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Appendix: A Provisional Compilation of Expeditionary Forces, 1914–1918

Expeditionary Forces by Designation American Expeditionary Forces (incl. US Marine 4th and 5th Brigades) Belgian Expeditionary Force of Armoured Cars in Russia ( expédi- tionnaire belge des Autos-Canons-Mitrailleuses en Russie), 1915–1918 British Expeditionary Force (incl. the Royal Naval , whose units saw separate action in Belgium and and were incorporated into the BEF in 1916) Canadian Expeditionary Force Egyptian Expeditionary Force (overseeing the Sinai and campaigns) Indian Expeditionary Force (by letter designation)

© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), 329 under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG, part of Springer Nature 2019 A. Beyerchen and E. Sencer (eds.), Expeditionary Forces in the First World War, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-25030-0 330 APPENDIX: A PROVISIONAL COMPILATION …

A. Western Front (infantry divisions transferred mostly to Mesopotamian Expeditionary Force in 1916, and cavalry divi- sions later reassigned to for the Sinai and Palestine campaigns) B. East Africa C. East Africa D. (by far the largest Indian force; later reorganized within Mesopotamian Expeditionary Force) E. Egypt (and later the Sinai and Palestine campaigns) F. Egypt (formed to defend the , but eventually dis- banded as units assigned to other formations) G. Gallipoli

Italian Expeditionary Corps in the East (Corpo di Spedizione Italiano in Oriente, an Army corps in Albania under direct Italian General Headquarters command) and Corpo di Spedizione Italiano in (the 35th Division under the Armées alliées en Orient) Italian Expeditionary Force (British, French and later a few American forces sent to Italy 1917–1918) Mediterranean Expeditionary Force (Allied forces at Gallipoli 1915)

Mediterranean Expeditionary Forces (British, ANZAC, Canadian, Newfoundland and Indian units in the , later joined with the to become the Egyptian Expeditionary Force, serving as the strategic reserve for ) Expeditionary Corps of the East (Corps expéditionnaire d’Orient, which was the French Gallipoli campaign, later named the Corps expéditionnaire des and still later subsumed on the into the Armée d’Orient)

Mesopotamian Expeditionary Force (formerly Indian Expeditionary Force D) Expeditionary Force (after Gallipoli, the brigade was expanded into the within the ANZAC Corps) Portuguese Expeditionary Force (Corpo Expedicionário Portuguêse) APPENDIX: A PROVISIONAL COMPILATION … 331

Russian Expeditionary Forces (Corps expéditionnaire russe en France, 1st and 3rd Brigades in France) and Corps expéditionnaire russe sur le front d’Orient (2nd and 4th Brigades under the Armée d’Orient in Macedonia) South African Overseas Expeditionary Force (different elements fought in East Africa, Egypt, the Western Front, and in Palestine) North Russia:

American North Russia Expeditionary Force (“Polar Bear Expedition”) British-led intervention sometimes called the North Russia Expedition (see below) Italian Expeditionary Force in Murmansk (Corpo di spedizione ital- iano in Murmania)

Siberia:

American Expeditionary Force Siberia (incl. the US Russian Railway Service Corps) Canadian Siberian Expeditionary Force Italian Expeditionary Corps in the Far East (Corpo di Spedizione Italiano in Estremo Oriente)

Occupation Forces with “Expeditionary” Designation Australian Naval and Military Expeditionary Force (1914 force that con- quered and occupied south Pacifc German territories for the duration of the war) Samoa Expeditionary Force (New Zealand force that seized and occu- pied German Samoa –March 1915) Various forces fghting in Africa, such as the British East African Expeditionary Force or Cameroons Expeditionary Force, including Askari, British, Indian, French, Portuguese, Belgian Force Publique, West India Regiment and South African Overseas Expeditionary Force troops. Even when carrying the designation “expeditionary,” other than in East Africa these turned quickly into occupation forces with intention to acquire the German colonies after the War. Altogether perhaps as many 332 APPENDIX: A PROVISIONAL COMPILATION … as 2 million carriers suffered approximately 10% casualty rates. In East Africa the fghting continued through the November 1918 armistice in .

Allied Expeditionary Forces Without the Designation Allied Armies of the East (Armées alliées en Orient), i.e., Salonika front: British, French, Italian, Serbian, Russian, and Greek military units, as well as Maltese and Egyptian labor battalions

Armée d’Orient, which was renamed the Armée française d’Orient and formed partially from units that had been at Gallipoli of Salonika (formed partially from units that had been at Gallipoli)

Australian Imperial Force Détachement français de Palestine 1917 (expanded into the Détachement français en Palestine et Syrie 1918, French contingent in Egyptian Expeditionary Force) French colonial troupes indigènes (i.e., from North Africa, West Africa, Indochina, Madagascar) Italian contingent in Egyptian Expeditionary Force Japanese of Tsingtao 1914 (Japanese 18th Division and British forces, including a regiment of Sikhs) Newfoundland Regiment (Newfoundland was at this time a separate Dominion from Canada) West India Regiment (action in the Egyptian Expeditionary Force in addition to the Cameroons and East Africa)

Allied Intervention Forces Not Termed Expeditionary “” (December 1917–September 1918, British, including Canadian, Australian and New Zealand troops, expedition to to thwart Ottoman expansion and quest for oil) APPENDIX: A PROVISIONAL COMPILATION … 333

Malleson Mission (–April 1919, British expedition in opposi- tion to German and Ottoman [and ultimately Bolshevik] interests in sup- port of Transcaspian government north of India) Various Allied units intervening in European Russia after collapse of Tsarist army, namely the British North Russian “Allied Intervention in the Russian Ports of the Arctic Ocean” (under Allied Supreme War Council Collective Note No. 31, sometimes referred to as the North Russian Expedition— which also included other forces in addition to the American and Italian forces mentioned above), and French-led forces in southern Russia. Japanese Siberian Intervention (Shiberia Shuppei or “Siberian Dispatch,” comprising 70,000 troops, 1918–1922)

Central Powers Expeditionary Forces Without the Designation Troops serving in the either in German military units (Asienkorps) or often in Turkish uniform in Turkish military units (Deutsche Militärmission) Turkish divisions on the Galician, Romanian or Macedonian “Front” (Cephe) under direction of the German High Command German “Delegation” to the 1918–1919 Free Corps (Freikorps) units in the Baltic lands

Labor Forces Illustrative List In No Labour, No Battle: Military Labour During the First World War (Stroud, Gloucestershire: Spellmount, 2009) Starling and Lee recount the activities of fourteen separate military labor forces for the British and Dominions alone, plus seven foreign labor units in British service. This list is for illustrative purposes only. AEF Line of Communications (later named Services of Supply) units British West Indies Regiment (battalions served on the Western Front, in Italy and in the Middle East; some elements saw combat in Palestine) Canadian Overseas Construction Corps (light railway workers and operators) 334 APPENDIX: A PROVISIONAL COMPILATION …

Cape Coloured Corps in East Africa and in the Egyptian Expeditionary Forces Chinese Labour Corps (under BEF and AEF military discipline; treated as civilian by the French) Maltese Labour Corps South African Labour Corps in Europe Vietnamese Battalions de l’Infanterie Coloniale, fourteen of which served as Labor Battalions. Index

A France’s reserve army, 12 Africa and Islam, 31 European colonialism in, 6, 28–29, Allied Military Commission, 247 34, 42, 186, 313 Allwards, Walter Seymour, 301 German troops perpetrating sexual American Expeditionary Forces, 3 violence in, 85 arguments over deployment, 192 Muslim troops from, 35–46 arrival in France, 126, 194 Portugal-German confict in, 187 in France, 35–46 African Americans placement of African Americans in, citizenship rights, 40–42, 44 43–44 and racial unrest in the United relationship with France, 194–195 States, 40 repatriation of war dead, 322 return to the US after the war, transportation of, 315 38–39, 42, 195 American Expeditionary Force Siberia, African American troops 3 combat vs labor, 43–44, 195 American North Russia Expeditionary equal treatment of by French, 195 Force, 3 in the French army, 44, 193, 195 American troops. See also African martial skill of, 195 American troops opposition to as soldiers, 43–44 denigrating French troops, 194 race relations in France, 35–46 fghting ability of, 127 Albania, 124 trained by British and French, Algerian troops, 4 191–192

© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), 335 under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG, part of Springer Nature 2019 A. Beyerchen and E. Sencer (eds.), Expeditionary Forces in the First World War, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-25030-0 336 Index

views of British troops, 193 as , 298–299 wounded soldiers, 63–64 description, 276 Austria German plans for troop recruitment cultural dissonance with Ottoman from, 209 troops, 267 hygenic conditions in, 276 decision to use Ottoman troops on suitability of recruits from, 279, 282 the Eastern Front, 265 victory over the Allied occupation, Austrian troops 278 lack of fghting spirit, 269 Anglo-Portuguese Alliance of 1386, prisoners of war in Serbia, 71 186 Angola, 187 Annamites, 12, 42, 117, 130, 157 B Arıkan, İbrahim, 266 Babut, Ernest, 112 Armée d’Orient Baku, 209, 218, 222. See also maps at the Macedonian Front, 149–169 of Europe the Near East and the named, 150 Ottoman Empire reinforced with troops from Corps oilfelds, 209, 210, 216, 220 expéditionnaire d’Orient, 33 , 154, 155, 164–165, 212 Armistice Agreement, 235, 238 Baltic region Army of Islam, 209, 218, 220, 222 armistice, 248 Army of the East. See Armée d’Orient German troops in, 235–254 Army of the Orient. See Armée Bataillons de l’Infanterie Colonial, 119 d’Orient battlefelds as sacred ground, 296– Aryan race, 159 300, 303, 322 Asien-Korps, 264, 277–281 Battle of Mametz Wood, 297, 298 defeat and return to Germany, 281 Battle of the Aisne. See Chemin des denigration of Ottomans, 278 Dames logistics, 274–276 Battle of Ypres, 302 mental maps, 273 Bavarian army morale, 280 independence of, 207, 211 offcer refections on the expedition, offcers, 211–212 279–280 units in the Caucasus, 213, 214 Ottoman-German offcer relation- Belgium ships, 280 expeditionary force, 6 quality of the recruits, 273 neutrality, 180 views of Ottoman troops and relief work for women and children, offcers, 282 92 Australian Imperial Force, 3 supported by allies, 320 Australian Naval and Military Bischoff, Josef Expeditionary Force, 3 attacks Red Army, 241, 245, 246 Australian troops and Germandom, 243 Index 337

refusal to return to the homeland, as ally of Germany, 160 242, 248, 249 pressured to make peace, 125 Bolshevism relationship with , 160 in the Baltic region, 235, 238, 239, war aims, 160 246 Bulgarian troops in the Caucasus, 218 on the Macedonian Front, 151, fears of, in eastern Europe, 5 152, 154 in Finland, 209 racialization of by Germans, Freikorps crusade against, 244 159–160 British Expeditionary Force Bund der Asienkämpfer, 264, 272 civilian recruits in, 183 deployment to France, 180 formation of, 2 C Irish veterans of, 321 Cambon, Paul, 184 lack of planning for after war broke Canada out, 180 commemoration of the War, women in, 319 300–306 British Salonika Force, 150, 153 Canadian Battlefeld Memorial British troops Commission, 301 criticized by the French, 184 Canadian Expeditionary Force, 2, 5, isolated due to lack of news from 304 home, 180 memorialized, 305 in Italy, 190 veneral disease in, 318 language barriers, 181 Canadian Siberian Expeditionary negative views of Portuguese troops, Force, 3 188–189 Canudo, Ricciotto, 167 professionalism and appearance of, Caucasus. See also German expedition 181–182 to the Caucasus as a superior force, 180 food and fodder shortages in, 218 train American troops, 191–192 natural resources in, 207, 209, 210, uniforms of, 182 216 views of American troops, 193–194 censorship views of Salonika, 157–158 of the press in Great Britain, 180 British West Indies Regiment, 6 of soldiers’ mail, 113 Brooding Soldier memorial, 302–306 , 123, 160 brothels collapse, 208 in Germany, 87 Germany as center of, 178 operated by German military, 87–88 Ottoman Empire admiration of, organization and economics of, in 269 France, 88–89 chasseurs d’Afrique, 12 , 265 Chemin des Dames Bulgaria African troops in, 39 338 Index

German Spring offensive of 1918, experienced by German troops in 125–126 Macedonia, 153–156 Vietnamese troops in, 120, 122– surrounding landscape and environ- 123, 128 ment, 156–158, 316–318 Christmas, 58 with languages, 9, 155, 157, 181, circular of October 1916, 213, 215 185, 316 classes, lower with nurses and wounded soldiers, and labor forces, 7, 11–12 66–72 in nursing care, 66–67 Currie, Arthur, 301 in Portuguese troops, 188 recruitment of in Vietnam, 116–117 D Clemesha, Frederick Chapman, 300, Dardanelles campaign. See Gallipoli 302–303 campaign colonialism Das Volk in Waffen, 263 in Africa, 5, 28–29, 313 Détachement français de Palestine, 3, color line 34 in France, 36, 37, 43, 46 Deutschtum. See Germandom in the , 41 Devonshire Trench, 297 Committee for the Aid and Protection Diagne, Blaise, 44 of Women through Work, 92 diseases, 71, 118, 121, 276, 318. See communism. See also Bolshevism also venereal disease in the Baltic region, 242 Du Bois, W.E.B., 10–44 in France, 132, 135 Dunsterforce, 3 German fears of, 239, 242 in Germany, 238, 242 in Vietnam, 132–134 E Communist Party of Germany, 238 Eastern Front, compared to condoms, 92–93 Macedonian Front, 153 , 263, 275, 280 Ebert, Friedrich, 220, 235, 238, Corpo di spedizione italiano in 251–253 Murmania, 3 Entente Alliance, 178 Corps expéditionnaire d’Orient, 3, 12, , 218, 266 27, 32, 33 covets the Caucasus, 209 cultural dissonance. See also mental espionage, 84, 319 maps estaminets, 83–84 among Vietnamese troops, 120–122 Estonia, 208 between Ottoman troops and Freikorps in, 246, 248 Austrians, 267 exoticism, 17, 19, 155, 321 experienced by expeditionary forces, Expeditionary Force in Egypt, 3 7–9 expeditionary forces Index 339

British frst use of, 2 in Germany, 263, 264 considerations of race for deploy- in Turkey, 262–263 ment, 6–7 Foch, Marshall, 305 defned, 1–2, 4, 6, 13–14, 235–236, food supply 313 for Asien-Korps, 273 distinguished from home front in , 218 forces, 7–9 for German troops in Macedonia, experiences of cultural dissonance, 155 7–9, 318 for German troops in the Middle feelings on leaving the battlefelds East, 275 behind, 298, 299 for Ottoman troops, 266, 267, 270 German advisors as, 12–13 for Vietnamese troops, 122, 133 ignorance of geography, 152–153, Force publique, 6 266 France labor battalions in, 6, 9–10 advises America on military training, logistics, 17, 18, 265, 267, 314–316 191–192, 315 naming, 3–4, 150 agreement with Great Britain in the and political alliances, 3, 5–6, event of war, 180 186–187 civilians’ knowledge of English, 181 purposes of, 4–5 colonialism in Africa, 28–29, 34 rationale, 320–321 communism in, 132, 135 reliability of, 18, 28–35, 237, 253, equal treatment of soldiers, 42–43 320 fear of Bolshevism, 185 their ideas of home, 10, 236, 272 and Portugal’s attempt to enter the Expeditionskorps Pascha I, 263 War, 186 Expeditionskorps Pascha II, 263 race relations in, 43–46 recruiting campaign in Indochina, 114–115 F treatment of Vietnamese troops after First World War commemoration. See the war, 129–131, 133 also memorials use of African troops, 33–35 by Canada, 300–301 use of colonial troops, 12 cemeteries, 290, 291, 294 Vietnamese settlers in, 129, 132, civilian grief, 291 134 soldiers’ own memorials, 297–298, franc-tireurs, 85, 86 300 Frappa, Jean-José, 166 state aims vs. soldiers’, 303, 304 Freikorps Unknown Warrior memorials, 292, conception of Germandom in, 297, 305 243–246, 254 First World War in memory, 289–307 contstraints on logistics, 249, 250, of German veterans, 272 253, 254 340 Index

crusade against Bolshevism, 244, Galician campaign 247, 249, 250 brutality of, 269 defned as expeditionary, 235–236 logistics, 265–266, 271 distrust of, 239 in memory, 262 engages Red Army, 242, 246 Ottoman troops in, 265–271 fght against Estonia, 246–248 Gallipoli campaign, 3 fnal return to Germany, 248–251 in memory, 262, 263 formation, 236–240 Muslim troops in, 28–35 and Germanness, 243, 244 troops from sent to Galicia, 265 idea of homeland in, 246, 254 gas (weapon), 113, 128, 149, 165, independence and autonomy of, 269, 303, 304 240–241, 247 General Government Warsaw, 80 involved in Latvian civil war, Georgia 246–248 food and fodder shortages in, 218 nationalism in, 244, 245 Germany’s interest in troops from, negotiations over disbanding, 250 207, 209, 210 refusal to leave the Baltic region, railway system, 216–217 242–243, 247–249 transportation system, 216–218 use of violence, 243, 246, 251, 253 German army French Army in the Orient structure of, 210–213 Armée d’Orient, 125 German Christian Students’ French Communist Party, 132, 135 Association, 93 French Indochina Germandom, expressed in Freikorps, soldier-workers from, 111–135 243–246 French, John, 181 German expedition to the Caucasus, French League of Human Rights, 112 221–223 French Postal Control Bureau, 113 communication problems, 219–220 French troops factors affecting decision, 207, appearance of to the British, 182 209 critical of British troops, 184 food and fodder shortages in, 218 disillusions with Salonika, 158 insuffciency of troops, 216 in the Middle East, 34–35 logistics and transportation prob- relationship with American troops, lems, 216–218, 220 194–195 makeup of military units, 213–215 as superior to new British recruits, Supreme Command’s decision, 206 183 troops departing for, 205–206 train American troops, 191–192, 315 withdrawl, 220–221 views of Salonika, 156–157 German League for the Combatting of Venereal Disease, 92 German Military Mission in the G Ottoman Empire, 13, 263, 265 Galicia. See maps of the Eastern Front Germanness, 159, 236, 237, 244 and Europe and the Near East in Freikorps, 243, 244 Index 341

in Jünger’s work, 245 objects to Turkey’s advance in the German troops. See also Asien-Korps; Caucasus, 210 Freikorps peace treaty with Russia, 208 cultural dissonance in Macedonia, political and military structure, 153–156 210–211 demobilization, 238–240 population politics in, 93, 82 on Eastern Front compared to Republic established, 220, 238 Macedonian Front, 153 role in Central Powers, 178 ethnic tensions in, 215 veterans in, 264, 272 experiences of prostitution, 83 Gleich, Gerold von, 279–280 food supply; in Macedonia, 155; Goltz, Colmar Baron von der, 13, 263 Middle East, 275 death of, 276 interest in Islam, 155 Goltz, Friedrich Freiherr von der, 222 at Macedonian Front, 151–152 Goltz, Rüdiger von der, 239, 241, 247 negative views of Macedonian cities, Graham, Stephen, 295, 296 154–156 Graves Registration Unit, 290 not defned as expeditionary, 13–14, Great Britain 264 advises America on military training, regulation of sexual relations, 79–96 191–193 sexual hygiene, 89–90, 92–93 agreement with France in the event shirking, 206 of war, 180 treatment of women, 86, 95, 319 Dominion forces, 2, 5 venereal disease in, 79, 81–82 expeditionary forces in Africa, 3 Germany opposition to German troops attempt to end Freikorps mission, remaining in the Baltic, 242 243 relations with Portugal, 3, 186–187 communism in, 238, 242 treatment of Germans in the Middle confict with Portugal in East, 278 Africa, 187 use of expeditionary forces vs terri- First World War in memory, 263 torial forces, 2 historical ties to the Ottoman Great Powers dynamics, 179 Empire, 263 manifested in troop interactions, interest in Caucasus’ natural 193 resources, 207, 209, 210, 216 and Portugal’s place in the War, 189 interest in raising Georgian army, Greece 207, 209, 210 annexation of Salonika, 154 looks east at the end of the War, described as oriental, 163–164 208–210 independence, 162 in the Middle East, 271–281 modern compared to ancient, moral reform organizations in, 166–168 93–94 neutrality of, 151, 161 nationalism in, 244, 245 Greeks 342 Index

British admiration for, 162 lack of in Macedonia, 155, 156, described as oriental, 168 158, 167, 318 in Salonika, 154 for Ottoman troops, 267 Groener, Wilhelm, 238, 252, 253 sexual, among German troops, Gypsies. See Roma 89–90, 92–93 sexual, regulated for prostitutes, 87–88 H Hababam Sınıfı, 261 Haig, Douglas, 125, 126, 184 I Halil Pasha, 280 Ilgaz, Rıfat, 261 Heeresgruppe F, 263 Imperial German Delegation in Heimat, 242, 243, 246, 254, 272 the Caucasus, 208, 213. See Hemingway, Ernest, 36 also German expedition to the hierarchies Caucasus in the Entente Alliance, 178 Imperial Government General in in European power dynamic, 177, Belgium, 80 178, 189 Imperial War Graves Commission, 290 in military planning, 179 decision on repatriation of soldiers’ redefned between French and remains, 290–291, 296 British troops, 183 and proper burials, 294 High Command of Army North, 243 purpose, 290 Hồ Chí Minh, 115, 132, 133 veterans’ criticism of, 296 home front Indian Expeditionary Force, 2, 12, 36 defned for Americans, British, and Indochina. See also Vietnam French, 191 recruiting campaign by France, expeditionary forces distinguished 114–115 from home front forces, 7–9 Inter-Allied Baltic Commission, 251 grief, 290, 301, 303, 304 interpreters homeland French on the Western Front, 181, concept of for expeditionary forces, 317 10 use of by French, 33 idea of in Freikorps, 246 Vietnamese, 115 nurses as symbol of, 60 Iraq, 277 hospitals Irish troops in British Expeditionary Austrian and Hungarian in Galician Force, 321 campaign, 270 Islam. See also Muslim troops as domestic spaces, 58–66 fears of by French, 29–35 rituals in, 58 and German toops, 155 on trains, 315 and jihad, 7, 29–31 Hussein Ibn ’Ali, Sharif of Mecca, 34 Islam noir, 29, 32 hygiene Italian Expeditionary Force, 3, 318 in Anatolia, 276 Index 343

Italian Expeditionary Force in L Murmansk, 3 labor forces Italy African Americans in, 43, 195 Allied support of, 320 compared to combat, 43–44, 195, Austrian offensive against, 4 316 British troops in, 190 as expeditionary, 6, 9–10 and Entente Alliance, 178 and logistics, 12, 316 and lower classes, 7, 11–12 Vietnamese, 119, 121, 125 J language barriers Jews with British troops in France, 181 German attitude towards, 150, 154 coping strategies among troops, in Salonika, 154 177, 317 jihad, 7, 29–31 for German troops in the Middle Joffre, Joseph, 122, 187, 194 East, 274 Jünger, Ernst, 35, 245 and nurses, 64–65 with Portuguese troops, 188 for Russian troops in France, 185 K for Vietnamese troops in France, Kampf, 98, 257 122 Kitchener, Herbert, 2, 180 languages. See also interpreters Kosch, Robert, 205 Bulgarian, spoken by German Krafft von Dellmensingen, Konrad, troops, 159 212 English, spoken by the French, 181 Kress von Kressenstein, Friedrich French; British troops’ lack of Freiherr knowledge of, 181; diffculty commands expeditionary force to of learning by Russians, 185; the Caucasus, 206, 210, 212 spoken in Macedonia, comments on German-Georgian 155, 160 relationship, 218 spoken in Macedonia, 155 dislikes Prussian violence, 215 Latvian civil war, 246–248 founds German veterans organiza- League of Asian Fighters. See Bund der tion, 272 Asienkämpfer on German naval strategy, 222 Levante-Korps. See Asien-Korps heads Imperial German Delegation Leviathan (ship), 315 in the Caucasus, 213 Linard circular, 44–45 on lack of resources, 216, 219 Linard, J.A., 44 on logistics, 223 Łódź, 80, 88 personal interests in Georgia, 221 logistics , 217, 219 for the Asien-Korps, 274–276 al Amara, Siege of, in memory, communication problems and, in 262, 263 the Caucasus, 219–220 344 Index

constraints on in Freikorps, 249, marriage 250, 253, 254 between Ottoman troops and local for Galician campaign, 265–266, women, 268 271 between soldiers and local women, in the German expedition to the 318 Caucasus, 216–218, 223 between Vietnamese soldiers and importance of for expeditionary French women, 132 forces, 17, 18, 265, 267, martial races. See under race 314–316 Medem, Walter von, 242, 249 and labor forces, 12, 316 medicine. See hospitals; nurses; nursing on the Macedonian Front, 151 Mediterranean Expeditionary Force, 3 in military planning, 179 memorials for Vietnamese troops, 117–118 Brooding Soldier, 302–306 Lossow, Otto von, 210, 212 The Cenotaph, 306 Ludendorff, Erich, 126, 161 Devonshire Trench, 297 on objectives in the Caucasus, 216 Gallipoli, 321 his failed advances on the Western Menin Gate, 297, 306 Front, 206 soldiers’ own, 297–298, 300 ponders expedition to the Caucasus, Thiepval, 306 207, 213 Thiepval Memorial, 297 praises American soldiers, 127 Unknown Soldier, 292, 305 Lüders, Marie-Elisabeth, 92 Vimy Ridge, 301, 306, 321 Lutaud, Charles, 31, 32 mental maps, 7, 8, 57. See also cultural Lüttwitz, Wolfgang von, 252 dissonance of Asien-Korps, 273 of the Orient, 150 M Mesopotamian Front. See Asien-Korps; Macedonia. See also Salonika Palestine Front backwardsness of, 154–155, Meyer, Ihno, 243, 245 163–168 Middle East, 271–281. See also Asien- as a biblical place, 157, 163 Korps; Palestine Front described as oriental, 163–164 British treatment of Germans in, description, 163, 164 278 as a multicultural region, 153–158 French forces in, 34–35 religious diversity of, 153–154, 157 German ideas about backwardness Turkish infuence on, 155 of, 275–276 Macedonian Front, 149–169 German nostalgia for, 277 compared to Eastern Front, 153 German views of in photographs, logistical issues, 151 277, 280 Maercker, Ludwig, 245 German war in as a , mail delivery, 8, 113, 279 279 Malleson Mission, 3 Muslim troops in, 34–35 Mangin, Charles, 36 military uniforms Index 345

of African American troops in the dealing with death, 64–66 French army, 44 images of in propaganda, 60 of Bulgarian and Russian troops, as mother fgures, 60–61, 67 160 performing surgery, 70 French confusion over British, 182 and religious work, 64–66 of labor battalions, 11 serving on hospital trains, 315 red pants of the tirailleurs, 38 and sexual harassment, 67–68 Mitteilungen des Bundes der treating prisoners of war, 68–72 Asienkämpfer, 264, 277 views of African soldiers, 61 Moench, Friedrich, 277 nursing, 57–74 Monastir, 155 Morocco, 30, 32 Mozambique, 187 O Muslim troops Order of the Supreme Command, and jihad, 7, 29–31 October 6, 1916. See circular of efforts to sway based on appeals to October 1916 religion, 29–32 orientalism, 150, 160 food restrictions, 29, 267, 316 in descriptions of Greece and in the Gallipoli campaign, 28–35 Macedonia, 163–164, 167, 168 in the Middle East, 34–35 exhibited by Asien-Korps, 273 prisoners of war, 30, 32, 33 expressed by French soldiers, 158, reliability of, 28–35 163–164 religious practices, 28–30, 267 expressed by Russian soldiers, 164 mutiny, 11, 222, 321 expressions of by nurses, 61 and German soldiers, 150, 155, 156, 263 N Ottoman Empire. See also Turkey naval forces, 3, 6, 315 commitment to Central Powers, Needra, Andreas, 246 265, 271 Newfoundland Regiment, 3 Galician campaign, 265–271 New Zealand Expeditionary Force, 2 German advisors in, 13, 212, 263, Nguyễn Ái Quốc. See Hồ Chí Minh 265 North African troops German memories of, 263 excluded from Gallipoli campaign, historical ties to Germany, 263 31–33 as holy land to all Muslims, 32 and Islam, 28–29 in North Africa, 30 loyalty of, 30–31, 33–35 in Southeastern Europe, 154, 155 Noske, Gustav, 249 Ottoman troops in the Galician cam- Nuri Pasha, 209, 218 paign, 265–271 nurses behavior and discipline of, 266–267 Australian, 63, 66 fghting ability of, 269 caring for lower classes, 66–67 inadequacy of training, 266 as conduits to home, 62–63 346 Index

interactions with local women, prostitution 268–270 combatted by German moral reform logistics, 265–266, 316 organizations, 93–94 morale, 266, 269 German soldiers’ experiences of, and Muslim practices, 267 83–84 regulation of by German military, 86–91 P regulation of prostitutes’ sexual Palestine Front. See also Asien-Korps hygiene, 87–88 German military commitment to, 264 German troops at, 263 Q logistics and transportation, Quast, Ferdinand von, 239 274–275 Queen Alexandra’s Imperial Nursing Pan-German League, 248 Service, 57 Pershing, John J., 36, 44, 192, 193, Queen Alexandra’s Imperial Nursing 296 Service Reserve, 57 Plan XVII, 180 Poland, 80, 208 political alliances R and expeditionary forces, 3, 5–6, race 186–187 color line, 36–40 hierarchies in, 178–179 equal treatment of soldiers by Portugal France, 42–43 ambivalence over being in the War, factor in deployment of expedition- 187–188 ary forces, 6–7 attempt to enter the War, 186 in French society, 43–46 confict with Germany in Africa, 187 and martial prowess, 6, 158–162, and Entente Alliance, 178 195, 269 neutrality, 186 Serbian troops accepted as white, relations with Great Britain, 3, 162 186–187 violence in the United States, 40 seizes German shipping, 187 racialization Portuguese Expeditionary Force of Bulgarians and Slavs by Germans, collapse of, 190 159–160 formation of, 187 of Greeks, 163–168 seen as inferior by British troops, of groups as fghters, 158–162 188–189 of Prussians, 215 prisoners of war, 282 Red Army, 239, 251. See also German, from the Caucasus, 214 Bolshevism and nurses, 68–72 as threat, 239 Portuguese, 190 defeated by Freikorps, 241–242, 246 Index 347

fear of in eastern Europe, 239 Allied support of, 320 Red Cross, 58, 60, 68, 73, 92, 290 description of, 154–155 Red Pants (story), 36–40 nurses in, 71 religion. See also Islam Serbian Relief Fund, 71 in Macedonia, 153–154, 157 Serbian troops and nursing, 64–66 British views of as fghters, 161–162 René-Boisneuf, Achille, 45 Services of Supply, 316 Ritter, Gerhard, 207 sex Roma, 156 regulation of by Germany, 79–96 Russia sexual hygiene Allied forces in, 3, 5 among German troops, 89–90, and Entente Alliance, 178 92–93 expeditionary force, 3 regulated for prostitutes, 87–88 peace treaty with Germany, 208 sexual violence peace treaty with Ukraine, 208 and German colonial forces, 84–85 Russian Expeditionary Force, 185–186 propaganda about, 85–86 , 185, 208 Skopje, 154, 159, 160. See also map of Russian troops Macedonian Front cultural isolation in France, 185 Slavs, 150, 153, 159 Society for the Preservation and Growth of the Strength of the S German People, 93 Said, Edward, 150 soldiers’ councils, 239 Salomon, Ernst von, 245 soldiers’ homes, 94 Salonika South African Native Labor Corps, 6 description of, 150, 156, 158 South African Overseas Expeditionary German approaches to capture of, Force, 2, 6 151–152 Spartacus League, 237, 238, 242 as a multicultural city, 149, 154, Spears, Edward, 182 156–158 Stallings, Laurence, 36 nurses in, 66 Steeksma, John, 149 as unknown territory to soldiers, stereotypes, 9, 66 152–153 of Africans by nurses, 61 Sanders, Otto Liman von, 13, 263, of the enemy in hospitals, 69, 71 265 of Italians, 190 Sarrail, Maurice, 123 of Middle Eastern peoples, 275, 279 Sarraut, Albert, 115, 127 of Prussians, 215 Schulenburg, Friedrich-Werner Graf of the Turks, 276 von der, 209 Storm of Steel, 36 Second Battle of Marne, 126 Sultan of Constantinople, 30, 32 Seeckt, Hans von, 216, 239 Serbia, 123 348 Index

T V Tamagnini de Abreu, Fernando, 188, venereal disease 189 among German forces, 79 Tatars, 217, 219 German regulations for fghting, 87 . See Salonika history of in the German military, Thomason, John W., 36 81–82 tirailleurs, 12 inspections for among German tirailleurs de la réserve, 114 troops, 89 tirailleurs de militaire, 114 in Ottoman troops, 269 tirailleurs sénégalais, 37, 39, 61 prevalence of, 95, 318 Transcaucasian Republic, 209, 210 prevention, 92–93 Treaty of Brest-Litovsk, 208, 209, 236 self-infecting to escape military duty, troupes indigènes, 28–36 94–95 Tunisia, 30 treatments, 89–91 Turkey. See also Ottoman Empire veterans. See also First World War First World War in memory, commemoration 262–263 in Freikorps, 237 interest in the Caucasus, 209–210, German, 264, 272 221, 222 Irish, 321 relationship to Bulgaria, 160 Vietnamese, 127, 129–133 War of Independence, 262 Vietnam Turkish troops. See also Ottoman Annam region, 12, 115, 117, 130 troops in the Galician campaign communism in, 132–134 in the Caucasus, 210, 218–220 political reform after the war, Turkish War of Independence, 262 129–130 soldier-workers from, 111–135 Tonkin region, 115, 116, 124, 130, U 132 Ukraine Vietnamese Communist Party, 132 German forces in, 209, 213 Vietnamese troops peace treaty with Russia, 208 Annamites, 12, 42, 117, 130, 157 war in Galicia, 265–271 in the Balkans, 123–125 Ulmanis, Karlis, 246 casualities, 128 United States in Chemin des Dames, 120, attempts by France to rally support 122–123, 128 of, 194 compensation, 130–131 entry into the War, 190 conscripts vs volunteers, 112–113, expeditionary forces, 3 115–117 US Army Nurse corps, 57 and culture shock, 120–122 US , 315 denied French citizenship, 131 food supply, 122, 133 Index 349

in the White Cross, 93 1918, 125–126 women honored, 125, 128, 131 as auxiliary and support personnel, labor forces, 117–119, 125, 121 319 logistics, 117–118 in the British Expeditionary Force, peasants, 116–117 319 re-enlistment, 129 denounced as disease carriers, 91 settling in France after the War, 129, encounters with German forces, 132, 135 79–96 transport to France, 117–118 interactions with Ottoman troops, as veterans, 127, 129–133 268–269 views of Americans, 127 nurses, 57–74 sex workers, regulated, 86–91 supervising camps in the Middle W East, 278 war dead, 293–296 as threats to soldiers, 15, 79, 86, burial and marking on the battle- 319 feld, 295 as vectors of disease, 96, 319 feelings about by Dominion soldiers, working, 92 298–299 Workers’ and Soldiers’ Councils, 237 repatriation of remains, 64, 290– 291, 295, 322 soldiers’ views on burials, 294 Y Ware, Fabian, 290 Yazman, M. Şevki, 266 West African troops, 40 Yıldırım Orduları Grubu, 263 in Chemin des Dames, 39 in the Dardanelles campaign, 32 fghting ability, 37 Z in France, 36–40 Zouaves, 12, 121 and Islam, 28–29 loyalty of, 32, 35 nurses views of, 61