Replicating/ReintroducingReplicating/Reintroducing historicalhistorical tribaltribal ignitionignition patterns:patterns: RivingRiving thethe culturalcultural firefire regime.regime.
 FrankFrank KanawhaKanawha LakeLake  USDAUSDA ForestForest ServiceService-- PSW,PSW, RWURWU--4155,4155, Orleans/Redding,Orleans/Redding, Ca.Ca.  TraditionalTraditional EcologicalEcological KnowledgeKnowledge andand EthnobiologyEthnobiology
Photo: Somes Fire, Orleans Complex August 2006. Working with tribal heritage resource advisors.
Klamath Fire Symposium April 26, 2008. Objectives:Objectives:
 1. Describe Indian burning practices.  2. Define Tishunick-Various ways to burn willows Camp Creek Indigenous/Cultural fire regimes  3. Review documented reasons for Indian burning practices. ObjectivesObjectives con’t.:con’t.:
 4. Describe some effects of Indian burning practices on the composition, structure, function and productivity of plant communities and fuels associated with different habitats.  5. Identify potential ways in which valued tribal ignition patterns can be incorporated with fuels reduction projects, prescribed burning, wildland fire use, appropriate management response, or fire suppression. EcosystemEcosystem Change:Change: What’sWhat’s NaturalNatural ??  WhatWhat wouldwould havehave biodiversitybiodiversity inin KlamathKlamath-- SiskiyouSiskiyou forests,forests, shrubshrub andand grasslandsgrasslands beenbeen likelike inin thethe absenceabsence ofof tribaltribal ignitions?ignitions? – Anderson and Lewis 2002 Climate affected vegetation and tribal cultures in several phases
See my dissertation for sub-region cultural phases LandscapeLandscape levelslevels ofof biodiversity:biodiversity: ExtentExtent andand InfluenceInfluence ofof tribaltribal ignitions?ignitions?
What are some of the challenges of working across ecological scales to achieve social or cultural objectives?
Anderson 1999 IndianIndian BurningBurning Practices:Practices:
ThoseThose enduringenduring usesuses ofof firefire byby IndiansIndians inin prepre andand postpost EuropeanEuropean settlementsettlement thatthat resultedresulted inin changedchanged oror stabilizedstabilized landscape-scalelandscape-scale vegetationvegetation patternspatterns
ÂÂFirewood,Firewood, PatchPatch andand BroadcastBroadcast burning:burning: IndianIndian BurningBurning Practices:Practices:
ÂÂFirewood:Firewood: InvolvesInvolves thethe movementmovement ofof fuelsfuels toto specificspecific locationslocations beforebefore burning,burning, resultingresulting inin areasareas thatthat containcontain relativelyrelatively littlelittle (or(or stockpiled)stockpiled) largelarge woodywoody debrisdebris andand designateddesignated spotsspots ofof intenseintense repeatedrepeated andand prolongedprolonged heat.heat. Hupa wood packer: Erickson 1890s. Hoopa Valley Kepel Yurok Village area up- IndianIndian BurningBurning slope. Kroeber circa 1910-1920 Practices:Practices:
ÂÂPatch:Patch: AA specificspecific applicationapplication ofof firefire toto fuelsfuels withinwithin aa boundedbounded areaarea forfor foodfood maintenance,maintenance, utility,utility, oror traveltravel IndianIndian BurningBurning Practices:Practices: Â Broadcast:Broadcast: The practice of setting fire to the landscape for multiple purposes and with general boundaries
Baldhills: Chilula/Yurok boundary trail. Goddard 1906 Indigenous/CulturalIndigenous/Cultural FireFire RegimesRegimes
ÂAlternate seasons of burning for different kinds of settings.
ÂFrequencies w/ which fire are set and reset over varying periods of time.
ÂCorresponding intensities w/ which fuels can be burned Indigenous/CulturalIndigenous/Cultural FireFire RegimesRegimes
 Specific selection of sites fired and those that are not.  A range of natural and artificial controls that humans employ in limiting the spread of fire: time of day, winds, fuels, slope, relative humidity, and natural/human fire breaks – Lewis 1982  Ignition patterns to promote desired fire behavior and associated intensities. Processes Seasonality Functions
Ignition Frequency
Fire Induced Ecological Goods and Services: Food, Water, Materials
Topography Intensity- /Fuels Severity
Specificity/ Extent DocumentedDocumented ReasonsReasons ForFor IndianIndian FireFire UseUse FireFire 2121-Management-Management TodayToday Vol.Vol. 6060 No.No. 33 SummerSummer 20002000 PagePage 1111 GeraldGerald W.W. WilliamsWilliams USFS/WOUSFS/WO (Modified(Modified fromfrom H.H. LeLewis)wis) andand BonnicksenBonnicksen 2000,2000, ChapterChapter SevenSeven-Fire-Fire MastersMasters
ÂÂHuntingHunting ÂÂTreeTree Felling/FuelFelling/Fuel WoodWood ÂÂCropCrop ManagementManagement ÂÂClearingClearing AreasAreas ForFor TravelTravel ÂÂPestPest ManagementManagement ÂÂClearingClearing RiparianRiparian AreasAreas ÂÂRangeRange ManagementManagement ÂÂBasketBasket MaterialsMaterials
ÂÂFireproofingFireproofing What are some other reasons you have learned of for your area? Which of those are valued today by the tribal community to be implemented?  ToTo forceforce preyprey intointo smallsmall unburnedunburned and/orand/or formerlyformerly burntburnt areasareas forfor easiereasier huntinghunting  ToTo drivedrive gamegame overover cliffscliffs oror intointo impoundments,impoundments, narrownarrow chutes,chutes, andand riversrivers oror lakeslakes
HuntingHunting
Sketch: Walker 1870, Sacramento valley in Heizer and Elasser 1980. CropCrop ManagementManagement
 To harvest or enhance crops: Tarweed/sunflower types Greens/tender herb-shoots Seeds, nuts or grains  To improve yields of root crops and berries
– Photo: Edward Curtis Gathering Seeds- Coast Pomo CropCrop ManagementManagement
 To prevent grasslands from growing over by non-desired vegetation.  To clear areas for planting tobacco and grass seeds.  To facilitate the gathering of fruits/nuts by clearing the ground of vegetation and duff/litter under crop trees or shrubs.  BurningBurning waswas usedused toto Pest Management reducereduce pestpest populations:populations: Pest Management Rodents Poisonous snakes Insects (ticks, seed/nut weevils, baskets plant parasites, forest beetle infestations, etc).  ToTo killkill oror decrease:decrease: mistletoe tree lichens/mosses invasive species
Insect larva in Cal. Hazel nut. RangeRange ManagementManagement
 FireFire waswas usedused toto keepkeep prairiesprairies andand meadowsmeadows openopen fromfrom encroachingencroaching shrubsshrubs andand treestrees andand toto improveimprove browsebrowse forfor deer,deer, elk,elk, antelope,antelope, horses,horses, andand waterfowl.waterfowl.  IncreaseIncrease thethe qualityquality ofof vegetationvegetation structure,structure, forage,forage, palatability,palatability, andand nutrition.nutrition. FireFire ProofingProofing
ÂÂIndiansIndians usedused frequentfrequent lowlow intensityintensity firesfires toto alteralter thethe structurestructure ofof differentdifferent forests/plantforests/plant communitiescommunities ÂÂSomeSome IndiansIndians usedused firefire toto clearclear vegetationvegetation fromfrom areasareas aroundaround settlementssettlements andand nearnear specialspecial medicinalmedicinal plantsplants toto protectprotect themthem fromfrom wildfires.wildfires. ÂÂToTo reducereduce thethe buildupbuildup ofof fuelsfuels forfor decreasingdecreasing catastrophiccatastrophic wildlandwildland fires.fires. TreeTree Felling/FuelFelling/Fuel WoodWood
ÂÂIndiansIndians usedused firefire inin differentdifferent waysways toto fellfell trees.trees. ÂÂAfterAfter firefire sweptswept throughthrough chaparralchaparral oror woodlandwoodland areas,areas, branchesbranches oror stemsstems werewere brokenbroken offoff forfor firewood.firewood. ManzanitaManzanita OaksOaks OtherOther treetree andand shrubshrub speciesspecies
(photo: Beckham 1996) ClearingClearing AreasAreas ForFor TravelTravel  Indians used fire to clear overgrown trails for travel.  Ignition locations and fuel breaks were located along trails.
Traversable ridge systems, historical Karuk villages, and 1909 to 2005 Ignition point data: Lake and Werren. SRNF:SRNF: Interview-209,Interview-209, KarukKaruk man,man, ageage n/a:n/a: AprilApril 6,6, 1978:1978:
 Ferris Trail: The main tail along the north side of Chimmikanee Ridge…went up the side of the ridge east to Deer Lick Saddle. This trail was used to get there, and it was also used to drive stock [cattle] along to the pastures on the south side of Chimmikanee Ridge. This originally was open grassland, which was maintained by Indian burning. Over hundreds and thousands of years the burning had created open grasslands for deer and elk forage. When the whites came it was used as pasturage at certain times of the year. Now it has grown over with oaks, madrone, and conifers. South side of many ridges in this area were so used. ClearingClearing AreasAreas ForFor TravelTravel
ÂBurning in forests and brushlands improved visibility for hunting, reduced attacks by predators and enemies, and assisted in warfare. ÂTrails were very significant for trade and resource management. Ignition locations-Application for contemporary fire use ClearingClearing RiparianRiparian AreasAreas
ÂÂToTo clearclear brushbrush andand otherother debrisdebris fromfrom riparianriparian areasareas andand marshesmarshes ÂÂToTo stimulatestimulate newnew grass,grass, plantplant growth,growth, shrubshrub andand treetree sprouts.sprouts. Cottonwoods Willows Wild grape thickets Tules and Cattails Sedges and grasses BasketBasket MaterialsMaterials
ÂÂMostMost ofof thethe plantplant materialsmaterials usedused inin basketrybasketry requiredrequired firefire toto promotepromote desirabledesirable plantplant structurestructure oror health.health. KlamathKlamath MountainMountain TribesTribes-- Burning:Burning: BasketBasket MaterialsMaterials Hazel:Hazel: increaseincrease straightstraight shootsshoots – Blackoak/mix conifer BearBear grass:grass: reducereduce thatchthatch andand increaseincrease leafleaf pliabilitypliability – Mixed conifer Willows:Willows: increaseincrease straightstraight shootsshoots andand reducereduce pestspests – Riparian valley TEKTEK andand RestorationRestoration
 TEK can help fire ecologists and managers with:
Historical applications of fire on the land by Indigenous people
Fire frequency, intensity, and areas of application in different habitats or ecosystems
Photo: E.Curtis, Klamath Indian, Southern Cascades. ReintroducingReintroducing historicalhistorical ignitionignition patterns-patterns- UnderstandingUnderstanding thethe extent:extent: why,why, where,where, andand when?when?
 Elevation: Higher proportion below 3,500 ft., Above 3,500 ft. selected areas.  Specific habitats: Proximity to water Oak/grasslands Oak/pine Transitional riparian/Meadows  Aspect: Southern ridges were favored  Slope: Ridge tops, mid-slope benches, terraces.
Hupa: Marshall family, 1906 Trinity Summit, photo by Goddard. IndigenousIndigenous landland managementmanagement practicespractices onon forestforest diversitydiversity  ForestForest typestypes andand firefire regimeregime  Composition,Composition, structure,structure, functionfunction andand productivityproductivity  InterplayInterplay ofof lightninglightning firesfires andand indigenousindigenous burningburning Top-lightning Middle-lightning/Indian burning Bottom-fire suppression Anderson and Barbour 2002: Calif. Forests Interview-210,Interview-210, Non-IndianNon-Indian (?)(?) Man,Man, ageage n/a.n/a. MayMay 7,7, 1979:1979:  Trail: The County trail over to Somes Bar use to run right by his property. The Prospect Hill trail took off from the Country trail and followed out Wilson Creek and then up to Hines Camp, then followed the ridge on up past Lightning Ridge and up to Elk and Flint Valleys. The cattlemen used to drive cattle up there to graze. There was plenty of room because they used to keep the forest floor burnt to keep the brush down just like the Indians used to do. A fella would see a patch of brush and just toss a match into it. Since the Forest Service took over, though, every thing’s grown back and you can’t hardly get around any more.” WieslanderWieslander VegetationVegetation SurveySurvey MapsMaps 1930s1930s comparedcompared toto FRCCFRCC California-selectedCalifornia-selected regionsregions
Vegetation type codes: T = Tanoak, M = Madrone, etc. AerialAerial photographs:photographs: ConfluenceConfluence ofof SalmonSalmon andand KlamathKlamath Rivers-SomesRivers-Somes BarBar 19441944 vs.vs. 20032003
Left: 1944 Right: 2003 RepeatRepeat photography:photography: ConfluenceConfluence ofof SalmonSalmon andand KlamathKlamath Rivers-Rivers- 19071907 vs.vs. 20062006
Sugar Loaf Mt. Looking up- stream. 1907 Photograph by Sugar Loaf Mt. Looking up- A. L. Kroeber stream. September 2006. No. 15-1396 Photograph by F. K. Lake Methods:Methods: TEKTEK intointo GISGIS
 Ethnographic data Interviews, field notes, historic maps and photographs  Digitizing diverse data into useable forms  Analysis or comparison of types of data  Applications to restoration, conservation and sustainable management
Klamath National Forest Map 1928 HistoricalHistorical photographs:photographs: LandscapeLandscape 1890s1890s toto 20062006 ChangesChanges inin cultural-usecultural-use qualityquality vs.vs. contemporarycontemporary land-useland-use practicespractices
Left: 1890s. Ericson Right: 2006 Lake. From Big Rock looking up the Klamath River, Orleans Ca. Interview-305,Interview-305, KarukKaruk manman inin 70s.70s. JulyJuly 23,23, 19811981
 Ran cattle on Salmon Summit trail. His family would hunt primarily deer and some bear around Le Perron Flat. He has walked many of the trails. One trail followed Rattlesnake Ridge down to Schnable’s and on the Mill Creek Gap. At Mill Creek the trail split. One could head towards Hopkins Butte or to Packsaddle Ridge and on to Shelton Butte. The trails were used as pack trails. The Forest Service maintained and improved existing trails, and packers often improved the Indian trails. HistoricalHistorical photos:photos: AerialAerial 19441944 toto 20032003
Short Ranch: Boise to RedCap Creek, NE of Orleans, Cal. RestoringRestoring PlantPlant CommunitiesCommunities andand HabitatsHabitats
ÂWhat is significant in a plant community? Consider the functionality of fuels: –Socio-culturally and ecologically
ÂHow have habitats been altered as a consequence of fire suppression and/or the cessation of indigenous land use practices? RestoringRestoring PlantPlant CommunitiesCommunities oror HabitatHabitat
ÂAre we addressing the broader ecological role of “fuels”? Distinguishing function for goods and services ÂWhat else is missing? Linkages to the quality of wildlife habitat or cultural uses FuelsFuels reductionreduction practicespractices thatthat accountaccount forfor multiplemultiple valuesvalues Hazel for basketry along emergency access routes, WUI, fuel breaks/firelines, and/or defensible or easier ignitable locations.
CanCan vegetationvegetation bebe modifiedmodified toto achieveachieve multiplemultiple objectives?objectives? VegetationVegetation oror HabitatHabitat ofof HighHigh CulturalCultural FireFire ManagementManagement
 Below 3500 feet.  Above 3500 feet. White oak/prairie-Indian Main ridge and sub-ridge potatoes and hunting systems from lower to higher Tanoak acorn orchards on elevations-travel, gathering, ridges and midslopes-Nuts, hunting berries, mushrooms, hunting Sugar and Ponderosa Pine Blackoak/hazel dominated dominated stands-nuts, sites-roots, herbs, hunting herbs, berries Southern aspect grass/forb Meadows-Hunting and dominated slopes-Indian gathering camps potatoes, hunting, travel Brushfields encroached by young conifers. FireFire SafeSafe Councils:Councils: FuelFuel ReductionReduction Projects,Projects, WUI’s,WUI’s, andand FuelFuel Breaks.Breaks.
 Working with local communities  Integrating local tribal knowledge on the importance of plants for habitat and fire response  Restoring and maintaining bio- cultural diversity Replicating/ReintroducingReplicating/Reintroducing historicalhistorical tribaltribal ignitionignition patterns:patterns:
 Bear grass: basket material in the Pacific Northwest. Photo: NW Cal. AnAn adaptiveadaptive managementmanagement approachapproach toto aligningaligning culturalcultural expectationsexpectations andand agencyagency implementationimplementation effectivenesseffectiveness shouldshould consider:consider:
 1) clearly defining the  3) defined criteria to objectives evaluate success of  2) planning strategies to objectives attain objectives  4) evaluating success of achieving criteria and modifying future actions
Photo: Bear grass leaves one year after fire and ready for harvesting AdaptiveAdaptive managementmanagement strategiesstrategies willwill havehave toto bebe considered,considered, reevaluatedreevaluated andand implementedimplemented toto achieveachieve thethe culturalcultural andand agencyagency objectives.objectives.  What are the agency’s priorities at the time? Wildland fire suppression or cultural burns?  Can another sites be selected and still achieve the objectives?  What is the fire weather forecast? hot and dry, or foggy?  What fire crew resources are available?  What will be the ignition pattern? Photo: Cultural burn, Six Rivers NF, Orleans RD AdaptiveAdaptive managementmanagement strategiesstrategies toto achieveachieve culturalcultural andand agencyagency objectives.objectives.  Can this cultural burn meet other management unit prescribed fire resource targets? maintenance of shaded fuel breaks WUI treatments wildlife habitat enhancement  Does the burn plan need to be modified?  Is more consultation with the Native American basket weavers or tribes needed? align expectations criteria of evaluating success WorkingWorking withwith TribesTribes andand NativeNative AmericanAmerican Organizations:Organizations: PrescribedPrescribed FiresFires andand FuelsFuels ReductionReduction ProjectsProjects
ÂÂClearlyClearly explainexplain thethe stepssteps ofof thethe projectproject byby thethe agency,agency, startstart toto finish:finish: ProjectProject planplan >> NEPANEPA >> BurnBurn PlanPlan >Technical>Technical SupportSupport >> TreatmentsTreatments >> SurveysSurveys >> RestrictionsRestrictions BurnBurn itit !!!!!!
ÂÂBeBe clearclear onon expectedexpected timetime framesframes forfor eacheach stepstep andand potentialpotential limitations.limitations. WorkingWorking withwith TribesTribes andand NativeNative AmericanAmerican Organizations:Organizations: WildlandWildland Fires/RxFires/Rx FiresFires
 The use of heritage resources advisors On the job training and education Opportunity to work with local knowledge  Protection of cultural resources More than archaeological sites!  Mitigation of fire suppression activities Culturally relevant M.I.S.T.  Cross-cultural fire management experiences Working together to protect life, property and culturally significant resources TanoakTanoak AcornAcorn Orchards:Orchards: ThenThen andand NowNow
 Areas used to be maintained by Indian families  Careful fire use  Concerns with fine root exposure or damage TribalTribal prioritiespriorities identifiedidentified forfor fuelsfuels andand firefire managementmanagement withwith restorationrestoration Resource Perceived-current Desired condition(s) Tribal Feasibility of condition(s) priority implementation due value to capacity, funding or rank federal agency priorities.
Reduce fuels Increased hazard to Reduce canopy, High High: Increased safety. Along access- suppression and ladder and surface Ecologically, egress routes control effort and fuels out to 300 feet economically and socio- (roads) evacuation. along each side culturally more Reduce quality of of road. Enhance accepted and desired. cultural resources access to culturally Easier access and and recreational significant implementation for most functions. resources (gathering areas. Multiple benefits. and hunting). Underburn Timber Over dense stands of Silvicultural systems High High: Stewardship harvest conifers and which minimize contracting and and hardwoods impacts to other agreements commercial threatening desired resource values. to remove economically thinning culturally significant profitable biomass, in habitat access and use which excess funding can qualities. be used to treat higher cost valued areas. PrioritiesPriorities continued:continued: HighHigh
Reduce Conifer and shrub Mechanical and High High: Commercial competing cover manual treatments logging and/or fuels encroachment to reduce canopy Stewardship around reduces use cover, ladder and agreements with basketry quality and surface fuels. tribes to plants: increases Prescribe burn at implement. Small hazel and hazardous required season diameter bear grass. fuels. and frequency (3 utilization. to 5 years).
Large fire- Degraded habitat Restoration of Black High High: Commercial resistant quality, stands oak dominated logging with Black oaks, too dense, forest with open Stewardship oak ladder fuels and understory of contracting. Small regeneratio conifer herbs, grasses, diameter n, and encroachment. and hazel for utilization. open basketry. Firewood access. understory PrioritiesPriorities continued:continued: HighHigh
Reduce conifer Conifers out Remove conifers High High: Commercial encroachment compete acorn around acorn trees, logging with and ladder fuels trees, higher fuels thinning of multiple Stewardship around mature increase severity stems, pile burning contracting. Small tanoaks. and mortality. followed by broadcast diameter utilization. Acorns and foliage burning. Firewood access. infested with pests.
Clear fuels and Plantations, road Reduce canopy and High High: Commercial open vegetation barrier surface fuels on upper logging with understory strips, and plantation margins, Stewardship along mainline densification allow roads, and strategic contracting. Small ridges fire spread. ridges. Reconstruct diameter utilization. historically used trails for cultural and as trails and fire management. travel routes. PrioritiesPriorities continued:continued: HighHigh andand ModerateModerate Treat fuels Overstocked Mechanical and High Moderate: Little value around suppressed conifers manual treatments to in thinning material residence: and brush increases reduce ladder and generated. Equipment Wildland Urban fuel load. excess surface fuels. restrictions, increase Interface Pile and patch burn. labor cost. Safety concerns are of high importance.
Appropriate Damage to culture Increase manual High Moderate: Federal management resources and treatments of firelines. agency institutionalized response during significant habitat Ignition pattern backing structure and wildfire events quality by fireline from firelines. Utilizing operational procedures and safety zone natural and human hinder site or area construction. barriers to reduce or specific approaches Backburn ignition control wildfire under extreme wildfire patterns. intensity. conditions. SourcesSources ofof informationinformation onon IndigenousIndigenous people’speople’s burningburning andand managementmanagement practicespractices
ÂÂWebWeb searchessearches andand onon--lineline referencesreferences ÂÂAcademicAcademic journalsjournals ÂÂContactContact thethe culturalcultural committeecommittee ofof tribestribes oror NativeNative organizationsorganizations affiliatedaffiliated withwith naturalnatural resourceresource managementmanagement (i.e.(i.e. basketbasket weavers)weavers) ÂÂEthnobiologistsEthnobiologists andand historicalhistorical ecologistsecologists ÂÂLocalLocal contactscontacts withwith individualindividual tribaltribal membersmembers ClosingClosing thoughts:thoughts: Questions?Questions?
 Thanks to: LaVerne Glaze/Karuk Indigenous Basketweavers MKWC-Orleans Somes Bar Fire Safe Council USFS-PSW and the Klamath and Six Rivers National Forests Karuk, Yurok and Hoopa Valley Tribes. Klamath Fire Symposium organizers and supporters. Cooper Ranch Rx Fire Oct 31, 2006. Hazel enhancement too!