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FSF ALAR Briefing Note 8.5: Wet Or Contaminated Runways

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FSF ALAR Briefing Note 8.5: Wet Or Contaminated Runways APPROACH-AND-LANDING ACCIDENT REDUCTION TOOL KIT fsf alar briefing note 8.5 Wet or Contaminated Runways he conditions and factors associated with landing on a wet the runway surface to cause it to appear reflective, but without runway or a runway contaminated by standing water, snow, significant areas of standing water.” Tslush or ice should be assessed carefully before beginning the approach. Contaminated Runway JAA says that a runway is contaminated “when more than 25 Statistical Data percent of the runway surface area (whether in isolated areas or The Flight Safety Foundation (FSF) Approach-and-landing Acci- not) within the required length and width being used is covered dent Reduction (ALAR) Task Force found that wet runways were by the following: involved in 11 approach-and-landing accidents and serious incidents involving runway overruns and runway excursions [inch]) deep, or by slush or loose snow, equivalent to more worldwide in 1984 through 1997.1 • “Surface water more than 3.0 mm [millimeters] (0.125 in than 3.0 mm (0.125 in) of water; The FSF Runway Safety Initiative (RSI) team found that wet runways and runways contaminated by standing water, snow, slush or ice were involved in 96 percent of the runway- excursion resists further compression and will hold together or break • “Snow which has been compressed into a solid mass which accidents, in which runway condition was known, that occurred into lumps if picked up (compacted snow); or, during landing worldwide in 1995 through March 2008.2 Defining Runway Condition • The “Ice, U.S. including Federal Aviation wet ice.” Administration4 says that a runway is considered contaminated “whenever standing water, ice, snow, Dry Runway slush, frost in any form, heavy rubber, or other substances are The European Joint Aviation Authorities (JAA)3 defines dry present.” runway as “one which is neither wet nor contaminated, and in- cludes those paved runways which have been specially prepared with grooves or porous pavement and maintained to retain ‘ef- Factors and Effects fectively dry’ braking action even when moisture is present.” Braking Action Damp Runway The presence on the runway of a fluid contaminant (water, slush JAA says that a runway is considered damp “when the surface or loose snow) or a solid contaminant (compacted snow or ice) is not dry, but when the moisture on it does not give it a shiny adversely affects braking performance (stopping force) by: appearance.” surface. The reduction of friction force depends on the follow- Wet Runway • Reducing the friction force between the tires and the runway ing factors: JAA says that a runway is considered wet “when the runway sur- – Tire-tread condition (wear) and inflation pressure; face is covered with water, or equivalent, less than specified [for a contaminated runway] or when there is sufficient moisture on – Type of runway surface; and, FLIGHT SAFETY FOUNDATION ALAR TOOL KIT | ALAR BRIEFING NOTE 8.5 | 1 – Anti-skid system performance; and, Typical Decelerating Forces During Landing Roll thus reducing the contact area and creating a risk of hydro- • Creating a layer of fluid between the tires and the runway, Autobrake low mode planing (partial or total loss of contact and friction between the tires and the runway surface). Fluid contaminants also contribute to stopping force by: Autobrake demand dis- placement drag); and, • Resisting forward movement of the wheels (i.e., causing Stopping force causing impingement drag • Creating spray that strikes the landing gear and airframe (i.e., spray to be diverted away from engine air inlets. ). Certification regulations require 140 120 100 80 60 40 20 The resulting braking action is the net effect of the above stop- Airspeed (knots) ping forces (Figure 1 and Figure 2). Total stopping force Reverse thrust Aerodynamic drag Braking and rolling drag Hydroplaning (Aquaplaning) Hydroplaning occurs when the tire cannot squeeze any more of Source: FSF ALAR Task Force the fluid-contaminant layer between its tread and lifts off the runway surface. Figure 1 Effect of Braking Devices on Stopping Energy and Stopping Distance Maximum pedal braking (typically, 8 to 10 knots per second) Autobrake medium mode (typically, 6 knots per second) Autobrake low mode (typically, 3 knots per second) 80 No braking 70 60 Aerodynamic drag 50 40 Maximum reverse thrust 30 20 Percent of total stopping energy Braking and rolling drag 10 0 1,000 2,000 3,000 4,000 Stopping distance (meters) on runway contaminated with water Note: Examples assume that airplane touches down at maximum landing weight and at landing reference speed (VREF) on a dry runway at sea level and standard pressure and temperature. Source: FSF ALAR Task Force Figure 2 2 | FLIGHT SAFETY FOUNDATION ALAR TOOL KIT | ALAR BrIEFING NOTE 8.5 Hydroplaning results in a partial or total loss of contact and friction between the tire and the runway, and in a correspond- • 12.7 millimeters (0.5 inch) of slush; ing reduction of friction coefficient. Main wheels and nosewheels can be affected by hydroplan- • Compacted snow; and, ing. Thus, hydroplaning affects nosewheel steering, as well as • Landing Ice. distances are published for all runway conditions, and braking performance. assume: Hydroplaning always occurs to some degree when operating on a fluid-contaminated runway. The degree of hydroplaning depends on the following factors: • An even distribution of the contaminant; - • Maximum pedal braking, beginning at touchdown; and, age (e.g., absence of transverse saw-cut grooves); Landing distances for automatic landing (autoland) using the • Absence of runway surface roughness and inadequate drain • An operative anti-skid system. autobrake system are published for all runway conditions. In addition, correction factors (expressed in percentages) are • Depth and type of contaminant; published to compensate for the following: • Tire inflation pressure; • Groundspeed; and, • – Airport Typically, elevation: +5 percent per 1,000 feet; • A minimum Anti-skid operationhydroplaning (e.g., speed locked is wheels).defined usually for each aircraft type and runway contaminant. Hydroplaning may occur at touchdown, preventing the • – Wind Typically, component: +10 percent per five-knot tail wind component; and, wheels from spinning and from sending the wheel-rotation signal to various aircraft systems. and, – Typically, −2.5 percent per five-knot head wind component; touchdown. Conducting a firm touchdown can reduce hydroplaning at • – Thrust The thrust-reverser reversers: effect depends on runway condition Directional Control and type of braking. On a contaminated runway, directional control should be maintained using the rudder pedals; do not use the nosewheel- Stopping Forces steering tiller until the aircraft has slowed to taxi speed. Figure 1 shows the distribution of the respective stopping forces On a wet runway or a contaminated runway, use of nosewheel as a function of decreasing airspeed during a typical landing roll steering above taxi speed may cause the nosewheels to hydro- plane and result in the loss of nosewheel cornering force with and maximum reverse thrust. using autobrakes in “LOW” mode (for a low deceleration rate) consequent loss of directional control. Total stopping force is the combined result of: If differential braking is necessary, pedal braking should be applied on the required side and should be released on the during the roll-out [including impingement drag on a fluid- • Aerodynamic drag (the term refers to drag on the airplane opposite side to regain directional control. (If braking is not contaminated runway]); completely released on the opposite side, brake demand may continue to exceed the anti-skid regulated braking; thus, no dif- ferential braking may be produced.) • Reverse thrust; and, Landing Distances Distribution• Rolling drag. of Stopping Energy on a Contaminated Runway Landing distances usually are published in aircraft operating Figure 2 shows the contribution to the total stopping energy of manuals (AOMs)/quick reference handbooks (QRHs) for dry various braking devices as a function of the desired or achieved runways and for runway conditions and contaminants such as landing distance on a runway contaminated with water. the following: Figure 2 can be used to determine: mode), the resulting landing distance; or, • Wet; • For a given braking procedure (pedal braking or an autobrake • 6.3 millimeters (0.25 inch) of standing water; braking procedure (pedal braking or an autobrake mode). • 12.7 millimeters (0.5 inch) of standing water; • For a desired or required landing distance, the necessary • 6.3 millimeters (0.25 inch) of slush; FLIGHT SAFETY FOUNDATION ALAR TOOL KIT | ALAR BRIEFING NOTE 8.5 | 3 Figure 2 shows that on a runway contaminated with standing water (compared to a dry runway): Effect of Anti-Skid on Friction Force and Slip Ratio - 4,000 ment drag; Autoland autobrake low 3,500 Autoland autobrake medium • The effect of aerodynamic drag increases because of impinge Manual landing pedal braking 3,000 force and displacement drag) decreases; and, • The effect of braking and rolling drag (balance of braking 2,500 Thrust-reverser stopping force is independent of runway condition, 2,000 and its effect is greater when the deceleration rate is lower (i.e., • 1,500 autobrakes with time delay vs. pedal braking [see Figure 1]). Landing distance (meters) distance Landing 1,000 Factors Affecting Landing Distance 500 0 Runway Condition and Type of Braking Dry Wet Water Water Slush Slush Compacted Ice 6.3 mm 12.7 mm 6.3 mm 12.7 mm Snow Figure 3 shows the effect of runway condition on landing (0.25 in) (0.5 in) (0.25 in) (0.5 in) distance for various runway conditions and for three braking Runway condition Source: FSF ALAR Task Force procedures (pedal braking, use of “LOW” autobrake mode and Figure 3 is based on a 1,000-meter (3,281-foot) landing dis- Figure 3 use of “MEDIUM” autobrake mode). tance (typical manual landing on a dry runway with maximum pedal braking and no reverse thrust).
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