Attachment 3

LEISA A. MARTIN

ABSTRACT. To prepare students for Following the tragedy of September torical review of the Pledge with some effective citizenship, the author examines 11, issues of citizenship and patrio- suggestions as to how teachers might the Pledge of Allegiance and explores its tism dominated the news media. “Sev- go about exploring this patriotic state- meaning, history, and role in American enteen states enacted new pledge laws ment. However, I have not offered the history. The author includes quotes pre- or amended previous policies in the ideas that follow simply to promote senting different views of the U.S. Pledge 2002–03 legislative sessions” alone blind patriotism. It is important for stu- of Allegiance and examples of pledges (Piscatelli 2003, 1). Other states have dents to dig deeper and understand why from different countries. Teachers are followed suit in passing Pledge-related the Pledge came into existence, what it encouraged to have students examine legislation (Educational Commission of means, why it is used, how it relates to their own interpretation of the Pledge. the States 2007). In the United States, patriotic statements in other countries, Through this lesson, teachers can pro- thirty-five states have mandated that and whether it is appropriate in today’s mote content and critical-thinking skills the Pledge is to be recited daily during world. as part of citizenship preparation. school (Piscatelli). In addition, “at least Keywords: citizenship, Pledge of Alle- 10 states have a pledge to their state Background of the Pledge of giance, social studies flag, although Texas is the only state Allegiance that requires students to recite the state robably the most common civic flag pledge in addition to the Pledge of Several historical factors influ- P ritual in the United States occurs at Allegiance to the U.S. flag” (Piscatelli, enced the creation of the U.S. Pledge the start of every school day when stu- 1; see appendix A). Although they may of Allegiance. In 1892, the Civil War dents stand and recite the Pledge of Alle- want to show their patriotism, some that divided the country had ended just giance. Whereas many adults and youth students may not understand all the twenty-seven years before. In addition, have recited the words to the Pledge, words they are reciting, or they may not there were fears about recent increases few individuals have contemplated the understand the Pledge’s historical back- in immigration and concerns that the meaning behind the words. Such a lack ground. Since there are varying beliefs large influx of new immigrants would of understanding is a cause for concern about what constitutes patriotism and not assimilate into U.S. culture. By because a democracy is based on the why students recite the Pledge, learn- 1880, four-fifths of New York City premise of an informed citizenry. ing the background of the Pledge and consisted of immigrants and their chil- LEISA A. MARTIN was an eighth-grade understanding the concepts embedded dren. While the Compulsory Education American history teacher and is currently in it will help students understand the Act of 1874 required students to attend an assistant professor of social studies meaning of this daily school ritual. school, many immigrant children did education at Florida State University in To assist teachers in examining the not attend because they needed to work Tallahassee. Her research interests include Pledge of Allegiance and its relation- and provide money for the family (Ellis citizenship and teacher education. ship to patriotism, I present a brief his- 2005). However, in the 1880s, there was

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Item 9 Attachment 3 Page 1 of 6 a heightened desire to have compul- developed the flag exercise to promote became the first state to legally require sory education to transform immigrant patriotism among immigrant children a flag salute, Balch stated that “vol- children into American citizens, and the and introduced it to the schools in 1887 unteerism was essential to prevent the public schools were seen as a means of (Sica 1990, 380). The Balch salute was flag salute and other patriotic activities instilling patriotism (Sica 1990). a military-style salute with the follow- from becoming rote and mechanical” Although flags were widely displayed ing pledge of allegiance: “We give our (Ellis, 53). during the Civil War, few schools con- heads and our hearts to God and our Throughout the years, changes were tinued to display flags after the war. The country: one country, one language, one made to the Pledge and the flag salute. Grand Army of the Republic (GAR; a Flag” (Ellis, 18). To show that individuals were pledg- post–Civil War group of union veterans) In preparation for the Columbus ing allegiance specifically to the U.S. and James Upham (from the magazine Day celebration, Youth’s Companion flag, the words “my flag” were changed Youth’s Companion) were concerned employee Francis Bellamy wrote his to “the Flag of the United States of about the decline of patriotism that fol- pledge in 1892: “I pledge allegiance America” in 1924 (Cayton et al. 2005; lowed the Civil War. So, in 1890, James to my flag and to the Republic for Miller 1976). During prohibition, Con- Upham persuaded the Youth’s Compan- which it stands—one Nation indivis- gresswoman Ruth Bryan Owen unsuc- ion to sponsor an essay contest on “The ible—with Liberty and Justice for all” cessfully sought to add to the Pledge Patriotic Influence of the American Flag (Ellis 2005, 19). When he finished, “an oath to uphold and observe the pro- When Raised over the Public Schools,” Francis Bellamy read it aloud to his hibition law” (Miller, 296). When World with the winner receiving a “nine-by- boss, James Upham. When Bellamy War II began in 1939, concerns about fifteen foot flag” for their school (Ellis read the Pledge, Upham gave the flag the Nazi salute led some schools to stop 2005, 7). In addition, the magazine a military-style salute, and, begin- the outstretched arm that had been part promoted the idea of having a flag in ning at the words “my flag” until the of James Upham’s salute. Fears about every schoolhouse to coincide with the end of the Pledge, Upham extend his communism, an increased commitment 1892 Columbus Day celebration (Ellis; right arm toward the flag with his palm to religion, and a belief in the Chris- Miller 1976; O’Leary 1999; Sica 1990; down (Ellis; Miller 1976). On October tian foundations of our nation led to the Williams 1992). For the youth, Upham 21, 1892, more than 12,000,000 stu- phrase “under God” being added to the felt a school flag would encourage their dents said the Pledge at the National Pledge of Allegiance in 1954, and the affection for the United States and pro- Columbian Public School Celebration phrase “in God We Trust” was added mote a sense of belonging to their town (Miller). Through their efforts, Upham to American coins in 1955 to distin- and nation. To promote the celebra- and Bellamy helped solidify the Pledge guish the United States from the atheis- tion and sell magazine subscriptions, of Allegiance as a national tradition. tic Communists’ nations (Cayton et al.; James Upham developed the idea of At this time, Francis Bellamy (author Ellis 2005). flag certificates. The magazine encour- of the Pledge), James Upham (cre- Legal cases have surrounded the aged students to sell school flag cer- ator of the accompanying salute), and Pledge. For example, Jehovah’s Witness- tificates subscriptions (ten cents each) Colonel Balch (creator of alternative es objected to saluting the flag because for a ten-dollar flag (Guenter 1990; salute/pledge) were all concerned about they viewed the act as idolatry, and in Miller; Sica). In addition, the magazine “selfish materialism, excessive indi- 1940, young Jehovah’s Witnesses Lillian also gave children prizes based on the vidualism” from the current generation and William Gobitis refused to salute number of magazine subscriptions they of U.S. citizens, and they were fear- the flag (Knowles 1992). The children sold; an assortment of prizes was avail- ful of “new immigrants” (Ellis 2005, were expelled from school, and the case able, including flags of various sizes. 49). Bellamy and Upham believed “a went to the U.S. Supreme Court. The Under the leadership of Francis Bel- society of individuals devoted to the Court supported the school’s decision in lamy, celebration chairman, the maga- pursuit of money and the acquisition Minersville School District v. Gobitis and zine received public endorsement for of things risks neglecting not only its decided “the compulsory flag salute and the National Columbian Public School neighbors but also its nation” (Ellis, the expulsions were not in violation of Celebration from President Benjamin xii). They felt “the Civil War genera- their [the children’s] rights” (Knowles, Harrison, U.S. Commissioner of Educa- tion had been characterized by patriotic 53). However, in 1943 in West Virginia tion William T. Harris, and the GAR duty and heroic self-sacrifice,” but the State Board of Education v. Barnette, the (Guenter; Miller; Sica). current generation was seen as “self- Court overturned Gobitis on the grounds In preparation for the celebration, absorbed and oblivious to the chal- that “expression of public opinion and Upham and Bellamy had considered lenges and dangers facing the United symbolic speech were protected by both Colonel George T. Balch’s salute, but States” (Ellis, 49). The Pledge was a the First and Fourteenth Amendments” they felt that Balch’s salute lacked chance to “awaken the native born to (Knowles, 53). Later, in 1973’s Goetz the needed “dignity and depth” (Ellis their patriotic duties and obligations” v. Ansell, the court ruled that if students 2005, 18). Balch, “an auditor of the (Ellis, 49). However, Balch was against did not want to say the Pledge, they did New York City Board of Education,” mandating the Pledge. When New York not have to leave the classroom (Kavett

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Item 9 Attachment 3 Page 2 of 6 1976). The students could remain “seat- After creating tentative answers, the their arm straight out when saying ed during the Pledge of Allegiance so teacher can help the class learn more the Pledge. After students create vari- long as they did not disrupt the class- about the Pledge of Allegiance, a cen- ous hypotheses, the teacher can show room” (Ellis 2005, 163). As recently as terpiece of life in many public schools. the students a photo (see http://hdl.loc 2002, there was an unsuccessful legal They can do this in various ways, and .gov/loc.pnp/cph.3b34250) of the Nazi challenge to remove the phrase “under they can modify the content based on salute (U.S. Information Agency 1942). God” from the Pledge. their students’ specific needs. To ensure If applicable, the teacher can have the Bellamy felt that “not only should that students understand the meaning of students reevaluate their answers. this [the Pledge] be a vow of loyalty the Pledge of Allegiance’s words, the The teacher can then provide the stu- but it should be based on what the flag teacher can go through the Pledge. For dents with different pledges. The teach- definitely stood for” (Miller 1976, 121). However, there are different perspectives regarding the Pledge. Some individuals object to the Pledge because they view As recently as 2002, there was an unsuccessful the phrase “liberty and justice for all” as legal challenge to remove the phrase “under God” an unachieved reality, while other indi- from the Pledge. viduals see it as a noble goal for which the nation should strive (Ellis 2005; Kavett 1976). For Bellamy, “what the early Americans had lived for was to establish and hand down to us ‘liberty and justice.’ To bring that purpose to pass each of the main words, the teacher can er can show them the Texas Pledge of was all any one country could do” (Mill- ask students to explain what the word Allegiance (see appendix A) and ask er, 122). While opinions about the Pledge means or explain the concepts in their if it is acceptable for individual states vary, the Pledge has impacted U.S. poli- own words as applicable (see appen- to have their own pledge of allegiance. tics and history up to the present. dix B). After explaining the meaning Would this be in conflict with the “one of the Pledge, the teacher can then dis- nation indivisible” concept? The teacher Promoting Understanding about the cuss the background of this American can explain that children in the state of Pledge of Allegiance tradition and provide the students with Texas say this pledge after the Pledge of multiple viewpoints on the U.S. Pledge Allegiance. Then, the classes can com- For many social studies teachers in of Allegiance (see appendix C). While pare the U.S. Pledge of Allegiance to both middle school and high school, explaining the background information, those of Australia and Barbados (see the Pledge of Allegiance is part of the the teacher can involve the students by appendixes D and E). The teacher can required morning school routine. Yet, asking questions such as why Bellamy also ask international students in their some students who recite the Pledge may have included the word “indivis- classes if their country has a pledge. may not understand the meaning behind ible” in the Pledge. (Answer: Bellamy The class can then have a discussion the words they are saying or may be was born in 1855, and while living in on what the Pledge of Allegiance means unaware of the ways that historical Rome, New York, he saw “an occasion- to them. When I asked the sixth grad- events have shaped the particular verses al blue-clad figure limping through the ers in my class what the Pledge meant that make up the Pledge. The following streets returning from the strife” after to them, students made comments such strategies provide teachers with ideas being wounded at Gettysburg [Miller as “honoring your country.” Next, the for helping students develop a greater 1976, 12]. The young Bellamy asked teacher can ask the students if they understanding of the history, meaning, his father [a union supporter] why the would change the Pledge. When I asked and use of the Pledge. solder had fought, and his father replied this, one sixth grader observed that Using a computer and a projector, “to preserve the union” [Miller, 16]. The no matter how the Pledge is changed, the teacher can introduce the topic by phrase remained a long time in young someone is going to be unhappy about showing photos (see http://hdl.loc.gov/ Francis Bellamy’s memory. Twenty- the decision because you cannot please loc.pnp/fsa.8d35043 and http://hdl.loc seven years after the Civil War, remem- all people all the time. Another student .gov/loc.pnp/fsa.8d34748) of U.S. stu- bering his father’s words, he included in the class said that she liked the Pledge dents in a one-armed flag salute (Jacobs the phrase “one nation indivisible” the way that it was, and she did not want 1942a, 1942b). Another option is for in the Pledge of Allegiance [Miller].) any changes. the teacher to describe the picture to While discussing the history of the Finally, to evaluate the Pledge activ- the students. The teacher should then Pledge, the teacher can again show the ity, the teacher can have students hone ask the students to hypothesize about photos of students engaged in a one- their writing skills by explaining ways why U.S. students saluted with a raised, armed salute (Jacobs 1942a, 1942b) and they currently demonstrate citizenship outstretched arm.1 ask why U.S. students no longer extend to help their country now and/or in the

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Item 9 Attachment 3 Page 3 of 6 future and explain why and how they D’Amato, A. 2000. s.v. Nation. In The World Oelsner, L. 1970. Girl is rebuffed in Pledge dis- help the country. Students can discuss Book Encyclopedia, vol. 14, 26. pute: Nyquist says students must rise during things that they do in class, at school, Chicago: World Book. ceremony. New York Times, June 24. Davis, J. E., P. Fernlund, and P. Woll. 2005. O’Leary, C. E. 1999. To die for: The para- at home, in their community, or in their Civics: Government and economics in dox of American patriotism. Princeton, nation. Examples include obeying rules action. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson/ NJ: Princeton University Press. at school, voting at a mock national Prentice Hall. Piscatelli, J. 2003. ECS state notes character/ election, helping with chores at home, Educational Commission of the States. citizenship education: Pledge of Allegiance. solving a problem in the community, 2007. Recent or pending civics, citizen- Education Commission of the States http:// ship education or social studies policy www.ecs.org/clearinghouse/47/20/4720 helping a friend or neighbor, talking to changes. Educational Commission of the .doc (accessed July 1, 2007). friends about current national events, States http://mb2.ecs.org/reports/Report Sica, M. G. 1990. The school flag move- or writing a letter to the newspaper. .aspx?id=119 (accessed July 1, 2007). ment: Origin and influence. Social Educa- Constructing their arguments requires Ellis, R. J. 2005. To the flag: The unlikely tion 54 (6): 380–84. higher-level thinking while encouraging history of the Pledge of Allegiance. Law- Smith, W. 2000. s.v. Flag. In The World rence: University Press of Kansas. Book Encyclopedia, vol. 14, 192–223. students to reflect on their beliefs and G. & C. Merriam. 1970. Webster’s 7th new Chicago, IL: World Book. learn to articulate them. One of social collegiate dictionary. Springfield, MA: Spain, C. A., Jr. 1992. The flags and seals studies’ main goals is to prepare stu- G. & C. Merriam. of Texas. South Texas Law Review 33 (1): dents for citizenship in our democratic Gramercy Books/Random House. 1997. Web- 215–59. society; helping students analyze issues ster’s universal college dictionary. New ———.1996. Flags of Texas. Vol. 2 of The York: Gramercy Books/Random House. New Handbook of Texas. ed. R. Tyler et al. and develop critical-thinking skills is Groth, A. J. 2000. s.v. Republic. In The Austin, TX: Texas Historical Association. crucial in creating “an informed and World Book Encyclopedia, vol. 16, 253. Tolo, K. W. 1999. Civic education of effective citizenry” (Tolo 1999, 55). Chicago: World Book. American youth: From state policies Guenter, S. M. 1990. The American flag, to school district practices. Report 133 1777–1924: Cultural shifts from creation by the policy research project on civic Conclusion to codification. Cranbury, NJ: Associated education policies and practices. Aus- University Press. tin, TX: Lyndon B. Johnson School of In many schools, the Pledge of Alle- Hanley, R. 1977a. Girl, 16, sues Jersey Public Affairs, University of Texas at giance is a part of daily life. Some stu- on flag-pledge law. New York Times, Austin. dents recite the Pledge, but they do not June 28. U.S. Information Agency. 1942. Adolph Hitler, ———.1977b. Sitting during flag pledge 1889–1945. Library of Congress Prints and understand the words they are saying. upheld. New York Times, August 17. Photographs Division http://hdl.loc.gov/loc Others are unsure about the history of Jacobs, F. 1942a. Southington, Connecticut. .pnp/cph.3b34250 (accessed July 2, 2007). the Pledge. By providing background School children pledging their allegiance to Williams, M. 1992. Preparing for the centen- information on its meaning and con- the flag [reproduction number, LC-USW3- nial of the Pledge of Allegiance: An anno- text, educators can help make this daily 042032-E (b&w film nitrate neg.)]. Library tated bibliography. Social Studies and the of Congress Prints and Photographs Divi- Young Learner 55 (1): 4, 13. activity more meaningful for students. sion, Farm Security Administration—Office of War Information Photograph Collection NOTE http://hdl.loc.gov/loc.pnp/fsa.8d35043 APPENDIX A (accessed May 21, 2007). 1. While teaching this lesson to sixth- ———.1942b. Southington, Connecticut. HANDOUT: TEXAS PLEDGE OF grade world history students, I did not men- School children pledging their allegiance to ALLEGIANCE tion that we would be studying the Pledge the flag [reproduction number, LC-USW3- of Allegiance that day. Overall, the question 041733-E (b&w film nitrate neg.)]. Library In 1836, President Sam Houston approved about the outstretched armed salute piqued of Congress Prints and Photographs Divi- Texas’s first flag, the David G. Burnet flag, the students’ curiosity, and they came up sion, Farm Security Administration—Office which is a blue flag with a large gold star with a wide number of hypotheses. Students of War Information Photograph Collection in its center. Texas’s current flag, The Lone made comments such as, “Pointing to some- http://hdl.loc.gov/loc.pnp/fsa.8d34748 Star Flag, was approved by the Texas leg- thing.” One student correctly guessed that (accessed May 21, 2007). islature in 1839; Texas became the twenty- they were pledging allegiance. Kavett, H. 1976. How do we stand with the eighth state in 1845. The Lone Star Flag has Pledge of Allegiance? Social Education a field of blue on the left one-third of the flag with a star in its center, and the right side of REFERENCES 40 (3): 136–40. Knowles, T. 1992. Continued legal develop- the flag has a red stripe and a white stripe. Barbados Government Information Ser- ments on the school flag. Social Educa- The Texas state legislature established the vice. n.d. The national pledge. Barbados tion 56 (1): 52–54. state’s pledge of Allegiance in 1933 (“Honor Government Information Service http:// Mckeown, D. 2002. Changes in the Australian the Texas Flag of 1836; I pledge allegiance www.barbados.gov.bb/nationalflow.htm oath of citizenship. Department of the Par- to thee, Texas, one and indivisible”). This (accessed July 29, 2007). liamentary Library, Research Note 20 http:// resulted in Texans pledging to the David G. Cayton, A., E. I. Perry, L. Reed, and A. M. Win- www.aph.gov.au/library/pubs/rn/2002- Burnet flag of 1836 while the current state kler. 2005. America: Pathways to the present. 03/03rn20.htm (accessed May 1, 2008). flag was the Lone Star Flag. The state leg- Needham, MA: Pearson/Prentice Hall. Miller, M. S. 1976. Twenty-three words: islature removed the phrase “of 1836” from Center for Civic Education. 1995. We the The life story of the author of the Pledge the Texas pledge in 1965. people: The citizen and the constitution. of Allegiance as told in his own words. Note. Information for this appendix was taken Calabasas, CA: Center for Civic Education. Portsmouth, VA: Printcraft Press. from Charles A. Spain (1992, 1996).

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Item 9 Attachment 3 Page 4 of 6 APPENDIX B freedom from obligation to a king, tyrant, Almighty God that I will be faithful and bear foreign government, or a government true allegiance to His Majesty King George HANDOUT: U.S. PLEDGE OF that is not restricted by law. Liberty is the Sixth, his heirs and successors according ALLEGIANCE AND VOCABULARY “the positive enjoyment of various social, to law, and that I will faithfully observe the political, or economic rights and privi- laws of Australia and fulfil my duties as an “I pledge allegiance to the Flag of the United leges” and the “power of choice.” Australian citizen”). The Oath was modified States of America, and to the Republic for Justice: being fair or impartial; having rights in 1966, 1973, and 1986 and was replaced which it stands, one nation under God, indi- that are established by laws and equity. with the Pledge of Commitment in 1993. visible, with liberty and justice for all.” Justice involves administering the law to However, some individuals choose to use the Pledge: a serious promise to do or not do establish or determine an individual or Oath of Allegiance instead of the Pledge of something, made by someone (e.g., an organization or country’s rights by the Commitment. rules of law and impartiality. individual, a group of people, an organi- Form of Pledge of Commitment No. 1 zation, a country, etc.). Note. Information for this appendix was taken from Allegiance: a citizen being loyal or devoted the Center for Civic Education (1995); D’Amato “From this time forward, under God, I to his or her nation. Allegiance involves a (2000); Davis, Fernlund, and Woll (2005); G. & pledge my loyalty to Australia and its peo- person being faithful and devoted to his or C. Merriam Company (1970); Gramercy Books/ ple, whose democratic beliefs I share, whose her government or nation. Random House (1997); Groth (2000); and Smith rights and liberties I respect, and whose laws Flag: a piece of fabric (usually in the shape (2000). Quoted material was taken from (in order) I will uphold and obey.” Smith (2003, 253); Gramercy Books/Random of a rectangle) with specific marking(s) Form of Pledge of Commitment No. 2 used as a symbol that may be used to House 1997, 768); G. & C. Merriam Company identify a nation. A flag is “a piece of (1970, 837); Groth (2000, 253); D’Amato (2000, “From this time forward, I pledge my 26); G. & C. Merriam Company (1970, 486). cloth, usually with a picture or design on loyalty to Australia and its people, whose it, that stands for something. A flag may democratic beliefs I share, whose rights and represent a nation, person, or organiza- APPENDIX C liberties I respect, and whose laws I will tion; it may symbolize a belief or idea; or uphold and obey.” it may transmit information.” HANDOUT: MULTIPLE VIEWS ON THE Note. Information for this appendix was taken United: combined; made into one; being in PLEDGE OF ALLEGIANCE from Mckeown (2002) agreement. States: any of the government “or politi- In 1925, thirty-five Mennonite children chose not to salute the flag; they felt taking cal units that together make up a federal APPENDIX E union.” A state is “a politically organized up arms and taking other peoples’ lives to body of people usually occupying a defi- defend the U.S. was against their religious HANDOUT: THE NATIONAL PLEDGE OF nite territory.” beliefs of nonviolence. BARBADOS Republic: the people vote for representatives, In 1970, New York Education commis- and the representatives are responsible for sioner Ewald Nyquist viewed the Pledge as The Caribbean nation of Barbados is a for- running the government. A republic is goals that our nation seeks to achieve. mer British colony that declared its indepen- “any form of government whose leader In 1977, New Jersey high school stu- dence in 1966 and developed its pledge seven or leaders are elected, usually for a spe- dent Deborah Lipp objected to the Pledge years later. The creator of the National Pledge cific term of office.” In contrast to a direct because she did not feel there was liberty of Barbados, Mr. Lester Vaughan, was born democracy where all of the voters meet and justice for all; the New Jersey Veterans in 1910 and spent his life as an elementary to run the government, in a representative of Foreign Wars viewed the Pledge as a way school teacher, headmaster, and education offi- democracy (also known as a republic), the to show respect to U.S. soldiers who died for cer. Following retirement in 1970, he entered a people choose representatives to run the our country. contest in 1973 to create the country’s pledge. government. The United States is a repub- Note. Information for this appendix was taken He was chosen first out of 167 entries and won lic, and the Romans founded a republic from Ellis (2005); Hanley (1977a, 1997b); and the one hundred dollar prize. Mr. Vaughan died in 509 BC. Oelsner (1970). in 2003 at the age of 92. Nation: a country or territory that includes a The National Pledge of Barbados group of people associated with a specific area of land that have united to have their APPENDIX D “I pledge allegiance to my country Bar- own government. A nation is “a large bados and to my flag, to uphold and defend HANDOUT: THE AUSTRALIAN PLEDGE their honour, and by my living to do credit to group of people united by a common lan- OF COMMITMENT guage, ancestry, history, or culture.” my nation, wherever I go.” Indivisible: cannot be divided or separated or In Australia, a former British colony, the Note. Information for this appendix was taken cut or torn into separate pieces. Australian Oath of Allegiance was created in from the Barbados Government Information Ser- Liberty: freedom from control or restriction; 1948 (“I, [name of the individual], swear by vice (n.d.).

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Item 9 Attachment 3 Page 5 of 6 Item 9 Attachment 3 Page 6 of 6