www.tsa-algerie.com/divers/trois- roadside bomb exploded in Imkriyen, A gendarme was wounded in a bomb militaires-grievement-blesses-dans-l- Boumerdès. The 53-year-old victim explosion in El Kalâa, Boumerdès. explosion-d-une-bombe-a- reportedly walked over the homemade http://www.tsa-algerie.com/divers/un- mizrana_18256.html device, planted near an olive grove. gendarme-blesse-dans-l-explosion-d-une- http://www.magharebia.com/cocoon/a bombe_18613.html November 19, 2011 wi/xhtml1/en_GB/features/awi/newsbri efs/general/2011/12/26/newsbrief-02 Terrorists assassinate former GLD member December 7, 2011 at home in Si Mustapha, Boumerdès.

Terrorists kidnapped an entrepreneur http://www.magharebia.com/cocoon/a December 23, 2011 in Thala Amara, Tizi Ouzou. wi/xhtml1/en_GB/features/awi/newsbri 3 factory workers were wounded in a http://www.magharebia.com/cocoon/a efs/general/2011/11/20/newsbrief-06 bomb explosion in Tikiouache, Mizrana. wi/xhtml1/en_GB/features/awi/newsbri http://www.elwatan.com/actualite/mizr efs/general/2011/12/08/newsbrief-03 November 19, 2011 ana-tizi-ouzou-trois-ouvriers-blesses- par-une-bombe-24-12-2011- 2 policemen and civilian wounded in a 152292_109.php December 6, 2011 bomb explosion in Thénia, Boumerdès. A pipeline security guard was killed and http://www.magharebia.com/cocoon/a

2 others were wounded in a roadside wi/xhtml1/en_GB/features/awi/newsbri December 23, 2011 bomb explosion in Aomar, Bouira. efs/general/2011/11/20/newsbrief-06 Bomb explosion targeted the communal http://www.magharebia.com/cocoon/a guard station in Chréa, Tigzirt. No one wi/xhtml1/en_GB/features/awi/newsbri was wounded in the attack. efs/general/2011/12/07/newsbrief-02 November 15, 2011 Terrorists wearing security uniforms http://www.tsa- algerie.com/divers/attentat-contre-un- kidnap doctor in Aït Aissi, Tizi Ouzou. cantonnement-de-la-garde-communale- December 5, 2011 http://www.magharebia.com/cocoon/a pres-de-tizi-ouzou_18709.html 2 soldiers were wounded in a bomb wi/xhtml1/en_GB/features/awi/newsbri explosion in Seyar, Khenchela. efs/general/2011/11/16/newsbrief-03

http://www.liberte- December 22, 2011 algerie.com/actualite/attentats- A repentant terrorist was assassinated terroristes-a-bouira-et-a-khenchela-ils- November 10, 2011 by armed men in Takdempt, Dellys. ont-fait-1-mort-et-3-blesses-dont-2- Terrorist group attacks a gas station in http://www.elwatan.com/actualite/une- militaires-167570 Ath Lakseur, Bouira. http://www.elwatan.com/actualite/boui bombe-desamorcee-aux-issers-et-un- repenti-tue-a-dellys-22-12-2011- ra-une-station-service-cambriolee-par- 152069_109.php November 29, 2011 des-terroristes-a-ath-lakseur-10-11- EMT was killed by a terrorist group in 2011-146777_109.php

Oued Zegguer, Aïn Kechra, Skikda. The December 22, 2011 ambulance was targeted by a roadside Security forces diffused a bomb between bomb, and following the explosion, the November 3, 2011 Issers and Bordj Menaiel, Boumerdès. driver was shot and killed. Terrorists kill repentant terrorist in Douar http://www.elwatan.com/actualite/une- http://www.elwatan.com/actualite/skik Hadj Ahmed, Zemmouri, Boumerdès. bombe-desamorcee-aux-issers-et-un- da-un-ambulancier-assassine-par-des- http://www.tsa- repenti-tue-a-dellys-22-12-2011- terroristes-a-ain-kechra-30-11-2011- algerie.com/divers/terrorisme-un- 152069_109.php 149200_109.php repenti-tue-a-boumerdes_18049.html

TIMELINE: Terrorist attacks in the Maghreb and Sahel – 2011 28 | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | Special Update Report - Terrorism in North, West, & Central Africa: From 9/11 to the Arab Spring

November 2, 2011 October 12, 2011 September 28, 2011 Bomb targets national police in Aomar, Terrorists wound soldier in shootout in 3 Sonelgaz employees were wounded in Bouira. No one wounded in the blast. Douila, Taffessour, Sidi Bel Abbés. a bomb explosion in Athouri, Tigzirt, http://www.elwatan.com/actualite/boui http://www.tsa-algerie.com/divers/un- Tizi Ouzou. ra-explosion-d-une-bombe-a-aomar-02- militaire-blesse-dans-un-accrochage- http://www.tsa- 11-2011-145959_109.php avec-un-groupe-terroriste_17711.html algerie.com/divers/explosion-d-une- bombe-pres-de-tizi-ouzou_17483.html November1, 2011 October 11, 2011 Terrorist set fire to a bar in Carrière, 4 civilians were wounded in a roadside September 27, 2011 Assi Youzef, Tizi Ouzou. Armed men bomb blast in Mekla, Tizi Ouzou. An entrepreneur was kidnapped by an extort money, stealing patron cell http://www.elwatan.com/actualite/mekla- armed group in Naciria, Boumerdès. phones before starting blaze. tizi-ouzou-quatre-citoyens-blesses-dans-l- http://www.tsa- http://www.elwatan.com/actualite/tizi- explosion-d-une-bombe-11-10-2011- algerie.com/divers/boumerdes-deux-autres- ouzou-un-bar-incendie-par-des-terroristes- 143049_109.php terroristes-abattus-un-commercant- a-assi-youcef-02-11-2011-145957_109.php kidnappe_17477.html

October 11, 2011 October 25, 2011 Bomb strikes military convoy in September 24, 2011 4 soldiers were wounded in a bomb Bouhinoun, Tizi Ouzou. Civilian injured. Terrorists attacked a military outpost explosion in Tadmaït, Tizi Ouzou. http://www.elwatan.com/actualite/tizi- near the airport in Taher, Jijel. The http://www.tsa- ouzou-un-citoyen-blesse-dans-l-explosion-d- terrorists launched RPGs at the site. No algerie.com/divers/quatre-militaires- une-bombe-11-10-2011-143039_109.php one was injured in the attack. blesses-dans-l-explosion-d-une-bombe- http://www.elwatan.com/une/attaque- pres-de-tizi-ouzou_17911.html terroriste-au-lance-roquettes-a-l- October 9, 2011 aeroport-de-jijel-25- 2 civilians were wounded in a bomb 09-2011-141105_108.php October 22, 2011 explosion in Beni Amrane, Boumerdès. AQIM offshoot kidnaps 3 Western aid http://www.tsa-algerie.com/divers/deux- workers from Polisario-run refugee personnes-blessees-dans-l-explosion-d-une- September 23, 2011 camp near Tindouf, Western Algeria. bombe-a-beni-amrane_17654.html 2 people were kidnapped from a bar http://www.magharebia.com/cocoon/a during a terrorist attack in Mechtras, wi/xhtml1/en_GB/features/awi/newsbri Tizi Ouzou. As they were fleeing, the efs/general/2011/10/24/newsbrief-01 October 6, 2011 terrorists set the bar on fire. 2 soldiers were killed in a bomb attack http://www.tsa-algerie.com/divers/deux- in Azeffoun, Tizi Ouzou. October 20, 2011 personnes-enlevees-dans-une-attaque- http://www.tsa-algerie.com/divers/deux- Roadside bomb wounds 4 Algerian contre-un-bar-a-tizi-ouzou_17399.html soldats-de-la-marine-tues-dans-un-attentat- gendarmes near Zeboudja, Bouira. a-azzefoun_17603.html http://www.magharebia.com/cocoon/a September 23, 2011 wi/xhtml1/en_GB/features/awi/newsbri 2 bombs targeting a military patrol efs/general/2011/10/21/newsbrief-03 October 3, 2011 exploded in Lemsara, Tighlit Bouksas, Terrorists attack a bar in Boghni, Tizi Zekri. No one was injured in the attack. October 17, 2011 Ouzou. No injuries, but armed band http://www.elwatan.com/actualite/tizi- Roadside bomb kills Algerian woman in extorts money from patrons. ouzou-un-convoi-de-l-armee-attaque-a- Aït Slimane, Boumerdès. Sister and http://www.elwatan.com/actualite/tizi- zekri-24-09-2011-140948_109.php ouzou-incursion-terroriste-dans-un-bar- small child wounded in attack. a-boghni-04-10-2011-142142_109.php http://www.magharebia.com/cocoon/a September 19, 2011 wi/xhtml1/en_GB/features/awi/newsbri 3 members of the security forces were efs/general/2011/10/18/newsbrief-02 October 1, 2011 wounded in a terrorist attack in Aïn Bomb injures policeman in Zaâtra between Kechra, Skikda. October 13, 2011 Zemmouri and Si Mustapha, Boumerdès. http://www.elwatan.com/actualite/skik Civilian shot, wounded by terrorists at http://www.elwatan.com/actualite/terr da-trois-membres-des-services-de- false checkpoint in Bogni, Tizi Ouzou. orisme-un-gendarme-succombe-a-l-eph- securite-blesses-dans-un-attentat-a-ain- http://www.elwatan.com/actualite/bog de-thenia-et-un-policier-blesse-a- kechra-19-09-2011-140356_109.php hni-tizi-ouzou-un-citoyen-blesse-par-des- zemmouri-01-10-2011-141770_109.php terroristes-14-10-2011-143416_109.php September 15, 2011 September 30, 2011 Woman and her son injured when their October 13, 2011 Bomb kills soldier and policeman in vehicle was attacked by terrorists in Security defuse bombs, Naciria, Ammal, Boumerdès. Ouled Ziane, Légata, Boumerdès. Boumerdès. http://www.elwatan.com/actualite/terroris http://www.elwatan.com/actualite/bou http://www.elwatan.com/une/boumerde me-un-gendarme-succombe-a-l-eph-de- merdes-une-femme-et-un-jeune-garcon- s-deux-bombes-desamorcees-pres-de- thenia-et-un-policier-blesse-a-zemmouri-01- blesses-par-un-groupe-terroriste-a- naciria-13-10-2011-143320_108.php 10-2011-141770_109.php legata-16-09-2011-140023_109.php

TIMELINE: Terrorist attacks in the Maghreb and Sahel – 2011 29 | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | Special Update Report - Terrorism in North, West, & Central Africa: From 9/11 to the Arab Spring

September 14, 2011 August 26, 2011 August 23, 2011 Communal guard member assassinated 18 people were killed and 35 injured in A roadside bomb targeted a food in Tamalous, Sidi Mansour, Skikda. a double suicide attack at the military supplier for the Algerian army barracks http://www.elwatan.com/weekend/7jou academy in Cherchell, Tipaza. AQIM in Ouled Benfodhil, Bouira. The blast rs/skikda-un-garde-communal-assassine- later claimed responsibility. caused no casualties or damages. a-tamalous-16-09-2011-139997_178.php http://www.elwatan.com/actualite/tipaza http://www.magharebia.com/cocoon/awi/ -15-morts-et-35-blesses-dans-un-double- xhtml1/en_GB/features/awi/newsbriefs/gen attentat-contre-l-academie-militaire-de- eral/2011/08/24/newsbrief-03 September 14, 2011 cherchell-26-08-2011-137654_109.php 2 soldiers were wounded in a bomb explosion in Merine, Sidi Bel Abbes. August 21, 2011 http://www.elwatan.com/weekend/7jours August 24 2011 2 members of the GLD were wounded in /sidi-bel-abbes-deux-militaires-blesses- Terrorists killed a member for the GLD a terrorist attack in El Annab, El Amra, dans-l-explosion-d-une-bombe-16-09-2011- in Boudhar, Si Mustapha, Boumerdès. Aïn Defla. 139998_178.php http://www.tsa-algerie.com/divers/un- http://www.elwatan.com/actualite/terr patriote-tue-a-si-mustapha-et-un-ancien- orisme-deux-patriotes-grievement- blesses-a-el-annab-ain-defla-22-08-2011- September 12, 2011 patriote-assassine-pres-de- dellys_17035.html 137153_109.php 2 communal guards seriously wounded in a terrorist attack in Kenouâ, Skikda. http://www.elwatan.com/actualite/oued- August 24, 2011 August 21, 2011 zhor-skikda-deux-gardes-communaux- Terrorists shot and killed a repentant A communal guard was killed by an blesses-dans-un-attentat-13-09-2011- terrorist in Baghlia, Boumerdès. army deserter in Beni Ksila, Bejaïa. 139618_109.php http://www.tsa- http://www.tsa- algerie.com/divers/boumerdes-cinq- algerie.com/divers/bejaia-un-garde- September 10, 2011 personnes-tuees-par-des communal-tue-par-un-deserteur-de-l- anp-a-beni-ksila_16981.html Security forces diffused 2 bombs in erroristes_17040.html Ouled Ali, Cap Djinet. http://www.tsa-algerie.com/divers/un- August 24, 2011 August 20, 2011 repenti-tue-a-ain-el-hamra-dans-la- Terrorists assassinated a member of the Security forces diffused a bomb in region-de-bordj-menaiel_17232.html GLD in Boudouaou, Boumerdès. Tidjelabine, on the road between Boumerdès and Algiers. http://www.tsa- September 10, 2011 algerie.com/divers/boumerdes-cinq- http://www.tsa-algerie.com/divers/un- garde-communal-tue-et-deux-autres- Armed men kill repentant terrorist near personnes-tuees-par-des blesses-a-bouira-une-bombe- Aïn El Hamra, Bordj MenaÏel, Boumerdès, erroristes_17040.html desamorcee-a-boumerdes_16969.html http://www.magharebia.com/cocoon/a wi/xhtml1/en_GB/features/awi/newsbri August 24, 2011 efs/general/2011/09/12/newsbrief-04 August 18, 2011 1 soldier was killed and 2 were Bomb kills communal guard, wounds 2 wounded in a bomb explosion in others in Ouled Foudhil, Kadiria, Bouira. September 6, 2011 Taouarga, Boumerdès. http://www.tsa-algerie.com/divers/un- Security forces diffused 2 bombs on the http://www.tsa- garde-communal-tue-et-deux-autres- N12 Roadway near Haï Louz, Thenia. algerie.com/divers/boumerdes-cinq- blesses-a-bouira-une-bombe- http://www.tsa-algerie.com/divers/deux- personnes-tuees-par-des- desamorcee-a-boumerdes_16969.html bombes-desamorcees-sur-la-rn-12-pres-de- terroristes_17040.html

thenia_17180.html August 18, 2011 August 24, 2011 August 29, 2011 A communal guard was killed by armed A former GLD member was assassinated 1 soldier killed, 1 wounded in a bomb terrorists in Oued Dejmaa, Aïn Defla. by a terrorist group in Sidi Daoud, http://www.elwatan.com/actualite/ain- attack in Souk el Had, Boumerdès. Boumerdès. http://www.elwatan.com/actualite/boumer defla-un-garde-communal-assassine-a- http://www.elwatan.com/actualite/bou des-un-militaire-tue-et-un-autre-blesse-a- bordj-emir-khaled-19-08-2011- merdes-un-patriote-assassine-a-sidi- souk-el-had-29-08-2011-138037_109.php 136804_109.php daoud-24-08-2011-137442_109.php

August 27, 2011 August 18, 2011 2 soldiers killed, 7 wounded by bomb August 23, 2011 Terrorists kill 3 civilians, wound 2 and subsequent clash in Gouraya, 2 policemen were killed and 1 civilian others in El Vir, Maâtkas, Tizi Ouzou, Tipaza. Soliders were patrolling region wounded in a terrorist attack in while attempting to kidnap a young girl following double suicide attack. Hasnaoua, Bordj Bou Arréridj. when neighbors intervened and the http://www.elwatan.com/actualite/tipaza- http://www.elwatan.com/actualite/bord terrorists opened fire. deux-morts-et-sept-blesses-dans-un- j-bou-arreridj-deux-policiers-assassines- http://www.magharebia.com/cocoon/a ratissage-a-gouraya-27-08-2011- et-un-jeune-blesse-a-hasnaoua-25-08- wi/xhtml1/en_GB/features/awi/newsbri 137852_109.php 2011-137487_109.php efs/general/2011/08/19/newsbrief-03

TIMELINE: Terrorist attacks in the Maghreb and Sahel – 2011 30 | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | Special Update Report - Terrorism in North, West, & Central Africa: From 9/11 to the Arab Spring

August 18, 2011 August 9, 2011 July 19, 2011 Terrorists assassinate communal guards 2 gendarmes were wounded in a bomb 11 soldiers were wounded in a dual leader in Zemmouri, Boumerdès. explosion in Issers, Boumerdès. bomb attack near the ANP barracks in http://www.magharebia.com/cocoon/a http://www.elwatan.com/une/boumerde Ouled Benfodhil, Kadiria, Bouira. 2 wi/xhtml1/en_GB/features/awi/newsbri s-deux-gendarmes-blesses-dans-l- soldiers later died from their injuries. efs/general/2011/08/19/newsbrief-03 explosion-d-une-bombe-a-isser-09-08- http://www.tsa-algerie.com/divers/onze- 2011-135610_108.php militaires-blesses-dans-l-explosion-de-deux- bombes-a-bouira_16584.html August 18, 2011

Bomb blasts army convoy in Ait Maâleme, July 31, 2011 Azeffoun, Tizi Ouzou, wounds 1 soldier. 3 soldiers were killed and 5 wounded in July 16, 2011 http://www.elwatan.com/actualite/tizi- a bomb explosion targeting a military Suicide bombers carried out a double ouzou-explosion-d-une-bombe-a- convoy in Taza, Tissemslit. attack in Bordj Menaïel, Boumerdès. 2 azeffoun-18-08-2011-136691_109.php http://www.tsa- people killed and 13 others wounded, 5 algerie.com/divers/trois-militaires-tues- civilians and 8 policemen. Members of dans-l-explosion-d-une-bombe-a- AQIM cell of Droukdel suspected in the August 17, 2011 tissemsilt_16763.html attack, for which AQIM subsequently Terrorists kill civilian and policeman in claimed responsibility. Talla Bounane, Beni Aissi, Tizi Ouzou. http://www.elwatan.com/actualite/2- http://www.elwatan.com/actualite/beni July 31, 2011 morts-et-13-blesses-dans-un-double- -aissi-tizi-ouzou-deux-morts-dans-une- A civilian was kidnapped by an armed attentat-kamikaze-17-07-2011- attaque-terroriste-17-08-2011- group in Azazga, Tizi Ouzou. He was 132951_109.php 136558_109.php released the following day.

http://www.elwatan.com/actualite/tizi- ouzou-un-citoyen-enleve-puis-libere-a- July 15, 2011 August 16, 2011 azazga-01-08-2011-134705_109.php ANP officer wounded in a firefight with Security forces diffused two bombs in terrorists in Boudekhane, Khenchela. the center of the town of Bouira. http://www.elwatan.com/actualite/un- http://www.tsa-algerie.com/divers/bouira- July 27, 2011 officier-de-l-anp-blesse-dans-un- a-vecu-une-nuit-de-cauchemar_16927.html Security forces defuse two bombs at accrochage-16-07-2011-132795_109.php ANP barracks in Bendoufil, Kadiria,

Bouira. The bombs were founded in the August 16, 2011 same location as those in the July 19th July 14, 2011 A civilian was injured during a shootout attack, which injured 11 soldiers. 5 soldiers wounded in a bomb attack in between terrorists and ANP soldiers in http://www.tsa- Baghlia, Boumerdès, just hours after a Beni Aissi, Tizi Ouzou. algerie.com/divers/deux-bombes- first bomb attack the evening before. http://www.elwatan.com/actualite/tizi- desamorcees-devant-une-caserne-a- http://www.elwatan.com/actualite/deux ouzou-un-citoyen-blesse-dans-un- bouira_16695.html -militaires-tues-et-six-autres-blesses-a- accrochage-a-beni-aissi-16-08-2011- baghlia-16-07-2011-132794_109.php 136490_109.php

July 26, 2011 August 16, 2011 A suicide bomber blew himself up in the July 13, 2011 A roadside bomb blast killed an Algerian center of Bouhamza, Béjaïa. No 2 soldiers were killed and 1 wounded in soldier and wounded 5 others in Thenia, bystanders were wounded in the attack. a bomb attack in Baghlia, Boumerdès. Boumerdès. http://www.elwatan.com/actualite/bejai http://www.elwatan.com/actualite/deux http://www.magharebia.com/cocoon/a a-un-terroriste-s-est-fait-explose-a- -militaires-tues-et-six-autres-blesses-a- wi/xhtml1/en_GB/features/awi/newsbri bouhamza-26-07-2011-134092_109.php baghlia-16-07-2011-132794_109.php efs/general/2011/08/17/newsbrief-02 July 26, 2011 July 10, 2011 August 14, 2011 3 soldiers wounded in bomb attack A member of the GLD was assassinated Suicide car bomber attacks police while carrying out a sweep operation in by an armed group in Oued Sbaâ, Sidi station in Tizi Ouzoub, injures 33, Bousekala, Sidi Semiane, Tipaza. Bel Abbés. including 12 police. http://www.spectre- http://www.elwatan.com/actualite/sidi- http://www.elwatan.com/actualite/attenta international.com/documents/W- bel-abbes-un-membre-des-gld-assassine- t-kamikaze-a-tizi-ouzou-la-kabylie-frappee- 3124thto31stJuly2011.pdf par-un-groupe-arme-a-oued-sbaa-11-07- au-coeur-15-08-2011-136250_109.php 2011-132315_109.php

July 23, 2011 August 10, 2011 A member of Algeria's self-defence July 8, 2011 Terrorists execute one of three kidnap groups was killed by terrorists close to 2 gendarmes were wounded in a bomb victims in Djouahra, Bouira. his home in Ouled Ziane, Boumerdes. explosion on Sidi Abdelaziz beach, Jijel. http://www.tsa- http://www.magharebia.com/cocoon/a http://www.magharebia.com/cocoon/a algerie.com/divers/terrorisme-un-homme- wi/xhtml1/en_GB/features/awi/newsbri wi/xhtml1/en_GB/features/awi/newsbri egorge-pres-de-bouira_16886.html efs/general/2011/07/24/newsbrief-03 efs/general/2011/07/10/newsbrief-02

TIMELINE: Terrorist attacks in the Maghreb and Sahel – 2011 31 | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | Special Update Report - Terrorism in North, West, & Central Africa: From 9/11 to the Arab Spring

July 4, 2011 June 25, 2011 May 30, 2011 Shepherd killed by a bomb explosion in 2 ANP troops seriously injured by roadside 5 gendarmes wounded by terrorists Djebel Boukhelil, Aïn Rich, M’sila. bomb in Beni Zid, Collo, Skikda. Device during sweep operation in Kaf Kala, Ténès. http://www.elwatan.com/actualite/un- buried near military camp, detonated http://www.elwatan.com/actualite/cinq eleveur-dechiquete-par-une-bombe-a-m- remotely when soldiers approached. -gendarmes-blesses-dans-une- sila-06-07-2011-131611_109.php http://www.magharebia.com/cocoon/a embuscade-31-05-2011-126697_109.php wi/xhtml1/en_GB/features/awi/newsbri efs/general/2011/06/26/newsbrief-03 July 4, 2011 May 30, 2011 Armed Islamists opened fire on police 2 soldiers were wounded in a bomb station in Aïn El Hammam, Tizi Ouzou, June 23, 2011 explosion in Mizrana, Tizi Ouzou. killing 1 policeman, wounding 1 other. 1 soldier killed, 8 others wounded in a http://www.tsa-algerie.com/divers/tizi- http://www.elwatan.com/actualite/un- terrorist attack against a military ouzou-deux-militaires-blesses-dans-l- policier-tue-un-autre-blesse-et-un- convoy in Azazga, Tizi Ouzou. 1 civilian explosion-d-une-bombe-a- terroriste-abattu-05-07-2011- killed, 1 other wounded in firefight. mizrana_15888.html 131459_109.php http://www.tsa-algerie.com/divers/le- bilan-de-l-attentat-d-azazga-revu-a-la- hausse-deux-morts-et-neuf- May 28, 2011 July 3, 2011 blesses_16241.html A communal guard was injured in a Bomb targets gendarme patrol in Bordj terrorist attack in Ath Saada, Tadmait,

Menaiel, Boumerdès. No injuries. Tizi Ouzou. The rest of the unit was able http://www.elwatan.com/une/boumerde June 20, 2011 to thwart further attack by killing the s-explosion-d-une-bombe-artisanale-a- 1 soldier and 2 legitimate defense terrorist armed with a rifle and a bomb bordj-menaiel-03-07-2011- guards were wounded in a bomb as he tried to enter the barracks. 131175_108.php explosion in Fil-Fila, Skikda. http://www.magharebia.com/cocoon/a http://www.elwatan.com/actualite/skik wi/xhtml1/en_GB/features/awi/newsbri da-un-militaire-et-deux-gld-blesses-dans- efs/general/2011/05/29/newsbrief-01 July 3, 2011 l-explosion-d-une-bombe-20-06-2011- Terrorists fired RPG at communal 129486_109.php guards branch in Ahemd Salem, May 23, 2011

Kerkera, Skikda. No one injured. 2 soldiers were killed in a bomb http://www.elwatan.com/actualite/skik June 15, 2011 explosion in Kadiria, Bouira. The bomb da-attaque-terroriste-au-rpg-a-kerkera- A member of the communal guard was was remotely-detonated. 03-07-2011-131184_109.php wounded in a bomb explosion on the http://www.elwatan.com/actualite/boui road between Timezrit and Naciria in ra-deux-militaires-tues-dans-un-attentat- Tizouighine, Boumerdès. a-la-bombe-a-kadiria-23-05-2011- July 1, 2011 http://www.elwatan.com/actualite/bou 125716_109.php 1 soldier killed, 2 injured in a bomb merdes-un-garde-communal-blesse-dans- explosion in Nacira, Boumerdès. l-explosion-d-une-bombe-a-timezrit-15- http://www.ennaharonline.com/en/new 06-2011-128832_109.php May 23, 2011 s/6980.html A roadside bomb targeting a convoy of soldiers exploded in Azeffoun, Tizi

June 13, 2011 Ouzou. No one was wounded in the July 1, 2011 A soldier was killed and 2 others were remotely-detonated explosion. 4 policemen, 1 civilian wounded in a seriously wounded in a bomb explosion http://www.elwatan.com/actualite/tizi- bomb attack in Azzefoun, Tizi Ouzou. in Taboudoucht, Aghribs, Tizi Ouzou. ouzou-explosion-d-une-bombe-a- http://www.tsa- http://www.tsa-algerie.com/divers/un- azeffoun-23-05-2011-125750_109.php algerie.com/divers/quatre-policiers-et- militaire-tue-et-deux-autres-blesses-pres- un-citoyen-blesses-dans-un-attentat-a-la- de-tizi-ouzou_16107.html bombe-pres-de-tizi-ouzou_16345.html May 15, 2011 1 soldier was killed and 2 others were

June 5, 2011 wounded in a firefight with a terrorist June 29, 2011 3 soldiers killed, 2 others wounded in group in Ath Yenni, Tizi Ouzou. Security forces diffused a bomb found terrorist attack on an army post in http://www.elwatan.com/une/tizi- on Tassalast Beach, Tigzirt, Tizi Ouzou. Bellouta, Sidi Abdelaziz, Jijel. ouzou-un-militaire-tue-et-deux-autres- http://www.tsa-algerie.com/divers/une- http://www.elwatan.com/actualite/trois blesses-dans-un-accrochage-a-ath-yenni- bombe-desamorcee-sur-la-plage- -militaires-tues-a-sidi-abdelaziz-jijel-06- 15-05-2011-124552_108.php tassalast-de-tigzirt_16324.html 06-2011-127540_109.php

May 14, 2011 June 27, 2011 June 4, 2011 An entrepreneur was kidnapped by 1 soldier killed, 3 others wounded by 4 police killed, 1 injured by bomb on road armed men at a false roadblock in bomb in Legata, Bordj Bou Arreridj. from Bordj Menaïel to Naciria, Boumerdès. Mechtras, Bogni, Tizi Ouzou. http://www.tsa-algerie.com/divers/un- http://www.elwatan.com/actualite/quat http://www.tsa-algerie.com/divers/tizi- militaire-tue-et-trois-blesses-a-bordj- re-policiers-tues-dans-un-attentat-05-06- ouzou-un-deuxieme-entrepreneur- bou-arreridj_16286.html 2011-127376_109.php enleve_15661.html

TIMELINE: Terrorist attacks in the Maghreb and Sahel – 2011 32 | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | Special Update Report - Terrorism in North, West, & Central Africa: From 9/11 to the Arab Spring

May 13, 2011 May 6, 2011 April 17, 2011 Terrorists attacked an army post in 5 soldiers killed and 5 others wounded Gendarme killed and 3 others wounded Tizrarane, Jijel, killing 7 soldiers. in a bomb explosion in El Kennar, Jijel. in a bomb attack on the road between http://www.elwatan.com/actualite/attaque http://www.elwatan.com/actualite/el- Lakhdaria and Bouderbala, Bouira. -contre-un-poste-avance-de-l-armee-a-jijel- kennar-jijel-cinq-militaires-tues-dans-un- http://www.tsa-algerie.com/divers/un- 7-militaires-tues-a-ziama-mansouriah-13- attentat-a-la-bombe-06-05-2011- gendarme-tue-et-trois-autres- 05-2011-124300_109.php 123333_109.php blesses_15250.html

May 11, 2011 April 29, 2011 April 17, 2011 2 communal guards and 1 soldier were A bomb blast injured 3 gendarmes in 4 soldiers were killed in 2 bomb wounded in an IED explosion in Sidi Lakhdaria, Bouira. explosions in Ammal, Boumerdès. Akkacha, Chelef. http://www.magharebia.com/cocoon/a http://www.tsa-algerie.com/divers/cinq- http://www.spectre- wi/xhtml1/en_GB/features/awi/newsbri militaires-dont-un-capitaine-tues-par-des- international.com/documents/20.Inciden efs/general/2011/05/01/newsbrief-04 terroristes-pres-de- tsReportW-20--09thto15thMay2011.pdf boumerdes_15255.html April 29, 2011 May 11, 2011 A roadside bomb killed 4 soldiers in April 17, 2011 A young entrepreneur is kidnapped by an Damous, Tipaza. 1 soldier was killed and 3 others were armed group in Beni Douala, Tizi Ouzou. http://www.magharebia.com/cocoon/a wounded in a firefight with terrorists in http://www.elwatan.com/actualite/tizi- wi/xhtml1/en_GB/features/awi/newsbri Djerrah, Ammal, Boumerdès. ouzou-enlevement-d-un-entrepreneur-a- efs/general/2011/05/01/newsbrief-04 http://www.tsa-algerie.com/divers/un- beni-douala-11-05-2011-124079_109.php militaire-tue-et-deux-terroristes-abattus- a-boumerdes_15252.html April 28, 2011 May 9, 2011 5 communal guards killed, 4 injured by A bomb targeting a gendarmerie convoy bomb in Oud Djemaâ, Aïn Defla. April 15, 2011 exploded in Lakhdaria, Bouira. No one http://www.elwatan.com/weekend/7jours/ 14 Algerian soldiers killed, 16 more was wounded in the attack. ain-defla-5-gardes-communaux-tues-dans- wounded in a coordinated attack a http://www.elwatan.com/actualite/une- un-attentat-terroriste-29-04-2011- military camp in Azazga, Tizi-Ouzou. At bombe-explose-au-passage-d-une-patrouille- 122496_178.php least 50 terrorists reportedly surprised de-gendarmerie-10-05-2011- ANP troops with machine-gun fire, 123886_109.php bombs and grenades after planting April 27, 2011 explosives and blocking roads with trees

Businessman kidnapped by terrorists in to block military reinforcements. AQIM May 8, 2011 Ouled Laâlem, Kadiria, Bouira. later claimed responsibility. A repentant terrorist was killed by an http://www.elwatan.com/actualite/bouira- http://www.elwatan.com/actualite/14- armed group in Dellys, Boumerdès. pas-de-nouvelles-du-commercant-enleve-a- militaires-tues-16-blesses-et-un- http://www.tsa-algerie.com/divers/un- kadiria-02-05-2011-122825_109.php terroriste-abattu-17-04-2011- repenti-tue-par-un-groupe-arme-a- 120834_109.php dellys_15550.html April 27, 2011 2 gendarmes were killed and another April 14, 2011 May 7, 2011 wounded in a bomb explosion in Terrorist kills Legitimate Defense Group 2 civilians were wounded in a bomb Boumelih, Cap Djinet, Boumerdès. member in Aïn Kechra, Skikda. explosion in Boghni, Tizi Ouzou. http://www.tsa-algerie.com/divers/deux- http://www.elwatan.com/actualite/skik http://www.elwatan.com/actualite/baghlia gendarmes-tues-et-un-troisieme-blesse-a- da-un-patriote-assassine-a-ain-kechra- -boumerdes-un-assassinat-et-des- boumerdes_15392.html 14-04-2011-120529_109.php interrogations-08-05-2011-123555_109.php April 26, 2011 April 13, 2011 May 6, 2011 Homemade bomb explodes in Aïn El 2 civilians, one policeman wounded in a A restaurant owner was kidnapped by Hamra, Cap Djinet, Boumerdès. No injuries. terrorist attack in Thenia, Boumerdès. an armed group in Lakhdaria, Bouira. http://www.tsa-algerie.com/divers/deux- http://www.elwatan.com/actualite/boum http://www.elwatan.com/actualite/boui gendarmes-tues-et-un-troisieme-blesse-a- erdes-deux-citoyens-et-un-policier-blesses- ra-un-restaurateur-enleve-a-lakhdaria- boumerdes_15392.html dans-un-attentat-a-thenia-13-04-2011- 08-05-2011-123582_109.php 120436_109.php April 18, 2011 May 6, 2011 Communal guard wounded during sweep April 11, 2011 A former journalist was killed by armed operation in Tarek Ibn Ziad, Aïn Defla. Bomb targets public works convoy on men in Balarouche, Boumerdès. http://www.elwatan.com/actualite/un- road from Tigzirt to Dellys. No injuries. http://www.tsa-algerie.com/divers/un- terroriste-abattu-et-un-garde- http://www.elwatan.com/actualite/tizi- ancien-journaliste-tue-par-des-hommes- communal-blesse-a-ain-defla-19-04- ouzou-une-bombe-explose-sans-faire-de- armes-a-boumerdes_15524.html 2011-121135_109.php victimes-12-04-2011-120252_109.php

TIMELINE: Terrorist attacks in the Maghreb and Sahel – 2011 33 | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | Special Update Report - Terrorism in North, West, & Central Africa: From 9/11 to the Arab Spring

April 7, 2011 March 14, 2011 February 7, 2011 Bomb kills communal guard, injures A civilian was wounded in a rocket 2 gendarmes wounded by IED explosion another in Oued Boumerchiche, Aïn Defla. attack in Abla, Sidi Ali Bounab. in Douar Hadj Ahmed, Boumerdès, http://www.elwatan.com/actualite/ain- http://www.tsa-algerie.com/divers/un- http://www.tsa-algerie.com/divers/deux- defla-un-garde-communal-tue-et-un-autre- terroriste-abattu-et-un-citoyen-blesse-par- gendarmes-blesses-dans-l-explosion-d-une- blesse-dans-l-explosion-d-une-bombe-a-el- une-roquette-de-l-armee_14764.html bombe-pres-de-boumerdes_14187.html hassania-08-04-2011-119628_109.php March 9, 2011 February 5, 2011 April 6, 2011 A civilian was killed when he stepped on ANP commander killed in shootout with Bomb injures public works official on a bomb in Aït Chafaa, Azzefoun. terrorist group in Thénia, Boumerdès. road from Tigzirt to Dellys, Tizi Ouzou. http://www.tsa-algerie.com/divers/un- http://www.elwatan.com/actualite/boumer http://www.magharebia.com/cocoon/awi/ homme-dechiquete-par-une-bombe-pres-d- des-un-commandant-de-l-anp-tue-a-thenia- xhtml1/en_GB/features/awi/newsbriefs/gen azzefoun_14733.html 05-02-2011-110362_109.php eral/2011/04/07/newsbrief-02 March 8, 2011 February 5, 2011 April 3, 2011 5 civilians were killed in a bomb Terrorists attack army base at guard IED explodes near Ait Allaoua, Iboudrarene, explosion in Selmana, Djefla. change near Tébessa. 1 soldier wounded. Tizi Ouzou. No one wounded by blast. http://www.tsa-algerie.com/divers/cinq- http://www.spectre- http://www.spectre- civils-tues-dans-l-explosion-d-une-bombe- international.com/documents/W-6- international.com/documents/W- pres-de-djlefa_14685.html 01st_to_07th_February_2011.pdf .1504thAprilto10thApril2011.pdf February 28, 2011 February 2, 2011 March 26, 2011 2 patriots were seriously wounded in a 15 terrorists kidnap Italian woman Bomb injures civilian, communal guard bomb explosion in Bir El Ater, Tébessa. travelling with a tour guide in S. Algeria. in Ameddah, Tizi Ghenif, Tizi Ouzou. http://www.spectre- http://www.magharebia.com/cocoon/awi/ http://www.elwatan.com/actualite/tizi- international.com/documents/W- xhtml1/en_GB/features/awi/newsbriefs/gen ouzou-deux-blesses-dans-l-explosion-d-une- 1027thFebruaryto06thMarch2010.pdf eral/2011/02/04/newsbrief-02 bombe-27-03-2011-117901_109.php February 21, 2011 January 30, 2011 March 22, 2011 Young man kidnapped for ransom in 2 soldiers were seriously wounded in a Terrorists kidnap civilian in Maâtkas, Jijel, liberated 24 hours later by security bomb explosion in Mezeraa, Tébessa. Tizi Ouzou. Released later same day. forces, who tracked ransom calls. http://www.tsa-algerie.com/divers/deux- http://www.elwatan.com/actualite/tizi- http://www.elwatan.com/regions/est/jijel/ militaires-grievement-blesses-par-une- ouzou-un-paysan-enleve-puis-relache-23-03- un-homme-kidnappe-libere-22-02-2011- bombe-a-tebessa_14045.html 2011-117401_109.php 112905_130.php January 30, 2011 March 22, 2011 February 14, 2011 Security services defuse 8 bombs near 2 communal guards wounded in a bomb 2 civilians were seriously injured in a scene of terror attack that killed a Tizi- explosion in Boumahni, Draa El Mizan. terrorist attack in Ighzer Ukalghem, Ath Ouzou communal guard earlier in day. http://www.elwatan.com/actualite/tizi- Lakser, Bouira. Investigators found two devices hidden ouzou-deux-gardes-communaux-blesses-par- http://www.elwatan.com/actualite/deux- inside juice containers at schoolyard. l-explosion-de-deux-bombes-22-03-2011- blesses-dans-une-attaque-terroriste-16-02- http://www.magharebia.com/cocoon/awi/ 117229_109.php 2011-111999_109.php xhtml1/en_GB/features/awi/newsbriefs/gen eral/2011/01/31/newsbrief-02

March 17, 2011 February 14, 2011 Security forces diffused a bomb in Security forces dismantle 8 bombs in January 28, 2011 Tigzirt, Tizi Ouzou. Assi Yousef, Tizi Ouzou. Locals alerted Communal guard killed, 3 others injured http://www.elwatan.com/actualite/tizi- police to IEDs hidden on the roadside. in terrorist attack on headquarters in ouzou-une-bombe-desamorcee-a-tigzirt-et- Fortunately, no one was injured. Assi Youcef, Tizi Ouzou. une-boucherie-attaquee-a-ouacifs-18-03- http://www.elwatan.com/actualite/huit- http://www.magharebia.com/cocoon/awi/ 2011-116568_109.php bombes-desamorcees-16-02-2011- xhtml1/en_GB/features/awi/newsbriefs/gen 112003_109.php eral/2011/01/30/newsbrief-04

March 17, 2011 2 civilians killed by a terrorist group in February 10, 2011 January 26, 2011 Hadj Ahmed, Zemmouri. A gendarme was assassinated by 2 A soldier was shot and killed by http://www.elwatan.com/actualite/boumer terrorists in Baghlia. terrorists in Aïn Kechra, Skikda. des-deux-citoyens-dont-un-elu-du-pt- http://www.tsa-algerie.com/divers/un- http://www.elwatan.com/actualite/un- assassines-a-zemmouri-18-03-2011- gendarme-assassine-par-deux- militaire-tue-a-ain-kechra-skikda-28-01- 116553_109.php terroristes-pres-de-baghlia_14236.html 2011-109184_109.php

TIMELINE: Terrorist attacks in the Maghreb and Sahel – 2011 34 | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | Special Update Report - Terrorism in North, West, & Central Africa: From 9/11 to the Arab Spring

January 23, 2011 Young businessman kidnapped for ransom Mali Mauritania in Fréha, Tizi Ouzou. Later released. http://www.elwatan.com/actualite/un- 2011 2011 commercant-kidnappe-a-freha-25-01- December 29, 2011 December 20, 2011 2011-108702_109.php Terrorists "strongly suspected of being Al-Qa’ida attacks Mauritanian police post, AQIM" attack military barracks in Inhalil, abducts1 officer. Ammunition and arms security source tells AFP. No injuries. also seized in attack on Adel Bagrou January 16, 2011 http://www.magharebia.com/cocoon/a facility, four kilometres from Mali frontier. Bomb targets gendarmes in El Ancer, wi/xhtml1/en_GB/features/awi/newsbri http://www.magharebia.com/cocoon/a Jijel. No injuries from blast. efs/general/2012/01/02/newsbrief-04 wi/xhtml1/en_GB/features/awi/newsbri http://www.magharebia.com/cocoon/a efs/general/2011/12/21/newsbrief-01 wi/xhtml1/en_GB/features/awi/newsbri efs/general/2011/01/17/newsbrief-02 December 20, 2011 Armed Polisario militia kill man, abduct 3 September 23, 2011 in El Hank, N. Mali, 40 miles from Algeria. IED explodes near Bassikounou, Hodh January 15, 2011 http://www.middle-east- Ech Chargui, killing 1 Mauritanian A bomb attack targeted communal online.com/english/?id=49540 civilian and wounding 2 Malian civilians. guards in Ain Bouziane, Jijel village. No http://wits.nctc.gov one was injured in the explosion. November 25, 2011 http://www.magharebia.com/cocoon/a Armed kidnappers abduct 3 foreign July 26, 2011 wi/xhtml1/en_GB/features/awi/newsbri tourists and killed a fourth in Timbuktu A Mauritanian gendarme was killed in efs/general/2011/01/17/newsbrief-02 http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world- an attempt to stop 2 armed men from africa-15895908 entering the country from Mali. January 10, 2011 http://www.magharebia.com/cocoon/a Security forces disable bomb in Sidi November 24, 2011 wi/xhtml1/en_GB/features/awi/newsbri Mabrouk, Constantine. Gunmen abduct 2 French geologists efs/general/2011/07/27/newsbrief-05 from hotel in Hombori, in Central Mali. http://www.elwatan.com/une/une- bombe-artisanale-desamorcee-a- http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world- July 5, 2011 constantine-11-01-2011-106766_108.php africa-15877709 AQIM attack on military garrison in

Bassiknou successfully fought off by January 7, 2011 November 23, 2011 Mauritanian soldiers. No injuries. French hostage negotiator shot, injured 2 gendarmes were wounded in a bomb http://www.magharebia.com/cocoon/a in N. Mali, while in talks to free 4 French attack in Sidi Daoud, Boumerdès. wi/xhtml1/en_GB/features/awi/newsbri hostages held by AQIM in Arlit, Niger. efs/general/2011/07/06/newsbrief-01 http://www.elwatan.com/regions/kabyli http://www.magharebia.com/cocoon/a e/boumerdes/boumerdes-deux- wi/xhtml1/en_GB/features/awi/newsbri gendarmes-blesses-a-sidi-daoud-07-01- efs/general/2011/11/24/newsbrief-05 February 3, 2011 2011-106188_146.php Mauritanian police officer killed in gun battle with suspected al-Qa’ida in Bezoul, June 28, 2011 as police chased two men allegedly part of January 6, 2011 Landmine kills 3 civilians in Wagadou Nouakchott suicide bomb attack. A young entrepreneur kidnapped by Forest, near Mauritanian border. http://www.magharebia.com/cocoon/a armed group in M’chedallah, Bouira. https://wits.nctc.gov/FederalDiscoverWITS/i wi/xhtml1/en_GB/features/awi/newsbri ndex.do?Rcv=Incident&R=25636&nav=Rd%3 http://www.elwatan.com/actualite/un- efs/general/2011/02/04/newsbrief-01 jeune-entrepreneur-kidnappe-a-m- DCountry%257C4294948480%257CMali%2 chedallah-08-01-2011-106278_109.php 6Nrc%3Did%2B8063%2Bdynrank%2Bdisab led%26N%3D0%26Ns%3Dp_IncidentDate|1 February 2, 2011 Mauritanian soldiers prevent al-Qa’ida January 3, 2011 January 5, 2011 attack in the capital by killing 3 terrorists A truck driver was gravely injured in a Former AQIM member explodes grenade before they could detonate a car bomb. bomb explosion in Kadiria, Bouira. at French Embassy in Bamako. 1 wounded. 8 soldiers wounded in firefight. http://www.tsa-algerie.com/divers/une- http://www.lemonde.fr/afrique/article/201 http://www.magharebia.com/cocoon/a personne-blessee-dans-l-explosion-d-une- 1/01/05/un-homme-jette-un-explosif- wi/xhtml1/en_GB/features/awi/newsbri bombe-a-kadiria_13543.html devant-l-ambassade-de-france-a- efs/general/2011/02/02/newsbrief-01 bamako_1461538_3212.html January 1, 2011 February 1, 2011 A member of the civilian defense forces January 1, 2011 Security forces discover AQIM car bomb in was injured in a terrorist attack in 5 drug traffickers, 2 Tuaregs killed in drug R'kiz, Trarza wilaya, 200km south of Thenia, Boumerdès. shootout in Tamesna, in north of country. Nouakchott. Bomb dismantled, no injuries. http://www.elwatan.com/actualite/un- http://www.elwatan.com/actualite/sept- http://www.magharebia.com/cocoon/a patriote-blesse-dans-un-attentat-a- morts-et-plusieurs-blesses-dans-des-combats- wi/xhtml1/en_GB/features/awi/newsbri boumerdes-02-01-2011-105381_109.php armes-04-01-2011-105731_109.php efs/general/2011/02/02/newsbrief-01

TIMELINE: Terrorist attacks in the Maghreb and Sahel – 2011 35 | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | Special Update Report - Terrorism in North, West, & Central Africa: From 9/11 to the Arab Spring Morocco Niger Tunisia 2011 2011 2011

July 21, 2011 September 16, 2011 July 21, 2011 Member of Morocco's auxiliary forces A soldier was killed and 2 others A Libyan-American charity worker was killed by terrorists at Algerian border, wounded in a clash with elements of kidnapped in the Tunisian city of Ras trying prevent attempt by four Algerian AQIM in the Aïr mountains, located in Jedir, close to the Libyan border. terrorists to infiltrate Morocco's the north of the country. http://www.magharebia.com/cocoon/a province of Jerada for food supplies. http://www.ennaharonline.com/en/inter wi/xhtml1/en_GB/features/awi/newsbri http://www.magharebia.com/cocoon/a national/7264.html efs/general/2011/07/22/newsbri wi/xhtml1/en_GB/features/awi/newsbri efs/general/2011/07/24/newsbrief-02 June 12, 2011 1 soldier was killed and 6 others were April 28, 2011 wounded in a skirmish between armed Bomb explodes in Marrakech’s Djemma men and the military in Arlit. AQIM was El-Fna Square, killing 15, wounding at suspected of perpetrating the attack. least 20 others, many of them foreigners. http://www.jeuneafrique.com/Article/A Bomb, placed inside popular tourist café, RTJAWEB20110614083241/ was set off remotely. AQIM denied

responsibility, but suspected in attack. http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world- January 8, 2011 africa-13226117 2 French nationals found dead near Mali border with Niger. The two, seized the day before at a restaurant in the capital Niamey, were reportedly killed in a rescue operation involving French and Nigerien security forces. AQIM later claimed responsibility. http://www.magharebia.com/cocoon/a wi/xhtml1/en_GB/features/awi/newsbri efs/general/2011/01/09/newsbrief-03

TIMELINE: Terrorist attacks in the Maghreb and Sahel – 2011 36 | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | Special Update Report - Terrorism in North, West, & Central Africa: From 9/11 to the Arab Spring

SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY Books: Ahmida, Ali Abdullatif, ed. Beyond Colonialism and Nationalism in the Maghrib: History, Culture and Politics. New York: Pelgrave, 2000. Amin, Magdi, Raqui Assaad, Nazar al-Baharna, Kemal Dervis, Raj M. Desai, Navtej S. Dhillon, Ahmed Galal, Hafez Ghanem, & Carol Graham. After the Spring: Economic Transitions in the Arab World. Oxford University Press, 2010. The Arab Tipping Point. World Politics Review, 2011. Aswany, Alaa al. On the State of Egypt: A Novelists Provocative Reflections. New York: Vintage Books, 2011. Benjaminsen, Tor Arve and Christian Lund, eds., Politics, Property and Production in the West African Sahel: Understanding Natural Resources Management. Stockholm: Elanders Gotab, 2001. Bradley, John R. After the Arab Spring: How the Islamists Hijacked the Middle East Revolts. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2012. Burgat, Francois. Face to Face with Political Islam. London: I.B. Tauris, 2005. Clapham, Christopher. Africa and the International System: The Politics of State Survival. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2002. Comaroff, John L. and Jean Comaroff, eds. Civil Society and the Political Imagination in Africa. London: University of Chicago Press, 1999. Cook, Steven A. The Struggle for Egypt: From Nasser to Tahrir Square. New York: Oxford University Press, 2012. Crane, Keith, Steven Simon, and Jeffrey Martini. Future Challenges for the Arab World: The Implications of Demographic and Economic Trends. Santa Monica: Rand Corporation, 2011. Dabashi, Hamid. The Arab Spring Delayed Defiance and the End of Postcolonialism. London: Zed, 2012. Darwish, Nonie. The Devil We Don’t Know: The Dark Side of Revolutions in the Middle East. Hoboken, New Jersey: 2012. El-Bendary, Mohamed. The "Ugly American" in the Arab Mind: Why Do Arabs Resent America? Washington, D.C.: Potomac, 2011. Entelis, John P., ed. Islam, Democracy and the State in North Africa. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1997. Fuller, Graham. Algeria: The Next Fundamentalist State? London: Rand, 1996. Feiler, Bruce. Generation Freedom: The Middle East Uprising and the Remaking of the Modern World. New York: HarperCollins Publishers, 2011. Geertz, Clifford. Islam Observed: Religious Development in Morocco and Indonesia. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 1971. Gellner, Ernest and Charles Micaud, eds. Arabs and Berbers: From Tribe to Nation in North Africa. London: Duckworth, 1973. Ghonim, Wael. Revolution 2.0: The Power of the People Is Greater than the People in Power : A Memoir. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Harcourt, 2012. Halpern, Manfred. The Politics of Social Change in the Middle East and North Africa. Santa Monica: Rand Report, 1966. Howe, Marvine. Morocco: The Islamist Awakening and other Challenges. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2005. Hyden, Goran. African Politics in Comparative Perspectives. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2006. Ismael, Tareq Y. and Jacqueline S. Ismael, eds. Politics and Government in the Middle East and North Africa. Gainesville: University Press of Florida, 1991. 37 Special Update Report - Terrorism in North, West, & Central Africa: From 9/11 to the Arab Spring

Issawi, Charles. An Economic History of the Middle East and North Africa. London: Columbia University Press, 1982. Kassem, Maye. Egyptian Politics: The Dynamics of Authoritarian Rule. Boulder, Colorado :Lynne Rienner Publishers, 2004. Keenan, Jeremy. Dark Sahara: America’s War on Terror in Africa. London: Pluto, 2009. Kennedy-Boudali, Lianne. The North Africa Project: The GSPC: Newest Franchise in Al Qa’ida’s Global Jihad. Westpoint: The Combating Terrorism Center, 2007. Khalil, Ashraf. Liberation Square. New York: St. Martin’s Press, 2012. Lawless, Richard I. and Allan M. Findlay, A, eds., North Africa: Contemporary Politics and Economic Development. Beckenham, England: Crook Helm, 1984. Liotta, PH, David A. Mouat, William G. Kepner, and Judith M. Lancaster, eds. Environmental Change and Human Security: Recognizing and Acting on Hazard Impacts. Dordrecht, the Netherlands: Springer Publishers/NATO Science for Peace and Security Programme, 2008. Long, David. E and Bernard Reich, eds. The Government and Politics of the Middle East and North Africa. Boulder, Colorado: Westview Press, 2007. Mair, John. Mirage in the Desert? Reporting The ‘Arab Spring.’ Suffolk, UK: Abramis, 2011. Malley, Robert. The Call from Algeria: Revolution and the Turn to Islam. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1996. Moore, Clement Henry. Politics in North Africa: Algeria, Marocco and Tunisia. Boston: Little Brown & Company, 1970. The New Arab Revolt: What Happened, What It Means, and What Comes Next. New York: Council on Foreign Relations, 2011. Norton, Augustus Richard, ed. Civil Society in the Middle East. Leiden, the Netherlands: Brill, 1996. Noueihed, Lin and Alex Warren. The Battle for the Arab Spring: Revolution, Counter-Revolution and the Making of a New Era. New Haven: Yale University Press, 2012. Peterson, Scott, Dan Murphy, Robert Marquand, Clayton Jones, John Yemma, and Ann Hermes. Monitor Essentials: Spirit of the Arab Spring. Boston: The Christian Science Monitor, 2011. Petras, James F. The Arab Revolt and the Imperialist Counterattack. Atlanta, GA: Clarity Press, Inc., 2012. Pollack, Kenneth M. The Arab Awakening: America and the Transformation of the Middle East. Washington, DC: Brookings Institution, 2011. Posner, Daniel N. Institutions and Ethnic Politics in Africa. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2005. Prashad, Vijay. Arab Spring, Libyan Winter. Oakland: AK Press, 2012. Ruedy, John. Modern Algeria: The Origins & Development of a Nation. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2005. Salamé, Ghassan, ed. Democracy without Democrats: The Renewal of Politics in the Muslim World. New York: I.B. Tauris, 1994. Schanzer, Jonathan and Dennis Ross. Al-Qa’ida’s Armies: Middle East Affiliate Groups and the Next Generation of Terror. Washington: Washington Institute for Near East Policy, 2005. Shah, Adeel A. and Sheheryar T. Sardar. Sandstorm: A Leaderless Revolution in the Digital Age. United States: Global Executive Board LLC, 2011. Sherbiny, Naiem A. and Mark A. Tessler, eds. Arab Oil: Impact on the Arab Countries and Global Implications. New York: Praeger, 1976. Starrett, Gregory. Putting Islam to Work: Education, Politics and Religious Transformation in Egypt. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1998.

38 Special Update Report - Terrorism in North, West, & Central Africa: From 9/11 to the Arab Spring

Stroilov, Pavel. Behind the Desert Storm: A Secret Archive Stolen from the Kremlin that Sheds Light on the Arabs Revolutions in the Middle East. Chicago, IL: Price World Publishing, LLC, 2011. Thompson, Alex. An Introduction to African Politics. London: Routledge, 2000. Tordoff, William. Government and Politics in Africa. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2002. Van Dam, Nikolaos. The Struggle for Power in Syria: Politics and Society under Asad and the Ba’th Party. New York: I. B. Tauris, 2011. Vandewalle, Dirk. Libya Since Independence. Ithaca, New York: Cornell University Press, 1998. Voll, John. Islam: Continuity and Change in the Modern World. Syracuse: Syracuse University Press, 1994. Weddady, Nasser, Sohrab Ahmari, and Gloria Steinem. Arab Spring Dreams: The Next Generation Speaks Out for Freedom and Justice from North Africa to Iran. New York: Palgrave Macmillian, 2012. Weinstein, Brian, ed. Language Policy and Political Development. Norwood, New Jersey: Ablex Publishing Corporation, 1990. Wickham, CR. Mobilizing Islam: Religion, Activism & Political Change in Egypt. New York: Columbia University Press, 2002. Willis, Michael. Politics and Power in the Maghreb: Algeria, Tunisia and Morocco from Independence to the Arab Spring. New York: Columbia University Press, 2012. Wright, John. Libya: A Modern History. Beckenham, England: Croom Helm, 1983. Wright, Robin B. Rock the Casbah: Rage and Rebellion across the Islamic World. New York: Simon & Schuster, 2011. Zurayk, Rami and Rashid Khalidi. Food, Farming, and Freedom: Sowing the Arab Spring. Charlottesville, VA: Just World Publishing, LLC, 2011.

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Ashford, DE. “The Irredentist Appeal in Morocco & Mauritania.” Political Research Quarterly 15, no.4 (1962): 641-651. Ayubi, Nazih. “The Political Revival of Islam: The Case of Egypt.” International Journal of Middle East Studies 12, no.4 (1980): 481-499. Baier, Stephen. “Trans-Saharan Trade and the Sahel: Damergu, 1870-1930.” The Journal of African History 18, no.1 (1977): 37-60. Bakier, Abdul Hameed. “Al-Qa’ida Infiltration of the Western Sahara's Polisario Movement.” Terrorism Monitor 8, no. 19 (13 May 2010), . Ben Aboud, El-Mehdi, “America and the Future of the Maghreb.” Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science 330 (1960): 29-36. Benjaminsen, Tor Arve. “Does Supply-Induced Scarcity Drive Violent Conflicts in the African Sahel? The Case of the Tuareg Rebellion in Northern Mali.” Journal of Peace Research 45, no.6 (2008): 819-836. Billingsley, Anthony. “Writing Constitutions in the Wake of the Arab Spring.” Foreign Affairs (30 November 2011), . Blair, Dennis C. “Annual Threat Assessment of the Intelligence Community for the Senate Select Committee on Intelligence.” Office of the Director of National Intelligence (12 February 2009): 1-46. Blanche, Ed. “Mayhem in the Maghreb.” Middle East Periodical (June 2007). Botha, Anneli. “Challenges in Understanding Terrorism in Africa: A Human Security Perspective.” African Security Review 17, no.2 (2008): 28-41. Botha, Anneli. “Islamist Terrorism in the Maghreb: Recent Developments in Algeria.” Circunstansia (January 2009), . Botha, Anneli. “Terrorism in the Maghreb: the transnationalisation of domestic terrorism.” ISS Monograph Series (June 2008), . Boubacar, N’Diaye. “Mauritania’s Stalled Democracy.” Journal of Democracy 12, no.3 (2001): 88-95. Boukhars, Anouar. “Fighting the Growth of Terrorist Networks in the Maghreb: Turning Threats into Opportunities.” Brookings Doha Center (November 2009), . Boukhars, Anouar. “Mauritania Confronts Structural Problems as it Steps Up Counterterrorism Efforts.” Terrorism Monitor 9, 31 (August 2011), . Boukhars, Anouar and Ali O. Omar. “Trouble in the Western Sahara.” The Journal of the Middle East and Africa 2 (2011): 220-234. Brumberg, Daniel. “Islam, Elections and Reform in Algeria.” Journal of Democracy 12, no.1 (1991): 58-71. “Building Stability in North Africa: Prospects and Challenges.” The Center for Strategic & International Studies (January 2008), . Burweila, Aya and Nomikos, John. “Another Frontier to Fight: International Terrorism and Islamic Fundamentalism in North Africa.” International Journal of Intelligence and Counterintelligence 22, no.1 (March 2009): 50-88. Byman, Daniel. “Terrorism After the Arab Revolutions.” Foreign Affairs 90, no. 3 (May/June 2011), . “Country Reports on Terrorism 2008.” United States Department of State (April 2009), .

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“Country Reports on Terrorism 2009.” United States Department of State (August 2009), . “Country Reports on Terrorism 2010.” United States Department of State (August 2011), . Chebatoris, Matthew. “Morocco’s Multi-Pronged Counter-terrorism Strategy.” Terrorism Monitor 7, no. 13 (May 2009), . Curtin, Philip D. “Jihad in West Africa: Early Phases and Inter-Relations in Mauritania and Senegal.” The Journal of African History 12, no.1 (1971): 11-24. Daly, Sara. “The Algerian Salafist Group for Call and Combat: A Dossier.” Terrorism Monitor 3, no. 5 (2005), . “The Dynamics of North African Terrorism: Conference Report.” Center for Strategic and International Studies (March 2010), < http://csis.informz.net/CSIS/data/ images/northafricaconferencereport2.pdf>. Elbadawi, Ibrahim and Nicholas Sambanis. “Why are there so many civil wars in Africa? Understanding and preventing violent conflict.” Journal for African Economies 9 (2000): 244-269. El-Khawas, Mohamed A. “Revolutionary Islam in North Africa: Challenges and Responses.” Africa Today 43, no.4 (1996): 385-404. Ellis, Stephen. “Briefing: The Pan-Sahel Initiative.” African Affairs 103, no. 412 (2004): 459-464. Ellis, Stephen and Gerrie Ter Haar,. “Religion and Politics in Sub-Saharan Africa.” The Journal of Modern African Studies 36, no. 2 (1998): 175-201. “European Union Terrorism Situation and Trend Report.” EUROPOL (2009), Filiu, Jean-Pierre. “Al-Qa’ida in the Islamic Maghreb: Algerian Challenge or Global Threat?” Carnegie Endowment for International Peace Papers 104 (October 2009), . Fuchs, Peter. “Economic and Cultural Relations Between the Sahara and the Sahel.” Current Anthropology 25, no.1 (1984): 116. Gray, Clive and Andre Martens. “The Political Economy of the ‘recurrent cost problem’ in the West African Sahel.” World Development 11, no.2 (1983): 101-117. Haddadi, Said. “Political Securitization and Democratization in the Maghreb: Ambiguous Discourses and Fine- tuning Practices for a Security Partnership.” UC Berkeley: Institute of European Studies (23 March 2004), . Hafez, Mohammed M. “Armed Islamist Movements and Political Violence in Algeria.” Middle East Journal 54, no.4 (2000): 572-591. Hamid, Shadi. “One Year Later: Five Lessons from the Arab Revolts.” Brookings Institution (20 December 2011), . Harsch, Ernest. “Africa Looks Beyond ‘war on terror’ for long term solutions rooted in development, human rights.” African Renewal 23, no. 3 (October 2009), . Hassan, Hussein D., “Islam in Africa.” CRS Report for Congress (May 2008), . Hunt, Emily. “Islamist Terrorism in Northwestern Africa: A ‘Thorn in the Neck’ of the United States?” Washington Institute for Near Eastern Policy 65 (February 2007): 1-21.

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Maghraoui, Abdeslam. “Monarchy and Political Reform in Morocco.”Journal of Democracy 12, no.1 (2001): 73-86. Marianne, Marty. “Mauritania: Political Parties, Neo-Patrimonialism and Democracy.” Paper presented at the European Consortium for Political Research workshop on Parties, Party Systems, and Democratic Consolidation, Grenoble, April 6-11, 2001, . McGregor, Andrew. “Military Rebellion and Islamism in Mauritania.” Terrorism Monitor 3, no. 4 (February 2005), . Moniquet, Claude. “The Polisario Front and the Development of Terrorism in the Sahel.” European Strategic Intelligence and Security Center (May 2010), . “Moroccan Islamic Combatant Group (GICM), Country Reports on Terrorism 2007.” United States Department of State (April 2008), . Mortimer, Robert. “Islam and Multiparty Politics in Algeria.” Middle East Journal 45, no.44 (1991): 575-593. Mortimer, Robert. “Maghreb Matters” Foreign Policy 76 (1989): 160-175. Obama, Barack. “Remarks by the President on the Middle East and North Africa.” The White House (19 May 2011), . Ottaway, David B. “Morocco’s Arab Spring.” The Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars (22 June 2011), . Parker, Janet Louise, “What Muslim Jihad Group Tried to Assassinate Osama Bin Laden?” New Criminology (2005), . Pazzanita, Anthony G. “The Origins and Evolution of Mauritania’s Second Republic.” The Journal of Modern African Studies 34, no.4 (1996): 575-596. Pazzanita, Anthony G. “Political Transition in Mauritania: Problems and Prospects.” Middle East Journal 53, no.1 (1999): 44-58. Pham, J. Peter. “The Dangerous ‘Pragmatism’ of Al-Qa’ida in the Islamic Maghreb.” The Journal of the Middle East and Africa 2 (2011): 15-29. Pham, J. Peter. “Not Another Failed States: Toward a Realistic Solution in the Western Sahara.” The Journal of the Middle East and Africa 1 (2010): 1-24. Piccone, Ted and Emily Alinikoff. “Rising Democracies and the Arab Awakening: Implications for Global Democracy and Human Rights.” The Brookings Institution (9 January 2012), . Pierre, Andrew J. and William B. Quandt. “Algeria’s War on Itself.” Foreign Policy 99 (1995): 131-148. “The Polisario Front: Credible Negotiations Partner or After-Effect of the Cold War and Obstacle to apolitical solution in Western Sahara?” European Strategic Intelligence and Security Center (November 2005), . Roberts, Hugh. “The Algerian State and the Challenge of Democracy.” Government and Opposition 27, no. 4 (2007): 433-454. Roberts, Hugh. “Is Global Jihad coming to North Africa?” The Center for Strategic and International Studies (21 March 2007), . Roberts, Hugh. “Radical Islamism and the Dilemma of Algerian Nationalism: The Embattled Arians of Algiers.” Third World Quarterly 10, no.2 (1998): 556-589. Roberts, Hugh, Lianne Kennedy-Boudali, and Haim Malka. “The War on Terror: Local Threat or Global Menace.” Lecture presented at The Center for Strategic and International Studies Conference on Building

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Stability in North Africa: Prospects and Challenges, Washington, DC, January 17, 2008, . Robinson, Pearl T. “The Political Context of Regional Development in the West African Sahel.” The Journal of Modern African Studies 16, no.4 (1978): 579-595. Rogan, Hanna. “Al-Qa’ida in the Islamic Maghreb Strikes Again.” Perspectives on Terrorism 2, no. 8 (2008), . Roumani, Jacques. “From Republic to Jamahiriya: Libya’s Search for Political Community.” Middle East Journal 37, no.2 (1983): 151-168. Roussellier, Jacques. “Terrorism in North Africa and the Sahel: Al-Qa’ida ’s Franchise or Freelance?” Middle East Institute 34 (August 2011), . Salime, Zakia. “The War on Terrorism: Appropriation and Subversion by Moroccan Women.” Journal of Women in Culture and Society 33, no.1 (2007): 1-24. Soares, Benjamin F. “Rethinking Islam and Muslim Societies in Africa.” African Affairs 106, no.423 (2007): 319-326. Sturman, Kathryn. “The Rise of Libya as a Regional Player.” African Security Review 12, no.2 (2003), . Sutton, Keith. “Political Association and Maghreb Economic Development.” The Journal of Modern African Studies 10, no.2 (1972): 191-202. Telhami, Shibley. “The 2011 Arab Public Opinion Poll.” The Brookings Institution (21 November 2011), . Telhami, Shibley. “The American Public and the Arab Awakening.” The Brookings Institution (21 April 2011), . “Terrorism: AQIM and the Polsario Frente.” Center for Strategic and International Studies (May 2010), . Tisseron, Antoine. “Geopolitical tangles around fight against terrorism in the Sahara.” Thomas More Institute (October 2011), . Tissieres, Helene and Marjolijn De Jager. “Maghreb: Sub-Saharan Connections.” Research in African Literatures 33, no.3 (2002): 32-53. “Towards a Sustainable Security in the Maghreb.” Institut Thomas More (April 2010), . “Treaty Creating the Arab Union of the Maghreb.” Arab Law Quarterly 7, no.3: 205-208.Vidal, Federico S. “Religious Brotherhoods in Moroccan Politics.” Middle East Journal 4, no. 4 (1950): 427-446. Vriens, Lauren. “Armed Islamic Group (Algeria, Islamists).” Council on Foreign Relations (27 May 2009), . Waltz, Susan. “Islamist Appeal in Tunisia.” Middle East Journal 40, no.4 (1986): 651-670. “Why Al Qaeda Maghreb will Continue to Strike.” The North Africa Journal (19 April 2009), . Zartman, I. William. “The Politics of Boundaries in North and West Africa.” The Journal of Modern African Studies 3, no. 2 (1965): 155-173. Zoubir, Yahia. H, “The United States, the Soviet Union and Decolonization of the Maghreb, 1945-62.” Middle Eastern Studies 31, no.1 (1995): 58-84.

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Media Resources: Afify, Heba. “The Revolution’s Anniversary: A Day for Protest or Celebration?” Al-Masry Al-Yom, January 23, 2012, . “Africa drug trade fueling terrorism and crime, says UN.” BBC News, December 9, 2009, < http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/8402820.stm>. Alami, Aida. “Morocco battles al-Qa’ida in the Islamic Maghreb.” Global Post, November 2, 2010, <10http:// www.globalpost.com/dispatch/morocco/ 101101/morocco-battles-al-qaeda-the-islamic-maghreb>. “Al-Arabiya's programme discusses al-Qa'ida activities in Algeria.” BBC Worldwide Monitoring, July 27, 2008. “Algeria.” The New York Times, February 22, 2011, . “Algeria said to discipline Polisario commander over ties to al-Qa’ida.” World Tribune, November 7, 2011, < http:// www.worldnewstribune.com/2011/11/07/algeria-said-to-discipline-polisario-commander-over-ties-to-al-qaida/>. “Al-Jazeera programme discusses escalation of attacks by al-Qa’ida in Algeria.” BBC Monitoring Middle East, September 23, 2007. Almond, Kyle. “5 Voices: What’s Next in the Arab Spring?” CNN (April 25, 2011), . “Al-Qa’ida looks to Sahel for new funding sources.” Magharebia, November 10, 2010, . “Al Qaeda plans Morocco expansion, Europe attacks.” Middle East Online, September 27, 2011, . “’Al-Qa’ida splinter group’ claims kidnap of Westerners.” Agence France Presse, December 10, 2011, . “Al-Qa’ida seeks ‘new Somalia’ in N. Africa.” UPI, December 13, 2011, . Al-Shawaf, Rayyan. "Full: Two Authors Offer Prescient Looks on the Arab Spring." The National, January 23, 2012, . “The Arab Awakening.” Al Jazeera, February 22, 2011, . “Arab Dream of Building Democracy as 2012 Begins.” Al Arabiya, January 2, 2012, . "Arab Spring." The Economist, January 23, 2012, . “Arab Spring.” Huffington Post, . “Arab Spring Ushers in Bright Future Despite Concerns.” Al Arabiya (December 7, 2011), . Arfaoui, Jamel. “Al-Qa’ida, drug traffic alliances threatens Sahel security.” Magharebia, January 8, 2010, < http:// www.magharebia.com/cocoon/awi/ xhtml1/en_GB/features/awi/features/2010/01/08/feature-01>. Arfaoui, Jamel. “Libyan Islamic Fighting Group lays down arms.” Magharebia, July 22, 2009, . “Armed Islamic Group (GIA).” Global Security, . Badcock, James. “Deserting the Logic for Want of Glory.” The Daily Star, November 4, 2010,.

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Baldor, Lolita. “Al-Qa’ida Growing in Strength and Numbers in Africa.” Associated Press, March 1, 2010, < http://abcnews.go.com/Politics/wireStory?id= 9974769>. “Bamako warns Polisario: ‘Mali is not Wild West.’” Middle East Online, December 17, 2011, . Barrett, Devlin. “Feds: Arrests in Africa link al-Qa’ida and drugs.” Associated Press, December 18, 2009, < http://www.huffingtonpost.com/huff-wires/20091218/us-africa-al-qaida-drugs/>. Berman, Ilan. “A Counterterrorism Ally in North Africa.” Forbes, June 15, 2010, . Black, Ian. “In the Terror Trade African Militants Reliant on Ransom Cash.” The Guardian, April 27, 2009, . Blight, Garry. "Arab Spring: An Interactive Timeline of Middle East Protests." The Guardian, January 22, 2012, . Boswell, Alan. “Al-Qa’ida’s North Africa branch a growing threat.” McClatchy, November 6, 2011, . Boswell, Alan. “Fallout in the Sahara: Did the War in Libya Play into the Hands of al-Qaeda?” Time, September 28, 2011, . Carroll, Jill. “Algeria bombing prompts question: Can Al Qa’ida spread across North Africa?” Christian Science Monitor, December 14, 2007, . “Chad: Hardline Rebel Faction in North Rejects Peace Deal.” IRIN, December 16, 2003, . Chalfaouat, Abderrahim. “Al-Qa’ida is growing in North Africa too.” Le Monde Diplomatique, November 1, 2010, < http://mondediplo.com/openpage/al-qaida-is-growing-in-north-africa-too>. Charlton, Angela and Aomar Ouali. “Al-Qa’ida in North Africa Seen as Key Europe Threat.” Associated Press, October 10, 2010, <10http://abcnews.go.com/ International/wireStory?id=11843804>. “Change in the Middle East and North Africa.” Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, . Chikhi, Lamine. “Algeria says al Qa’ida guards Sahara drug smugglers.” Reuters, February 22, 2010, < http://www.reuters.com/article/idUSTRE61L3KL20100 222>. Chikhi, Lamine. “Algeria says Nigeria’s Boko Haram tied to al-Qa’ida.” Reuters, November 13, 2011, . “Chronology: The Plots: Al-Qa’ida’s New Front.” PBS Frontline, January 25, 2005, http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/shows/front/special/cron.html. Couglin, Con. “Libya: Col Gaddhafi ‘has spent ₤2.1m on mercenaries.” The Telegraph, April 20, 2011, < http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/africa andindianocean /libya/8464254/Libya-Col-Gaddafi-has- spent-2.1m-on-mercenaries.html>. Crocker, Chester A. “The Arab Spring.” The U.S. Institute of Peace, April 25, 2011, . Croft, Adrian. “EU police, experts to counter al-Qa’ida in Africa – UK.” Reuters, November 28, 2011, . Cruickshank, Paul. “Suicide Bomber’s Widow Soldiers On.” CNN, August 24, 2006. . “De Fes.” National Consortium for the Study of Terrorism and Responses to Terrorism, . Doward, James. “Drug seizures in west Africa prompt fears of terrorist links.” The Guardian, November 29, 2010, < http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2009/ nov/29/drugs-cocaine-africa-al-qaida>.

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“Egypt’s Transition to Democracy Grows More Messy.” Al Arabiya, January 16, 2012, . "Egypt's Unfinished Revolution: What's Next?" CBS News, January 23, 2012, . Elmeshad, Mohamed. “A Year of Revolution: Lessons Learned.” Al-Masry Al-Yom, January 22, 2012, . Esposito, Richard and Jason Ryan. “Selling Drugs to Fund Terror: Al-Qa’ida Linked to Cocaine Trafficking.” ABC News, December 18, 2009, . Estito, Imad. “Polisario After Gaddafi: The Price of Patronage.” Al Akhbar, September 2, 2011, . Evansky, Ben. “Al-Qa’ida Strengthening in North-West Africa.” Fox News, December 17, 2010, . “Eye on the Middle East and North Africa.” The U.S. Institute of Peace, November 23, 2011, . “Factbox: Al-Qa’ida’s Sahara Wing.” Reuters, July 23, 2010, < http://www.reuters. com/article/idUSTRE66M22X20100723>. Fernandez, Manu. “Spanish hostages freed by al-Qa’ida arrive in Spain.” Associated Press, August 23, 2010, . Fisher, Marc. “In Tunisia, Act of One Fruit Vendor Unleashes Wave of Revolution Across Arab World.” The Washington Post, March 26, 2011, . Fontaine, Scott. “Terrorist Threat Grows in Africa, US Rep Adam Smith Says.” The News Tribune, April 28, 2009, . Francheska, Alyangka. “U.S. wants probe on Gadhafi's alleged recruitment of mercenaries from Algeria-backed Polisario to fight NATO, rebels.” International Business Times, May 30, 2011, < http://au.ibtimes.com /articles/154113/20110529/gade-redafi-libya-rebels-morocco-algeria-u-s-congress.htm>. Giles, Ciaran. “Spain: al-Qa’ida possibly buying Libyan weapons.” The Associated Press, June 30, 2011, . Greenway, H.D.S. “How France Confronts Terrorism.” The Boston Globe, February 17, 2009, . Guitta, Olivier. “AQIM’s New Kidnapping Strategy.” Middle East Times, March 24, 2008, . “Harakat al-Shuhada’a al-Islamiyah.” National Consortium for the Study of Terrorism and Responses to Terrorism,. Harman, Jane. “Democracy Wins in Tunisia.” The Daily Beast, October 26, 2011, . Heneghan, Tom. “Arab Spring Stretches ‘Islamist’ Tag to its Limits.” Al Arabiya,December 19, 2011, . Hinshaw, Drew and Scott Baldauf. “Counterterrorism training to curb Al Qa’ida threat in Africa.” Christian Science Monitor, May 13, 2010,< http://www.csmonitor. com/World/Africa/2010/0513/Counterterrorism- training-to-curb-Al-Qaeda-threat-in-Africa>. “How did Al Qa’ida emerge in North Africa?” Christian Science Monitor, May 1, 2007,

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“In the Spotlight: Moroccan Combatant Group (GICM).” Center for Defense Information, May 21, 2004, . “Is al Qaeda interested in Western Sahara’s Polisario Front?” Dscriber, November 29, 2010, . “Islamic Salvation Front.” National Consortium for the Study of Terrorism and Responses to Terrorism, . “Italian, Spanish hostages taken by Qa’ida’s ‘Sahrawi wing.’” Agence France Presse, October 25, 2011, . Johnson, Zachary K., “Chronology: The Plots” PBS Frontline, January 25, 2005,. Kane, Frank. "Arab Spring the Big Issue in the Alps." The National, January 23, 2012, . Keenan, Jeremy H. “A New Crisis in the Sahel.” Al Jazeera, January 3, 2012, . “Key members of Sahara drug ring captured are from Polisario.” Middle East Online, December 21, 2010, < http://www.middle-east-online.com/english /?id=43149>. Khanna, Ravi. “Experts Say al-Qa’ida Center May Shift to Sahara, Sahel.” Voice of America, February 8, 2011, . Kurlantzick, Joshua. “In the Arab Spring’s Aftermath, Democracy Retreats.” BusinessWeek, January 19, 2012, . Lake, Alison. “Unlikely bedfellows: Are some Saharan Marxists joining Al-Qaidaoperations in North Africa?” Foreign Policy, January 3, 2011, . Leigh, Karen. “North Africa’s Sahel: The Next Terrorism Hot Spot?” Time, September 12, 2011, . Libya and the Arab Spring.” Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars, October 31, 2011, . “Libya Crisis.” BBC News, January 16, 2012, < http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-12480844>. “Libya—Revolution and Aftermath.” The New York Times, January 13, 2012, . Look, Anne. “Morocco says dismantled drug ring linked to terrorists.” Voice of America, October 18, 2010, . Maclean, William. “Analysis: Africa’s Sahel scrambles to avert slide ‘into hell’.” Reuters, January 25, 2011, . Mahjar-Barducci, Anna. “Al-Qa’ida Speaks Spanish: Advances to Mallorca and the Western Sahara.” Stonegate Institute, September 28, 2011, . Malik, Adeel and Bassem Awadallah. “After the Arab Spring: Creating Economic Commons.” Al Jazeera, January 20, 2012, .

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“Mali security forces hunt desert drug traffickers.” Agence France Presse, September 14, 2011, . “Mauritania’s battle with a new wave of terrorism.” Euronews, November 6, 2009, . “Mauritania chooses ‘offensive’ strategy against Al-Qaeda.” Agence France Presse, October 27, 2010, . “Mauritania Touts Counter-Terror Operations Near Mali Border.” Magharebia, November 17, 2009, . “Mauritania: Military launches anti-terrorist units amid donor cutbacks.” IRIN, November 28, 2008, . Maylie, Devon and Drew Hinshaw. “Alarm Over Smuggled Libyan Arms.” The Wall Street Journal, November 12, 2011, . McClanahan, Paige. “West Africa Rising: Libya war boosting Al-Qa’ida in the Islamic Maghreb?” Christian Science Monitor, July 5, 2011, . McConnell, Tristan. “Niger: West and Central Africa a “powder keg” after Gaddafi.” Global Post, September 10, 2011, . Mclean, William. “Africa’s Sahel Scrambles to Avert Slide ‘Into Hell.’” Al Arabiya, January 23, 2012, . Mezzetti, Mark. “C.I.A. Chief Says Qaeda Is Extending Its Reach.” The New York Times, November 14, 2008, . “Middle East and North Africa.” Freedom House, . "Middle East and North Africa in Turmoil: Tracking the Protests." The Washington Post, January 22, 2012, . “Mideast unrest raises al-Qaida fears.” UPI, February 2, 2011, . Miniter, Richard. “Letting Another Qa’ida bastion grow.” The New York Post, November 2, 2010, . Miniter, Richard. “The Polisario: The Next Al Qa’ida?” Hudson New York, December 1, 2010, . Montesquiou, Alfred de. “In Algeria, al-Qa’ida extends its franchise.” Associated Press, June 6, 2009, . “Morocco: New terror group emerges, makes threat.” BBC Monitoring Middle East, June 5, 2007. “Morocco’s problem: Freelance jihadis, not al-Qa’ida.” Associated Press, October 15, 2011, . Moss, Dana. “The West Should Focus on North Africa.” Christian Science Monitor, April 6, 2009, . Moutot, Michael. “Al-Qa’ida could be looking for new sanctuaries in troubled African states.” Middle East Online, October 30, 2011, .

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“Movement for Democracy & Development (MDD).” National Consortium for the Study of Terrorism & Responses to Terrorism, . “N. African states take down major narcoterror drug network.” World Tribune, January 11, 2012, < http:// www.worldnewstribune.com/2012/01/11/n-african-states-take-down-major-narcoterror-drug-network/>. Nakhoul, Samia. “Turkey Acts as Mentor for Emerging Islamists in Region.” Al Arabiya, December 9, 2011, . “Niger-Mali Taureg Unrest.” Reuters AlertNet, September 3, 2007, . “Out of Africa: A Growing Threat to Europe from al-Qa’ida's New Allies.” The London Times, May 6, 2008, . “Peril and Paranoia in the New Middle East.” Al Arabiya, December 2, 2011, . Petrou, Michael. “Al-Qa’ida in North Africa: The gang that kidnapped Bob Fowler has global designs.” Macleans, May 6, 2009, . Pham, J. Peter. “Al-Qa’ida in the Islamic Maghreb: The Ongoing Evolution of Jihadist Terrorism in North Africa.” World Defense Review, May 14, 2009, . Pham, J. Peter. “Al-Qa’ida’s surge in Algeria.” World Defense Review, September 6, 2008, . Pham, J. Peter. “Emerging West African Terror-Drug Nexus Poses Major Security Threat.” World Defense Review, January 28, 2010, < http://worlddefense review.com/pham012810.shtml>. Pham, J. Peter. “The Islamist Threat to Africa’s Rise in 2012.” The Atlantic Council, January 3, 2012, . Pham, J. Peter, “Strategic Interests: Morocco’s Comprehensive Counterterrorism Approach.” World Defense Review, June 4, 2009, . Pham, J. Peter. “When Crime Does Pay: The Threat of an Emboldened al-Qa’ida in the Islamic Maghreb.” World Defense Review, 23 September, 2010, . Prieur, Laurent and Lamine Chikhi. “Qa’ida Sahara obtains Libyan arms says commander.” Reuters, November 10, 2011, . Quist-Arcton, Ofeibea. “Kidnappings Highlight Al-Qa’ida’s Rise in the Sahara.” National Public Radio, December 31, 2010, . “A real network of terror?” The Economist, September 11, 2008. "Report: Arab Spring Spurs Democracy Hopes." Fox News, January 23, 2012, . “Report: Polisario working with Al Qa’ida in drugs, weapons trafficking.” World Tribune, September 20, 2011, . “Rifts curb North Africa’s war on al-Qa’ida.” UPI.com, November 17, 2010, . Rotella, Sebastian. “U.S. prosecution links drugs to terrorism.” The Los Angeles Times, December 10, 2009, . Roudani, Cherkaoui. “Maghreb unity, a bulwark against al-Qa’ida.” Magharebia, November 11, 2011. . Rubin, Jennifer. “Al-Qa’ida affiliate flexing its muscles in the Maghreb.” The Washington Post, November 6, 2011, .

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"Russia Repeats Western Mistakes in Arab Spring." Human Rights Watch, January 23, 2012, . Sadiki, Larbi. “The Bouazizi ‘Big Bang.’” Al Jazeera, December 29, 2011, . Sadiki, Larbi. “Hamas and the Arab Spring.” Al Jazeera, December 29, 2011, . Sadiki, Larbi. “Tunisia: Portrait One of a Revolution.” Al Jazeera, January 15, 2012, . “Salafia Jihadia.” National Consortium for the Study of Terrorism and Responses to Terrorism, . Salhani, Claude. “Islamic militants boosting role in drug trade.” The Washington Times, November 17, 2009, < http://www.washingtontimes.com/news/2009/ nov/17/ islamic-militants-boosting-role-in-drug-trade/>. Scheuer, Michael. “Osama at the Top of His Game.” The National Interest, October 29, 2010, . Schmidle, Nicholas. “The Saharan Conundrum.” The New York Times Magazine, February 13, 2009, . Schmitt, Eric and Souad Mekhennet. “Qa’ida Branch Steps up Raids in North Africa.” The New York Times, July 9, 2009, . Sehmer, Alex and May Welsh. “Niger’s Nomads Fight for Rights.” Al Jazeera, July 14, 2008, . Seierstad, Asne. "Out of the Shadow of Fear." Newsweek International, June 13, 2011. “Senate Hearing: Examining U.S. Counterterrorism Priorities and Strategy across Africa’s Sahel Region.” United States Senate Committee on Foreign Relations, November 17, 2009, . “Six ‘terrorists’ indicted in Mauritania.” Taipei Times, April 13, 2007, . Smith, Craig. “North Africa Feared as Staging Ground for Terror.” The New York Times, February 20, 2007, . Somaiya, Ravi. “The Rise of Al Qa’ida in North Africa.” Newsweek, September 16, 2010, . Stack, Liam. “Strategic Shift in North Africa Militancy.” The Christian Science Monitor, August 21, 2008, . Stakelbeck, Erick. “Al Qa’ida Training in Sahara for New Attacks.” CBN News, November 18, 2010, . Stakelbeck, Erick. “Drug Money Funding Chavez, Islamic Terror Groups.” CBN News, November 16, 2010, . Stearns, Scott. “Gadhafi Collapse Raises Concerns Over Arms for Africa al-Qa’ida.” Voice of America, September 29, 2011, . Stewart, Scott and Fred Burton. “Algeria: Taking the Pulse of AQIM.” STRATFOR, June 24, 2009, . Szrom, Charlie. “The al-Qa’ida threat from West Africa and the Maghreb: French Hostage Execution and Beyond.” American Enterprise Institute, August 2, 2010, < http://www.criticalthreats.org/west-africa-and-maghreb/al- qaeda-threat-west-africa-and-maghreb-french-hostage-execution-aug-2-2010-5783>.

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Taheri, Amir. “Al-Qa’ida’s sinister creep into North Africa.” The Times, July 30, 2008. “Takfir wa Hijra.” National Consortium for the Study of Terrorism and Responses to Terrorism, . “Threat Assessment.” The Economist, August 18, 2007, . “Three Qaeda hostages seized last week alive: mediator.” Agence France Presse, October 30, 2011, . “Timeline: Chad: A Chronology of Key Events.” BBC World News, October 27, 2009, . Tisdall, Simon. “Al-Qa’ida offshoot hopes to turn Africa’s Sahel region into a ‘new Somalia.’” The Guardian, December 8, 2011, . Tremlett, Giles and Jon Henley. “Bombings suspect has terror link.” The Guardian, March 16, 2004, . “Tunisia.” The New York Times, October 28, 2011, . “Unified Unit of Jihad.” National Consortium for the Study of Terrorism and Responses to Terrorism., http://www.start.umd.edu/start/data/tops/terrorist_ organization_ profile.asp?id=4299>. “Union of Peaceful Citizens of Algeria.” National Consortium for the Study of Terrorism and Responses to Terrorism. http://www.start.umd.edu/start/data /tops/terrorist_ organization_profile.asp?id=4300>. “Uprisings in the Arab World.” International Crisis Group,. “US Anti-Terrorism Training in Niger Has Supporters.” Voice of America, September 21, 2004, . Vaissiere, Jean-Louis de la. “France slams Bin Laden, plays down hostage threat.” Agence France Presse, October 28, 2010, < http://www.google.com/hostednews/ afp/article/ ALeqM5jRlmcE949jrsUvJ2NDAcnLuUpN2A?docId=CNG.99b78c0675e63279ee1e2ad7360b5508.131>. “A victim of global terror.” The Economist, December 13, 2007, . Whitlock, Craig. “Algiers Attacks Shows Maturing of Al-Qa’ida Unit: New Tactics Gain Notice.” The Washington Post, December 13, 2007. Whitlock, Craig. “Al-Qa’ida Yemen affiliate widens search for recruits, targets.” The Washington Post, November 30, 2010, . Whitlock, Craig. “From Iraq to Algeria, Al-Qa’ida's Long Reach.” The Washington Post, May 30, 2007, . Worth, Robert F. “The Arab Intellectuals Who Didn’t Roar.” The New York Times, October 29, 2011, . Worth, Robert F. and Souad Mekhennet. “Desert Land in Limbo is Torn Apart.” The New York Times, December 9, 2010, . Yapp, Robin. “South American drug gangs funding al-Qa’ida terrorists.” The Telegraph, December 29, 2010, .

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