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VANCOUVER, , CANADA

The city of is truly of the 20th century. When the small town of Granville was incorporated as the city of Vancouver in 1886, it had more in common with American cities west of the Rocky Mountains than with the rest of Canada. San Francisco had served as Vancouver’s main link to the east before the completion of Canada’s transcontinental railway in 1887. Within five years the community of 1000 had grown to nearly 14,000 and the young city became a supply depot and investment center for the Klondike gold rush of 1897–98. From these boomtown beginnings, metropolitan Vancouver is now home to more than 1.8 million people. During the early 20th century, rapid growth fueled construction of neighborhoods along the street railway and interurban lines. Before 1910 many homes were constructed of a prefabricated, insulated, four-foot modular system, designed and manufactured by the B.C.Mills, Timber, and Trading Company. Known as Vancouver Boxes, these efficient and economical houses were characterized by a single story set on a high foundation, a hip roof with dormer windows, and a broad front veranda. From 1910 until the mid-1920s, the most popular house for middle- and lower-class families was a variant of the , typified by front gables, exposed rafter ends, and wall brackets, and often chimneys, porch piers, and foundations of rough brick or stone. These Craftsman homes, a small-scale version of the Queen Anne style, were popular amongst the suburban working classes. At one point South Vancouver was expanding at a rate of 200 families per month, all housed in California bungalows. In contrast the region’s affluent families required large formal estates for entertaining. British expatriates had a fondness for Tudor revivals, English country manors, or Arts and Crafts-style homes. In Point Grey and Shaughnessy Heights, abundantly timbered properties were developed according to the tenets of the City Beautiful movement, creating elegant neighborhoods of parks and scenic drives. In both Victoria (the Downloaded by [Central Uni Library ] at 03:22 26 September 2013 provincial capital) and Vancouver, one of the most sought-after architects of this era was Samuel Maclure, whose early bungalows were modest versions of the California style— single-storied, wood-framed buildings with cross-axial plans and wood-shingle cladding. Influenced by the art and architecture of Charles F.A.Voysey and Frank , Maclure often used Tudor-revival facades to mollify his clients while creating modern designs that maximized the potential of the site and locally available materials. Encyclopedia of 20th-century architecture 860 Thriving business concerns led to the importation of New York and technologies. In 1908 David Spencer and Company built a nine-story department store that was followed by the 13-story Dominion Trust Building in 1910, touted as the most modern and tallest office building in Canada. Originally designed for the Imperial Trust Company by the English-trained architect J.S.Helyer and his son Maurice, the Dominion Trust Building had a brick exterior with yellow terracotta features emulating the detailing of classical orders and was capped by a lofty Second Empire-style roof. Others followed, including the W.T.Whiteway’s World Building (1912), now known as the Old Sun Tower, whose 17-story corner hexagonal office tower eclipsed the Dominion Trust Building; Parr and Fee’s Vancouver Block (1912), with its conspicuous clock atop a central tower; and the Weart Building (1913) by Russell, Babcock and Rice, now known as the Standard Building. The Credit Foncier Franco-Canadien (1914) by H.L.Stevens and Company offers the most faithful emulation of neoclassical detailing. In 1914 architect Francis Swales was commissioned to design the Hotel Vancouver to accommodate business travelers and tourists who used the Canadian Pacific Railway. This impressive assembly of cubic forms with intricate Italianate detailing and overhanging roofs dominated the Vancouver skyline until its controversial demolition in 1949. To serve the competing Canadian National Railway, another Hotel Vancouver was built in the Château style by Archibald and Schofield. Although construction had begun in 1929, it was abandoned during the , and the hotel was only completed in time for the 1939 Royal Tour. This building’s facade was an elegant expression of the restrained modern in vogue at the time. Another example was the new Vancouver City Hall (1936), constructed near recently annexed South Vancouver. The architects, Townley and Matheson, adhered to the modern classical precedents established by other government architecture of the time by stepping down a series of symmetrically arranged cubic forms on opposing sides of a large central tower. After , Vancouver’s thriving port facilities had fostered development of the waterfront and the commercial heart of the city, even during the Depression. The most noteworthy building of this period was J.Y.McCarter and George C. Nairne’s Marine Building (1930). Both the 20-story tower and a 10-story wing have richly decorated parapets, executed in pink and green terra-cotta, which contrast with the pale- red brick walls. The striking ornamentation incorporates terracotta panels illustrating histories of transportation and the Pacific coast. Economic restraints during World War II limited construction to essential projects. Afterward, however, Vancouver thrived, as veterans returned to the city and foreign demand for Canada’s natural resources escalated. The immigration of British-trained architects and the influence of , , and encouraged the development of modernist building. In 1946 a department of architecture was established at the University of British Columbia under Frederick Lasserre that Downloaded by [Central Uni Library Bucharest] at 03:22 26 September 2013 began to attract international attention. Efforts of early modernists, such as C.B.K.Van Norman, Robert A.D.Berwick, Bertram C.Binning, and Peter Thornton, were quickly overtaken by younger designers like Charles E. Pratt, Ron Thom, and Fred Hollingsworth, who used new lumber products and prefabricated building systems to create a distinctive West Coast style. With an intricate arrangement of flatroofed terraces stepping down the West hillside, C.E.Pratt demonstrated the West Coast style in a Entries A–Z 861 house designed for lumber company executive William S.Brooks (1947). Wood, steel, stone, and large expanses of glass were presented in a manner that highlighted the interrelationship between the building’s interior and its natural surroundings. In commercial building Semmens and Simpson’s design for the Vancouver offices of Marwell Construction (1950) won the inaugural round of the national Massey Medal awards in 1952. Components of this scrupulously functional design transcended the normal barriers between exterior and interior. The first Vancouver high-rise constructed since the Depression era was the Burrard Building (1956) by C.K.B.Van Norman and Associates, which used a space-saving curtain wall facade. The 1963 competition for a new university in the adjacent city of relieved the slow pace of local construction. The successful entry by the Vancouver partnership of and Geoffrey Massey proved to be the springboard for Arthur Erickson’s international career. His scheme for revolved around a strong central axis linking all campus buildings and incorporating contemporary approaches to pedagogy. In addition to the campus plan, Erickson and Massey designed the Transportation Centre (1965) and Central Mall (1965), in which massive girders of douglas fir and steel supported a glass canopy. The campus has continued to expand; Erickson also designed a university extension to the West Mall (1994) that remains faithful to the form and materials of the original campus. The phenomenal growth of Vancouver forced developers to build vertically. High-rise residential buildings, including Rix Reinecke’s Ocean Towers (1958), began to dominate the West End skyline following a permissive 1956 zoning amendment. The consequences of the rampant demolition of the 1960s and 1970s were not fully appreciated until much of the city’s architectural fabric had been decimated. An emerging heritage conservation movement encouraged reuse and adaptation, one prominent example being the Sylvia Hotel addition, designed by Henriquez Partners. Noted for being the tallest building in the West End until 1958, the Sylvia Court Apartments (1912), designed by W.P. White and converted to a hotel during the 1930s, received heritage designation in 1975. This staid brick, stone, and terra-cotta structure was expanded by Richard Henriquez’s tower in 1987. Economic recession in the 1970s and 1980s proved to be a transitional stage between and regionalism. Just before this construction hiatus, the firm of Rhone and Iredale was awarded the commission for Crown Life Place (1978). Their principal designer, Peter Cardew, created a dramatic V-shaped office tower in the late modern idiom, using green-tinted glass curtain walls. The 1986 Vancouver Centennial and World Exposition spurred development of Public Market and transformation of the industrial area into a livable community. Canada Place (1986) by Zeidler Roberts Partnership hosts public events and welcomes cruise ships. Its multipurpose design incorporates a docking terminal, the PanPacific Hotel, and a row of large display Downloaded by [Central Uni Library Bucharest] at 03:22 26 September 2013 halls, distinctively covered in white sail-shaped fabric. In the 1990s competing architectural styles dominated, including Paul Merrick’s Postmodern Cathedral Place (1991), a controversial complex that replaced McCarter and Nairne’s much admired Georgia Medical Dental Building (1929); Moshe Safdie’s Vancouver Library Square (1995); and the Chan Centre for the Performing Arts (1997), designed by Bing Thom Architects. Encyclopedia of 20th-century architecture 862 RHODA BELLAMY See also Canada; Safdie, Moshe (Canada, Israel)

Further Reading

Coupland, Douglas, City of Glass: Douglas Coupland’s Vancouver, Vancouver: Douglas and McIntyre, 2000 Delaney, P. (editor), Vancouver Representing the Postmodern City, Vancouver: Arsenal Pulp Press, 1994 Kalman, Harold, Ron Phillips, and Robin Ward, Exploring Vancouver: The Essential Architectural Guide, Vancouver: University of British Columbia Press and The Architectural Institute of British Columbia, 1993 Kluckner, Michael, Vanishing Vancouver, : Whitecap Books, 1990 Liscombe, Rhodri Windsor (editor), The New Spirit: in Vancouver, 1938–1963, Montreal and Vancouver: Douglas and McIntyre, in association with the Centre Canadien d’Architecture/Canadian Centre for Architecture, 1997 Luxton, Donald, “The Rise and Fall of West Coast Modernism in Greater Vancouver, British Columbia,” APT Bulletin, 31 (2000) Macdonald, Bruce, Vancouver: A Visual History, Vancouver: Talonbooks, 1992 Roy, Patricia E., Vancouver: An Illustrated History, : James Lorimer, and National Museums of Canada, 1980 Wynn, Graeme, and Timothy Oke (editors), Vancouver and Its Region, Vancouver: University of British Columbia Press, 1992

VAN DOESBURG, THEO 1883–1931

Architecture historian, critic, theorist, As founder and polemicist for the Dutch avant-garde group , systematically propagated his ideas of the visual arts, architecture, design, and theory in many forms and forums. Van Doesburg was a critic, poet, novelist, performance artist, teacher, publisher, typographer, and art historian. Instrumental in the development of modern architecture, he was committed to the idea of universal synthesis. Although well known in his lifetime through associations with many international art and architectural groups, he was ultimately unsuccessful in achieving the integration of art and life through the doctrine of Neoplasticism (New Forming). Nonetheless, he was innovative in his ideas that connected art and architecture with cultural and political Downloaded by [Central Uni Library Bucharest] at 03:22 26 September 2013 issues through literature, urbanism, exhibitions, performance, education, and criticism. Immediately after his service in the Dutch army during World War I, he formed the De Stijl group with the poet Antony Kok, the painters and Bart van der Leck, the Hungarian painter and designer Vilmos Huszár, and the architects J.J.P.Oud and Jan Wils. In 1917, he began the journal De Stijl, remaining its editor and driving force throughout its irregular publication until 1931. Van Doesburg promoted De Stijl as “The Entries A–Z 863 Style,” the vehicle to annul the plurality of styles to culminate inevitably in neoplastic synthesis. Architecturally, van Doesburg enacted this mission by appropriating ideas from painting to several buildings by Oud, Wils, and other Dutch architects. He applied primary colors to window frames and glass panels and developed colored geometric patterns for interiors beginning 1917, simultaneously writing essays and manifestos, launching De Stijl’s “Manifesto 1” in 1918. Demanding the reformation of art and culture through collective collaboration, van Doesburg simultaneously emphasized the dystopic condition of the world through his efforts with the artists Kurt Schwitters and . As a counterpoint to and groundwork for De Stijl, he wrote essays, sound- poems, and a novel and performed and created art under the Dada pseudonyms I.K.Bonset and Aldo Camini. Hoping to establish a pedagogical base for De Stijl, van Doesburg attempted to infiltrate the in Weimar between 1921 and 1922. When Walter Gropius refused him a teaching position, he formed his own De Stijl architecture course nearby. Van Doesburg orchestrated De Stijl’s international debut at the exhibition Les Architectes du Groupe “de Styl” held in the Galerie L’Effort Moderne in in 1923. Here, among several architectural projects by members of the De Stijl group, including Gerrit Rietveld and , van Doesburg, in collaboration with Cornelis van Eesteren, developed two theoretical houses in drawings and models influential to the spatial and ideological development of modern architecture. The Maison d’Artiste and the Maison Particuliére were three-dimensional experiments derived from the universalizing forms explored in painting by van Doesburg and Mondrian. Their rectilinear volumes pinwheel about a voided center, emphasizing oblique movement. Their dynamic asymmetries are harmoniously balanced by the primary colors red, blue, and yellow and the noncolors black, white, and gray. Van Doesburg drew several spatially floating axonometrics, or “counter-constructions,” from the Maison Particuliére. Unlike the singular fixed vantage point of traditional perspective, these speculative projections allow unlimited points of entry and exit in infinite extension. Van Doesburg photographed the models from below and proposed a sixth elevation for architecture, detached from the specificity of a site. His attempts to define an ungrounded, new conception of space in relation to time were derived from the work of Albert Einstein; van Doesburg owned several books by or about him. Between 1926 and 1928, van Doesburg transformed two large rooms of an 18th- century building in Strasbourg, , to the Café . Designing each as a three- dimensional De Stijl environment, he didactically positioned the rooms in relation to one another. The Small Hall’s primary color panels on the walls and ceiling align orthographically with the rectilinear room. Enacting van Doesburg’s transition into “Elementarism” and influenced by the oblique “counter-constructions” from the Maison Downloaded by [Central Uni Library Bucharest] at 03:22 26 September 2013 Particuliére, his other room, the Cinema-Dance Hall, features diagonal patterns extending through the room’s corners beyond the confines of the space. In the Café Aubette, reconstructed in 1995, the projection of cinema and the oblique gestures of bodies in motion establish the spatial dialogue between art and life. Synthesizing architecture and painting as Gesamtkunstwerk, or total work of art, van Doesburg incorporated several different materials into the spaces and designed the menu, , and signs. Encyclopedia of 20th-century architecture 864 Van Doesburg designed and built a house for himself and his wife, Nelly, in Meudon- Val Fleury, outside of Paris, from 1927 to 1930. Intended as a teaching studio and a residence, its main cubic space rests on pilotis, suspended over an open terrace. Its narrow site constricted it into a diagonal sectional arrangement. At the same time, van Doesburg planned a series of towers titled “Cité de Circulation.” This diagonally oriented collection of 11-story residences, based on previous tower schemes by , holds four living units per floor, each similar to his Meudon House, pinwheeling around a central open core. A rotated axonometric drawing of the Meudon House demonstrates the interdependence of the two projects—connecting painting to interior to house to city, elevated high above the ground. MARK STANKARD See also Bauhaus; Bauhaus, Dessau; Le Corbusier (Jeanneret, Charles-Édouard) (France); De Stijl, Gropius, Walter (); Mies van der Rohe, Ludwig (Germany); Oud, J.J.P. (Netherlands); Rietveld, Gerrit (Netherlands)

Biography

Born in , Holland, 30 August 1883 as Christiaan Emil Marie Küpper; renamed himself after Dutch stepfather. Began painting and writing art criticism (1908–10); published essays on Leonardo, Michelangelo, and Rembrandt. Served in Dutch army, 1914–16, subsequently settled in , began collaborating with J.J.P.Oud and Jan Wils. In 1917 formed De Stijl group and publication of the same name (with Piet Mondrian, Vilmos Huszár, Bart van der Leck, and Georges Vantongerloo). Visited Berlin and Weimar (1921), where he met , Mies van der Rohe, Hans Richter, and Le Corbusier; participated in architectural exhibitions, Galerie l’Effort Moderne (1923, Paris) and Ecole Spéciale d’Architecture (Paris, 1924). Collaborated with and Sophie Taueber-Arp for decorations for Café Aubette, Strasbourg, France; returned to Paris (1929), began designing house at Meudon-Val Fleury with Cornelis van Eesteren; published first issue of avant-garde jour-nal Art concret 1929. Died 7 March 1931 of tuberculosis in Davos, .

Selected Works

Architektur Projekt (unbuilt), 1923 Counter-Construction Project (drawing), 1923 Café de Unie, Rotterdam, Netherlands, 1925 Café Aubette (interiors), Strasbourg, France, 1928

Downloaded by [Central Uni Library Bucharest] at 03:22 26 September 2013 Architect’s House, Meudon-Val Fleury, France, 1930

Selected Publications

Elémentarisme, 1926 Entries A–Z 865 De Stijl 1 and De Stijl 2 (: Athenaeum, 1968). Reprint of the periodical De Stijl, edited by Van Doesburg, from 1917 to 1929 On European Architecture: Complete Essays from Het Bouwbedrijf 1924–1931, translated by Charlotte I.Loeb and Arthur L.Loeb, Basel: Birkhäuser Verlag, 1990 Principles of Neo-Plastic Art (1925), translated by Janet Seligman, New York: New York Graphic Society Ltd., 1966

Further Reading

Van Doesburg and De Stijl are synonymous. Many books and articles on De Stijl, listed under that heading, contain further information on Van Doesburg. Doig (1986) and van Straaten (1983, 1988) contain many writings by van Doesburg in Dutch, French, German, and English. The van Doesburg archives, located in Holland and in France, have been thoroughly documented in the publications below. Baljeu, Joost, Theo van Doesburg, New York: Macmillan, 1974 Blotkamp, Carel, “Theo van Doesburg,” in De Stijl: The Formative Years 1917–1922, edited by Carel Blotkamp, translated by Charlotte I.Loeb and Arthur L.Loeb, Cambridge, Massachusetts: MIT Press, 1986 Doig, Allan, Theo van Doesburg: Painting into Architecture, Theory into Practice, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1986 Hedrick, Hannah L., Theo van Doesburg: Propagandist and Practitioner of the Avante- Garde, 1909–1923, Ann Arbor, : UMI Research Press, 1980 Stankard, Mark, “Theo van Doesburg: Architecture at the End of History,” 20/1 (Spring 1990) van Straaten, Evert, Theo van Doesburg 1883–1931, : Staatsuitgeverij, 1983 van Straaten, Evert, Theo van Doesburg: Painter and Architect, The Hague: SDU Publishers, 1988

VANNA VENTURI HOUSE, CHESTNUT HILL

Designed by Robert Venturi, completed 1964 Chestnut Hill, Robert Venturi’s house for his mother in Chestnut Hill, Pennsylvania, marked the formal reintroduction of architectural history into the formulaic modernist practice of architecture. Designed and constructed between 1959 and 1964, the Vanna Venturi house Downloaded by [Central Uni Library Bucharest] at 03:22 26 September 2013 represents the integration of historical precedents, the demonstration of Venturi’s architectural theory, and a critique of American domesticity. In a frequently cited description of the house, Venturi explains that it

recognizes complexities and contradictions; it is both complex and simple, open and closed, big and little; some of its elements are good on one level and bad on Encyclopedia of 20th-century architecture 866 another; its order accommodates the generic elements of the house in general and the circumstantial elements of a house in particular. (Venturi, 1966)

Concentrating a variety of ideological and formal issues into the approximately 1700- square-foot house, Venturi produced five complete preliminary designs before arriving at the sixth and final scheme. A house for a family member is a typical early commission for a young architect, and Venturi’s achieved notoriety through the carefully composed elevational photograph centered at its entry of Vanna Venturi looking up from her book. As it was exposed to the architectural public, the Vanna Venturi house often was vilified but seldom dismissed. It soon was referenced in the work of other architects, as in the facades of the Phillips Exeter Academy Dining Hall (1972) by , who was one of Venturi’s mentors. By reaching low and broadly to vernacular domestic imagery while rigorously manipulating architectural precedent at a time when architecture had turned its back on history, the Vanna Venturi house profoundly disturbed the status quo of architecture. Robert Venturi, enacting a genteel form of avante-garde disruption, ushered in with a building and a book to accompany it. Complexity and Contradiction in Architecture, written between 1956 and 1964, was Venturi’s companion piece for the Vanna Venturi house. In a recent interview, Venturi said, “What I wrote in the book was what I was thinking about while I was drawing the house” (Schwartz, 1992). Venturi published plans for the Vanna Venturi house along with a portfolio of his other work as the last chapter of Complexity and Contradiction in Architecture, blurring theory and practice while seamlessly weaving his architecture into the canon of significant historical buildings. Demonstrating a modern version of the strategy of mannerism—the human desire to impair perfection—Venturi appropriated and critiqued the history of Western architecture while remaining deeply engaged with its modernist tendencies. The Vanna Venturi house quotes freely from the nymphaeum at Andrea Palladio’s Villa Barbaro (1554), McKim, Mead and White’s Low House (1887), ’s Double House (1921), the Casa Girasole by Luigi Moretti (1950), and Venturi’s own Beach House project (1959), depicted and discussed in Complexity and Contradiction in Architecture. Venturi’s Guild House, designed between 1960 and 1963 for the elderly Quaker community in , may be interpreted as a public version of his private house for his mother, an elderly member of the Quaker church. Each building has similar configurations in plan and elevation, and they share similar windows, front , taut skins, and a combination of marble and everyday materials. The uniquely pale green, stuccoed front facade of the Vanna Venturi house presents at first impression a Palladian monumental symmetry. This overall symmetry is shifted and rearranged in asymmetrical elements, such as the slightly off-center actual chimney set Downloaded by [Central Uni Library Bucharest] at 03:22 26 September 2013 within the centered, large-scale chimney block and in the reciprocal distribution of five windows on each half of the house, corresponding to the rooms within. The split challenges the norm of the typical gable-roofed house and vi- Entries A–Z 867

Vanna Venturi House, Chestnut Hill, Pennsylvania, designed by Robert Venturi (1964)

© Rollin La France. Photo courtesy Venturi, Scott Brown and Associates

sually exaggerates the structural capacity of the exposed concrete beam over the entry. Venturi applied a shallow arced dado to the facade, split by the central gap and passing over the concrete lintel. The application of thin moldings and the overall simple edges of the house make “the facades look almost like drawings” (Venturi, 1982). Venturi has privileged the perception of the drawn house over the appearance of the house itself. The front facade frequently has been compared to a child’s drawing of a generic house, conveying “houseness” in its articulation of the fundamental pragmatic and symbolic elements of house—entry, window, gabled roof, and chimney. Both elementary and complex, the front facade of the Vanna Venturi house displays a tension between its perceived and structure and exhibits Venturi’s conception of “superadjacency”—drawing together elements of disparate scales. The side facades barely exist, leftovers between front and rear. Notched patio spaces at each end minimize their presence. The rear facade combines standard window shapes in a thin-edged floating plane that seems detached from the body of the house. The extended facade wall screens a narrow deck on the upper floor with a “” arched window behind it, in contrast to the applied arched molding at the front facade.

Downloaded by [Central Uni Library Bucharest] at 03:22 26 September 2013 The plan of the house, which could be contained within a box, is based on an overall symmetry. Similar to the front facade, it diverts into a studied asymmetry. Approaching from the driveway, which is skewed to accommodate a sewer main in the street, the overscaled entry is blocked by the massive chimney. The curved foyer to the right sweeps into the dining area, with its large-scale marble tile floor setting it off from the rest of the house and suggesting a grand vestibule itself. Its high, arched ceiling envelops an independent pipe column. At the focus of the interior, the fireplace and its companion Encyclopedia of 20th-century architecture 868 piece—the abruptly narrowing central stair—merge into a codependent entity. The shape of the wall surrounding the overscaled fireplace suggests an enormous version of an elderly woman’s shoe, bringing to mind the old woman who lived in a shoe, a figurative domestic association. The stair to the upper-level bedroom pinches in to accommodate barely one person. The upper level, which Robert Venturi occupied for about three years, contains a tiny utilitarian bathroom and storage spaces tucked under the roof eaves. An even narrower steep stair provides access to clean the high rear window, paint the clerestory, or change the exposed lightbulb. This quotidian finale is pure bathos, extending from elegant refine- ment to a strategically banal dead end. From its overall site planning to the ergonomic detail of its stair rail, the Vanna Venturi house simultaneously recalls a typical American residence, gestures to a multitude of historical refer-

Vanna Venturi House interior

© Rollin La France. Photo courtesy Venturi, Scott Brown and Associates

ences, and deliberately subverts the status of orthodox modern architecture. MARK STANKARD

Downloaded by [Central Uni Library Bucharest] at 03:22 26 September 2013 Further Reading

Surprisingly, very little was written about the house immediately following its construction. However, it is mentioned and critiqued in a wide range of books and articles on modern and and culture by authors ranging from Tom Wolfe to Andrew Benjamin. Entries A–Z 869 Berkeley, Ellen Perry, “Complexities and Contradictions,” Progressive Architecture, 46/5 (May 1965) Friedman, Alice T., “It’s a Wise Child: The Vanna Venturi House, by Robert Venturi,” in Women and the Making of the Modern House: A Social and Architectural History, by Friedman, New York: Abrams, 1998 Futagawa, Yukio (editor), Vanna Venturi House, Chestnut Hill, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, 1962: Peter Brant House, , Connecticut, 1973: Carll Tucker III House, Westchester County, New York, 1975, : A.D.A.Edita, 1976 Schwartz, Frederick, Mother’s House: The Evolution of Vanna Venturi’s House in Chestnut Hill, New York: Rizzoli, 1992 Somol, Robert E., “My Mother the House,” The Princeton Architectural Journal, 4 (1992) Venturi, Robert, “House for Mrs. Robert Venturi,” Perspecta, 9–10 (1965) Venturi, Robert, Complexity and Contradiction in Architecture, New York: Museum of , 1966; 2nd edition, New York: Museum of Modern Art, and : Architectural Press, 1977 Venturi, Robert, “Diversity, Relevance, and Representation in , or, Plus ça Change…Plus a Plea for Pattern All over Architecture, with a Postscript on My Mother’s House,” Architectural Record, 170 (June 1982) Von Moos, Stanislaus, Venturi, Rauch, and Scott Brown: Buildings and Projects, 1960– 1985, New York: Rizzoli, 1987

VAN NELLE FACTORY, NETHERLANDS

Designed by J.A.Brinkman and L.C.van der Vlugt with Mart Stam, Completed 1930 Rotterdam, Netherlands The Van Nelle factory (1930) in Schiedam, Rotterdam, Netherlands, was designed by the firm of J.A.Brinkman and L.C. van der Vlugt with Mart Stam. Completed between 1926 and 1930, it was admired by fellow modern architects and industrialists alike. The factory complex included industrial buildings for packaging, offices, and warehouse facilities for the Dutch company Van Nelle, renowned for its coffees, teas, and tobaccos. The factory still exists today. Downloaded by [Central Uni Library Bucharest] at 03:22 26 September 2013 Encyclopedia of 20th-century architecture 870

Van Nelle Factory, Rotterdam (1928), by Johannes A.Brinkman and L.C.van der Vlugt

© GreatBuildings.com

Over a ten-year period, the building plans changed and developed because of World War I as well as Van Nelle’s need to purchase and unify an appropriate site not being realized until the fall of 1926, the year construction began on the factory buildings. The design for the project was initiated by architect Michiel Brinkman (1873–1925), who died before its completion, so the project was passed on to his young son, J.A. (Jan) Brinkman (1902– 49), who, working with a more experienced architect, L.C. (Leendert Cornelis) van der Vlugt (1894–1936), completed the project. Key in the building’s innovative design was the active role of the factory owner, Kees van der Leeuw, who was involved in the design of the complex, the construction methods, and the spatial planning. As a Theosophist, he cared for his employees, which was reflected in his concern to provide them with adequate daylight. This desire paralleled the insight he gained from his 1925 travels to America, where he saw the modern factories of Albert and Moritz Kahn, all noted for their attention to light. His paternalistic view of the happy worker was similar to that of Henry Ford, and he was keen to test the already proven methods of Taylorism in factory organization and employee comfort. His knowledge of Walter Gropius’s newly completed Bauhaus

Downloaded by [Central Uni Library Bucharest] at 03:22 26 September 2013 building in Dessau and Fagus factory in Germany inspired the transparent design of the Van Nelle factory. The main entrance with a gatehouse opens onto the complex by means of the sweeping curved facade of the four-story administrative building for the offices and warehouses. A bridge enclosed in glass and steel connects this building to the factory at the second floor, creating the sense of the assembly lines in the flow of the buildings. The ground floor of Entries A–Z 871 the office building is set back, with a column supporting the corner curve that sweeps beyond the main rectangular structure. Along the curved facade are the managing director’s office, meeting rooms, drafting offices, and sample rooms, and the open rectangular volume has the combined general administrative offices and employee cafeteria. This program and its manifestation demonstrate the architects’ interest in Bauhaus principles. The manufacturing buildings are sited adjacent to the Overschie River for easy transport of goods. The final built scheme, only part of what was originally planned, consists of a main factory block of different heights in one rectangular bar. The boiler house was built separately for safety. An eight-story tobacco factory, a six-story coffee factory, and a three-story tea factory were connected by glazed exterior stair towers. As a vertically organized factory, typical of the early 20th-century type, the production line moved from the upper to the lower floor, with the final product being transferred to the warehouses via exterior conveyor belts in transparent bridges. The roof of the building is capped with a circular glazed tearoom and viewing platform for visitors and staff. As an early use of a glass-and-steel curtain wall, the arresting transparent facade is one of the building’s genuinely iconic elements. The technical achievements in the design of this glass curtain wall and its construction using machine-made parts led to the further exploration of curtain-wall technologies for many other building types. The vertical mullion elements are steel, sprayed with a zinc coating, and the horizontal spandrels are steel sheets. The effect was of a continuous band of glass and metal in a new industrial aesthetic. To keep the floors of the factory open for flexible use and to hold the heavy packing machinery, engineer Jan Gerko Wiebenga (1886–1974), who often worked with Van der Vlugt, designed an open system. Using a concrete frame, he placed octagonal concrete mushroom columns on the interior’s perimeter within two rows of central columns spaced in 5-by-5.70-meter modules in the tobacco factory and 5.70-by-5.70-meter modules in the other two sections. This design created beamless concrete floor slabs that were cantilevered beyond the perimeter columns and allowed space along the facade for conduits and hallways. The polished concrete floor also contained cables and electric conduits. The last phases of the project included a workers’ cafeteria, playing fields, store blocks, and garages. Many years after the Van Nelle factory was constructed, Reyner Banham noted that Mart Stam had played a more significant role in the design of the building than previously considered (footnote in Reyner Banham, Theory Design in the Machine Age, Architectural Press, London, 1960). Van Nelle was seminal as part of the Dutch Nieuwe Bouwen, one of the many groups of European architects who concentrated on the issues of technical progress and modern architecture and who worked to improve the quality of housing and working environments. While providing a decent working environment, the building allowed in Downloaded by [Central Uni Library Bucharest] at 03:22 26 September 2013 plenty of light and air and provided spaces for administrative staff and factory workers, thus being pragmatic in its form to serve the function of the factory. Brinkman and Van der Vlugt went on to design stores for Van Nelle, including housing and commercial buildings. NINA RAPPAPORT See also Factory; Gropius, Walter (Germany); Rotterdam, Netherlands Encyclopedia of 20th-century architecture 872

Further Reading

De Jonge, Wessel, “A Price and Prize for Van Nelle,” Docomomo Newsletter, 6 (November 1991) Derwig, Jan, and Erick Matter, Functionalism in the Netherlands, Amsterdam: Architectura en Natura, 1995 Ibelings, Hans, Niederländische Architektur des 20. Jahrhunderts, Munich and New York: Prestel, 1995; as 20th-Century Architecture in the Netherlands, translated by Michael O’Loughlin, Amsterdam: NAi, 1996 “The Van Nelle Factory,” Architectural Record, 66 (October 1929) “The Van Nelle Factory,” Architectural Record, 69 (May 1931)

VAN DE VELDE, HENRI 1863–1957

Architect and interior designer, Belgium Henri van de Velde was a leading figure of Belgian . He was born in Antwerp into a family with strong interest in the arts. His father was a pharmacist and a director of the local arts festival. After having contemplated a career as a composer, van de Velde chose to become a painter instead. He studied at the Antwerp Art Academy (1880–83) and at the atelier of Carolys Duran in Paris (1884–85). On his return from Paris in 1886, van de Velde moved to the Belgian countryside, where he started to develop a more holistic approach toward art and environment. In 1887, he discovered pointillism, which allowed him to develop a more analytic approach to painting and form, and from 1890 on, he started to broaden his artistic production to the realm of applied arts, then to interior design, and finally to architecture. At the same time, van de Velde established himself as a theorist and propagandist. In 1894, he started a series of lectures that promoted the revival of architecture and decorative arts by combining the moral principles of the English with the acceptance of machine production and social changes. These lectures were published in 1901 under the title Die Renaissance im Kunstgewerbe (The Renaissance of Applied Arts). Van de Velde’s theoretical position was informed by readings of William Morris, Friedrich Nietzsche, and Leo Tolstoy, in which art and beauty were understood as a significant force for social advancement and cultural renewal.

Downloaded by [Central Uni Library Bucharest] at 03:22 26 September 2013 His first venture into architecture came with his own house, Bloemenwerf (1895–96), in Uccle, near Brussels, where van de Velde, who had no architectural training, collaborated with local craftsmen in a design that is somewhat a combination of a traditional farmhouse and an urban villa. It was van de Velde’s first attempt to create a total work of art in which furniture, wallpaper, and even his wife’s reform dress are understood as an integral part of architecture. Van de Velde’s reputation spread rapidly in the mid-1890s. The reception was Entries A–Z 873 particularly favorable in Germany, and in 1895 the German art dealer Samuel Bing and art critic Julius Meier-Graefe commissioned him to design three room interiors. First exhibited in the Art Nouveau in Paris the same year (and further in 1897 in ), these interiors, characterized by dynamic, curved forms, launched van de Velde’s career as a furniture maker and interior designer while also launching a new style: Art Nouveau. Bing and Meier-Graefe played an important part in van de Velde’s career, the former becoming van de Velde’s dealer in Paris and the latter the first critic to write about his work. In 1900 Karl Ernst Osthaus invited van de Velde to design the interiors for the Folkwang Museum (1901–04) in Hagen, Germany. Only five years after the completion of their own house, the family moved to Berlin. Contrary to his hopes, Berlin did not offer a breakthrough for other larger projects, and in 1902 he accepted the offer of the duke of Sachsen-Weimar to become the director of the Weimar Kunstgewerblicher Institut. The duke also commissioned van de Velde to design the new school buildings: the Kunstgewerbeschule (school of applied arts, 1904) and the Kunstschule (art school, 1906), which became his first major architectural commissions. During his 12-year tenure at Weimar, van de Velde embraced and inspired the future generation and developed a successful architectural practice. The most notable works from this period include several private villas for Weimar’s cultural elite; van de Velde’s own second house, called Hohe Pappels (1908); a Tennis Club (1908) in Chemnitz; an interior design of the Nietzsche Archive (1911); and most notably the theater for the 1914 Werkbund Exhibition in Cologne. Van de Velde’s resignation in 1914 came right after the 1914 Werkbund meeting in Cologne, where he came under a fierce attack by (1861–1927) for representing a reactionary and outdated individualist position and resisting the need for standardized production and typification. Van de Velde recommended Walter Gropius as his successor, thus laying the foundation for the future Bauhaus. This so-called Werkbund debate is indicative of why many other members of the first generation of the Modern movement, such as and , came to surpass van de Velde in their historical significance as pioneers of 20th-century architecture. However, van de Velde was one of the seminal thinkers around 1890, when 19th-century architectural historicism came into a crisis. Informed by Einfühlung (empathy) theory, van de Velde believed that line was the fundamental element of art. According to his motto “a line is a force” (Kunstgewerbliche Laienpredigten, 1902), form is an outcome of spontaneous, creative expression based on inner necessity, both structural and emotional. This led to a design strategy based on the combination of constructive and functional logic and dynamic formal expression. Van de Velde’s life after leaving Weimar in 1917 was divided among Switzerland, Holland, and Belgium, where in 1925–47 he held a professorship at the University of Downloaded by [Central Uni Library Bucharest] at 03:22 26 September 2013 Ghent. His mature work includes the Belgian Pavilions for the Paris (1937) and New York (1939) World Exhibitions and the Rijksmuseum Kröller-Müller (1937–54) in Otterlo. After his retirement, van de Velde returned to Switzerland to write his memoirs, Geschichte meines Lebens (1962; The Story of My Life), a wonderfully creative testimony of his long and eventful life. EEVA-LIISA PELKONEN Encyclopedia of 20th-century architecture 874

Biography

Born in Antwerp, 3 April 1863. Attended the Academie voor Schone Kunsten, Antwerp 1880–83; studied painting at the Académie des Beaux-Arts, Antwerp 1882–84 and Paris 1884–85. Painter and interior decorator, Antwerp and Brussels 1885–94. In private practice as an architect and designer, Brussels 1895–98, under the title Société van de Velde 1898–1900; practiced in Berlin 1900–05, Weimar 1906–14, Switzerland 1914–21, Wassenaar, Netherlands 1921–25, and Brussels 1925–47. Lecturer, University of Brussels 1894–95; founder and director, Kunstgewerbeschule (later Bauhaus School), Weimar 1902–14; founder and director, École Nationale Supérieure d’Architecture et des Arts Décoratifs, Brussels 1925–36; professor of architecture, 1925–47, chair of architecture, 1926–35, University of Ghent. Died in Zurich, 25 October 1957.

Selected Works

Bloemenwerf House, Uccle, Belgium, 1896 Interiors, Keller und Reiner Art Gallery, Berlin, 1898 Interiors, Folkwang Museum, Hagen, Germany, 1904 Kunstgewerbeschule, Weimar, 1904 Kunstschule, Weimar, 1906 Hohe Pappels (van de Velde residence), Weimar, 1908 Tennis Club, Chemnitz, Weimar, 1908 Interior, Nietzsche Archive, Weimar, 1911 Theater, Werkbund Exhibition, Cologne, 1914 , World’s Fair, Paris, 1937 Belgian Pavilion, World’s Fair, New York, 1939 Riksmuseum Kröller-Müller, Otterlo, Belgium, 1954

Selected Publications

Déblaiement d’art, 1894 L’Art futur, 1895 Die Renaissance im Kunstgewerbe, 1901 Der neue Stil, 1906 Vernunftsgemässe Schönheit, 1909

Downloaded by [Central Uni Library Bucharest] at 03:22 26 September 2013 Die drei Sünden wider die Schönheit, 1918 Les Fondements du style moderne, 1933 Geschichte meines Lebens, edited by Hans Curjel, 1962 Entries A–Z 875

Further Reading

Delevoy, Robert L., Henri van de Velde, 1863–1957, Brussels: Palais des Beaux-Arts, 1963 Delevoy, Robert L., Maurice Culot, and Yvonne Brunhammer, Pionniers du XXe siècle: Guimard, Horta, van de Velde, Paris: Tournon, 1971 Hüter, Karl-Heinz, Henri van de Velde: Sein Werk bis zum Ende seiner Tätigkeit in Deutschland, Berlin: Akademie-Verlag, 1967 Sembach, Klaus-Jürgen, Henri van de Velde, New York: Rizzoli, and London: Thames and Hudson, 1989 Weber, Klaus, Henri van de Velde: Das buchkünstlerische Werk, Freiburg im Breisgau: Rombach, 1994

VENICE BIENNALE PAVILIONS

Designed by various architects, 1895–1995 Venice, The began in 1895 as an exhibition of international art held every two years in the Castello Gardens at the southeast edge of Venice. Its pavilions, each representing an individual country, perform as autonomous nationalistic objects and as a strategically assembled collection of 20th-century architecture. As an evolving modernist project, new national pavilions accrued between 1895 and 1995, with critical acts of demolition, alteration, addition, refacading, restoration, and re-allocation. The Biennale pavilions, as architectural representations for sovereign nations, can be categorized in terms of , vernacular nationalism, historicist nationalism, ideological nationalism, and international modernism. Two fundamental definitions of the word describe these pavilions: “a summerhouse or other decorative building in a garden” and “a temporary stand at an exhibition.” Although often dismissed by critics as diminutive pleasure follies or curiosity collections for tourists, they form a permanent extraurban community of 20th-century modernist icons— exterior representational expositions encasing interior mutable exhibitions. Their status oscillates between architectural ambassador and miniature museum for contemporary art. The original Castello Gardens were constructed on reclaimed marsh between 1808 and 1812 by Giannantonio Selva. In 1895, the Biennale was founded, and its first building, the Palazzo dell’Esposizione (or Central Pavilion) by Enrico Trevisanato, contained 16 exhibition rooms around a domed space. The artists Marius de Maria and Bartolomeo Downloaded by [Central Uni Library Bucharest] at 03:22 26 September 2013 Bezzi designed its neoclassical facade. Belgium provided the first national pavilion, or “house of art,” in 1907, a contemporary Art Nouveau project by Léon Sneyers. Most of the early pavilions displayed a neoclassical or vernacular character, derived from both museum and villa architecture. The (1909) by Edwin Rickards, built on a prominent hill, quotes Andrea Palladio’s 16th-century villas and their modifications as Italianate English Encyclopedia of 20th-century architecture 876 country houses. A Venetian architect, Daniele Donghi, designed the Bavarian Pavilion in the same year. Figural ornament was added to its neoclassical facade when it became the in 1912. Géza Maróti’s (1909), a richly ornamented, transplanted vernacular building, was picturesquely sited off the main axis of the Gardens. The neoclassical (1912) by the Venetian architect Fausto Finzi joined Great Britain and Germany at the southeast corner of the Gardens. Ferdinand Boberg designed the Pavilion in 1912, converted to the Holland Pavilion in 1914. The Central (Italian) Pavilion received a concave Liberty-style facade by Guido Cirilli in 1914. Just before the outbreak of World War I in 1914, the , resembling a vernacular Byzantine church, was completed by Aleksej Scusev. In 1924, its facade was accessorized under the new Soviet state with the letters “URSS,” a red band, and a hammer and sickle. Downloaded by [Central Uni Library Bucharest] at 03:22 26 September 2013

Plan for Venice Biennale Pavilions (1895–1995)

© Mark Stankard Entries A–Z 877 Most pavilions built between World Wars I and II recirculated historicist imagery or conveyed an ideological nationalism. Spain’s pavilion (1922) by Javier de Luque featured a Churriguersque facade displaying its country’s 18th-century synthesis of architecture and sculpture. Uniquely, the Czechoslovakian architect Otakar Novotny designed his country’s pavilion (1926) as an example of contemporary Czech . Delano and Aldrich created the Pavilion (1930) as a neoclassical colonial version of Thomas Jefferson’s neo-Palladian Monticello. Carl Brummer’s neoclassical (1932) occupied the middle of the Gardens. A Venetian Pavilion for decorative arts (1932) by Brenno Del Giudice was built on the other side of the Canal di Sant’Elena, with flanking pavilions for and Switzerland. Its white, “stile-littorio classicism” followed official state architecture under Mussolini. Identical pavilions for and Yugoslavia were added in 1938, stringing together autonomous nations in a unified structure. Duilio Torres’s similar new facade for the Central (Italian) Pavilion (1932) proclaimed itself “Italia” in large block letters. Josef Hoffman’s minimalist (1934), north of the Venetian Pavilion, contained an open central arcade and clerestory lighting. The masonry, neo-Byzantine (1934) by M. Papandréou was sited axially opposite Austria’s pavilion. Under Hitler, Germany’s pavilion was demolished in 1938 and replaced by a monumental “meta-neo-classical” structure by Ernst Haiger. After Germany invaded Austria, Czechoslovakia, Poland, Romania, Hungary, and Yugoslavia, their pavilions were closed. Italy displayed military imagery in the British, French, and United States Pavilions in 1942. After World War II, the Biennale reopened in 1948. The Venetian architect Virgilio Vallot replaced the facade of the Belgium Pavilion that year. Carlo Scarpa designed several projects for the Biennale, beginning in 1950 with the triangular/trapezoidal Book Pavilion near the Italian Pavilion portico. This pavillion, Scarpa’s leaflike Ticket Office (1952), and his Italian Pavilion courtyard (1952) have been destroyed. Significantly, the first post-World War II new pavilion was for Israel (1952), an “international modern” trapezoidal structure by the Tel Aviv architect Zeev Rechter. Bruno Giacometti designed Switzerland’s pavilion (1952), a complex assemblage of volumes, sited near the Gardens entry. Egypt occupied the former . The was stripped of its ornament and received a simpler masonry facade by Joaquín Vaquero Palacios in 1952. Carlo Scarpa’s innovative Venezuelan Pavilion (1954–56), wedged between those of Switzerland and the , referred to traditional and the work of Frank Lloyd Wright and Ludwig Mies van der Rohe. In 1954, Gerrit Rietveld designed a new “late De Stijl” , replacing the previous one. ’s wedge-shaped (1956) was similar to Scarpa’s Book Pavilion. Painted Finnish blue and white, it was prefabricated and transported to the site. The Le Corbusian Japan Pavilion (1956) by Takamasa Yoshizaka is a concrete box on four massive Downloaded by [Central Uni Library Bucharest] at 03:22 26 September 2013 supports with an Oriental garden on the sloping land below. Denmark’s pavilion was extended with a series of brick boxes by Peter Koch in 1958, and Uruguay built a simple new pavilion in the same year. The Italian architects BBPR erected the octagonal (1958) around two existing trees. Several trees were also retained Encyclopedia of 20th-century architecture 878

Dutch Pavilion, by Gerrit Rietveld, Venice Biennale (1954)

© Mark Stankard

within the Norway Pavilion (1962) (now for Scandinavia) by Sverre Fehn. The innovative concrete structure remains open to the Gardens and was conceptually derived from the neighboring United States Pavilion. The Brazil Pavilion (1964) by the Venetian Amerigo Marchesin occupies the axial crossing of the pavilions on the island of Sant’Elena. Louis Kahn proposed designs for a Meeting Hall and a new Italian Pavilion in 1968– 69. Little architectural work took place at the Biennale Gardens until the metal-clad, domestic-scaled (1988) was built by Philip Cox along the Gardens canal. Slipped within an allée near the Gardens entry, James Stirling and Michael Wilford produced the Book Pavilion, or “bookship,” in 1991. In 1995, Josef Hoffman’s Austrian Pavilion was significantly altered by the Viennese architects Coop Himmelb(l)au. They infiltrated the historic pavilion with an assemblage of columns, a roof, and a screen. Seok Chul Kim’s (1995) acknowledges the rising titles by lifting itself up on metal stilts. Its hinged wood screens protect the pavilion during off times—a solution common to both Venice and Korea and a recognition of the ephemeral condition of the Biennale. Many of the pavilions and the Gardens themselves are in poor condition, and as Venice continues to be inundated by the lagoon, this unique collection of 20th-century

Downloaded by [Central Uni Library Bucharest] at 03:22 26 September 2013 architecture requires preservation and the ability to evolve. The Venice Biennale Pavilions serve collectively as a connotative inventory of 20th-century modernism. MARK STANKARD Entries A–Z 879

Further Reading

Very little has been published in English on the Biennale Pavilions as a whole. Catalogs have been published for each of the Biennale exhibitions; these often contain mentions of the Pavilions, as do reviews in several art periodicals. There are also books on the Austria, , Israel, and Dutch Pavilions and on the works by Scarpa. Alloway, Lawrence, The Venice Biennale, 1895–1968, Greenwich, Connecticut: New York Graphic Society, 1968; London: Faber, 1969 Bazzoni, Romolo, 60 anni della Biennale di Venezia, Venice: Lombroso, 1962 Irace, Fulvio, “A Venezia, la città per l’arte; A City for Art within the City of Venice,” Abitare, 270 (December 1988) Mulazzani, Marco, I padiglioni della Biennale: Venezia, 1887–1988, : Electa, 1988; new edition, 1993 Rizzi, Paolo, and Enzo Di Martino, Storia della Biennale, 1895—1982, Milan: Electa, 1982 West, Shearer, “National Desires and Regional Realities in the Venice Biennale, 1895– 1914,” Art History, 18/3 (1995)

VENTURI, ROBERT 1925

Architect, United States Robert Venturi is the principal partner of Venturi, Scott Brown and Associates with Denise Scott Brown, Steven Izenour, and David Vaughn. He is best known for his architectural ideas outlined in his two influential books, Complexity and Contradiction in Architecture (1966) and Learning from Las Vegas (1972), written with Scott Brown and Izenour. Both texts critique the often dogmatic and narrow design agenda of modernist architecture and have been viewed as an antidote to the polemics of modernist architects such as , who famously wrote that “ornament is crime,” and Le Corbusier, who authored the classic manifesto Towards a New Architecture (1923). Directing 20th- century architects to study the commercial landscape of Main Street and the roadside as well as the classical tradition, Venturi and Scott Brown embrace historicism, decoration, language, and vernacular symbols. Learning from Las Vegas in particular argued for the celebration of both “high” and “low” architecture of the past, from the richness of classical Rome to the messiness of the commercial strip. Its emphasis on visual ambiguity, contradiction, dialectic, context, and complexity led to designs that were full Downloaded by [Central Uni Library Bucharest] at 03:22 26 September 2013 of wit and rich in connotations. Venturi’s residential architecture of the 1960s expressed his interest in the vernacular symbols and historical allusions outlined in Complexity and Contradiction. The Guild House (1960), a senior citizens apartment complex in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, referenced the classicism of Andrea Palladio in the design of its facade and pointed to the architecture of commerce with its prominent sign above the entry. The Vanna Venturi House (1962) in Chestnut Hill, Pennsylvania, borrowed from Encyclopedia of 20th-century architecture 880 the forms of the American saltbox (shingle style) and emphasized axial symmetry. The humorous and historical came together in Venturi’s creation of Benjamin Franklin’s “house” and museum (1973–76) in Independence National Historical Park in Philadelphia. Rather than reconstructing the long-demolished home of Franklin, Venturi and partners designed a vividly colored steel-frame outline of the house, which had been described by Franklin in letters to his wife, and placed the museum in the ground below. The firm has long had an interest in urban design, reflecting its focus on the American landscape. Planning work has included the South Street Rehabilitation Plan (1970) for Philadelphia and the Pennsylvania Avenue Project (1978–79) for Washington, D.C. Other projects have included industrial design and furniture design as well as exhibitions. “Signs of Life: Symbols in the American City” at the Renwick Gallery in Washington, D.C. (1976) was an exhibit of historical and contemporary signs. The display celebrated the American bicentennial by presenting the rich variety of signage found in the United States. Such work remained consistent with the firm’s appreciation of the vernacular and illustrated how Venturi and his partners have refused to limit the application of their ideas to one field. After 1980 Venturi received a number of large commissions. Such projects, while remaining true to the original theories of the firm, have tended toward the practical, thus helping shed Venturi’s reputation for superficial cleverness. Important commissions for universities and museums evidence the office’s wider acceptance. commissioned three buildings, including Wu Hall (1983), which referenced the style of English manor houses, thus complementing the campus’s eclectic mix of buildings. The Sainsbury Wing (1991) of the National Gallery in London alluded to the adjacent classical building yet reconfigured the purist style, referencing Victorian train sheds in the interior. Recent designs continued to reflect the firm’s commitment to historical styles and vernacular symbols. The Seattle Art Museum (1991) contained sensitive gallery spaces as well as massive incised lettering along the top of the limestone exterior. The Mielparque Nikko Kirifuri Resort (1997) in Nikko, Japan, reflects the traditional rural architecture of Japan. The global influence of Venturi and his partner Denise Scott Brown has been widely recognized through extensive writing, teaching, and lecturing. Consistent with an aesthetic of contradiction, Venturi’s works deal with both the formal and theoretical intersections of modernism and Postmodernism by engaging with the conditions of contemporary society, construction, and culture. NICOLAS MAFFEI See also Color; Postmodernism; Scott Brown, Denise (United States); Vanna Venturi House, Philadelphia

Downloaded by [Central Uni Library Bucharest] at 03:22 26 September 2013 Biography

Born in Philadelphia, 25 June 1925. Attended Princeton University, New Jersey 1943–50; bachelor of arts degree 1947; master of fine arts degree 1950; studied at the American Academy, Rome, on a Rome Prize Fellowship 1954–56. Married architect Denise Scott Brown 1967:1 child. Designer with the firms of Oscar Stonorov, Philadelphia; Eero Entries A–Z 881 Saarinen, Bloomfield Hills, Michigan; and Louis I. Khan, Philadelphia 1950–58. Partner with Paul Cope and H. Mather Lippincott, Venturi, Cope and Lippincott, Philadelphia 1958–61; partner with William Short, Venturi and Short, Philadelphia 1961–64; partner with John Rauch from 1964; partner with Rauch and Denise Scott Brown from 1967; Ossabow Island Project, Savannah, Georgia, from 1977; principal, Venturi, Scott Brown and Associates, Philadelphia from 1989. Assistant professor, then associate professor of architecture, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia 1957–65; State Department Lecturer in the USSR 1965; architect-inresidence, American Academy, Rome 1966; Charlotte Shepherd Davenport Professor of Architecture, Yale University, New Haven, Connecticut 1966–70; member, Panel of Visitors, School of Architecture and Urban Planning, University of California, 1966–67; visiting critic, Rice University, , Texas 1969; trustee, American Academy, Rome 1969–74; member, board of advisers, department of art and archaeology, Princeton University 1969–72, from 1977; member, board of advisers, School of Architecture and Urban Design, Princeton University from 1977; Walter Gropius Lecturer, Graduate School of Design, , Cambridge, Massachusetts 1982. Fellow, American Institute of Architects; fellow, American Academy of Arts and Sciences; fellow, American Academy, Rome; fellow, Accademia Nazionale de San Luca, Rome; honorary fellow, Royal Institute of British Architects; honorary fellow, Royal Incorporation of Architects of . Gold Medal, American Institute of Architects 1972; Commander, Order of Merit, Italy 1986; Pritzker Prize 1991. Downloaded by [Central Uni Library Bucharest] at 03:22 26 September 2013

Provincial Capitol Building, Toulouse, France (1999), by Robert Venturi Encyclopedia of 20th-century architecture 882

Photo by Matt Wargo © Venturi, Scott Brown and Associates

Selected Works

Guild House, Philadelphia, 1960 Vanna Venturi House, Chestnut Hill, Pennsylvania, 1962 South Street Rehabilitation Plan for Philadelphia, 1970 Brant House, Greenwich, Connecticut, 1973 Franklin Court, Independence National Historical Park, Philadelphia, 1976 Pennsylvania Avenue Project for Washington, 1979 Gordon Wu Hall, Princeton University, New Jersey, 1983 Art Museum, Seattle, 1991 Sainsbury Wing, National Gallery, London, 1991 The Gonda (Goldschmied) Neuroscience and Genetics Research Center, Los Angeles, 1997 Mielparque Nikko Kirifuri Resort, Nikko, Japan, 1997 Provincial Capitol Building, Toulouse, France, 1999

Selected Publications

Complexity and Contradiction in Architecture, 1966 Learning from Las Vegas (with Denise Scott Brown and Steven Izenour), 1972 A View from the Campidoglio: Selected Essays, 1953–1984 (with Denise Scott Brown), edited by Peter Arnell, Ted Bickford, and Catherine Bergart, 1984 Iconography and Electronics upon a Generic Architecture: A View from the Drafting Room, 1996

Further Reading

A+U, 12 (1981) (special issue entitled “Venturi, Rauch, and Scott Brown”) Futagawa, Yukio (editor), Vanna Venturi House, Chestnut Hill, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, 1962: Peter Brdnt House, Greenwich, Connecticut, 1973: Carll Tucker III House, Westchester County, New York, 1975, Tokyo: A.D.A. Edita, 1976 Ghirardo, Diane, Architecture after Modernism, New York: Thames and Hudson, 1996 Upton, Dell, Architecture in the United States, Oxford and New York: , 1998

Downloaded by [Central Uni Library Bucharest] at 03:22 26 September 2013 Von Moos, Stanislaus, Venturi, Scott Brown and Associates: Buildings and Projects, 1986–1998, New York: Monacelli Press, 1999 Wiseman, Carter, Shaping a Nation: Twentieth-Century American Architecture and Its Makers, New York: Norton, 1998 The Work of Venturi and Rauch: Architects and Planners (exhib. cat.), New York: Whitney Museum of American Art, 1971 Entries A–Z 883

VERNACULAR ARCHITECTURE

Although it had been in use among specialists for well over a century, the term “” became widely accepted only with its adoption in 1976 by the International Council on Monuments and Sites (ICOMOS). Other terms persist, such as “traditional,” “rural,” “regional,” “local,” “peasant,” “folk,” and “indigenous” architecture, serving collectively to identify the field of building encompassed by the vernacular. Its original meaning (from the Latin), “the language of the people,” is applicable to architecture as an extension of the commonly employed idea of “architecture as language,” in which styles of design are analogous to grammar or syntax. “Arquitectura popular,” used in both Spanish- and Portuguese-speaking countries, corresponds to the increasingly prevalent definition of the vernacular as “the architecture of, and by, the people.” With the wider acceptance of the term “vernacular architecture,” a distinction is made between buildings that are self-built or community built and used and those that are designed for the people, such as fast-food outlets, chain stores, filling stations, and strip malls. Including mobile homes, these latter types, as professionally designed structures for general use, are regarded as popular architecture. As such, they are distinguished from the vernacular, which broadly corresponds to the building traditions depicted in Bernard Rudofsky’s exhibition and catalog Architecture without Architects (1964) at the Museum of Modern Art, New York. The exhibition emphasized the aesthetic merits of vernacular traditions from nearly 30 countries that had been an inspiration for many architects in the 20th century. As early as 1910, Frank Lloyd Wright applauded “folk building[s] growing in response to actual needs, fitted into environment by people who knew no better than to fit them to it with native feeling,” which were “for us better worth study than all the highly self- conscious academic attempts at the beautiful throughout all ” (see Gutheim, 1941). A year later, Le Corbusier was sketching the peasant houses of Serbia and Bulgaria and praising “the konak, the Turkish wooden house,… an architectural masterpiece.” He was profoundly drawn to the vernacular buildings of the Greek islands and the Algerian M’Zab, and many architects followed his pursuit of purity and function in the “white” villages of the Mediterranean. Independently, Alvar Aalto in Finland, Michel de Klerk in the Netherlands, and later Luis Barragán in Mexico were among the many architects who drew on regional building for inspiration. In such cases, the vernacular was a source of stimulation for some and a justification of their design aesthetic for others. Simplicity of form and structure and the moral value of the Downloaded by [Central Uni Library Bucharest] at 03:22 26 September 2013 Miesinspired truth to materials and economy of means were increasingly established as the modernist architecture par excellence. Following the legacy of Adolf Loos’s essay “” (1908), vernacular traditions that employed decoration were generally disregarded in favor of reductivism. Vernacular examples offered less to architects who were seeking models of varied spatial experience, but their “fitness for purpose” and, above all, their functionality were seen as paradigms of modern approaches Encyclopedia of 20th-century architecture 884 to architectural design. Undoubtedly, all these qualities could be seen in a wide range of vernacular buildings, from farmhouses to workshops, granaries to cow barns, and lime kilns to windmills that not only helped clarify design objectives in the minds of many architects but also served to reinforce modernist principles. However, although some followed Wright’s advice to study “folk building,” his somewhat patronizing view of its builders was echoed by many architects and writers who referred to the “spontaneous,” “unconscious,” or “intuitive” building processes. Professional architects studied the vernacular more for their own benefit than for any that might accrue for the survival or protection of the traditions themselves, which in the years following World War II were threatened. The ravages of war, industrialization of building processes, need for mass housing, and universal adoption of Le Corbusian “tower blocks” and “slab blocks” marked the international success of modernism and, in many instances, the imminent demise of many vernacular traditions. Decline in the vernacular in many Western countries had been evident since the beginning of the 20th century. Largely through voluntary effort, examples of folk and traditional building were salvaged in many countries and displayed in open-air (Openlucht or Freilicht) museums, the earliest example being the Skansen in Sweden (1897), followed by museums in Maihaugen, Norway; Seurasaari, Finland; Arnhem, Holland; and Lyngby, Denmark. Other policies of protection, such as in situ conservation, relocation, rebuilding, reconstruction, and environmental rehabilitation, were implemented, exemplified in the United States in Old Deerfield; Colonial Williamsburg; Museum and Greenfield Village in Dearborn, Michigan; Old Sturbridge Village, Massachusetts; Cades Cove, Tennessee; and many other sites. In Europe, the open-air-museum movement resulted in many thousands of buildings being saved and open to the public in literally hundreds of locations in Scandinavian and Central European countries. Only a few museums opened in Germany and Britain, and none, until the 1980s, opened in Spain, France, or Italy. Although such enterprises did much to conserve specific vernacular buildings, the unfurnished interiors could appear bleak. Many curators solved this problem by depicting a historic period with appropriate artifacts and furniture, or with reenactments of daily life in the form of dioramas. Such methods were instructive, if nostalgic, ensuring the popular success of these museums but associating the vernacular only with past ways of life, having little relevance to the present or the future. Unfortunately, in most European countries, relatively little continuity of vernacular building was seen in the second half of the 20th century, as the imperative lessened and skills declined in the face of the expansion of the city suburbs and high-rise developments and the industrializing of building components and construction. Globalization, it might seem, is incompatible with the vernacular, and traditional Downloaded by [Central Uni Library Bucharest] at 03:22 26 September 2013 building of and by the people seems scarce. However, this is not the case. At the middle of the 20th century, the world’s population was estimated at 3.5 billion; by the end of the century, the population had almost doubled to six billion. Attempts at urban housing schemes have failed to make a significant impression on the demand for dwellings, as the everexpanding bustees, favelas, barriadas, bidonvilles, gecekondu, and other peri-urban squatter settlements in the industrially developing world dramatically demonstrate. Built Entries A–Z 885 of scrap materials and frequently illegal, they are the desperate measures taken by migrants to the cities; however, lacking in expression of skills or tradition and meeting no other needs beyond crude and minimal shelter, they are not vernacular. Of the world’s six billion people, a third live in the People’s Republic of China, and another billion on the Indian subcontinent. In these countries, housing is mainly vernacular, as it is in Indonesia and Southeast Asia and in much of Africa. The

Earth-molded, nontrabeated structures, including granary, shade shelter, and living unit from Gurunsi culture, northern Ghana

© Paul Oliver

growth in population has been accommodated largely through the absorption of families within existing unmodified structures and through the lateral or vertical extension of others. New building to traditional models has been not only of dwellings but also of innumerable stores, workshops, and religious buildings. It is unknown how many vernacular buildings are extant worldwide, whether old and still in use or of recent date and purpose built. Estimates (that might well be conservative) of around 800 million are cited, representing over 90 percent of the total building stock. To a great extent, these vernacular traditions have been overlooked by architects and architectural historians. Those histories that acknowledge that architecture is not solely a European and American phenomenon pay attention principally to monumental temples, Downloaded by [Central Uni Library Bucharest] at 03:22 26 September 2013 pagodas, mosques, and palaces, with some reference to colonial or administrative buildings, commercial structures, airports, and stadiums in the International Style of the 20th century. Lack of recognition has served as a disincentive to do original research in vernacular architecture; this was left to the enthusiasm of concerned architects and the personal motivations of devoted amateurs. Serious recording of vernacular buildings was undertaken in Germany in the late 19th Encyclopedia of 20th-century architecture 886 century, in the 1900s by English architects, and more widely in Europe and the United States with the growth of the open-air museums. American research was boosted in the 1930s by the Historic American Buildings Survey (HABS), and subsequently, in France, Portugal, and Romania, intensive national surveys were undertaken, recording the state of the vernacular on a provincial basis. Later, such surveys were conducted in Europe, although often only with institutional support. Methodologically, they followed conventional architectural practices, with plans, elevations, sections, and details being drawn, often with supporting photographic record and sometimes with historical documentation. Frequently, as in France and the United States, a typological approach was taken, although the concept of “type” was for some the identification of function and for others the classification of features, such as plan or roof form. As early as 1882, British architect W.Simpson published a report on the architecture of the Himalayas, prompting regional officials of the Western colonial powers to occasionally examine the indigenous buildings in their territories. Lacking any agreed program, objectives, or coordination of research, such studies varied greatly in quality and method and were widely dispersed. A concerted study of the vernacular traditions of French Cameroun by architectural students of the École des Beaux-Arts, published in 1952, marked a significant advance in research in non-Western countries. Preparation of materials, building construction methods, and domestic space use were examined and recorded. Preoccupations with typologies or historic derivation were shown to be largely irrelevant in such contexts, where the respective economies, material resources, and available technologies were important in the determination of their building forms. In the ensuing years, a number of important studies were made of specific vernacular traditions in parts of Asia, sub-Saharan Africa, the Middle East, North America, and to a lesser extent, Latin America. Often these were local, and researchers had problems developing appropriate methods for comparative studies. Historical resources such as wills, deeds, or parish records used in European research were seldom available, and conventional orthographic techniques were unsuitable for recording cave dwellings, tents, or molded, nontrabeated structures. Comparison of building traditions or the identification of the distribution or diffusion of structural systems or details was hindered by lacunae in research and the lack of comprehensive reference works. Many former studies, although useful in indicating constancy or change in buildings, were superficial visual records. Researchers encountered techniques of, for example, earth construction, which previously had not been subject to scrutiny; craft skills in the working of different kinds of stone, timbers, palms, and fibrous plant materials involved tools and methods of assembly, jointing, and cladding that were largely unclassified or undocumented. Classification of building forms seemed necessary so that the vast range of vernacular structures could be comprehended. From the domes of the Zulu (southern Africa) to the ring-walled multiple dwellings of the Keijia (southeastern China), they demonstrated Downloaded by [Central Uni Library Bucharest] at 03:22 26 September 2013 both the persistence of systems transmitted over generations and the variety to be found within every tradition. Although the fundamental rectangular prism of trabeated structures and mass-walled stone and adobe and brick structures was widespread, so too were the rondavels, or cylindrical units, whose diversity was evident in their compound clusters. Roof forms displayed even greater variety, with gabled, hipped, and half-hipped roofs of diverse pitches evident throughout Europe, from Scotland to Moldavia. Upswept Entries A–Z 887 gables that were dispersed throughout insular Southeast Asia, from the Batak of Sumatra to the great saddle roofs of the Toraja of Celebes, were perceived as characteristic of indigenous “styles.” Although the technical problems were not inconsiderable, vernacular studies revealed indigenous methods of climate modification, such as the Egyptian mashrabiyah, or balconied window screens, and the “wind scoops,” found in hot, arid climates in the Middle East, that transmit cool air to rooms. Hot and humid or monsoon climates require cross ventilation and protection from seasonal precipitation, whereas hurricanes necessitate shallow roof pitches and light construction. In temperate climates, protection is required against heavy rainfall and strong winds, whereas insulation and safeguards against snow loading are necessary in cold conditions. Such means of adaptation led to theories of climatic determinism, with broad principles being defined for settlement forms and building types in certain environments, including desert, savanna, forest, coastal, and insular locations. Exceptions arising from the demands of different economies, whether nomadic or sedentary, pastoral or agricultural, emphasized, as Forde had done in the 1930s, the relationship among society, economy, and habitat. The publication in 1969 of House Form and Culture by Amos Rapoport and of the edited collection of case studies Shelter and Society marked a new stage in vernacular studies. Although anthropologists such as Lewis H.Morgan and Victor Mindeleff in their researches among Native American tribes in the 1880s had demonstrated the significance of culture in defining building form, their work had been neglected. Now the cultural and anthropological aspects of building were given as much attention as their structural and architectural characteristics. The writings of anthropologists such as Griaule on the Dogon (Mali) and Bourdier on the Kabyle (Algeria), among many others, revealed the importance of kinship, social structures, belief systems, ritual, and in the vernacular architecture of cultures the world over. Features formerly regarded as styles were now revealed as signifiers of values and expressions of collective identity and were elucidated in, for example, the work of Hugh-Jones (Amazonia), Nabokov and Easton (Native America), and Bourdier and Minh-ha (West Africa). Anthropologists brought a cultural awareness to the study of vernacular but were seldom familiar with building principles and processes. The need for interdisciplinary dialogue and research inspired in the 1980s the biennial “Built Form and Culture Research” conferences alternating with those of the International Association for the Study of Traditional Environments (IASTE). Both emanated from the United States, but IASTE meetings were also held in Europe and North Africa. Both published proceedings, and books on local vernacular architecture proliferated. Some of these were written by non-Western authors, with the publications of the Aga Khan Award for Architecture (AKAA) providing a forum for Islamic and development studies. For some years, there had been a growing awareness of the vernacular on the part of Downloaded by [Central Uni Library Bucharest] at 03:22 26 September 2013 architects in the Middle East and Asia. Several endeavored to relate their buildings to local traditions, notably the Egyptian architect Hassan Fathy, whose village of New Gourna in West Luxor used the vault construction skills of Sudanese mud builders. In , Sedad Hakkí Eldem interpreted traditional models. More widely recognized was the work of the Indian architects Charles Correa and Balkrishna Doshi, whose large-scale projects were modernist in approach but who also designed more modest projects Encyclopedia of 20th-century architecture 888 compatible with the local vernacular. Geoffrey Bawa in Sri Lanka, Robi Sularto in Indonesia, and Andre Ravereau in Africa were among the architects who respected regional traditions. Despite the extent of research, the lack of informed awareness among architects and their clients, whether public or private, of the significance of vernacular traditions has led to disparagement, disregard, and often demolition. By the late 1980s, the need for a comprehensive reference work that could inform both anthropologists and architects and professionals and politicians became increasingly apparent. A ten-year project led eventually to the publication in 1997 of the Encyclopedia of Vernacular Architecture of the World, to which researchers from more than 80 countries contributed. Organized on a cultural rather than a national basis, it was unprecedented in bringing together research on the vernacular architecture and its cultural contexts extant on all continents in the 20th century. Principles of building with available resources, the nature of craft skills, environmental conditions and responses, and economies and their bear-ing on building functions, meaning, symbolism, and motifs are considered in relation to societal systems and building needs. However, attention is drawn to the deficiencies of certain vernacular traditions with regard to services, sanitation, and health. Much remains to be done, but the question of why such work should be undertaken and acted on must be addressed. Vernacular architecture not only accounted for the vast majority of all buildings up to the 1950s but also met immense housing demands as the world population doubled in the second half of the 20th century. Yet this achievement has never been measured, and neither has the effort in human endeavor or the use of available or renewable resources in building or land. By comparison, officially sanctioned housing, whether government promoted or commercially developed, is minimal in its effect and produced at costs that would be beyond the capacity of most national economies in attempting to meet the demands of the next half century. Although neither acknowledged nor budgeted, vernacular architecture will be essential to meet the housing needs of the projected further doubling of the population. Recognizing this and providing adequate support in services while planning the economic survival of rural communities, developing nations could ensure that appropriate housing can be achieved through vernacular means, as it has been in the past. PAUL OLIVER

Further Reading

A comprehensive classified bibliography with over 9000 entries is to be found in Oliver 1997; this work covers theories and principles of vernacular architecture and details of publications on regional traditions in all parts of the world. Selected bibliographies are to Downloaded by [Central Uni Library Bucharest] at 03:22 26 September 2013 be found in many of the following works. Beguin, Jean-Pierre, L ‘Habitat au Cameroun: Presentation des principaux types d’habitat, Paris: Éditions de l’Union Française, 1952 Blier, Suzanne Preston, The Anatomy of Architecture: Ontology and Metaphor in Batammaliba Architectural Expression, Cambridge and New York: Cambridge University Press, 1987 Bourdier, Jean-Paul, and Nezar Al-Sayyad (editors), Dwellings, Settlements, and Entries A–Z 889 Tradition: Cross-Cultural Perspectives, Lanham, Maryland: University Press of America, 1989 Bourdier, Jean-Paul, and Minh-ha Trinh, Drawn from African Dwellings, Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1996 Brunskill, R.W., Illustrated Handbook of Vernacular Architecture, London: Faber, 1970; New York: Universe Books, 1971; 4th edition, London: Faber, 2000 Le Corbusier, Le Voyage d’Orient, Paris: Éditions Forces Vives, 1966; as Journey to the East, edited and translated by Ivan Zaknic, Cambridge, Massachusetts: MIT Press, 1987 Damluji, Salma Samar, The Valley of Mud Brick Architecture: Shibam, Tarim, and Wadi Hadramut, Reading, Berkshire: Garnet, 1992 Forde, Cyril Darryl, Habitat, Economy, and Society, New York: Harcourt Brace, and London: Methuen, 1934; fifth edition, New York: Dutton, and London: Methuen, 1956 Glassie, Henry H., Folk Housing in Middle Virginia: A Structural Analysis of Historic Artifacts, Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press, 1975 Griaule, Marcel, Dieu d’eau: Entretiens avec Ogotemmêli, Paris: Éditions du Chêne, 1948; new edition, Paris: Fayard, 1975; as Conversations with Ogotemmeli: An Introduction to Dogon Religious Ideas, London: Oxford University Press, 1965; New York: Oxford University Press, 1970 Guidoni, Enrico, Architettura primitiva, Milan: Electa, 1975; as Primitive Architecture, New York: Abrams, 1978; London: Faber, 1979 Gutheim, Frederick (editor), Frank Lloyd Wright on Architecture: Selected Writings, 1894–1940, New York: Duell Sloan and Pearce, 1941 Hugh-Jones, Christine, From the Milk River: Spatial and Temporal Processes in Northwest Amazonia, Cambridge and New York: Cambridge University Press, 1979 Mindeleff, Victor, A Study of Pueblo Architecture in Tusayan and Cibola, Washington, D.C.: Press, 1891; reprint, 1989 Morgan, Lewis Henry, Houses and House-Life of the American Aborigines, Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1881; reprint, Chicago: Press, 1985 Nabokov, Peter, and Robert Easton, Native American Architecture, New York: Oxford University Press, 1989 Oliver, Paul, Dwellings: The House across the World, Oxford: Phaidon, and Austin: University of Texas Press, 1987 Oliver, Paul (editor), Shelter and Society, London: Barrie and Rockliff the Cresset P., and New York: Praeger, 1969 Oliver, Paul (editor), The Encyclopedia of Vernacular Architecture of the World, 3 vols., Cambridge and New York: Cambridge University Press, 1997 Prussin, Labelle (editor), African Nomadic Architecture: Space, Place, and Gender, Washington D.C.: Smithsonian Institution Press, 1995 Rapoport, Amos, House Form and Culture, Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice- Hall, 1969

Downloaded by [Central Uni Library Bucharest] at 03:22 26 September 2013 Rudofsky, Bernard, Architecture without Architects: A Short Introduction to Non- Pedigreed Architecture, New York: Museum of Modern Art, and London: Academy Editions, 1964 Turan, Meta (editor), Vernacular Architecture: Paradigms of Environmental Response, Aldershot, Berkshire, and Brookfield, Vermont: Avebury, 1990 Upton, Dell, and John Michael Vlach (editors), Common Places: Readings in American Vernacular Architecture, Athens: Press, 1986 Encyclopedia of 20th-century architecture 890 Waterson, Roxana, The Living House: An Anthropology of Architecture in South-East Asia, Singapore, Oxford, and New York: Oxford University Press, 1990

VESNIN, ALEXANDER, LEONID VESNIN, AND VIKTOR VESNIN

Architects, Among the many architects whose work adhered to the principles of , perhaps the most stalwart and productive proponents of the movement were the : Leonid (1880–1933), Viktor (1882–1950), and Alexander (1883–1959), all of whom were raised in the town of Iurevets on the Volga River. Although the brothers went to St. Petersburg at the beginning of the century for their professional education (Leonid graduated from the architectural program at the Academy of Arts in 1909 and Viktor and Alexander from the Institute of Civil Engineering in 1912), their careers were largely connected with both before and after their graduation. For example, in 1905–07 they worked as assistants to such leading Moscow proponents of the neoclassical revival as Ilarion Ivanov-Schitz and Roman Klein, and in 1909 Leonid worked with the artist V.A. Simonov in designing a large Arts and Crafts- style house for V.A. Nosenkov in the Moscow suburbs. Alexander, the most artistically gifted of the three, worked in Vladimir Tatlin’s studio between 1912 and 1914 and also revealed a considerable talent as a stage designer. During the material restrictions of the early postrevolutionary years, the theater stage provided the Vesnins—Alexander in particular—with a means for exploring methods of dynamic construction in space, under the obvious influence of Tatlin. The most remarkable product of this phase was Alexander Vesnin’s set design in 1922 for Alexander Tairov’s production of The Man Who Was Thursday at the Moscow Chamber (Kamernyi) Theater. With its intersecting planes and ramps, the set not only emphasized the dynamic of the actors’ motion but also bridged the gap between the theoretical constructions of artists such as , , and Antoine Pevsner and the practical design of large structures. The Vesnins’ progression from dynamic, avant-garde set constructions to the much larger scale of major architectural projects was soon evident in their 1923 design for the Palace of Labor competition. Although their submission was awarded only third prize, it served as a programmatic statement in the development of a Constructivist aesthetic, combining both monumentality and severe functionalism in the massing of simple

Downloaded by [Central Uni Library Bucharest] at 03:22 26 September 2013 geometric shapes in a complex balance. The center of the plan was the oval meeting hall in the form of an amphitheater, 75 by 67 meters in size. The array of radio masts and docking ports for airships around the top was functionally justified despite its futuristic appearance in the context of a war-ravaged country reestablishing a modicum of civilized existence. In 1925 Alexander and Viktor Vesnin, together with Moisei Ginzburg, founded the Entries A–Z 891 Constructivist organization OSA (Organization of Contemporary Architecture). Indeed, the preceding year Alexander had designed the book jacket for Ginzburg’s programmatic work Style and Epoch. With the quickening tempo of state construction during the late 1920s, all three brothers were actively engaged in projects extending from the Caucasus to the colossal hydroelectric dam across the Dnieper River, the DneproGES, designed by Viktor Vesnin in collaboration with Nikolai Kolli and others. Although each brother maintained a separate, distinct practice, they are best known for the projects they did together. The brief flourishing of private commerce toward the end of the New Economic Policy (NEP) period is represented in the Vesnins’ design of the Mostorg retail department store (1927–29) in central Moscow. Located on an awkward trapezoidal lot in the Krasnaia Presnia working-class district, the store, with its double-glazed facade framed by a ferroconcrete structure, appeared strikingly modern when first constructed in its context of 19th-century brick buildings. It has since suffered by the addition of another story and by a lack of proper maintenance. Like other major architects of the late 1920s, the Vesnins were much concerned with the creation of institutions for social communication. One of the most modernistic of such designs—and one of the last Constructivist buildings in Moscow—was the club for the Society of Tsarist Political Prisoners, begun in 1931. In addition to meeting rooms and a theater hall, the extensive complex was to contain a museum. In 1934, however, the society was disbanded (an ominous prelude to the Stalinist purges, which would create an altogether new society of political prisoners), and the larger plans for a museum were eliminated. Even in this truncated and deformed version, the harmony of the pure, undecorated volumetric forms is evident and reflects, if coincidentally, some of the oldest formal traditions in . The culminating project in the Vesnins’ Constructivist oeuvre was an outgrowth of the concept of the workers’ club. In order to serve the social needs of the Proletarian district, which contained an automobile factory and workers’ settlement in southeast Moscow, the Vesnins designed a large complex of three buildings. The site overlooked the Moscow River and was adjacent to the Simonov Monastery, part of whose walls were razed in the course of constructing the project. Yet the largest part of the ensemble, a theater with a circular hall designed to seat 4000, was never built, nor was the projected sports building. The central element, however—the club building itself—was built between 1931 and 1937. This period was marred by the death of Leonid in 1933 and by the brothers’ increasing need to defend their Constructivist designs. Nonetheless, the Vesnins persevered to a remarkable degree, bending to the system without rejecting the work that stood at the center of the Constructivist movement. In their writings it is clear that Viktor and Alexander Vesnin considered the Proletarian Region Club one of their most significant works, not only for its union of functions—a Downloaded by [Central Uni Library Bucharest] at 03:22 26 September 2013 1000-seat theater, ballroom, meeting halls, and exhibition space—but also for the way in which form followed function and space flowed effortlessly from one component to another. The manner in which the design combined an acute aesthetic sensibility with function was particularly important at a time when Constructivism was under attack for its purported inability to recognize the people’s aesthetic needs. In the club building, the Encyclopedia of 20th-century architecture 892 Vesnins’ fluency was reflected on the exterior in such details as the contours of the large rounded bay window over the entrance to the auditorium and a semicircular conservatory extending from the river facade. The club also included a small astronomy observatory, which created an additional visual component for the upper structure. Unfortunately, the interior of the building has been considerably modified since the Vesnins’ original design, but the structure itself is still relatively well maintained. In 1935 the Vesnin brothers attempted a reply to the growing retrospectivist tendency in by stating that “the canonization of an old form, however excellent, is a brake on the development of content.” At the same time, Viktor and Alexander remained active in the architectural profession, were awarded high state honors, and participated in major competitions, such as the design for the People’s Commissariat of Heavy Industry (unrealized). Although structural concepts of the classical revival with which they began their careers appeared in their later designs, they continued to reject the role of monumental painting and sculpture that became so prominent in architecture of the late Stalinist period. To the end they adhered to their belief in the integrity of structure as the determining principle in architectural design. WILLIAM C.BRUMFIELD See also Constructivism; Ginzburg, Moisei (Russia); Monument to the Third International (1920); Russia and the Soviet Union

Proletarian Region Club (1937), Moscow, by Alexander, Leonid, and Viktor Vesnin Downloaded by [Central Uni Library Bucharest] at 03:22 26 September 2013

© William C.Brumfield Entries A–Z 893

Biographies

Alexander Vesnin Born in Iurevets, Russia, 16 May 1883. Attended the Institute of Civil Engineering, St. Petersburg, 1901–12; studied painting with Yan Tsionglinsky, St. Petersburg, and Konstantin Yuon, Moscow 1909–11; visited Italy and studied Palladio 1913–14. Assistant to Ilarion Ivanov-Schitz, Roman Klein, and O.R. Munts 1909–11; worked in Vladimir Tatlin’s studio, The Tower 1912–13. Served in the Russian Army 1916–17. Became involved in stage design 1920; editor, with Moisei Ginzburg, Sovremennaya arkhitektura 1926–30; director, architecture studio of the Mussoviet, then the architecture studio of the Commissariat for Heavy Industry and Ministry of Petroleum 1933–35. Professor of painting, VKhUTEMAS, Moscow 1921–24; taught at the Institute of Architecture, Moscow 1930–36. Member, Inkhuk (Russian Institute of Artistic Culture) 1921; founded, with Ginzburg, OSA (Russian Union of Contemporary Architects) 1925; member, All Union Academy of Architecture 1933. Died in Moscow, 7 November 1959.

Leonid Vesnin Born in Nizhni Novgorod, Russia, 10 December 1880. Studied at the Academy of Fine Arts, St. Petersburg 1901–09. Professor of architectural design, Moscow Higher Technical College. Member, OSA (Russian Union of Contemporary Architects); co- president, Moscow Association of Architects 1922. Received the Order of the Red Banner. Died in Moscow, 8 October 1933.

Viktor Vesnin Born in Iurevets, Russia, 9 April 1882. Attended the Institute of Civil Engineering, St. Petersburg 1901–1912; visited Italy and studied Palladio 1913–14. Assistant to Ilarion Ivanov-Schitz, Roman Klein, and O.R. Munts 1909–11; director, architecture studio of the Mussoviet, then the architecture studio of the Commissariat for Heavy Industry and Ministry of Petroleum 1933–35. Taught at the Institute of Architecture, Moscow 1930– 36. Secretary, Union of Soviet Architects 1937–49; first president, All Union Academy of Architecture 1939–49; member, OSA (Russian Union of Contemporary Architects). Received the Order of Lenin; Gold Medal, Royal Institute of British Architects 1945. Died in Moscow, 17 September 1950.

Alexander, Leonid, and Viktor Vesnin Collaborated on numerous projects but never established a formal partnership; most active in the period between world wars. Downloaded by [Central Uni Library Bucharest] at 03:22 26 September 2013

Selected Works

Post Office, Myasnitskaya Street, Moscow, 1911 Sirotkin House, Nizhni Novgorod, 1915 Dynamo Stock Company, Moscow, 1917 Encyclopedia of 20th-century architecture 894 Karl Marx Monument (destroyed), , Moscow, 1919 Palace of Labor (Third prize, competition), Moscow, 1923 Pravda Newspaper Building (unbuilt), Leningrad, 1924 Institute of Mineralogy, Moscow, 1925 Mostorg Department Store, Moscow, 1929 Dnieper Dam and Hydroelectric Station, 1930 Society of Tsarist Political Prisoners Club (incomplete), Moscow, 1934 Film Actors Club, Moscow, 1934 Palace of Culture, Moscow, 1937 Proletarian Region Club, Moscow, 1937

Further Reading

There are many publications in English on the Vesnins’ work, most notably Khan- Magomedov’s monumental study. A comprehensive Russian selection of their writings from 1922 to 1947 is contained in the Barkhin volume. Barkhin, M.G., et al. (editors), Mastera sovetskoi arkhitektury ob arkhitekture (Masters of Soviet Architecture on Architecture), 2 vols., Moscow: Iskusstvo, 1975 Brumfield, William C., The Origins of Modernism in Russian Architecture, Berkeley: University of California Press, 1991 Cooke, Catherine, Russian Avant-Garde: Theories of Art, Architecture, and the City, London: Academy Editions, 1995 Ilin, Mikhail, Vesniny, Moscow: Izd-vo Akademii Nauk SSSR, 1960 Khan-Magomedov, S.O., Alexandre Vesnine et le constructivisme russe, Paris: Sers, 1986; as Alexander Vesnin and Russian Constructivism, New York: Rizzoli, and London: Lund Humphries, 1986 Lodder, Christina, Russian Constructivism, New Haven, Connecticut: Yale University Press, 1983; third edition, 1987 Riabushin, A.V., and N.I.Smolina, Landmarks of Soviet Architecture, 1917–1991, New York: Rizzoli, 1992 Zemtsov, S.M. (editor), Zodchie Moskvy (Architects of Moscow), 2 vols., Moscow: Moskovskii Rabochii, 1981–88

VIDHAN BHAVAN (STATE ASSEMBLY BHOPAL) Downloaded by [Central Uni Library Bucharest] at 03:22 26 September 2013 Designed by Charles Correa, completed 1986 Bhopal, India The Vidhan Bhavan (1980–86), designed by Charles Correa, sits on a crest that offers magnificent views of the city of Bhopal, the capital of the state of Madhya Pradesh. It houses the state assembly (the lower house with 366 members, the upper house with 75), the offices of the chief minister and other ministers of the cabinet, the speaker, the chief Entries A–Z 895 secretary, various committee rooms, and rooms for the supporting staff. The design is conceived in terms of the circular fortified enclosure within which are housed various buildings that can be accessed from three directions. The formal organization of this complex follows a nine-part layout that the architect attributes to the mandala diagram. Each of the nine parts is distinct, partly because of the function that each section houses and partly because of the iconographic scheme. For example, the Vidhan Sabha (Lower House) is located at the southwest corner within the form of a stupa, representing the stupa at Sanchi, a major architectural monument in the state. The focus of movement is invested in the two axes, whereas the places of congregation—the “Combined Hall,” the Vidhan Sabha, the Vidhan Parishad (Upper House), and the library—are located at the four outer corners. The three main entrances are situated on the two axes, with the legislators’ entrance and the VIP entrance for the speaker opposite each other and the public entrance on the southwest axis. The legislative axis takes one from the legislators’ entrance through the foyer and central hall and ends at the legislators’ foyer adjacent to the VIP entrance. The Vidhan Sabha and Vidhan Parishad sit on either side at the end. In contrast to this axis, if one follows the more dominant axis of movement, which is supposed to be for public entrance, it seems to have more of a symbolic aspect incorporated into the sequence of movement. It can be compared to the Indian temple, wherein the most sacred element is situated at the very end of the axis—in this case, the cabinet room and the chief minister’s office. The architect engages with the images associated with land and water and reverses the traditionally received conceptions along this axis. Here the entrance area is paved in a pattern of waves and has the map of the state on one side, which marks the water body. This entrance plaza leads to the court of the people, which is in the form of a traditional kund (water tank). The images associated with the sea are repeatedly employed within the complex, such as the conchlike shapes for the combined hall and the undulating wavelike form for the roofs. The uniqueness of the project is its use of mythical and historic symbols not only in its organizational scheme but also in its decorative scheme, although the manner in which these symbols are employed in both cases is strictly figurative. The use of folk art in the and other artwork in this complex contributes to the revival of traditional art and motifs without an excessive feeling of pastiche. The large murals covering the walls around the kund (painted by the finest folk artists of the Bastar region), sculptures such as the green-marbled sculpture of the Goddess of the Narmada River floating above the reflecting pool, and paintings and other artwork found throughout the building are distinct examples of the rich artistic traditions of the state. At the same time, the building is replete with iconic elements, such as the gateway of the Sanchi stupa, which is replicated at the entrance of the Vidhan Sabha. Although the building has a monumental character, because of the use of a fortified Downloaded by [Central Uni Library Bucharest] at 03:22 26 September 2013 citadel-like enclosure, the architect manages to break down the feeling of a monolithic whole by the use of a series of courtyards, pathways, and halls, thereby creating the feeling of a city within a city. Formally expressed as a unified assembly building, the complex is not so much of the country as it is of the diverse nature of the state of Madhya Pradesh through the use of iconographic elements that are supposed to be emblematic of different aspects of the state. Encyclopedia of 20th-century architecture 896 This project received the Aga Khan Award in 1998 and has been commended by critics for its “heroic scale,” “the wide range of spatial experiences that it offers,” and its “use of mythical and historical symbols.” Although much has been written about the “ritualistic pathway” and the building’s being a veritable temple to , the success of these aspects of the building might be overstated. The complex can be seen as one more exploration of what has often been referred to as the “architecture of horizontal planes— of roofs and platforms, open colonnades, verandahs and courtyards,” a characteristic seen in a chain of other projects by Correa, such as Bharat Bhavan, the Crafts Museum, and

Vidhan Bhavan (State Assembly), Bhopal, India, designed by Charles Mark Correa

© Aga Khan Award for Architecture

especially Jawahar Kala Kendra, which is also organized in a nine-square mandala. AARATI KANEKAR See also Correa, Charles Mark (India); India

Further Reading

Campbell, Robert, “The Aga Khan Award: Honoring Substance over Style,”

Downloaded by [Central Uni Library Bucharest] at 03:22 26 September 2013 Architectural Record, 186/11 (November 1998) Charles Correa, Singapore: Concept Media, 1984; revised edition, by Hasan-Uddin Khan, Singapore: Concept Media, and New York: Aperture, 1987 Correa, Charles, and Kenneth Frampton, Charles Correa, London: Thames and Hudson, 1996 Davidson, Cynthia (editor), Legacies for the Future: Contemporary Architecture in Islamic Societies, London: Thames and Hudson, 1998 Entries A–Z 897 Digby-Jones, Penelope, “State of Assembly,” Architecture Review, 202/1206 (August 1997) Sorkin, Michael, “The Borders of ,” Metropolis, 18/4 (December 1998)

VIENNA SECESSION

The Secession has attained such an exalted role in the saga of early modern architecture and design that its origins as a society composed mostly of easel painters has been almost forgotten. Like the Munich and Berlin Secessions, which were also formed in the 1890s, the organization—whose official title was the Vereinigung Bildender Künstler Österreichs (Secession) (Association of Austrian Fine Artists [Secession])—was born of a revolt against the artistic establishment, but its objectives were initially as much commercial as ideological. However, it soon emerged at the forefront of the efforts to reform art and architecture, and until the split of the Klimt faction in 1905, it became virtually synonymous with the Vienna Moderne. The target of the young revoltés in Vienna was the Künstlerge-nossenschaft (Artists’ Association), or as it was more commonly known, the Künstlerhaus, a private artists’ alliance that, in the absence of a well-developed gallery system, exercised nearly complete control of exhibitions and sales of art. The proximate cause of the rebellion was the reelection of the archconservative Eugen Felix to the presidency of the Künstlerhaus in November 1896. Many of the more radical members, including the painters Josef Engelhart, Carl Moll, and Gustav Klimt and the young architect Joseph Maria Olbrich, already angered by the treatment of impressionists and plein air painters, formed a new, alternate exhibiting society at the beginning of April 1897, and in late May, Klimt and 12 others artists formally resigned from the Künstlerhaus. They were eventually joined by many of the city’s other progressive artists, designers, and architects, including Josef Hoffmann and, in November 1899, Otto Wagner. From the start, the Secession espoused no single artistic philosophy or style. What united its members instead was a shared rejection of historical in painting and revivalism in architecture, and although the Secessionist movement subsequently became closely associated with the Austrian Art Nouveau or (or, as it was often referred to at the time, the Secessionsstil), the association’s membership represented a wide array of modernist influences and ideas, from naturalism and to Art Nouveau and protofunctionalism. The Secession also brought together artists working in a variety of media: painters, sculptors, graphic artists, typographers, and designers, as Downloaded by [Central Uni Library Bucharest] at 03:22 26 September 2013 well as architects. The aims of the group were similarly broad. The formation of the Secession developed, as Klimt expressed in a protest letter to the leadership of the Künstlerhaus,

out of a recognition of the necessity of bringing artistic life in Vienna into more lively contact with the continuing development of art abroad, and of putting Encyclopedia of 20th-century architecture 898 exhibitions on a purely artistic footing, free from any commercial considerations; of thereby awakening in wider circles a purified, modern view of art; and lastly, of inducing a heightened concern for art in official circles. (quoted in Vergo, 1975)

To realize these aspirations, the Secessionists launched their own journal, Ver Sacrum (Sacred Spring), in 1898. The title of the journal was drawn from the Roman ritual of consecration of youth in times of national peril, a reflection of the Secessionists’ goal of aesthetic and cultural regeneration. Lavishly produced in its early years, Ver Sacrum encapsulated the desire of the Secessionists not only to elevate the standards of Austrian artistic production and to embrace the new but also to bring together all the arts. In addition to reproductions of paintings, drawings, graphic design, and architecture, the journal featured music, poetry, and essays by leading Austrian and foreign modernists. Even more central to this program was the series of exhibitions that the Secessionists organized just before and after the turn of the century. The first of these exhibitions opened in late March 1898. It featured, along with works by the Austrian members of the association, paintings, lithographs, and drawings by Fernand Khnopff, Alphonse Mucha, , Giovanni Segatini, James McNeill Whistler, and others. The responsibility for the design and arrangement of the exhibition (held in rented rooms of the Horticultural Society Building on the Parkring) was accorded to Hoffmann and Olbrich, who also outfitted a “Ver Sacrum room,” the first of a series of spaces combining the newest ideas in the applied arts and interior design. The inaugural exhibition proved to be a huge financial success (despite Klimt and his colleagues’ vociferous disavowal of the rampant commercialism of the Künstlerhaus), but it also underscored the need for a permanent exhibition hall. Through various connections with the Vienna city government, the Secessionists succeeded in securing a long-term lease on a parcel of land on the Karlplatz adjacent to the Academy of Fine Arts, and the task of designing the new building was given over to Olbrich. Olbrich’s gallery, which was completed in time for the second exhibition in November 1898, has become the most recognized architectural symbol of the Secession. Emblazoned over its portal are the words of the critic and supporter of the Secession Ludwig Downloaded by [Central Uni Library Bucharest] at 03:22 26 September 2013 Entries A–Z 899

Secession House, detail of , designed by J.M.Olbrich

© Howard Davis/GreatBuildings.com Downloaded by [Central Uni Library Bucharest] at 03:22 26 September 2013 Hevesi: “Der Zeit ihre Kunst, der Kunst ihre Freiheit” (To Every Age Its Art, to Art Its Freedom). It was the building’s golden dome—an open, gilded ironwork sphere of laurel leaves and berries—however, that drew the immediate attention, as well as the sarcasm, of the Viennese public, who mockingly christened it “the golden cabbage” and “the Mahdi’s tomb.” However, the revolutionary nature of Olbrich’s creation extended beyond Encyclopedia of 20th-century architecture 900 its gleaming dome, chaste white walls, and sinuous vegetal graffiti. By relying on a light steel truss and glass roofing system supported by thin columns, Olbrich provided a remarkably open and adaptable space, one that suited perfectly the Secession’s ambitious and varied exhibition program. The second exhibition, like its predecessor, again featured easel art by Viennese and foreign artists. A large area, however, was given over to a group of architectural drawings by Otto Wagner and his students, and an entire room was devoted to a display of applied arts by Olbrich, Hoffmann, Koloman Moser, and others. The emphasis on architecture and the applied arts reflected a conviction within most of the Secession’s confraternity of a changing relationship of art and design. Painting and sculpture—previously regarded as a higher form of artistic work—were now displayed on an equal basis with furniture, metal- and glasswork, textiles, and graphic design. Although this trend was evident in avant-garde circles throughout Europe, in Vienna the striving toward a unification of the arts was even more pronounced, and it accounted for the special character of many of the Secession’s subsequent exhibits. The idea of the Gesamtkunstwerk, or total work of art, reached its apotheosis in the 14th exhibition, held from April to June 1902. It featured a single work, a statue of a seated Beethoven by artist Max Klinger, which was placed on a carefully framed platform at the far end of the gallery. Surrounding it were murals by Klimt, Roller, and others. Klimt’s Beethoven frieze, recently permanently reinstalled in the Secession Building, constituted a visual representation of ideas of the music and ideas of Beethoven’s music—perhaps, as some historians have argued, the final, choral movement of Beethoven’s Ninth Symphony, which was performed at the exhibit’s opening. The installation also included an abstract relief by Hoffmann, one that likewise merged the newest ideas in painting and the decorative arts. Many of the Secession’s early exhibitions also included the works of some of the foremost modernist designers in Europe. The eighth exhibition presented objects by Charles Robert Ashbee, Henri van de Velde, and Charles Rennie Mackintosh and his wife, Margaret Macdonald. Later exhibitions introduced many of the leading young designers in Vienna, among them Joze Plecnik, Robert Örley, and Leopold Bauer. Before 1901, both the exhibition designs and most of the objects on display evinced the swirling forms of the early, curvilinear Jugendstil. However, by 1901 there was a decided trend toward a new rectilinearity and reductivism in design. This transformation was most evident in the works of Hoffmann and Moser, who together forged what became the emblematic form language of the Secession, a modular, geometricized vocabulary that anticipated the later emergence of functionalism. The era of the geometric Jugendstil in the Secession proved to be shortlived, however. In 1903, Hoffmann and Moser founded their own artists’ collective, the Wiener Werkstätte, and they increasingly devoted their time and efforts to its operation. Many of the exhibitions after 1903 also failed to match Downloaded by [Central Uni Library Bucharest] at 03:22 26 September 2013 the quality and inventiveness of the Secession’s early years. Among the few significant later exhibitions was the 23rd, which included Wagner’s projects for the Steinhof Church and his ill-starred Stadtmuseum. The decline in standards was in part the result of a growing rift within the Secession that began to manifest itself around 1904. The split was a consequence largely of differing views in the membership over the relative roles of painting and applied arts. Entries A–Z 901 Many of the pure painters (Nur-Maler) resented the privileged role of Hoffmann and the other Raumkünstler (decorative artists), charging that architecture and design were being promoted at the expense of easel art. The Secession had broken into two opposing camps: the Klimt-Gruppe, which included Hoffmann, Moser, Wagner, and most of the other architects and designers, and the pure painters, led by Josef Engelhart. For a time, the two groups continued to coexist, but in 1905 Klimt and most of the other prominent artists, architects, and designers resigned over an argument concerning the Klimt faction’s affiliation with a local gallery, leaving the more traditional painters in control. Although the Secession survived as an organization and continued to mount exhibitions, it ceased to be a driving force in Austrian art. During its heyday, the Vienna Secession provided a vibrant forum for the city’s avant- garde to explore the newest currents in art, architecture, and design. For a time, the union succeeded brilliantly in achieving its goals of elevating the standards of Austrian art, establishing contacts abroad, and promoting modernism. However, the Secessionists failed in their bid to win full government support, a situation that would have fateful consequences for Wagner, Klimt, and many of the other progressive members. The position of the Secession in the larger history of modernism is also an ambiguous one. Although Hoffmann, Moser, Olbrich, and the other applied artists were able to foster an extraordinary new design direction, their reliance on traditional craft and deluxe materials ensured that most of the Secession’s products would remain inaccessible to a broad spectrum of society. In the end, the growing reliance on industrial production and mass marketing would render their achievements more and more irrelevant. The Gesamtkunstwerk ideal of the complete aestheticization of life proved to be unsustainable. CHRISTOPHER LONG See also Art Nouveau (Jugendstil); Ashbee, C.R. (Great Britain); Hoffmann, Josef (Austria); Mackintosh, Charles Rennie (Scotland); Olbrich, Josef Maria (Austria); van de Velde, Henri (Belgium); Wagner, Otto (Austria)

Further Reading

Ankwicz von Kleehoven 1960, Vergo 1975, and Schorske 1980 provide good brief descriptions of the early years of the Vienna Secession. The most complete account is in Bisanz-Prakken 1999. On the Secession Building itself, see Clark 1967 and Vereinigung Bildender Künstler Wiener Secession, Die Wiener Secession 1986, vol. 1. For a discussion of the various exhibition designs see Forsthuber 1991. Ankwicz von Kleehoven, “Die Anfänge der Wiener Secession,” Alte und moderne Kunst, 5/6–7 (1960)

Downloaded by [Central Uni Library Bucharest] at 03:22 26 September 2013 Bahr, Hermann, Secession, Vienna: L.Rosner, 1900 Bahr, Hermann, Gegen Klimt, Vienna: J.Eisenstein, 1903 Bisanz-Prakken, Marian, Heiliger Frühling. Gustav Klimt und die Anfänge der Wiener Secession, 1895–1905, Vienna: Albertina/ Christian Brandstätter, 1999 Bubnova, Jaroslava, and Robert Fleck (editors), Vienna Secession 1898–1998: The Century of Artistic Freedom, Munich and New York: Prestel, 1998 Clark, Robert Judson, “Olbrich and Vienna,” Kunst in Hessen und am Mittelrhein, 7 Encyclopedia of 20th-century architecture 902 (1967) Forsthuber, Sabine, Moderne Raumkunst. Wiener Ausstellungsbauten von 1898 bis 1914, Vienna: Picus, 1991 Hevesi, Ludwig, Acht Jahre Secession (März 1897-Juni 1905): Kritik, Polemik, Chronik, Vienna: Carl Konegen, 1906 Hevesi, Ludwig, Altkunst—Neukunst—Wien 1894–1908, Vienna: Carl Konegen, 1909 Nebehay, Christian M. Ver Sacrum, 1898–1903, New York: Rizzoli, 1977 Neuwirth, Walter Maria, “Die sieben heroischen Jahre der Wiener Moderne,” Alte und moderne Kunst, 9/5–6 (1964) Schorske, Carl E., Fin-de-siècle Vienna: Politics and Culture, New York: Knopf, 1980 Shedel, James, Art and Society: The New Art Movement in Vienna, 1897–1914, Palo Alto, California: Society for the Promotion of Science, 1981 Varnedoe, Kirk, Vienna 1900: Art, Architecture, Design (exhib. cat.), New York: Museum of Modern Art, 1986 Vereinigung Bildender Künstler Wiener Secession, Die Wiener Secession, 2 vols., Vienna: Böhlau, 1986 Vergo, Peter, Art in Vienna, 1898–1918: Klimt, Kokoschka, Schiele, and Their Contemporaries, London: Phaidon, 1975 Waissenberger, Robert, Die Wiener Secession, Vienna: Jugend und Volk, 1971; English edition, Vienna Secession, London: Academy, 1977

VIETNAM VETERANS MEMORIAL, WASHINGTON, D.C.

Designed by Maya Lin; completed 1982 From the time of its dedication in 1982, the Vietnam Veterans Memorial in Washington, D.C., has enjoyed a rare combination of both critical and popular acclaim. Perennially one of the most visited sites in the nation’s capital, the landscape-and- earthworks construction was the competition-winning design of then-21-year-old Yale University student Maya Ying Lin. On completion the work was also one of the most controversial public landscapes ever executed in the United States. Lin’s design was attacked by various conservative cultural and political audiences offended by the memorial’s rejection of the officially sponsored neoclassical language of white monuments conventional to the Mall. Despite that vocal minority opinion, the lucid minimal design garnered critical praise as a rare example of the highest quality of public work.

Downloaded by [Central Uni Library Bucharest] at 03:22 26 September 2013 The power of Lin’s design resides, at least in part, in its inversion of conventional expectations for memorials on the Mall. In lieu of representing the state-sanctioned official history of U.S. involvement in Vietnam, the Wall (as it came to be known) was conceived and designed as an “open work” intended to be read in multiple ways by diverse audiences. Each participant is capable of reading the Wall’s contents relative to the particulars and specifics of his or her own unique experience. Rather than objectifying the state’s powerful interest in recording a received history of the war, the Vietnam Entries A–Z 903 Veterans Memorial was conceived, financed, and constructed as a memorial by and for the public rather than its government. Lin’s conception encompasses two black, granite-faced retaining walls cut into a mound of earth known as Constitution Gardens. The two sloping wall segments intersect at their highest point, forming an interior angle of 120 degrees, whereas the lower ends are axially aligned with the larger site beyond, effectively grounding the work’s geometry in the broader landscape. On the reflective surface of the black stone panels, the names of each of the 58,000 U.S. personnel missing, presumed dead,

Vietnam Veterans Memorial, architectural drawing (ca. 1980) showing memorial as plan and perspective, with textual description, for competition

© Library of Congress and Maya Lin Downloaded by [Central Uni Library Bucharest] at 03:22 26 September 2013 Encyclopedia of 20th-century architecture 904

Vietnam Veterans Memorial

Photo © Mary Ann Sullivan

and killed in the Vietnam conflict are inscribed. Organized chronologically, the inscription of those lost suggests the relatedness of those killed at a particular point in time while embedding any particular sought-after name in a sea of adjacent and nearly indistinguishable names. The public and collective experience of searching for a lost friend’s or relative’s name has sponsored the related material practices of rubbing engraved names to record them on paper and the leaving of memorial objects at the base of the Wall. Although the Wall reinterprets certain well-established American funerary traditions, the closest precedents for the work can be found in cultural developments within minimalist sculpture and land art, both of which found receptive audiences in schools of architecture in the Postmodern era. Lin’s design, which earned her a “B” in her class in funerary architecture at Yale, was selected from among more than 1400 entries to an open design competition by a jury of distinguished figures in architecture, landscape, and public art. Lin’s conception of an inverted, absent monumentality takes the form of a low wall retaining the earth behind, implicating the surrounding landscape and one’s experience of it as the context for the work. By rejecting the contextual clues of the surrounding neoclassical monuments, Lin’s design offers an intimate, individually constructed, and ultimately political work of Postmodern landscape sculpture.

Downloaded by [Central Uni Library Bucharest] at 03:22 26 September 2013 Although garnering immediate critical support in the art and design communities, as well as being warmly embraced by untold numbers of veterans, the design was roundly and loudly criticized by culturally conservative constituencies and many political operatives, including several key members of the Republican White House under Ronald Reagan. For many of these conservatives, the Wall was seen as elitist, abstract, and not appropriately representational of what they took to be the legitimately heroic content of the war. At the height of this sentiment, the Wall was infamously referred to as a “black Entries A–Z 905 gash of shame” by veteran and Purple Heart recipient Tom Carhart. The memorial’s many detractors eventually succeeded in compromising the Wall’s simple planar geometry with the addition of a piece of figural sculpture to the site. This sculpture, “The Three Fightingmen” (1984), by Frederick Hart was intended to provide an appropriate literalness that a minority of culturally conservative lay audiences found lacking in the somber power of Lin’s “anti-monument.” Similar concerns over the Wall’s inclusiveness of reading by various constituencies led to the incorporation of a second figural sculpture depicting the sacrifices of women veterans of the Vietnam era. This second sculpture, titled “Vietnam Women’s Memorial” (1993), by Glenna Goodacre, although enjoying similar political and financial support for its inclusion on site, never approached the cultural and critical achievement of Lin’s original design while fundamentally compromising its accomplishment. Rather, it is precisely the Wall’s clear refusal to engage in an uncritical ahistorical valorization of the Vietnam War that affords multiple viewers the possibility of reading into the work something of their own experience. Understood as an “open text” intended to be read differently depending on the expectations and experience of the viewer, Lin’s design offers a subtle and mutable lens through which various political contents might be read. Subsequent public reception of the memorial has been equally kind, and the Wall continues to enjoy broad public support in the United States and internationally as a seminal work of Postmodern landscape. The extraordinary and seemingly unparalleled breakthrough of Lin’s design rests precisely on its ability to be read simultaneously by countless individuals implicated in its subject matter toward absolutely diverse political, social, and personal conclusions. Although the status of the Vietnam Veterans Memorial will continue to change over time, the open interpretive nature of the work ensures its continued relevance well beyond the life expectancy of state-sanctioned monuments whose contents may be rendered redundant by the passage of time. More so than traditional historical representations of official state history, the meaning of the memorial depends on the reading of social and political history by future generations of participants. Whereas traditional monuments codify for future legibility the consensus view of history concretized by their creators, the Wall constructs a surface of reflection from which changing and multiple viewpoints on historical events might be read. CHARLES WALDHEIM See also Lin, Maya (United States); Memorial

Further Reading

Beardsley, John, “Personal Sensibilities in Public Places,” Artforum, 19 (Summer 1981) Clay, Grady, “The Vietnam Veterans Memorial Competition,” Harvard Magazine, 87

Downloaded by [Central Uni Library Bucharest] at 03:22 26 September 2013 (1985) Hass, Kristin Ann, Carried to the Wall: American Memory and the Vietnam Veterans Memorial, Berkeley: University of California Press, 1998 Krauss, Rosalind, “Sculpture in the Expanded Field,” in The Anti-Aesthetic: Essays on Postmodern Culture, edited by Hal Foster, Port Townsend, Washington: Bay Press, 1983 Encyclopedia of 20th-century architecture 906

VILLA MAIREA

Designed by Alvar Aalto, completed 1939 Noormarkku, Finland In 1937, the Finnish industrialist Harry Gullichsen and his wife, Maire, commissioned Alvar Aalto to design a family residence

Villa Mairea, main entrance, designed by Alvar Aalto.

Photo © G.Welin/Alvar Aalto Archives Downloaded by [Central Uni Library Bucharest] at 03:22 26 September 2013 Entries A–Z 907

Villa Mairea, living room

Photo © Alvar Aalto Archives

in Noormarkku, Finland, that would be traditionally Finnish yet modern. By this time, Alvar Aalto was well known as a proponent of modern, concrete construction and already famous for his International Style buildings, such as the Tuberculosis Sanitorium in Paimio, Finland. The International Style aesthetic of whiteness and abstraction, with an emphasis on industrial production, was and is fundamentally at odds with the strong traditions of handcraft in Finland. As a result, the Villa Mairea is never quite what it appears to be. Early on, the house was received as a masterpiece but, because of the many apparently contradictory elements, remained problematic as to its meaning and significance. The first glimpse of its dominant white volume amid pine trees suggests a rigorous modern composition of clear geometries. As one approaches more closely, the free-form entry canopy is the first surprise, contrasting with the “pure” white volume behind. More surprising still, this irregular canopy is screened and supported by lashed bamboolike poles, suggesting primitive, perhaps even Japanese, construction. Here, at the entry, Aalto has announced a dialectic between traditional and modern that is sustained throughout. Once inside, one’s attention is pulled diagonally to the left by the fireplace in the far corner of the living room. Aalto takes the traditional Finnish corner stove, with its extra

Downloaded by [Central Uni Library Bucharest] at 03:22 26 September 2013 children’s bunk above, and transforms it into something uniquely modern by converting the stair opening leading to the bunk into a hollowed sculptural profile at the side. Perhaps the most memorable aspect of the living room is a modern stair of open risers that is elaborately supported and intricately joined to vertical wooden poles. The whole ensemble is adjacent to a large, sliding glass panel leading outside to the rear courtyard. The juxtaposition of stair and glass produces an unexpected result; the view through the stair to the courtyard is reminiscent of looking out through the forest’s edge into a Encyclopedia of 20th-century architecture 908 landscape beyond. The blurring of the distinction between inside and outside is enhanced by the extensive use of wood in the ceiling and occasional interior columns wrapped in rattan. At this remove, it is generally accepted that one of Aalto’s most significant achievements is this creation of a “forest space.” This metaphorical experience of a forest inside his buildings is a reference to the primary experience of his beloved Finland. The living room at the Villa Mairea is of the clearest statements of this idea. Despite the abundant stylistic contradictions, the house is a comfortable, livable home. The interior unfolds as a succession of controlled vistas and carefully formed spaces. Much of this ease results from the L-shaped plan, which is divided into a kitchen- servants’ wing and a family-living area. This organization is probably derived from plans of 19th-century aristocratic Scandinavian manor houses, with which Aalto would have been familiar. Meanwhile, the “L” also forms a courtyard that is reminiscent of much older Finnish peasant farms and faintly of Italian courtyards. Thus, even in the plan, Aalto makes references to other architectures and other places and resolves complex programmatic issues. The combination of conflicting references continues within the courtyard, where there is a traditional sauna combined with a free-form plunge pool. Although the pool is an unfamiliar farm element, the larger reference is to the Finnish landscape with its many lakes. The wooden sauna with its turf roof is a rustic, vernacular structure, and it is connected to the house by a turf-covered breezeway supported by metal pipe columns and a single concrete pier. Countering the sauna, diagonally across the courtyard, is ’s second-floor study, which is collaged onto the main, white volume of the house. The ambiguous form of the study, sheathed with vertical wood strips, is a combination of crafted material with abstract modern form. Despite the modern elements, the overall effect is to integrate the building with its place. Such an integration is unusual for modern buildings of this period, which usually were treated as objects distinct from their sites. In all these examples and in the whole of this project, Aalto successfully brought together the opposed worlds of Finnish vernacular and International Style modernism. In so doing, he produced a work that has had a substantial and lasting influence on the history and development of modern architecture. Here, he provided one of the few examples of a “humanized modernism” that recognized the significance and experience of the individual as opposed to focusing on the often dehumanizing effects of industrial technique. In recent years, the Villa Mairea, with its references to other architectures, times, and traditions, has been a significant touchstone for Postmodernism, whose practitioners see in Aalto’s work useful examples of referential and metaphorical design strategies. In particular, various critics have remarked on Aalto’s design method as being fundamentally “typological”; that is, designing in plan, elevation, and detail with specific Downloaded by [Central Uni Library Bucharest] at 03:22 26 September 2013 references to historic and basic “types” of architecture. It was Aalto’s genius that constantly transformed and mixed those types to produce complex works whose richness, subtlety, and variety set a new standard for architecture. Despite all the referential games that he played in his buildings, Aalto awakens the viewer to the deep and fundamental connection between humans and the natural world. It is this awareness that remains the moving and transforming core of the Villa Mairea. Entries A–Z 909 LAURENCE KEITH LOFTIN III

Further Reading

There are a number of excellent books available on Alvar Aalto with abundant photographs, commentaries, and bibliographies. The ones listed below contain either excellent commentary on the Villa Mairea in particular or excellent photographic documentation of this remarkable building. Porphyrios, Demetri, Sources of Modern Eclecticism: Studies on Alvar Aalto, London: Academy Editions, and New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1982 Reed, Peter, Alvar Aalto: Between Humanism and Materialism, New York: Museum of Modern Art, 1998 Trencher, Michael, The Alvar Aalto Guide, New York: Princeton Architectural Press, 1996 Weston, Richard, Alvar Aalto, London: Phaidon Press, 1995 Weston, Richard, “Between Nature and Culture: Reflections on the Villa Mairea,” in Alvar Aalto: Towards a Human Modernism, edited by Winfried Nerdinger, Munich, New York, and London: Prestel, 1999

VILLA SAVOYE, POISSY, FRANCE

Designed by Le Corbusier, completed 1930 Le Corbusier (Charles-Édouard Jeanneret) had been living in Paris since 1916, collaborating with Amédée Ozenfant in the production of the review L ‘Esprit nouveau, constructing several private homes, including the La Roche-Jeanneret houses (which would later become the Fondation Le Corbusier), and proposing ambitious projects for mass housing. By 1925, he succeeded in securing official backing for the construction of an experimental housing enclave at Pessac, near Bordeaux—an enterprise that seemed to presage a revolution in the building industry by bringing to construction the benefits of mass production that had made the automobile industry. He now began to receive commissions for luxury villas from families with interests in industry or with American connections. Among these were the designs made for Mongermon, one of the directors of the Voisin car and airplane industries, and in 1926 a villa at Garches for Michael and Sarah Stein. The process by which Le Corbusier obtained the collaboration of his clients was not an

Downloaded by [Central Uni Library Bucharest] at 03:22 26 September 2013 easy one, as his ideas were as much directed to using new materials and developing a new lifestyle as they were to securing satisfied clients. In the case of the commission for the , which arrived in 1928, the clients rejected his first design but returned to it after he had explored alternatives and presumably after he had succeeded in gaining the confidence not only of Pierre Savoye but of his wife, Emilie, as well. The villa was completed in 1930, at a cost almost double that of the estimate. It was used by the family as a weekend retreat until it was abandoned at the outbreak of war in 1939. However, it Encyclopedia of 20th-century architecture 910 was plagued by leaks from the windows, skylights, and flat-roof terraces, and in September 1936 Madame Savoye complained to the architect that “it is raining in my bedroom.” During the war years, the villa was commandeered by the Germans, then by the Americans, and came under threat when the Commune of Poissy planned to absorb the land for the construction of a school. Le Corbusier was forced to make representations in high places, including to his friend André Malraux, minister of cultural affairs, in order to prevent its demolition. Despite Villa Savoye’s rather unsatisfactory history of cost overruns and architectural defects, it was acquired by the government as a national landmark. More than any other of the time, the Villa Savoye embodies the qualities that were to be ascribed to modern architecture produced under functionalism, and as such it has entered into history. In 1938, Henry-Russell Hitchcock and published their influential book The International Style and chose a picture of the Villa Savoye for the dustcover. It embodies the idea of a functional architecture pared down to essentials, and it has, in addition, something exceptional that makes all the difference: a sweet sense of form, and a flair for style. There is a marvelous balance between form and content, each increasing the effect of the other, and so it seems to crystallize the very idea of modernism in architecture.

Villa Savoye, Poissy, France (1930)

Photo © Alan Windsor Downloaded by [Central Uni Library Bucharest] at 03:22 26 September 2013 The villa occupied an extensive field surrounded by a belt of trees. Le Corbusier placed it on the slightly higher ground in the middle of this field, so that it commanded views in all directions, and gave it four similar sides, one for each direction. There is some weight in the critic Colin Rowe’s suggestion that it compares with Palladio’s Villa Rotunda, just as the villa at Garches can be compared with Palladio’s Villa Malcontenta, and there is Entries A–Z 911 much about the design that gives it a classical feel, but this aspect has been totally transformed by the idea of the machine aesthetic. To begin with, the frontality of the plan is full of paradox. For a weekend house some 30 kilometers from Paris, the car is obligatory. Instead of directly approaching a front porch, the visitor drives under the house on a gravel surface, sweeps around the back, and stops at the opposite side. The back becomes the front. The ground-floor accommodation is retracted to allow this, and it curves precisely to the sweep of the car. The entrance door is classically placed on the central axis of the house, but the hall opens out asymmetrically. Directly opposite, instead of the traditional staircase there is a narrow ramp that dives deep into the house before bending back at the half landing. Although the front door, which parts in the center with two sliding leaves, is on the centerline of the house, this axis is also occupied by a row of columns, and on the half landing one crosses this line. The space of the ramp is fully glazed above, so that it attracts the visitor upward toward the light. Once on the second level, it can be seen that it continues farther upward, on the outside, providing access to the solarium on the roof. The house now appears like an apartment, with all the family accommodations on the raised level, the ground level reserved for the servants’ quarters. However, a good slice of this upper level is given to an extensive roof terrace, onto which the living room looks, with large sliding windows facing southwest. There is a Mediterranean feeling about this terrace, with its fixed concrete table ready for the moment of the aperitif. All the family spaces around the house are lit by a continuous band of glazing, the glass omitted where the wall traverses the terrace, so that the appearance on the outside is constant on all sides. The regularity of the outer face is offset by the dynamic thrust of the ramp and the curved roof forms that shelter the solarium from the wind. In this design, Le Corbusier synthesized elements from his art with elements from his idea of a machine architecture derived from industrial processes. To review the different stages by which he arrives at the final design is to review a tentative process, for it only crystallizes along the way. Yet the finished result is so imbued with his conviction, so certain in its balance, that it sums up not just an episode but an epoch as well. ROBERT MAXWELL See also Corbusier, Le (Jeanneret, Charles-Édouard) (France); Hitchcock, Henry-Russell (United States); International Style

Further Reading

Benton, Tim, The Villas of Le Corbusier, 1920–1930, New Haven, Connecticut: Yale University Press, 1987

Downloaded by [Central Uni Library Bucharest] at 03:22 26 September 2013 Le Corbusier, Pierre Jeanneret, and Willy Boesiger, The Complete Architectural Works, London: Thames and Hudson, 1964 Rowe, Colin, The Mathematics of the Ideal Villa, and Other Essays, Cambridge, Massachusetts: MIT Press, 1976 Sbriglio, Jacques, Le Corbusier: La Villa Savoye; The Villa Savoye (bilingual English- French edition), Basel: Birkhäuser, 1999 Von Moos, Stanislas, Le Corbusier: Elemente einer Synthese, Frauenfeld, Switzerland: Encyclopedia of 20th-century architecture 912 Huber, 1968; as Le Corbusier: Elements of a Synthesis, Cambridge, Massachusetts: MIT Press, 1979

VILLANUEVA, CARLOS RAÚL 1900–72

Architect, Venezuela Known as Venezuela’s greatest 20th-century architect, Carlos Raul Villanueva straddled opposing political regimes, cultural milieus, and architectural styles during his long and eclectic career but left no school or followers. His most significant contribution to the country’s architecture, a modernist style inflected by Venezuelan vernacular architecture and influenced by the Venezuelan tropical climate, proved too personal to be imitated. Although his residential designs are well known, it is in the public sphere— schools, housing projects, and universities—that Villanueva had the greatest effect. In particular his commitment to implementing his vision of the “synthesis of the arts” in public spaces made his work important to the Venezuelan urban context. Villanueva began to practice his profession in Caracas in 1929 when he was appointed to the post of architect and director of building in the Ministry of Public Works under the regime of General Juan Vicente Gómez. From this period buildings such as the Plaza de Toros de Maracay (1931–33) and the Museums of Fine Arts and Natural Sciences (1934– 35), among others, demonstrate how Villanueva tempered his interest in vanguard European architectural movements with a Neoclassicism designed to appeal to a conservative elite. The next period of the architect’s career is marked by a clearer influence of European modernism, as buildings such as the Gran Colombia School of Caracas (1939; today Francisco Pimentel), lack the ornamentation of earlier projects and instead employ molded reinforced concrete to create curving forms and masses. These buildings also illustrate Villanueva’s evolving concern with light and shadow. Demonstrating his early interest in incorporating works of art into buildings, Villanueva integrated a sculpture by Venezuelan modernist sculptor Francisco Narváez into the main wall of the school. In 1940 Villanueva was named chief architect and consultant of the Banco Obrero (Workers’ Bank) of Venezuela, a government institution whose mission was to improve the living condi tions of the lower and working classes. One of his first projects was to remodel the neighborhood of El Silencio (1941–43), a barrio in the center of the city known for its high crime and unhygienic, poor housing conditions. With the remodeling of this zone would begin his preoccupation with urban spaces, in particular with the design of large-scale . El Silencio embodied the challenges faced by Downloaded by [Central Uni Library Bucharest] at 03:22 26 September 2013 Villanueva in attempting works on this scale, produced under competing interests and compromised by political circumstances. In 1944 he commenced work on the University City of Venezuela (Ciudad Universitaria, also known as the Universidad Central de Venezuela [UCV], or Central University of Venezuela), which would not be completed until 1959. At the UCV, Villanueva achieved the apogee of his personal style, a Le Corbusian-derived, Entries A–Z 913 Venezuelan-inflected organicism that took as its touchstone the modernist dream of the synthesis of the arts. For Villanueva the creation of this “aesthetic consortium” would enable the city’s inhabitants to become truly integrated in aesthetic, spiritual, and functional terms, as he believed that the natural environment of painting and sculpture is “plazas, gardens, public buildings, factories, and airports: all the places where man perceives man as a companion, a partner, a helping hand, a hope, and not as a flower withered by isolation and indifference” (Villanueva, 1957, 11). Although its style has not been duplicated elsewhere, the UCV had a great effect on the course of Venezuelan architecture. In particular, Venezuelan intellectual and political elites came to see modernism as the style most appropriate for embodying Venezuelan identity, and the incorporation of works of art into buildings was an idea taken up by succeeding architects. Concurrently with his work on the UCV, Villanueva continued his association with the Workers’ Bank and the Taller de Arquitectura Banco Obrero (Workers’ Bank Architectural Workshop, or TABO). The projects commissioned by the Workers’ Bank, beginning in the late 1940s, became larger and more frequent under the regime of Venezuela’s last dictator, Marcos Pérez Jiménez (1952–58), ending with some of the largest public housing projects ever built in Latin America by the end of the decade. The most representative of these, Villanueva’s housing community “23 de Enero” (23 January 1957), originally named “2 de Diciembre,” is usually cited by critics as a turning point in the city’s growth. Because of its massive scale, it stood as a concrete symbol of the regime’s objective of eradicating the ranchos, or slums, that had sprouted on hillsides, under bridges, and in ravines in Caracas. In projects such as this, Villanueva incorporated elements from different phases of his career, such as the use of polychrome paintings as exterior decoration; window and wall treatments that protected interiors from wind, sun, and rain; and Le Corbusian–derived ideas about rational living spaces. Villanueva’s critics describe his use of modernist styles as superficial and eclectic, and in comparison with the work of other modernist Latin American architects, Villanueva’s personal style is less fully realized. However, in context, Villanueva stands out as the first Venezuelan to combine a tropical sensibility with European modernist architecture. For this reason the UCV is regarded as Venezuela’s most important architectural monument. This, perhaps, is Villanueva’s most important legacy: the incorporation of works of art into architectural projects, particularly in the capital. Large-scale freestanding sculptures and mu-rals are found all over the city—in private office buildings, plazas, and subway stations and alongside highways—making Caracas a significant public art center on a par with and Paris. MARGUERITE MAYHALL See also Caracas, Venezuela; Ciudad Universitaria Campus and Stadium, Mexico City; Ciudad Universitaria, Caracas Downloaded by [Central Uni Library Bucharest] at 03:22 26 September 2013

Biography

Born in London, 30 May 1900, the child of a distinguished Venezuelan family originally from Spain. Educated at École des Beaux-Arts in Paris, graduated 1928; Organized the Encyclopedia of 20th-century architecture 914 first Department of Architecture in Venezuela (Ciudad Universitaria) and taught courses as professor in the School of Architecture (1944).

Selected Works

Plaza de Toros de Maracay, Caracas, 1933 Museums of Fine Arts and Natural Sciences, Caracas, 1935 Gran Colombia School of Caracas, 1939 El Silencio barrio project, Caracas, 1943 University City of Venezuela (Ciudad Universitaria), 1959

Selected Publications

La Caracas de ayer y de hoy (The Caracas of Yesterday and Today), Caracas: 1950 “La integración de las artes” (The Integration of the Arts), Espacio y forma, no. 3, Caracas: Facultad de Arquitectura de la Universidad Central de Venezuela, 1957 Escritos (Writings), Espacio y forma, no. 13, Caracas: Facultad de Arquitectura de la Universidad Central de Venezuela, 1965 Caracas en tres tiempos (Caracas in Three Times), Caracas: Ediciones Cuatricentenario, 1966 Textos escogidos (Selected Writings), Caracas: Universidad Central de Venezuela, Facultad de Arquitectura y Urbanismo, 1980

Further Reading

In addition to his own copious writings, Villanueva gave innumerable public lectures and interviews, many of which have been published in more than one venue. As a result of his significance within the architectural community, and his effect on the Venezuelan landscape, critics and scholars have published frequently on his work as well. Critical analyses of his work, however, are almost nonexistent. In addition, Villanueva’s work is not well known outside Latin America, and recent publications in English are therefore scarce. For further bibliography, see the entry on the Ciudad Universitaria. Galería de Arte Nacional de Venezuela, Carlos Raúl Villanueva: Un moderno en Sudamérica (exhib. cat.), Caracas: Galería de Arte Nacional de Venezuela, 2 April-9 July 2000 Moholy-Nagy, Sibyl, Carlos Raúl Villanueva y la arquitectura de Venezuela (Carlos

Downloaded by [Central Uni Library Bucharest] at 03:22 26 September 2013 Raúl Villanueva and the Architecture of Venezuela), Caracas: Editorial Lectura, and New York: Praeger, 1964 Museo de Arte Contemporáneo de Caracas Sofia Imber, Villanueva el arquitecto (exhib. cat.), Caracas: Museo de Arte Contemporáneo de Caracas Sofia Imber, 1988 Posani, Juan Pedro, Arquitecturas de Villanueva (The Architectural Works of Villanueva), Caracas: Lagoven, 1985 Entries A–Z 915

VILLE RADIEUSE (Ca. 1930)

Designed by Le Corbusier While working on the Tzentrosoyuz (central statistical office) building in 1930, Le Corbusier received an inquiry from the Soviet officials concerning the reorganization of Moscow. His illustrative proposal, entitled “Ville Radieuse” (radiant city), was grounded essentially in individual freedom, exerted no influence in the Soviet Union, and remained a project on paper only. Le Corbusier continued to develop and relentlessly promote Ville Radieuse as a platform on which to present his thoughts about urbanism; it became a theoretical summary of Le Corbusier’s most advanced views on town planning and design, eventually evolving into a model of a modern “ideal city” in the best tradition of old-fashioned utopias. Le Corbusier treated the Moscow inquiry as a case study assessed through a relatively independent theoretical framework: the answers to the questions “were Moscow,” but the illustrations (about 20 of them) “were the phenomenon of the organiza-tion of life in the city of the machine age, the present age” (Le Corbusier, 1935, p. 90). Essentially, Le Corbusier tried to solve the city as a problem and kept pursuing an absolute formula that would guarantee the highest quality to any urban space. His approach was not wholly new; Ville Radieuse included and refined Le Corbusier’s earlier thoughts on urban design, including the Contemporary City for Three Million Inhabitants, the Voisin Plan for Paris, and the ideas expressed in his books Urbanisme (The City of To-morrow) and Precisions. This new city was a revised version of his Contemporary City for Three Million Inhabitants, first launched for the Parisian Autumn Salon in 1922. It remained rectangular in form but allowed for lateral growth on both sides of the central communication axis, thus eliminating rigidity, the major shortcoming of the previous model. The business center, in the pattern of sixteen wide-spaced, cruciform , was concentrated at the “top” edge of the plan, tangential to the circular transportation terminal with a heliport on its rooftop. The industrial zone was located at the “bottom” end of the city. Areas of civic and commercial activities flanked the NW—SE communication while serving as a buffer zone to the set-back, residential superblocks. Le Corbusier’s preoccupation with a total, wholesome living environment, filled with air, sun, light, and greenery inside and out was presented as an immersion of buildings into the large green areas. Although the “garden city” suburbs and the hierarchic population distribution used in previous models were eliminated, the principles like a multilevel transportation system Downloaded by [Central Uni Library Bucharest] at 03:22 26 September 2013 and a “biological unit,” the cell of 14 square meters per occupant, were elaborated on, and a nursery, kindergarten, and primary school were introduced in the “neighborhood unit” of 2,700. Throughout the 1930s, applying “radiant city” urbanization principles, now formulated as a more universal model of urban planning, Le Corbusier produced a wide variety of unbuilt projects, mostly competition entries for various cities, the majority of which were Encyclopedia of 20th-century architecture 916 included in the subsequent book titled The Radiant City; Elements of a Doctrine of Urbanism to Be Used as the Basis of Our Machine-Age Civilization. The book spanned projects from his Voisin Plan for Paris of 1925, which was designed to revitalize the center of the city, to four Latin American cities, among which the site and ambience of Rio de Janeiro inspired particularly poetic expressions, resulting in the concept of an elevated highway with incorporated housing below; this megastructure was to become a focus of the later plan for Algiers. Although the geometry of Le Corbusier’s model seemingly presupposed a flatness of site and indifference to topographic concerns, the scheme was only intended to facilitate the paradigm, whereas some of the most imaginative of Le Corbusier’s applications were inspired by the most irregular topographies. He blamed the migration to cities for some of the gravest urban problems and proposed solving it by redevelopment and revitalization of the rural areas. The resulting concepts for the Radiant Farm and Radiant Village eulogized the modern highspeed connection between the city and country, but his proposed modernization targeted only country living and did not include working conditions. With the Ville Radieuse, Le Corbusier established some of the 20th century’s most memorable and influential urban images and created the concept of urban environment that still underlies much of contemporary design, despite the fact that he was denied urban planning commissions for most of his lifetime. Yet, through the Charter of Athens, a manifesto of the Modern movement, and CIAM gatherings, Le Corbusier promulgated the Ville Radieuse approach to urban planning and design as a recipe for the quality of the living and dwelling environment. His vision presupposed a revolution in dwelling, architecture, and urbanism. That Le Corbusier’s romanticized and futuristic urban dreams exerted such influence among generations of architects all over the world was a result of his sophisticated theories that successfully combined a persistent and contagious enthusiasm for the architect’s doctrine. GORDANA KOSTICH-LEFEBVRE See also Contemporary City for Three Million Inhabitants; Corbusier, Le (Jeanneret, Charles-Édouard) (France); Voisin Plan for Paris

Further Reading

Le Corbusier (Jeanneret, Charles-Édouard), La Ville radieuse, elements d’une doctrine d’urbanisme pour l’équipement de la civilisation machiniste, Paris: Éditions de l’Architecture d’Aujourd’hui, 1935; Translated as The Radiant City; Elements of a Doctrine of Urbanism to Be Used as the Basis of Our Machine-Age Civilization, New York: Orion Press, 1967

Downloaded by [Central Uni Library Bucharest] at 03:22 26 September 2013 Evenson, Norma, Le Corbusier: The Machine and the Grand Design. New York: G.Braziller, 1970 Fishman, Robert, Urban Utopias in the Twentieth Century: Ebenezer Howard, Frank Lloyd Wright, and Le Corbusier, Cambridge, Massachusetts: MIT Press, 1977 Frampton, Kenneth, “Le Corbusier and the ville radieuse 1928–46,” in Modern Architecture: A Critical History, London: Themes and Hudson, 1980 Entries A–Z 917

VISITOR CENTER

The visitor center is a product of the post-World War II automobile age, welcoming road- weary tourists with promises of comfort, education, and entertainment. Prominently situated at historic areas, national parks, and state borders, the visitor center combines a wide range of functions, such as rest rooms, information kiosks, bookstores, and museum exhibits, that were once housed separately. The term and concept of “visitor center” were brought into widespread use by the during its “Mission 66“building improvement program (1956–66). Under Mission 66 the Park Service promoted 100 newly created visitor centers as the hub of a ten-year, billion-dollar effort to improve tourist and administrative facilities in the national parks. Mission 66 aimed to satisfy an astronomical rise in the number of visitors, growing from 17 million annually in 1940 to 54 million a year by 1954, at park sites that had not been substantially upgraded since the 1930s. Rangers could not handle the massive influx of tourists in the existing structures, small “rustic” buildings often lacking basic conveniences such as air-conditioning or indoor rest rooms. Under Mission 66, Park Service planners created a prototype design for a new building type—the visitor center—that could be adapted to the unique character and specific requirements of each site. The prototypical visitor center consisted of a compact building equipped with clean rest rooms, public telephones, a large circulation lobby, an information desk, staff offices, and areas for interpretive exhibits. Centers for more popular parks might include an auditorium with regularly scheduled orientation films, a cafeteria, a research room, and a library. A convenient parking area nearby accommodated visitors’ automobiles and trailers. These basic elements remain at the core of visitor center planning today. As the first stop for tourists, the visitor center created a transition zone between the environment outside the park and the natural and cultural features inside. Park planners sited the buildings at strategic points in an effort to funnel tourists through an orientation process, a critical component of the Mission 66 visitor center campaign. Once inside the building, visitors found interpretive exhibits, safety guidelines, educational pamphlets, maps, and a helpful ranger to answer questions. Many of the buildings offered panoramic views of nearby scenic vistas; a well-marked exit might lead to an open patio for an on- site ranger presentation or the first stop on a self-guided tour. To attract visitors, architects created innovative, high-profile buildings that promised modern facilities in even the most remote locales. Bold dramatic rooflines, wide expanses Downloaded by [Central Uni Library Bucharest] at 03:22 26 September 2013 of glass, overhanging eaves, and prominent entryways raised the visibility, and therefore the appeal, of the buildings to the public. To maintain a contextual continuity, architects incorporated physical or symbolic characteristics of the site in the building design. For example, architect Richard Neutra designed the Visitor Center and Cyclorama Building at Gettysburg National Military Park (1961) as a memorial to Abraham Lincoln and his famous address. The monumental profile of the stark white cylindrical building, Encyclopedia of 20th-century architecture 918 displaying such modern design elements as movable sun louvers and a concrete spider- leg, reflects the commemorative character of the 1863 Civil War battlefield and nearby cemetery. Similarly, Romaldo Giurgola of Mitchell/Giurgola Architects conveyed the spirit of innovation in designing a visitor center for the Wright Brothers National Memorial at Kill Devil Hills, North Carolina (1960). The center’s sweeping sculptural concrete form rises prominently from the sand dunes and connects the historic past to the present by invoking the character of modern airport terminals of the 1960s.

Quarry Visitor Center (1956–58), Dinosaur National Monument, Jensen, Utah

© Christine Madrid French, 2000

The visitor center prototype introduced by the National Park Service in the mid-1950s has been widely adopted by other civic and corporate entities in the decades since. Older structures designed as small-scale museums, information centers, or nature centers were remodeled or replaced by multipurpose facilities; others were simply renamed “visitor centers.” In the late 1960s, Pacific Gas and Electric of California established visitor centers at its nuclear power plants as part of a massive pronuclear public relations campaign. British Nuclear Fuels Limited followed quickly with its own center, featuring a life-size model of a nuclear reactor core and a walk-in “Fission Tunnel.” Other government agencies, such as the U.S. Bureau of Reclamation and the National Forest Service, followed the Park Service example and created their own system of visitor centers in the 1970s at national recreation areas and national forests. Downloaded by [Central Uni Library Bucharest] at 03:22 26 September 2013 Once considered gateways to other featured attractions, visitor centers are now marketed as destinations in themselves. It is not unusual to find photographs of visitor centers proudly displayed on postcards or prominently featured in promotional brochures. Indeed, several early examples of the building type are now recognized by leading architects and scholars as American cultural landmarks, worthy of preservation and interpretation. Entries A–Z 919 In the 50 years since its introduction, the visitor center has evolved into an entertainment complex as well as an information service center, combining full-scale museum features, retail outlets, and research facilities. It is a testament to the utility and adaptability of this modern building type that we now consider the visitor center a timeless element of the American roadside landscape. CHRISTINE MADRID FRENCH

Further Reading

Architectural histories focusing on the development of National Park Service building types are provided by Good (1938) and McClelland (1998). Architect-specific publications provide photographs and descriptions of the Wright Brothers Visitor Center; see Giurgola (1983), and the Gettysburg Cyclorama, see Boesiger (1966). Allaback (2000) focuses on the promotion of the visitor center under the Mission 66 program. Further analyses of the building type are available in magazines and journals dating from 1955 to the present, including Tilson (1993) and Dheere (1999). Allaback, Sarah, Mission 66 Visitor Centers: The History of a Building Type, Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of the Interior, 2000 Boesiger, W. (editor), Richard Neutra Buildings and Projects: 1961—66, New York: Frederick A. Praeger, 1966 Dheere, Jessica Joan, “Portfolio: Four Visitor Centers Subtly Interpret the Landscape, Inviting Park Patrons to Become One with the Wild,” Architectural Record (October 1999) Giurgola, Romaldo, and Erhman B.Mitchell, Mitchell/Giurgola Architects, New York: Rizzoli, 1983 Good, Albert H., Park and Recreation Structures, Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of the Interior, 1938 McClelland, Linda Flint, Building the National Parks: Historic Landscape Design and Construction, Baltimore and London: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1998 Tilson, Donn, “The Shaping of ‘Eco-nuclear’ Publicity: the Use of Visitors’ Centers in Public Relations,” Media Culture and Society (July 1993)

VOISIN PLAN FOR PARIS (1925)

Designed by Le Corbusier In the Voisin Plan, Le Corbusier adapted the principles of his Contemporary City for Downloaded by [Central Uni Library Bucharest] at 03:22 26 September 2013 Three Million Inhabitants (1922) to the specific situation of Paris. In 1922 a sketch accompanying the Contemporary City demonstrated an adaptation of the plan to the historic center of Paris. In 1925 the renovation of Paris became the main issue. The plan was exhibited at the Pavilion of Esprit Nouveau at the International Decorative Arts Exhibition of 1925. The pavilion was an architectural manifesto that showcased two projects: a residence type that systematically used standard elements and a study of the Encyclopedia of 20th-century architecture 920 principles of standardization in their urban and interurban context. The former was represented by a full-scale model of a unit from the Immeuble Villas block. The latter, the Voisin Plan and the Contemporary City, were featured in an annex of the pavilion. Although a theoretical exercise, the plan was also a concrete proposal aimed at the transformation of Paris and marked the first of Le Corbusier’s numerous proposals for Paris, including the Ville Radieuse (Radiant City; ca. 1930) and Le Destin de Paris (The Destiny of Paris; 1941). Eugène Hénard’s Études sur les transformations de Paris (Studies on the Transformations of Paris; 1903–06) was an influential precedent. Somewhat sensational, the radical Voisin Plan was severely denigrated by critics who accused Le Corbusier of wanting to destroy Paris. The plan addressed the urgent problems facing Paris: overcrowding, traffic congestion, and the lack of office space. Central to the plan was Le Corbusier’s conception of the relationship between skyscrapers and traffic routes, based on the principles of high density, open space, and speed. Le Corbusier wrote in Urbanisme (City of Tomorrow, 1925) that the plan did not provide definitive solutions to the problems of Paris but that its primary aim was to cut through small, uncoordinated efforts at renovation and raise the level of discussion to large-scale reforms that would incorporate contemporary issues. To transform Paris into a modern city, Le Corbusier invoked the tradition of urban planning. Facing the dilemma of medicine or surgery, he referred to the tradition of applying both and chose surgery for the historical center. The projected site was an L- shaped area of 240 hectares located northeast of the on the Right Bank. Most buildings and streets were to be demolished for the area to be built anew in a rigorous geometric pattern. Only a few isolated, historic buildings were to be preserved: the Louvre, Palais Royal, Place Vendôme, Place de la Concorde, Arc de Triomphe, Opera, and a few churches and town houses. In the business district on the eastern half of the area facing the Ile de la Cité, 18 cruciform office towers, surrounded by open, green space, were to be built along the axis of the Boulevard Sébastopol. In the western, residential district were to be the setback, or redent, blocks, either of the Immeuble-Villas type that form large blocks or covered with immense sheets of glass. Streets were replaced by elevated terraces with shops, cafes, and restaurants for social and commercial functions. Underlying the ideology of creating well-being and happiness through large-scale planning was the political notion that the problems of social disorder could be resolved by the provision of the essential joys of sunlight, greenery, and leisure. Another essential component of the plan was hygienic and comfortable dwellings. The exhibited full-scale model unit was a standardized modern duplex that, superimposed with other duplexes, formed the apartment block. This seminal building type marked a new approach to architecture. Built in reinforced concrete and Cubist in form, its design centered around spatial proportions and volumes rather than around a two-dimensional Downloaded by [Central Uni Library Bucharest] at 03:22 26 September 2013 facade. Its double-height living area and garden terrace would recur in Le Corbusier’s designs. The unit was furnished according to the purist canon of objets-types that balanced folk, craft, and machine-made objects. The name Voisin points to one of the essential aims of the project: the creation of a wide east—west artery parallel to the rue de Rivoli for fast automobile traffic. To finance the Pavilion of Esprit Nouveau, Le Corbusier sent out letters to the biggest names in the Entries A–Z 921 automobile industry—Voisin, Michelin, and Citroën—asking them to contribute funds in exchange for publicity. The Voisin car and airplane cartel, which was interested in mass- produced housing, supported the project. Le Corbusier regarded locomotion simultaneously as a modern influence threatening Paris that required reorganization and also as one of the fundamental sources of power for the modern commercial city, as is illustrated by his entrepreneurial aphorism “A city made for speed is a city made for success.” Financially, however, as with other aspects of the plan, the construction of the artery was not a viable idea. If enacted, it would have been one of the most costly as well as destructive projects to be carried out in Paris. Financially and politically, the plan was unrealistic. In the history of urban planning, the Voisin Plan has often been singled out as a symbol of the Modern movement’s disregard for the past. However, Le Corbusier’s own view was that through the plan the prestigious vestiges of Paris were not only preserved but rescued as well. By opening up the area around the monuments, they were to be protected from the daily urban activities that endangered them. According to this logic, the buildings now became monuments to be conserved and thus were reintegrated into the fabric of the modern city. In this way Le Corbusier’s dogmatic project nonetheless underlined the dynamic between renovation and conservation. Moreover, in later plans some of the most radical features of the plan were modified. In 1933 the cruciform skyscraper was replaced with a smaller, Y-shaped type that allowed in more sunlight. In the later plans, these skyscrapers were to be built far from the existing center. Although it was the earlier, cruciform towers that were enthusiastically adopted by planners through the 1960s, other aspects of the plan, such as the Immeuble-Villas unit and the overall call for systematic planning, fundamentally influenced 20th-century architecture. HAZEL HAHN See also Contemporary City for Three Million Inhabitants; Corbusier, Le (Jeanneret, Charles-Édouard) (France); Inter-national Exhibition of Decorative Arts, Paris (1925); Ville Radieuse (ca. 1930)

Further Reading

Arrhenius, Thordis, “Restoration in the Machine Age: Themes of Conservation in Le Corbusier’s Plan Voisin,” AAfiles, 38 (1999) Benton, Tim, The Villas of Le Corbusier, 1920–1930, New Haven, Connecticut, and London: Yale University Press, 1987 Curtis, William, Le Corbusier Ideas and Forms, London: Phaidon, 1986; New York: Rizzoli, 1986 Frampton, Kenneth, Le Corbusier, translated by Frank Straschitz, Paris: Hazan, 1997 Lucan, Jacques (editor), Le Corbusier, une encyclopédie, Paris: Centre Georges Downloaded by [Central Uni Library Bucharest] at 03:22 26 September 2013 Pompidou, 1987 Moos, Stanislaus von, Elements of a Synthesis, Cambridge, Massachusetts: MIT Press, 1979 Moos, Stanislaus von (editor), L’Esprit nouveau: Le Corbusier und die Industrie 1920– 1925, Berlin: Ernst und Sohn, 1987 Passanti, Francesco, “The Skyscrapers of the Ville Contemporaine,” Assemblage, 4 Encyclopedia of 20th-century architecture 922 (1987) Raeburn, Michael, and Victoria Wilson (editors), Le Corbusier, Architect of the Century (exhib. cat.), London: Arts Council of Great Britain, 1987

VON MOOS, STANISLAUS 1940

Architecture historian and critic, Switzerland In the history of modern architecture, Switzerland is the European country whose role and import have been sorely underplayed and underacknowledged. However, thanks to the assiduous and careful scholarship of Stanislaus von Moos, the Swiss contribution to 20th-century building has been immeasurably enhanced. More than any other Swiss national, Von Moos has maintained a vigorous sponsorship of art and architecture from his native country through a varied program of publishing, curatorial practice, and above all, pedagogy. Born in Lucerne in 1940, Von Moos studied at the Eidgenös-sische Technische Hochschule in Zurich and later at the University of Zurich and the Università degli Studi in . From the university he received a Ph.D. with a thesis on military architecture and its impact on 15th- and 16th-century European palaces and villas, later published as Turm und Bollwerk: Beiträge zu einen politischen Ikonographie der italienischen Renaissancearchitektur (1974). However, during his studies in Zurich, he had the good fortune to serve as research assistant to Sigfried Giedion, whose Space, Time, and Architecture (1941) certainly whetted his appetite for future studies of the modern period in architecture and served as a template for his own major publications. Von Moos’s foray into 20th-century topics began when he was asked to contribute to a series of monographs on notable Swiss men and women, an assignment that would determine the trajectory of his career from that moment forward. Noting the absence in the late 1960s of a comprehensive and critical study of Le Corbusier, Von Moos embarked on such a project, to be published in 1968 as Le Corbusier; Elemente einer Synthese (published a decade later in English translation). For the first time since Le Corbusier’s death in 1965, and continuing more or less to the present day, Von Moos’s chef d’oeuvre was and is the only attempt to understand Le Corbusier’s career from a synthetic point of view, encompassing his paintings and graphics, writings, unbuilt projects, and built work. The success of the work is tied to Von Moos’s meticulous research and his access (beginning with Giedion) to many of Le Corbusier’s compatriots and collaborators. Le Corbusier: Elements of a Synthesis, the work’s English title, is presented as a series Downloaded by [Central Uni Library Bucharest] at 03:22 26 September 2013 of essays on different aspects of Le Corbusier’s work, including purism, urbanism, utopian visions, typology, and public commissions. Von Moos writes of Le Corbusier’s “visual and poetic approach to reality,” a formal reading that allows the author to establish a teleology of Le Corbusier’s oeuvre from the Villas Fallet and Schwob (his earliest works in Switzerland), to his purist paintings of the 1920s, to the later works of Chandigarh and La Tourette monastery, foregrounding what Von Moos sees as Le Entries A–Z 923 Corbusier’s Ruskinian tendency to identify a fundamental order and organization within nature. As the first book to treat Le Corbusier as a historical subject, Elements is responsible for many of the originary ideas about the architect’s works; for example, Von Moos indicates the use of continuous typologies for specific building uses, such as the orthogonal box for dwellings, the spiral for museums, and the triangle for assembly halls. In doing so, Von Moos builds on earlier work by Colin Rowe that analyzes Le Corbusier’s recycling of themes and motifs in differing projects as a process of “displacement.” Thus, the book’s strength lies in its central belief in a specific architectural practice’s underlying system that found its ultimate epiphany in Le Corbusier’s Modulor system of measurement, one that expressed “a common denominator between human proportions and elemental geometry.” Von Moos’s interest in architectural polemicists led him to his next major subject: the writings and practice of Robert Venturi. Von Moos had already broached the similarities between Venturi and Le Corbusier in Elements, which led him to recognize the attention to typological study that bound these two architects together. While teaching at Harvard University in the early 1970s, Von Moos found in Venturi an introduction to American vernacular architecture; building on the apparent relationship between Le Corbusier’s Towards a New Architecture (1923) and Venturi’s Complexity and Contradiction in Architecture (1966)—which share an ahistoricism and privileging of aesthetics over history—he embarked on the first major study of the latter’s work (Venturi, Rauch, and Scott Brown: Buildings and Projects [1987]). The book is arranged as an extended essay and catalogue raisonné, with the essay “The Challenge of the Status Quo: 5 Points on the Architecture of VRSB” belying a further debt to Le Corbusier. Von Moos adopts the role of apologist, elucidating one of the first and most extended defenses of Venturi’s built work and providing the means away from a narrow vision of Venturi as mere pop theorist and toward one that considers his architecture in a serious manner. As in his treatment of Le Corbusier, thematic and typological motifs (such as the segmented , adapted from Louis Kahn) are traced through their use in different contexts as a means of exploring the plastic and fungible quality of architectural themes in Venturi’s practice. Von Moos also fashioned a career as an important curator, having organized important exhibitions devoted to Venturi (“Venturi and Rauch: Architektur im Alltag Amerikas”) for the Kunstgewerbemuseum in Zurich (1979) and a major show cele-brating Le Corbusier’s 100th birthday (“L’Esprit nouveau: Le Corbusier und die Industrie, 1920– 1925”) for the Museum für Gestaltung in Zurich (1987). In the latter exhibition, Von Moos revisited familiar terrain, focusing on Le Corbusier’s early theories and their organization around industrial themes. In addition, as curator of the Swiss Pavilion for the 1998 Milan Triennale, he initiated a recuperation of another much maligned figure: Downloaded by [Central Uni Library Bucharest] at 03:22 26 September 2013 the Swiss artist/architect/teacher Max Bill. Von Moos’s work displays an admirable ability to project patriotic pride while avoiding xenophobia. One of his most enduring and selfless projects was as founder and editor in chief of the architectural quarterly archithese. From its appearance in 1970 and continuing to the present, this journal has provided a crucial voice for European architectural criticism and theory, with a purview beyond mere Swiss national concerns. Encyclopedia of 20th-century architecture 924 As a professor in Europe and abroad, Von Moos has maintained a commitment to pedagogy seemingly at odds with the vast amount of writing and research required of his manifold other projects. NOAH CHASIN See also Corbusier, Le (Jeanneret, Charles-Édouard) (France)

Biography

Born in Lucerne, 1940. Married; two daughters. Ph.D. from University of Zurich in 1967 (thesis: “Turm und Bollwerk: Beiträge zu einer politischen Ikonographie der italienischen Renaissance-Architektur”). Taught at Harvard University (1971–75); University of Bern, Switzerland (1974–78); Technische Hogeschool, Delft, the Netherlands (1979–83); University of Zurich (1982-present); Princeton University (1997); Graduate Center of the City University of New York (1998). Founding editor of archithese (1970–80). Curator of “The Other Twenties: Themes in Art and Advertising” (Harvard University, 1975); “Venturi und Rauch: Architektur im Alltag Amerikas” (Zurich, Berlin, Hannover, Freiburg, Milan, Florence, 1979); “L’Esprit Nouveau: Le Corbusier und die Industrie, 1920–1925 (Zurich, Berlin, Strasbourg, Paris, 1986–87); “Le Corbusier before Le Corbusier” (Baden and New York, 2002–03). Fellowships at Swiss Institute, Rome (1968–70); Institute for Advanced Study, Berlin (1985–86); Getty Center, California (1992–93); CASVA, Washington, D.C. (1996). Schelling Prize for Architectural Theory, Karlsruhe (1998).

Selected Publications

Le Corbusier: Elemente einer Synthese, 1968; as Le Corbusier: Elements of a Synthesis, 1979 New Directions in Swiss Architecture, 1969 Turm und Bollwerk: Beiträge zu einer politischen Ikonographie der italienischen Renaissance-Architecktur, 1974 Venturi, Rauch, and Scott Brown: Buildings and Projects, 1960–1985, 1987 L’Esprit nouveau: Le Corbusier und die Industrie, 1920–1925 (editor), 1987 “Urbanism and Transcultural Exchanges, 1910–1935,” in Le Corbusier, edited by H. Allen Brooks, 1987 “Industrieasthetik,” Ars Helvetica, 11 (1992) Venturi, Rauch, and Scott Brown: Buildings and Projects, 1986–1998, 1999 Downloaded by [Central Uni Library Bucharest] at 03:22 26 September 2013 Further Reading

Benton, Tim, and Charlotte Benton, “Towards Modernist Classicism,” Werk-architese, 65/23–24 (November-December 1978) (special issue) Entries A–Z 925

VOYSEY, CHARLES FRANCIS ANNESLEY 1857–1941

Architect and designer, C.F.A.Voysey was, on the one hand, a late product of the English Gothic Revival and, on the other, an original and innovative architect who is regarded today as important for the development of the new architecture of the 20th century. Although he lived long enough to know and to dislike the International Style of the 1920s and 1930s, the publication of Voysey’s designs in British, German, Belgian, and Austrian magazines before 1900 was definitely influential on those who formulated the new architecture. Soon after the turn of the century, his work was also noticed, exhibited, and admired in the United States and in Scandinavia. C.R.Mackintosh, whose work Voysey did not like, acknowledged his formative influence. Acknowledged as an enigmatic architect with somewhat ambiguous ties to the English Gothic and Arts and Crafts movements of the 19th century, Voysey nonetheless provided many architects of the first third of the 20th century with a sense of invention and synthesis in his practice of design. Seeking to extract meaning from rural vernacular architecture and from contemporary work by C.R. Ashbee or Arthur H.Mackmurdo, Voysey emphasized simplicity, a principle that mattered to many architects both inside and outside the Modern movement. He was born at Hessle in Yorkshire, the eldest son of a Church of England clergyman, and his father had a profound influence on him. The Reverend Charles Voysey was a man of resolute faith who was nevertheless eventually expelled from the Anglican Church for heresy: He denied the doctrine of everlasting hell. Reverend Voysey then formed his own Theistic Church based on rational principles. Voysey’s religious convictions, firm independence, and unshakable integrity owed much to his father’s example. He was taught at home until he was 14 and then attended Dulwich College for two years (1871– 73), after which he briefly had a private tutor. As he was a slow learner whose grammar and spelling always remained shaky, his education appears to have been narrow and limited. At the age of 17, Voysey was articled to John Pollard Seddon and remained in his London office for six years. He then worked briefly (1879) in the office of Saxon Snell, who specialized in hospitals, before spending the next two years with the fashionable country house architect George Devey. In 1881, at the age of 24, Voysey set up his own practice in Westminster. He was a

Downloaded by [Central Uni Library Bucharest] at 03:22 26 September 2013 passionate devotee of the writings of both Pugin and Ruskin, both of whom had been known personally by his father; from them, he developed his conviction that the laws of design and construction should be learned from the study of nature. One of the strongest professional influences on Voysey was that of A.H.Mackmurdo, a protégé of Ruskin’s, who introduced Voysey to the design of wallpapers and encouraged him to join the Art Workers’ Guild in 1884. Encyclopedia of 20th-century architecture 926 “To be simple is the end, not the beginning of design,” Voysey wrote in 1893. He usually drew together the elements of his houses into a single volume, covering this rectangular form with a high-pitched gable or hipped roof of slate. Wall surfaces were plain, characteristically rendered with gray- or white-painted roughcast. Buttresses, incorporated sculpturally into the wall treatment, were needed to support the deep, sweeping roofs. His windows were usually stone mullioned, with metal casements, and arranged in long horizontal groups. Chimney stacks were few and were sculpturally related to the walls and buttresses in material and form. Voysey’s first commission was for The Cottage (1888–89) in Warwickshire, for which he employed roughcast rendering, as his client was a cement manufacturer. From that time on, he preferred this wall treatment; he also almost always used greenish gray slates for roofs, seldom paying attention to local building traditions. His tall, narrow, white and gray house at 14 South Parade (1888–91) in Bedford Park still contrasts sharply with its red-brick, red-tiled neighbors by Norman Shaw, although he was obliged to use the latter materials for his twin town houses, 14 and 16 Hans Road (1891–92). Similar in style is a superb series of houses in the country: Perrycroft (1893) in Malvern; Lowicks (1894) in Tilford; Annesley Lodge (1895), for his father, in London; Greyfriars (1896),

House at Lowicks, Surrey, designed by Charles F.A. Voysey

© Alan Windsor Downloaded by [Central Uni Library Bucharest] at 03:22 26 September 2013

for the American writer Julian Sturgis, in Surrey; Norney and New Place (both 1897; both in Surrey); and his own house, The Orchard (1899), in Chorleywood. All have cool, spare interiors. The welcoming entrance hall has a fireplace; the staircase rises, usually with a screen of tall, thin, plain, square-sectioned wooden balusters uniting the lower and upper floors. Living rooms usually have inglenook fireplaces, ceramic tiled or paneled Entries A–Z 927 with plain marble sheets. In each bedroom, a small ventilator panel of pierced and decorated metal admits fresh air through three narrow slits in the center of the gable outside. Norney and New Place have semicircular, or “bow,” windows, a feature that subsequently became very popular in England for small suburban houses. The guttering of the house is characteristically supported at intervals on thin, prominent iron brackets. have long wrought-iron hinge straps terminating in a heart shape and are sometimes pierced with a hole of that shape; another Voysey signature is the sly, almost hidden grotesque caricature of himself or of his client as an unobtrusive profile molding on a staircase or porch bracket. “Simplicity, sincerity, repose, directness and frankness are moral qualities as essential to good architecture as they are to good men,” wrote Voysey. At Broadleys (1898) on Lake Windermere, Voysey’s most celebrated masterpiece, he introduced three commanding bow windows to provide maximum enjoyment of the views of the lake and the mountains beyond; Voysey’s houses are always sensitively responsive to their settings. An exceptional commission was for the Sanderson’s Wallpaper Factory (1902) in Chiswick: a three-story rectangular building in which concrete floors resting on steel joists are supported by hollow piers that act also as ventilation shafts. Between these extend large steel-framed windows; there are no walls. The roof is hidden behind a tall parapet of wavy-topped sections between each pier. The whole building is clad in white- glazed bricks, and although quite unlike any of his houses, Voysey’s design vocabulary is here perfectly consistent with certain aspects of his style, particularly that of his furniture. Despite his international fame, Voysey’s practice almost ceased after 1914, and for the rest of his long life, apart from a handful of commissions and some extensions to earlier houses, his main income came from designing wallpapers, fabrics, metalwork, and furniture. In 1924, he became master of the Art Workers’ Guild. He was awarded the Royal Gold Medal of the Royal Institute of British Architects in 1940. ALAN WINDSOR

Biography

Born in Hessle, Yorkshire, England, 28 May 1857. Apprenticed to architect J.P.Seddon 1874–79. Married 1885. Chief assistant to J.P.Seddon 1879–80; assistant to architect H.Saxon Snell 1879–80; assistant in the office of George Devey 1880–81. Established a private practice, London 1882; also designed furniture, wallpaper, fabric, tiles, and metalwork. Gold Medal, Royal Institute of British Architects 1940. Died in Winchester, England, 12 February 1941. Downloaded by [Central Uni Library Bucharest] at 03:22 26 September 2013 Selected Works

The Cottage, Bishop’s Intchington, Warwick, 1889 J.W.Forster House, Bedford Park, London, 1891 Grove Town Houses, Kensington, London, 1892 Encyclopedia of 20th-century architecture 928 Perrycroft, Malvern, 1893 Lowicks, Tilford, 1894 Annesley Lodge, Hampstead, London, 1895 Sturgis House and Stables (Greyfriars), Surrey, 1896 Norney, Shackleford, Surrey, 1897 New Place, Haslemere, Surrey, 1897 Broadleys and Moorcrag, on Lake Windermere, Lancastershire, 1898 The Orchard, Chorleywood, Hertfordshire, 1899 Sanderson’s Wallpaper Factory, Chiswick, 1902

Selected Publications

Reason as a Basis of Art (pamphlet), 1906 Individuality, 1915 The Work of C.F.A.Voysey (exhib. cat.; introduction by Voysey), 1931

Further Reading

Hitchmough makes extensive use of contemporary comment and criticism, and is regarded as the definitive biography. Brandon-Jones’s catalog for the Art Gallery, Brighton, illustrates and lists Voysey’s work in architecture, furniture, pattern design, and metalwork. Gebhard’s book offers a representative selection of Voysey’s writings as well as a critical evaluation of his life and work. Davey sets Voysey in the context of his contemporaries. Brandon-Jones, John (editor), C.F.A. Voysey: Architect and Designer, 1857–1941, London: Lund Humphries, 1978 Davey, Peter, Arts and Crafts Architecture, London: Architectural Press, 1980; as Architecture of the Arts and Crafts Movement, New York: Rizzoli, 1980 Gebhard, David, Charles F.A. Voysey, Architect, Los Angeles: Hennesey and Ingalls, 1975 Hitchmough, Wendy, C.F.A. Voysey, London: Phaidon, 1995 Simpson, Duncan, C.F.A. Voysey: An Architect of Individuality, London: Lund Humphries, 1979; New York: Whitney Library of Design, 1981 Voysey, C.F.A., Individuality, London: Chapman and Hall, 1915; reprint, Longmead, Shaftsbury, Dorset: Element Books, 1986 Downloaded by [Central Uni Library Bucharest] at 03:22 26 September 2013 W

WAGNER, OTTO 1841–1918

Architect, Austria Otto Wagner’s career spanned the transition from 19th-century historical revivalism to the emergence of a new modern architecture. From the mid-1890s to the time of his death at the end of World War I, he occupied a place at the forefront of the modernist assault in Vienna. Yet Wagner’s works and ideas were often complex and contradictory, and his position with respect to the modernist program was not infrequently ambiguous. Although he was among the foremost early proponents of a new tectonic rationalism, Wagner never wholly shed traditional notions of style and beauty, and his lifelong ambition, to become the architect to the Habsburg imperial household, stood in glaring opposition to his desire to forge a new building art for the modern metropolis. Wagner’s early years paralleled the development of the Vienna Ringstrasse, and many of his assumptions were shaped by the prevailing ideals and practices of the era. Born in 1841 into a family of wealthy bourgeois bureaucrats, Wagner received his early architectural training at the Vienna Technical University (1857–59) and the Royal Building Academy in Berlin (1860), where he studied with the successors of Karl Friedrich Schinkel. However, it was at the Academy of Fine Arts in Vienna, which Wagner entered in October 1861, where he encountered the two figures who would form his architectural outlook: August Sicardsburg and Eduard van der Nüll. Sicardsburg and van der Nüll, designers of the Vienna Opera House, had long advocated the necessity of finding a “rational expression for modern architecture” (quoted in Graf, 1987). Wagner’s later appreciation of utility and his search for a new language of construction arose from their teachings, and it was to van der Nüll that he attributed his refined facility for drawing. After completing his education at the Academy in 1863, Wagner embarked on his architectural career. Early on, however, he found few commissions for public projects, and he worked instead on a series of apartment houses, a number of which he financed

Downloaded by [Central Uni Library Bucharest] at 03:22 26 September 2013 himself as speculative ventures. Many of these buildings were executed in a “free Renaissance” style, and this new astringent and innovative classicism became the young Wagner’s hallmark. By the late 1880s, Wagner was considered the preeminent builder of tenement houses in Vienna, but his attempts to secure more prestigious works remained mostly fruitless. Among the notable exceptions were his Orthodox Synagogue (1871–76) in Budapest and the Österreichische Länderbank (1882–84) in Vienna. The former was Encyclopedia of 20th-century architecture 930 executed in a neo-Moorish idiom and the latter in Wagner’s more characteristic Renaissance style, but in both buildings the outer historicist skin concealed what were— in material, constructional, and spatial terms—already remarkably modern buildings. Wagner, however, continued to experiment with more conventional ideas of monumentality and form, as his neobaroque Artibus project of 1880 powerfully demonstrates, and it was not until the early 1890s that he fully emerged in the guise of an architectural reformer. Wagner’s transformation followed in the wake of his successful entry into the Vienna city-planning competition held in 1893. Drawing on his own growing sense of the primacy of functionality, Wagner’s proposal emphasized the creation of an extensive urban rail network as well as the regulation of the Danube Canal and the Wien River. Wagner’s straightforward response to the problems of traffic and urban expansion drew widespread praise, and as a consequence, he was named chief architect of the municipal railway system in 1894. The work, which continued until 1901, not only required Wagner to design more than 30 stations but also involved the siting and design of a series of bridges, tunnels, and viaducts. Wagner’s first stations, executed in brick and stucco with pronounced classical detailing, reflected traditional ideas of building “art.” However, as construction progressed, he began to explore a more stripped and utilitarian idiom. After 1897, Wagner also investigated the possibilities of the new Jugendstil language, which he combined with elements of Renaissance and classicism. In some instances, such as the twin stations on the Karlsplatz that he produced in collaboration with his younger protégé, Josef Maria Olbrich, Wagner’s solutions pointed toward a new mode of building—a light iron skeleton framing thin slabs of marble—that anticipated the constructions of the 1920s and beyond. Yet other features of Wagner’s designs reveal his continuing allegiance to the past: the private railway pavilion he designed for the imperial family at the Schönbrunn Palace—despite its ebullient iron porte-cochère—was still firmly rooted in the “style architecture” of the Ringstrasse era, and many of his other stations included features—swags, statuary, wreaths, and rustication—intended to disguise or aestheticize their structural details. In 1894, shortly after beginning work on the city railway project, Wagner was appointed professor of architecture at the Academy of Fine Arts. Although the chair, previously occupied by the noted Ringstrasse architect Carl von Hasenauer, was reserved for a “convinced representative of classical Renaissance,” Wagner in his inaugural address called for a new, “realist” approach to the problem of modern building:

Our living conditions and methods of construction must be fully and completely expressed if architecture is not to be reduced to caricature. The realism of our time must pervade the developing work of art. It will not harm it, nor will any decline of art ensue as a consequence of it; rather it will breathe a new and Downloaded by [Central Uni Library Bucharest] at 03:22 26 September 2013 pulsating life into forms, and in time conquer new fields that today are still devoid of art—for example that of engineering. (quoted in Mallgrave, 1993)

He sounded these same themes again in his book, Modern Architecture, which appeared the following year. Conceived as both textbook and manifesto, the work assailed the inability of 19th-century “style architecture” to meet the needs of modern urban life. Entries A–Z 931 Wagner called instead for a visual language suited to the

Church of St. Leopold am Steinhof (1907)

Photo © Mary Ann Sullivan

new age, one that could fulfill the requirements of the expanding metropolis. Wagner’s insistence on pragmatism, like his chosen motto for the Stadtbahn project (borrowed from Gottfried Semper), artis sola domina necessitas (Necessity is the only master of art), however, merely concealed his own lofty “artistic” ideals: he maintained that the mission of the architect was to find a means of reconciling the realistic and utilitarian with the forms of artistic expression and that it was only through this mediation that mere building could be elevated to Baukunst (building art). Wagner sought to communicate these ideas not only through his works but also in his teachings. Between 1894 and 1912, he devoted a significant portion of his time and energy to his “Special class”—the so-called Wagnerschule, or Wagner School—at the Academy; and his students, who included Josef Hoffmann, Joze Plecnik, Jan Kotera, Pavel Janák, Rudolf Perco, Karl Ehn, and Hubert and Franz Gessner, among others, subsequently assumed a central position in the avant-garde in Central Europe. Despite Wagner’s stated conviction that truthful and logical construction should constitute the basis for architecture’s renewal, however, many of his students were more taken with his language of form, which emphasized the importance of masking or wrapping the internal Downloaded by [Central Uni Library Bucharest] at 03:22 26 September 2013 structure in an outer aesthetic veil. This idea, adapted by Wagner from Semper’s theory of Bekleidung, or “dressing,” emphasized the use of poetic forms or symbols to represent themes that could not be expressed through structure alone. Such an approach stood in direct opposition to later concepts of modernism, which advocated clarity and rationality, yet it had a profound and lasting impact on a whole range of younger Central European architects and designers, who reshaped it to articulate a wide array of social, cultural, and Encyclopedia of 20th-century architecture 932 economic messages. In Wagner’s own work, this tactic of Bekleidung assumed various guises. In 1898–99, in a pair of adjacent buildings on the Linke Wienzeile, it appeared in the form of a florid Jugendstil idiom, the ornament often reduced to two-dimensional graphics or low-relief appliqué. By the early years of the 20th century, however, Wagner had abandoned this language in favor of a stripped, utilitarian classicism, which he combined with geometric forms. His Postal Savings Bank (1904–06, 1910–12), for example, still observed the conventions of a rusticated base and elaborate cornice, but he added to it elements of the new rectilinear Jugendstil. Consistent with his belief in the necessity of adopting new forms of construction, Wagner employed reinforced concrete for the floors of this large office block and made extensive use of aluminum, which he exploited both for its structural qualities and for its aesthetic values. Yet the most dramatic feature of its exterior, the aluminum-headed pins that appear to affix the thin stone panels to the walls while reinforcing the impression of tectonic play, were as much symbolic as structural. Although the pins (which were actually iron but clad in lead with polished aluminum caps so that they would not discolor the marble) served a purpose—to support the underlying mortar—they were also intended to express solidity and stability and thus to reinforce the idea of the building’s “dress.” If the Postal Savings Bank betokened a new Nutzstil, or utilitarian style, Wagner’s unrealized designs for the Franz Josef-Stadtmuseum (city museum) suggested how past and new forms might be fused to fashion a modern monumentality. Wagner labored on the project for more than a decade, from 1900 to 1912, producing a number of variant designs. However, despite his efforts to forge a “modern way of building” that retained the monumental grandeur associated with 19th-century architecture, his building failed to find official or public acceptance—a telling reminder of how strongly Wagner’s aesthetic, even in its most traditional form, ran counter to the contemporary taste. Around 1905, Wagner produced two further examples of the stone-panel-and- aluminum-pin idiom he had announced in the Postal Savings Bank: the Church of St. Leopold am Steinhof (1905–07) and the Kaiserbad Control House (1904–05) on the Danube Canal. However, in his subsequent designs he returned to a highly simplified, functional language. This last phase of his work is perhaps best exemplified by the residential apartment building (1909–10) at Neustiftgasse 40, which, with its clear, blocklike form and regular fenestration, pointed firmly in the direction of a developing modularity. This gesture toward a new practical aesthetic similarly informed the design of the housing blocks depicted in Wagner’s Project for the Future Twenty-second District of Vienna, published in his work Die Grossstadt (1911; The Metropolis). The 23-page pamphlet laid out Wagner’s mature ideas on city planning, describing in precise terms both an architectural and an economic solution to the problem of the expanding city. He Downloaded by [Central Uni Library Bucharest] at 03:22 26 September 2013 argued that future growth could be financed through municipal control of public utilities and by permitting the city authorities to buy and sell properties. To enable the city to grow, he called for new urban districts of 100,000 to 150,000 inhabitants, with both dwellings and places of work in close proximity to allow residents to work and reside in the same area. Each district would have a formal “air center” for its public and cultural institutions surrounded by uniform apartment buildings. The basic street system would Entries A–Z 933 follow a grid, and radial arteries and circular belts of roads and rail would provide connections with the center and other districts. Monumentality would not be achieved by the individual residential blocks but would arise out of their regularity and repetition. Die Grossstadt was by turns both practical and utopian, but in its advocacy of rational approaches to the problem of the modern city, it was consistent with Wagner’s fundamental belief that purpose should be a primary determinant of form. Wagner’s vision of modernism, however, although emphasizing the principle of functionality, was considerably more complex and variegated. Despite his emphasis on the constructional and practical aspects of building, he sought at the same time to perpetuate the monumental and representational values of the old architecture as a means to maintain a link with the past. In addition, he remained committed to the ideals of architectural quality and art that, by the end of his life, were rapidly losing currency. Nonetheless, Wagner stands as one of the great early modernist form givers, and his influence reached far into the 20th century. CHRISTOPHER LONG

Biography

Born in Penzing, Austria, 13 July 1841. Studied at the Technische Hochschule, Vienna 1857–59; attended the Bauakademie, Berlin 1860–61; studied with Eduard van der Nüll and August Sicard von Siccardsburg at the Akademie der Bildenden Künste, Vienna 1861–63. Worked in the studio of Ludwig Förster, Vienna; employed as a master builder for Theophilus Hanser, Vienna 1867. In private practice, Vienna from 1869; assistant to Josef Maria Olbrich 1894. Professor, Akademie der Bildenden Künste, Vienna from 1894; started the Wagnerschule. Founding member, Vienna Secession 1897. Died in Vienna, 11 April 1918.

Selected Works

Synagogue, Budapest, 1876 Länderbank, Vienna, 1884 Stadtbahn System (Karlsplatz Station with Josef Maria Olbrich), Vienna, 1899 Apartment Houses, 38–40 Linke Wienzeile, Vienna, 1899 Quayside Installations, Danube Canal, Vienna, 1905 Postal Savings Bank Office (two stages), Vienna, 1906, 1912 Church of St. Leopold am Steinhof, Vienna, 1907 Kaiserbund Dam, Vienna, 1908

Downloaded by [Central Uni Library Bucharest] at 03:22 26 September 2013 Apartment House, 40 Neustiftgasse, Vienna, 1910

Selected Publications

Einige Skizzen: Projekte und ausgeführte Bauwerke, 4 vols., 1895–1914; as Sketches, Encyclopedia of 20th-century architecture 934 Projects, and Executed Buildings, 1987 Moderne Architektur, 1896; as Modern Architecture, translated by Harry Francis Mallgrave, 1988 Wagnerschule: Projekte, Studien und Skizzen aus der Spezialschule für Architektur des Oberbaurats Otto Wagner, 1902–1907, 1910 Die Grossstadt, 1911 Die Qualität des Baukünstlers, 1912 Die Baukunst unserer Zeit, 4th edition, 1914

Further Reading

Asenbaum, Paul, Otto Wagner: Möbel und Innenräume, Salzburg: Residenz, 1984 Bernabei, Giancarlo, Otto Wagner, Bologna, Italy: Zanichelli, 1983 Doumato, Lamia, Otto Wagner, 1841–1918, Monticello, : Vance Bibliographies, 1983 Geretsegger, Heinz, Max Peintner, and Walter Pichler, Otto Wagner, 1841–1918: Unbegrenzte Groszstadt, Beginn der modernen Architektur, Salzburg: Residenz, 1964; 3rd edition, 1978; as Otto Wagner, 1841–1918: The Expanding City, the Beginning of Modern Architecture, London: Pall Mall Press, 1964; New York: Praeger, 1970 Graf, Otto Antonia, Die vergessene Wagnerschule, Vienna: Jugend und Volk, 1969 Graf, Otto Antonia, Masterdrawings of Otto Wagner (exhib. cat.), New York: Drawing Center, and Vienna: Otto Wagner-Archiv, 1987 Graf, Otto Antonia, Otto Wagner, 7 vols., Vienna: Böhlau, 1985–2000 Haiko, Peter and Renata Kassal-Mikula (editors), Otto Wagner und das Kaiser Franz Josef-Stadtmuseum: Das Scheitern der Moderne in Wien (exhib. cat.), Vienna: Eigenverlag der Museen der Stadt Wien, 1988 Hollein, Hans, Otto Wagner, Tokyo: ADA, 1978 Horvat-Pintaric, V., Vienna, 1900: The Architecture of Otto Wagner, New York: Dorset Press, and London: Studio Editions, 1989 Lux, Joseph August, Otto Wagner, Munich: Delphin, 1914 Mallgrave, Harry Francis (editor), Otto Wagner: Reflections on the Raiment of , Santa Monica, California: Getty Center for the History of Art and the Humanities, 1993 Müller, Ines, Die Otto Wagner-Synagoge in Budapest, Vienna: Löcker, 1992 Otto Wagner, Vienna 1841–1918: Designs for Architecture (exhib. cat.), Oxford: Museum of Modern Art, 1985 Peichl, Gustav, Die Kunst des Otto Wagner, Vienna: Akademie der Bildenden Künste, 1984 Pozzetto, Marco, La Scuola di Wagner, 1894–1912, Trieste, Italy: Comune di Trieste, 1979

Downloaded by [Central Uni Library Bucharest] at 03:22 26 September 2013 Tietze, Hans, Otto Wagner, Vienna: Rikola Verlag, 1922 Varnedoe, Kirk, Vienna 1900: Art, Architecture, and Design (exhib. cat.), New York: Museum of Modern Art, 1986 Entries A–Z 935

WANAMAKER STORE

Designed by Daniel H.Burnham, completed 1911 Philadelphia, Pennsylvania The point-and-click mentality of on-line shopping and the average neighborhood mall of the late 20th century are worlds away from what was designed to be an elegant, social, and even educational experience in the first department stores. This spirit was manifest in Philadelphia’s Wanamaker’s Store. Its patron, John Wanamaker, was a clever businessman who helped to revolutionize retailing in the United States and, while making himself rich, gained the respect and loyalty of generations of Philadelphians who saw his building as more than a department store: Wanamaker’s was a monument to the entrepreneurial spirit, deserved success, and benevolence of John Wanamaker. In 1861 Wanamaker opened a men’s apparel shop in Philadelphia with an idea that he could improve the current American Downloaded by [Central Uni Library Bucharest] at 03:22 26 September 2013 Encyclopedia of 20th-century architecture 936

John Wanamaker Building, aerial view of the store showing the Running Track and Game Courts of the Meadowbrook Athletic “Field”, Philadelphia, PA

Photo courtesy Friends of the Wanamaker Organ, Bryn Mawr, Pennsylvania Downloaded by [Central Uni Library Bucharest] at 03:22 26 September 2013 system based on haggling and narrow specialization; by 1876 the business was successful enough to fill an abandoned railroad depot, offering over two acres of floor area and a variety of goods, proving the effectiveness of Wanamaker’s introduction of such French retailing principles as accommodating browsing, exchanges and returns, and clearly marking all goods with the same price for all. By the turn of the 20th century, Wanamaker had determined to build a new, even larger establishment. After acquiring a Entries A–Z 937 lot on Market Street in downtown Philadelphia adjacent to the Second Empire City Hall, he looked for an architect who could house and give proper expression to his flourishing business on this prestigious site. With dozens of large-scale buildings, high-rises, and planning projects to his credit, Chicago architect Daniel Hudson Burnham was certainly capable of an adequate solution for as big a building as Wanamaker proposed. Burnham’s experience and success with this new building type, as with such clients as Marshall Field, the Gimbel Brothers, Edward Filene, and Selfridge of London, made him the acknowledged leader of department store architecture. In addition to his technical and aesthetic talents, Wanamaker must have admired an architect who shared his vision: Wanamaker observed of Downloaded by [Central Uni Library Bucharest] at 03:22 26 September 2013

Encyclopedia of 20th-century architecture 938

John Wanamaker Building, interior Grand Court

Photo courtesy Friends of the Wanamaker Organ, Bryn Mawr, Pennsylvania

Burnham, “I think he never had from his boyhood a small idea in his head” (Appel, 1930). Ground was broken in February 1902. Constructed across eight years, the new building was phased such that the older store emptied a section at a time into it without ever halting business; parts of the new store opened successively in 1905, 1908, and 1910. Its grand opening was held in 1911, Wanamaker’s jubilee year in business. The dedication was celebrated in the highest style of any commercial building to date, its trappings indicative of the public character of this privately financed building and 30,000 people in attendance. Of special note was speaker William H.Taft; because U.S. presidents usually bestowed the decorum of their office only on occasions meant to improve or enhance the public welfare, the Wanamaker Store was interpreted on par with such progressive, civic- minded, and publicly oriented projects as the opening of railroads or the celebration of a historical event. Taft glorified the store as “one of the most important instrumentalities in modern life for the promotion of comfort among people” by bringing under one roof at low and fixed prices all of life’s necessities (Appel, 1930). Wanamaker, too, lauded the societal importance of his store and compared it with great building projects of the past: unlike the Colosseum—an architectural masterpiece but an otherwise “empty shell”—he compared his store with the Cooper Union, the Carnegie Institute, and Girard College, each a gift of education from a businessman. At Wanamaker’s, space was set aside for workers to complete high school degrees. More generally, customers with a world of goods at their fingertips could learn the geography and produce of different countries along with economic lessons; they also had access to free concerts and Wanamaker’s own art collection, drawn from the Paris salons, which adorned the store. The building’s form was expressive of its cultured mission. Like many of his earlier office blocks and department stores (especially Marshall Field’s, 1902, in Chicago), Burnham conceived the Wanamaker Store after the model of a Renaissance palazzo in plan and elevation. Hewn of Maine granite, the tripartite facades feature a three-story base with large squared openings glazed with broad plate-glass display windows. Above, seven nearly identical floors, articulated with paired windows between piers and topped with arched windows, express the building’s repetitive steel structure in a pattern reminiscent of H.H. Richardson’s Marshall Field Wholesale Store (1885). A classical cornice two stories tall caps the building. With another three additional stories below street level, the hulking mass commanded a full city block, its footprint measuring roughly 500 by 250 feet. Hailed as the most monumental commercial structure in the world, the $10 million store housed two million square feet of retailing space from which Downloaded by [Central Uni Library Bucharest] at 03:22 26 September 2013 one could buy literally anything, including automobiles and airplanes. A model of corporate efficiency, the store was the first in America to employ a pneumatic tube system, telephone service, and a ventilation fan system and to provide a restaurant and U.S. parcel post delivery. The display areas were spacious and well illuminated (power was furnished by Wanamaker’s own power plant on Ludlow Street), arranged logically around a courtyard to provide ease of navigation through the huge Entries A–Z 939 store. Although the functionality of the floor area was of prime concern to Burnham and Wanamaker, both saw the building as more than a place to buy and sell. The building’s focus is a centralized Grand Court rising 150 feet to its ceiling and surrounded by arcaded galleries opening from the first seven floors, whose ceiling heights range from 15 to 25 feet. Giant Ionic and Corinthian columns, a marble floor, and classical ornaments in plaster and Keene cement articulate the space in which Wanamaker deposited two souvenirs from the 1903 St. Louis World’s Fair: a large bronze eagle sculpture that became a landmark in itself (Philadelphians have met under its beak for generations) and a great pipe organ, advertised as the second largest in the world, on which daily concerts were performed. The balcony at its base accommodated 100 musicians. In an attempt to make the retail experience elegant and uplifting, as well as to educate the public in music, concerts were also provided in the 1,500-seat Egyptian Room, which was adorned with columns based on those at Karnak, on sphinxes, and on other Egyptian motifs. A smaller auditorium also fitted with an organ, the mahogany-paneled Greek Room, seated 600 among sturdy Doric pilasters and columns. In keeping with the Gilded Age’s interest in period rooms, the store also featured a Byzantine Hall, Empire Room, and Moorish Room for special goods, further conjoining cultural lessons with retail merchandising, the overall goal of Wanamaker’s. JHENNIFER A.AMUNDSON

Further Reading

Hendrickson offers a fine account of the social and business history of the department store in America. Brief architectural considerations of the Wanamaker Building are included in Tatum and in Hines. The most complete description of the building appears in the Golden Book of the Wanamaker Stores, a 500-page work that combines a history of Philadelphia and of the evolution of retail commerce in the United States with Wanamaker’s philosophies on life and business. Appel, Joseph H., The Business Biography of John Wanamaker, New York: Macmillan, 1930 Appel, Joseph Herbert, and Leigh Mitchell Hodges (compilers), Golden Book of the Wanamaker Stores, Jubilee Year, 1861–1911, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania: John Wanamaker, 1911 Conwell, Russell H., The Romantic Rise of a Great American, New York and London: Harper, 1924 Hendrickson, Robert, The Grand Emporiums, New York: Stein and Day, 1979 Hines, Thomas S., Burnham of Chicago, Architect and Planner, New York: Oxford University Press, 1974 Tatum, George, Penn’s Great Town, Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, Downloaded by [Central Uni Library Bucharest] at 03:22 26 September 2013 1961 Encyclopedia of 20th-century architecture 940

WAREHOUSE

Warehouses, buildings that provide storage for commercial gain, have had two primary functional mandates—the provision of storage space on floors with a high load capacity and the facilitation of the movement of goods and freight with materials-handling equipment—since the mid-19th century, when the building type and term became common. Nevertheless, warehouses underwent fundamental changes in form as well as in architectural presence during the 20th century. General-purpose, cold-storage, bonded, and household-goods warehouses, as well as industry-specific facilities, were in use by the turn of the 20th century. At that time the typical warehouse was a loft structure of five stories in which goods were moved with platform elevators. The interior framing of these structures consisted of wood, cast-iron, and wrought-iron members combined to support heavy floor loads. Masonry wareouses were often divided by interior firewalls into a series of discrete spaces, and such divisions were sometimes expressed on their exteriors through piers and fenestration patterns. These warehouses had enough windows to light the interior without the introduction of the fire hazard of lanterns and to allow for conversion of the building to other uses; as electric lighting became more commonly used in warehouses, the number of window openings was reduced. Exterior, raised loading platforms sheltered by sheet-metal awnings and series of wide doorways articulated the street levels of warehouses. A functional yet expressive tone of architectural styling for warehouses was set during the 19th century. The sturdy brick forms and detailing of the , with piers, arcades, corbeled brick cornices, and arched window openings, were often selected to express both a warehouse’s stability and strength and its important role in commerce. In a series of articles that appeared in the Architectural Record, the critic Russell Sturgis drew attention to early 20th-century warehouse design that offered a similar clear expression of structure and monumentality and was not cluttered with any applied ornament. Many ware houses built during the first half of the 20th century exhibited architectural presence and expressed this aesthetic sensibility as utilitarian purpose tempered references to current styles. During the first decades of the 20th century, warehouses reflected both the continued success of capitalism and advances in building arts as the warehouses became even larger and stronger and incorporated new materials-handling methods. The use of expensive steel beams was often limited to the framing of wide bays on the ground floor for the accommodation of rail and motor vehicles. Reinforced concrete, however, was widely Downloaded by [Central Uni Library Bucharest] at 03:22 26 September 2013 adopted because it was strong and fire resistant. The United States Army Supply Base (1918) in Brooklyn, New York, designed by architect Cass Gilbert, consisted of a pair of reinforced-concrete loft buildings that flanked a covered rail siding commanded by a traveling crane. The facility was widely admired because of its materials-handling system as well as for the way in which Gilbert carefully modeled the stark concrete facades to convey great scale and strength. Another American project, the Starrett-Lehigh Building Entries A–Z 941 (1930–31) in New York City, designed by Cory and Cory with Yasuo Matsui, associate architect, demonstrated the ultimate development of the multistory warehouse both in the vertical movement of goods and in the architectural expression of function. This structure covered an entire block and rose to a height of 19 stories. Its steel-framed central service and circulation core, which served as a “vertical street” to bring trucks to each warehouse floor, was articulated by soaring pilasters. More dominant in the design, however, were the flanking lofts. Their walls were slightly cantilevered beyond the exterior columns to permit horizontal bands of windows and rounded corners. With its interpretation of European architectural modernism of the day, the Starrett-Lehigh Building earned notice in the Museum of Modern Art’s “Modern Architecture: International Exhibition” of 1932. A new preference for the horizontal movement of goods, the relocation of warehousing operations to sites outside of urban cores, and a heightened desire to minimize warehousing costs led to dramatic changes for warehouses during the middle third of the century. Experimentation with platform trucks during the 1930s demonstrated the advantages of one-story facilities; after World War II, forklift trucks and pallets that “unitized” goods storage and shipment became the modern tools of warehousing. The warehouse design problem changed to become a matter of limiting initial costs and choosing the best size and shape of a one-story structure that would have masonry bearing walls and a lightweight flat roof. Ceiling heights of 20 feet or more and smooth floors were provided to accommodate forklift trucks and pallets. An office area with a public entry and fenestration was positioned to screen the rest of the building from the street or to occupy a corner of the building. Freight doors, truck docks, and railroad sidings became the only features of the other sides of these windowless warehouses. Brick and other siding materials enclosed bland, unstyled warehouses intended to blend in with nearby commercial and industrial structures. During the late 20th century, warehousing operations and buildings continued to evolve in response to a just-in-time manufacturing philosophy and the development of distribution networks that used a smaller number of larger warehouses. Even more emphatically, the warehouse building became perceived as merely a means to protect the storage medium and materialshandling systems that were the important components of the operation. To serve Europe, Nike, Inc., developed a pair of side-by-side distribution centers (1994–95) near Meerhout, Belgium, that are representative of the quite large facilities developed during the 1990s. The structures enclose one million square feet and cover 23 acres as they accommodate high-bay storage that rises to a height of nearly 100 feet. Yet even as most new warehouses became little-noticed background buildings in industrial developments and port areas, older urban warehouses were rehabilitated for new uses. Since the 1970s warehouses with style and versatile loft floors in Copenhagen, Downloaded by [Central Uni Library Bucharest] at 03:22 26 September 2013 London, New York, and many other cities have provided space for people to live and work in lively mixed-use neighborhoods and waterfront areas. BETSY HUNTER BRADLEY Encyclopedia of 20th-century architecture 942

Further Reading

Architectural historians and critics have seldom turned their attention to the warehouse. Some books on industrial architecture, such as Bradley, address both the functional and aesthetic aspects of warehouses. Works by engineers on facilities design (Harmon; Heragu) are useful to trace changes in warehousing practice and operation. Architectural periodicals remain the best source for warehouse design trends. American warehouses in historic districts and redevelopment areas have often been documented in local preservation agency reports, such as the New York City Landmarks Preservation Commission’s SoHo and TriBeCa Historic District Designation Reports. Bradley, Betsy Hunter, The Works: The Industrial Architecture of the United States, New York: Oxford University Press, 1999 Buildings for Industry, New York: Dodge, 1957 Harmon, Roy L., Reinventing the Warehouse: World Class Distribution Logistics, New York: Free Press and Macmillan International, and Toronto, Ontario: Macmillan Canada, 1993 Heragu, Sunderesh, Facilities Design, : PWS, 1997 Shockley, Jay, Starrett-Lehigh Building, 601–625 West 26th Street, Borough of Manhattan: Built 1930–31: Russell G. and Walter M. Cory, Architects: Yasuo Matsui, Associate Architect: Purdy & Henderson, Consulting Engineers, New York: New York City Landmarks Preservation Commission, 1986 SoHo—Cast Iron Historic District Designation Report, New York: New York City Landmarks Preservation Commission, 1973 Sturgis, Russell, “The Warehouse and Factory: Architecture,” Architectural Record, 15 (January-February 1904) Sturgis, Russell, “Some Recent Warehouses,” Architectural Record, 23 (May 1908) TriBeCa South Historic District: Designation Report, New York: New York City Landmarks Preservation Commission, 1992

WASHINGTON, D.C.

A discussion of Washington, D.C., architecture must begin with the city plan developed by Pierre Charles L’Enfant in 1791, for it established a strong context of geometry, scale, and hierarchy. L’Enfant’s plan overlaid an orthogonal grid of streets with diagonal avenues. The narrower, orthogonal streets serve as utilitarian means of access, whereas

Downloaded by [Central Uni Library Bucharest] at 03:22 26 September 2013 the wide, tree-lined avenues connect open-space nodes. The heights of buildings along all Washington thoroughfares are limited by law so that no building can be taller than the Capitol. L’Enfant’s plan established a monumental federal precinct surrounded by smaller- scaled mercantile and residential precincts. The Capitol was placed on the highest hill within a Congress Garden, linked by Pennsylvania Avenue to the White House, set in the Entries A–Z 943 President’s Park. On the axis west from the Capitol to the Potomac River was the Grand Avenue, now the Mall, a vast open space lined with federal buildings. This area developed haphazardly until the Senate Park Commission Plan of 1901 established a clear master plan. Since 1972 the Pennsylvania Avenue Development Corporation has redesigned this avenue and controlled development along its north side. The context for architecture in the federal precinct was established early by the Capitol and the White House: neoclassical, light-colored stone, figural, symmetrical, and monumental. All the early buildings of the 20th century, the memorials and museums, were designed in this idiom. In the last half of the century, architects struggled with these contextual restrictions and found ways to vary the materials and alter the stylistic formula. The context for architecture in the mercantile precinct changed the most during the 20th century from low-scale mixed use to high-density commercial. It is highly varied, with examples from all eras of the city’s history. Metro, Washington’s rapid transit and subway system, was opened in 1976 with handsome stations dominated by concrete barrel vaults consistently designed by Harry Weese and Associates of Chicago. The first part of the 20th century, from 1900 to 1940, was a very active period of design and construction, primarily within the federal precinct. A great number of high- quality buildings were built as the federal government acted on the recommendations of the Senate Park Commission. The first act was to remove the train station from the Mall and to construct a new one west of the Capitol. The Beaux-Arts-inspired Union Station and Columbia Plaza were completed in 1908 as designed by the noted Chicago architect Daniel Burnham. This was followed by development of the Mall, capitol square, and the federal triangle. The Lincoln Memorial (1922) by Henry Bacon, on axis with the Capitol, features the marble statue of Abraham Lincoln by Daniel Chester French. The Jefferson Memorial (1943) by John Russell Pope, on axis with the White House, features the enormous statue of Thomas Jefferson by Rudolph Evans. New buildings added to capitol square included the Supreme Court Building (1935) between twin buildings for the House and the Senate built in 1908. New buildings along the north side of the Mall were the National Museum of Natural History (1911) and the National Gallery of Art (1941). The federal triangle was developed as an ensemble of large neoclassical buildings featuring the National Archives (1935) by John Russell Pope. Defining the north side of the Mall west of the White House were Constitution Hall (1939), the Organization of American States (1910), the Building (1937), the National Academy of Sciences (1924), and the American Pharmaceutical Association (1933). This series of white pavilions set within a verdant landscape and designed by very notable architects is probably the most handsome series of buildings along one avenue in Washington. The most glorious building commenced during this era is the Washington National Downloaded by [Central Uni Library Bucharest] at 03:22 26 September 2013 Cathedral (1907–90) by Henry Vaughn and George Bodley, the last Gothic cathedral structure to be built in the world. Encyclopedia of 20th-century architecture 944

Hirshhorn Museum (1974), designed by (Skidmore, Owings, and Merrill)

© Ernest and Kathleen Meredith/GreatBuildings.com

From 1945 to 1960, the country and city were recovering from the aftermath of World War II. Much good architecture was destroyed during the urban-renewal era of the 1950s for the sake of highways or real estate development. The historic preservation movement abated this destruction, but it still did occur many times, with only historic pieces of blocks and buildings saved and incorporated into new development. The replacement buildings usually were not noteworthy. Modern architecture was introduced to Washington during this period in the work of architects Joseph Abel, Charles Goodman, and Chloethiel Woodard Smith. From 1960 to 2000, both the quality and the quantity of architecture in Washington increased substantially. Two early buildings from this period worth noting are the exquisite Pre-Columbian Museum (1963) at Dumbarton Oaks by Philip Johnson and the boldly curvilinear Watergate (1965) by Luigi Moretti. During this era, the firms of Hartman-Cox and Keyes Condon Florance (KCF) developed an approach to developer architecture that was sympathetic to the Washington urban context while also exploring inventive design expressions. George Hartman and Warren Cox began their practice designing very modern buildings, such as the Euram

Downloaded by [Central Uni Library Bucharest] at 03:22 26 September 2013 Building (1971) on and the National Permanent Building (1976) at 18th Street and Pennsylvania Avenue. They progressed to a number of contextual commercial projects that incorporated historic buildings, such as Sumner School (1986) and 1001 Pennsylvania Avenue, NW (1986). Their two best projects are One Franklin Square (1990) and Market Square (1990). The former, on Franklin Square, strongly defines the north side of this space and adds two pyramid-topped towers. The latter, on Pennsylvania Avenue across from the National Archives, is suitably neoclassical and incorporates the Entries A–Z 945 Navy Memorial. KCF began as Keyes Lethbridge Condon, designing the modern curvilinear housing of Columbia Plaza (1967). The firm then became Keyes Condon Florance, designing urbanistically appropriate buildings with strong street walls, such as Lafayette Square (1991). Many of their projects have been at street intersections that they exploit. A good example is at 2401 Pennsylvania Avenue, NW (1980), with its curved windows and balconies. The firm then changed partners to become Florance Eichbaum Esocoff King and designed the Art Deco office building at 1100 New York Avenue, incorporating the Greyhound bus station as an entry. Three other firms that have been developing a Washington style of abstract contextualism are Shalom Baranes Associates, David M. Schwarz, and Weinstein Associates. The most influential out-of-town firm has been I.M. Pei and Partners, now Pei, Cobb, Freed and Partners. Their work began with urban-renewal projects in the southwest part of the city: Town Center Plaza (1962) and L’Enfant Plaza (1968). This was followed by the East Building of the National Gallery of Art (1978), a tour de force of monumental abstract forms encompassing an exhilarating atrium. The United States Holocaust Memorial Museum (1993), designed by James Ingo Freed, maintains a balance between monumentality and contextual resolution with a highly energized central space. Their latest project is the enormous Ronald Reagan Building (1998), which completes the federal triangle. Here, Freed’s exterior is more influenced by the monumental neoclassical context, whereas the engaging interior public space is very modern in expression. The international firm of Skidmore, Owings and Merrill (SOM) has had a strong influence on Washington architecture because it maintained a local office for many years under the direction of partner David Childs. During this period it produced some of the refined modern office buildings for which it is known. These include the Inter-American Development Bank at 1300 New York Avenue, NW (1983), with its spectacular atrium, and 1201 Pennsylvania Avenue, NW (1984), with its triangular atrium. The best-known and most controversial building by SOM is the circular concrete Hirshhorn Museum (1974) on the Mall, designed by partner Gordon Bunshaft. Washington has also been the locus for numerous buildings by well-known architects from around the world. Although these buildings have usually challenged their context, they add an element of surprise attraction that enlivens the cityscape. The earliest of these projects is the Brutalist concrete Department of Housing and Urban Development (1968) by Marcel Breuer. Later projects include the boxlike, white-marble Kennedy Center for the Performing Arts (1971) by Edward Durell Stone; the stark steel Martin Luther King, Jr., Memorial Library (1972) by Mies van der Rohe; and the marble-and-glass cubes of the National Air and Space Museum (1976) by Hellmuth, Obata and Kassabaum. Because Washington is the national capital, it has embassies that add another aspect of Downloaded by [Central Uni Library Bucharest] at 03:22 26 September 2013 architectural interest, as they try to reflect the spirit of their country. The earliest of these is the British Embassy (1931) by Sir , a quirky interpretation of an . The Canadian Chancery (1989) by Arthur Erickson is in the most prominent location on Pennsylvania Avenue between the Capitol and the White House. It is a gray-marble building of varied forms with an open courtyard facing John Marshall Park. The recent Embassy of Finland (1994) by Heikkinen and Komonen has attracted Encyclopedia of 20th-century architecture 946 much attention for its deference to the natural setting, utilizing transparent screens. Washington is a city with architecture that abides by its civic role. The strong context was established at its founding by the L’Enfant plan and continues to be followed. The building masses form clearly defined streets and open spaces, and the materials and colors are contextually appropriate. There is a civility to the architecture that gives this city more design integrity than any other American city. MICHAEL J.BEDNAR

Further Reading

Highsmith, Carol M., and Ted Landphair, Pennsylvania Avenue: America’s Main Street, Washington, D.C.: American Institute of Architects Press, 1988 Kousoulas, Claudia D., and George W.Kousoulas, Contemporary Architecture in Washington, D.C., Washington, D.C.: Preservation Press, and New York: Wiley, 1995 Longstreth, Richard (editor), The Mall in Washington, 1791–1991, Washington, D.C.: National Gallery of Art, 1991 Scott, Pamela, and Antoinette J Lee., Buildings of the District of Columbia, New York: Oxford University Press, 1993; Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1994 Weeks, Christopher, AIA Guide to the Architecture of Washington, D.C., 3rd edition, Baltimore, Maryland: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1994

WISSA WASSEF, RAMSES 1911–74

Architect, Egypt (Africa) Ramses Wissa Wassef was born into a prominent and cultured Francophile Coptic (Egyptian Christian) family in Cairo. His father was an influential member of the nationalist Wafd Party and one of the founders of the École des Beaux-Arts in Cairo, which opened, in the teeth of opposition from the office of the British consul-general in Egypt, in 1908. Wissa Wassef completed his education in France and studied architecture at the École des Beaux-Arts in Paris, where he received his diploma in 1935. His diploma project, “The Potter’s House in Old Cairo,” already revealed his interest in and knowledge of the traditional crafts of his homeland. On returning to Egypt in 1936, Wissa Wassef was appointed professor of the art and in the Department of Architecture of the School of Fine Arts, Cairo. The Department of Architecture at the School of Fine Arts, in Zamalek on Gezira

Downloaded by [Central Uni Library Bucharest] at 03:22 26 September 2013 Island between the two arms of the Nile near Cairo, was the first modern school of architecture to be founded in Egypt. Presently incorporated in the University of Helwan (Zamalek Campus), the school continues the arts-and-crafts tradition pioneered by Hassam Fathy and Wissa Wassef. Wissa Wassef had followed Hassan Fathy as head of the Department of Architecture at the School of Fine Arts, and both men shared a passion for the traditional vernacular architecture of their native land. Field study visits into the rural areas of the Nile delta Entries A–Z 947 and of Lower and Upper Egypt were annual events for students of the School of Architecture under their direction; and for both men, the traditional architecture of Nubia, the southernmost region of Egypt above and around the Aswan Dam, became and remained a perennial source of inspiration. Wissa Wassef was primarily a teacher, fired by the desire to communicate his love and profound knowledge of architecture and of arts and crafts generally not only to his architecture students but also to children. He stated, “I had this vague conviction that every human being was born an artist, but that his gifts could be brought out only if artistic creation were encouraged by the practising of a craft from early childhood” (see de Stefano, n.d.). In 1941 Wissa Wassef was commissioned by a social welfare organization to design a small primary school in the Coptic quarter of Old Cairo. This provided him with the opportunity to test his conviction, and he persuaded the management committee to let him teach weaving to the children after school. He chose weaving, a craft about which he knew very little, as the first craft to teach young children because he believed that the simple techniques could be easily learned and that the craft process would enable children to develop and express their innate creativity through producing colorful visual images. His pupils,

El-Dar Restaurant, view from the roof showing its mud-brick dome

© Aga Khan Trust for Culture

Downloaded by [Central Uni Library Bucharest] at 03:22 26 September 2013 children from the humblest homes, were producing work that gave them both great satisfaction and a potential source of income, and so within a few years he resolved to build his own school and craft training center where he could realize his vision of a cooperative of artist-craftsmen, living and working in the local community. His wife, Sophie Habib Gorgy, was a sculptor and shared his enthusiasm and his vision. In 1951, they purchased a small plot of land on the outskirts of the village of Harraniya, a few Encyclopedia of 20th-century architecture 948 miles south of Giza on the west bank of the Nile, and began to build the school that was eventually to bear his name, the Ramses Wissa Wassef Arts Centre. He devoted the greater part of the rest of his life, especially after his retirement from the School of Fine Arts in 1969, to its completion. Although primarily a teacher, Wissa Wassef was a sensitive and accomplished architect, and his built works are many and varied. Apart from the Arts Centre at Harraniya, his best-known works are the Mahmoud Mokhtar Sculpture Museum (1962– 64) in Cairo, the Church of al-Mar’ashali in Zamalek, Cairo, and the Virgin Mary Church in Cairo. He designed and built several houses for private clients, including the Ina Magar Country Home (1969), Adam Hennen Residence (1968), the Mohi Houssin Residence (1970), and his own house in Agouza. In 1968, Wissa Wassef incorporated traditional Nubian structures in the design of El-Dar Restaurant in Giza, Egypt, that he built of mud brick with vault and dome technology. In 1961, he was awarded a National Prize for the Arts for the stained-glass windows he designed and made for the National Festival Hall in Cairo and in 1964 a National Prize for the Arts for the design of the Mahmoud Mokhtar Sculpture Museum. ANTHONY D.C.HYLAND See also Cairo, Egypt; Ramses Wissa Wassef Arts Centre, Giza, Egypt

Biography

Born in Cairo, 9 November 1911; father was a lawyer and politician. Studied architecture, École des Beaux-Arts, Paris 1929–35; bachelor’s degree 1935. Married Sophie Habib Gorgy, 1948:2 children. Bought land in Harraniya, near Giza, and built the Harraniya Arts Centre later the Ramses Wissa Wassef Arts Centre 1951–70. Professor of the art and the history of architecture, College of Fine Arts, Cairo 1936–69. The Ramses Wissa Wassef Arts Centre received the Aga Khan Award for Architecture in 1983. Died in Cairo 1974.

Selected Works

Primary School, Church of St. Barbara, Old Cairo (Misr El-Adima), 1941 Harraniya Weaving (Craft) Village (with Hassan Fathy), Giza, Egypt, 1957 Mahmoud Mokhtar Sculpture Museum, Cairo, Egypt, 1964 Adam Hennen Residence, Giza, Egypt, 1968 El-Dar Restaurant, Giza, Egypt, 1968 Mohi Houssin Residence, Giza, Egypt, 1970

Downloaded by [Central Uni Library Bucharest] at 03:22 26 September 2013 Harraniya Art Center (Ramses Wissa Wassef Arts Centre), Harraniya, Egypt, 1970 Coptic Cathedral, Zamalek Coptic Cathedral, Heliopolis Ramses Wissa Wassef House, Agouza Entries A–Z 949

Further Reading

De Stefano, E.A., Threads of Life: A Journey in Creativity: Ramses Wissa Wassef Arts Centre, Giza, Egypt: Ramses Wissa Wassef Arts Centre, n.d. Kultermann, Udo, “Contemporary Arab Architecture: The Architects of Egypt,” Mimar, 4 (1982)

WEISSENHOFSIEDLUNG, (STUTTGART, 1927)

Exhibition by various architects, 1927 Stuttgart, Germany The Weissenhofsiedlung was one of the most significant architectural exhibitions of the 20th century. It brought together for the first time the work of some of the most influential and progressive European designers from the early decades of the century. The exposition, held in Stuttgart, Germany, in 1927, focused on “Die Wohnung” (the Dwelling). Initiated by the Deutscher Werkbund and financed by the city of Stuttgart, it presented current ideas in modern residential design. The central feature of the event was a development of 21 domestic buildings located on the Weissenhof hillside overlooking the city. Over a half million people visited the Siedlung during the summer of 1927. The full-scale model housing development was only one part of the exhibition. Domestic products and furniture were displayed together in the exhibit “The Interior Design of the House,” located at Gewerbeplatz in Stuttgart. The exhibit featured the Spiegelglashalle, a plate-glass hall designed by Lilly Reich and Ludwig Mies van der Rohe that consisted of wall planes of various glass materials—a predecessor to Mies’s German Pavilion designed two years later for the Exposition. The “International Exhibition of Modern Architecture: Designs and Models,” held in the center of Stuttgart, contained plans, drawings, models, and photographs of foreign buildings that reflected the new architectural ideas promoted in the designs of the Siedlung. A third group of exhibits, located at a site adjacent to the Weissenhof estate, demonstrated the attributes of recently developed building materials and new methods of construction, including industrial prefabrication. The initial underlying social goal of the exhibition was to present modern solutions to the urgent need for low- and middle-income housing. Event organizers sought to demonstrate ways to reduce housing costs and improve living conditions through the use Downloaded by [Central Uni Library Bucharest] at 03:22 26 September 2013 of recently introduced building materials and construction methods. Many of the 17 architects involved in the Siedlung, however, ignored the basic economic objective of the show and created designs more appropriate for affluent families. Many of the individual housing units even contained maid’s quarters. Participating designers came from Austria, Holland, Switzerland, Belgium, and Germany. Organizers hired Mies van der Rohe as artistic director, and Richard Döcker Encyclopedia of 20th-century architecture 950 served as technical director. Other architects who contributed designs for the development included Peter Behrens, Le Corbusier and his partner Pierre Jeanneret, Josef Frank, Walter Gropius, Ludwig Hilber-seimer, J.J.P. Oud, , Adolf Rading, Hans Scharoun, Adolf Schneck, Mart Stam, Bruno Taut, and Max Taut. A house designed by the Belgian architect Victor Bourgeois located adjacent to the development was also incorporated into the exhibition. Most of the buildings in the Siedlung were situated on streets that curved along the Weissenhof hillside. The designs featured flat, unadorned facades; flat roofs; ribbon windows; and pipe railing. Although the basic, formal characteristics of the buildings suggested a great sense of unity among the designers, the unique nature of each of their architectural ideologies was apparent in the details. Individual designers focused on different aspects of modern housing. Mies van der Rohe designed a fourstory block of terrace apartments that served as the centerpiece of the exhibition. Inside, he showed how universal spaces could be adapted to meet individual needs. Le Corbusier illustrated his own ideas for the modern dwelling in two houses of reinforced concrete that he designed with Pierre Jeanneret. The architect realized the concept of his Citrohan House in the first residence, whereas the second house featured the five points of architecture discussed in his 1923 treatise Towards a New Architecture. Some designers, such as Gropius, Stam, and Max Taut, explored newly available building materials and ideas regarding prefabrication. Others, such as Scharoun, Poelzig, and Schneck, were more interested in producing functional layouts that could better meet the needs of the modern family. Although the facades of the Weissenhof buildings appear neutral in black-and-white photographs, in reality many of the walls were originally painted in shades of yellow, blue, and other colors. Bruno Taut, Max Taut, and Le Corbusier all incorporated intense colors in their designs. Bruno Taut, for example, specified different saturated hues for the individual walls of his small, single-family residence, leading one critic to describe the vivid colors as coming right out of a paint box. The architecture of the Weissenhofsiedlung was strongly rejected by the National Socialists in Germany, who labeled it the “product of ‘cultural Bolshevists.’” The event was better received in European and American design journals. The success of the Siedlung led to a succession of similar housing exhibitions in Germany and elsewhere across Central Europe, including events in , Brno, and Vienna. Progressive European architects used these exhibitions to present and debate their modern design ideologies. Their desire to further develop such dialogue led to the formation of CIAM (Congrès Internationaux d’Architecture Moderne) in 1929, which provided a platform for designers to discuss developing ideas in modern architecture. The formal unity of the designs included in the Siedlung contributed to the concept of an International Style in modern architecture that was heavily promoted five years later by Henry Russell Hitch- Downloaded by [Central Uni Library Bucharest] at 03:22 26 September 2013 Entries A–Z 951

House for Weissenhofsiedlung, designed by Le Corbusier, Stuttgart (1927)

Photo © Donald Corner and Jenny Young/GreatBuildings.com

cock and Philip Johnson in the “Modern Architecture—International Exposition” show held at the Museum of Modern Art in 1932. The exhibit and subsequent book featured several buildings from the Weissenhofsiedlung. The site of the Weissenhof development was sold to the German state in 1938 for use by the military. Bombs destroyed houses located in the center of the estate in 1944. New houses replaced these and several other residences that were torn down after World War II. At the end of the century, only 11 of the original buildings remained standing. The Siedlung underwent an extensive restoration in the mid-1980s that was completed in time for a 60th anniversary celebration of the exhibition. Today the development continues to attract visitors interested in experiencing full-scale examples of progressive modern housing designs from the mid-1920s. LISA D. SCHRENK See also Corbusier, Le (Jeanneret, Charles-Édouard) (France); Deutscher Werkbund; Gropius, Walter (Germany); Mies van der Rohe, Ludwig (Germany); Oud, J.J.P. (the Netherlands); Poelzig, Hans (Germany); Taut, Bruno (Germany)

Downloaded by [Central Uni Library Bucharest] at 03:22 26 September 2013 Further Reading

Badovici, Jean, L’Architecture vivante en Allemagne: La Cité jardin du Weissenhof à Stuttgart, Paris: Morancé, 1928 Classen, Helge, Die Weissenhofsiedlung: Beginn eines neuen Bauens, Dortmund, Germany: Harenberg, 1990 DIA Serie I: Die Weissenhofsiedlung: Architektur und Architekten, Stuttgart: Encyclopedia of 20th-century architecture 952 Landesbildstelle Württemberg, 1990 DIA Serie II: Die Weissenhofsiedlung: Innenräume: Impulse für unser Jahrhundert (text by Karin Kirsch), Stuttgart: Landesbildstelle Württemberg, 1990 Gleinig, Wolf Rainer, Der Weissenhof im Dritten Reich, Weinsberg: Kunow, 1983 Joedicke, Jürgen, Die Weissenhofsiedlung, Stuttgart: Kramer, 1968; 3rd edition, as Die Weissenhofsiedlung; The Weissenhof Colony; La Cité de Weissenhof, Stuttgart (trilingual English-German-French edition), 1984 Joedicke, Jürgen, Weissenhofsiedlung Stuttgart, Stuttgart: Karl Krämer, 1968; 2nd edition, 1989 Kirsch, Karin, Die Weissenhofsiedlung: Werkbund Ausstellung “Die Wohnung,” Stuttgart 1927, Stuttgart: Deutsche Verlags-Anstalt, 1987; as The Weissenhofsiedlung: Experimental Housing Built for the Deutscher Werkbund, Stuttgart, 1927, New York: Rizzoli, 1989 Kirsch, Karin, Kleiner Führer durch die Weissenhofsiedlung: Ein Denkmal der modernen Architektur, Stuttgart: Deutsche Verlags-Anstalt, 1991 Menrad, Anreas, “Die Weissenhof-Siedlung-farbig: Quellen, Befunde und die Revision eines Klischees,” Deutsche Kunst und Denkmalpflege, 34/1 (1986) Nägele, Hermann, Die Restaurierung der Weissenhofsiedlung, 1981–1987, Stuttgart: Kramer, 1992 Pommer, Richard and Christian F.Otto, Weissenhof 1927 and the Modern Movement in Architecture., Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1991 Rasch, Heinz, and Bodo Rasch, Wie bauen? Bau und Einrichtung der Werkbundsiedlung am Weissenhof in Stuttgart 1927, Stuttgart: Wedekind, 1927 Roth, Alfred, Zwei Wohnhäuser von Le Corbusier und Pierre Jeanneret, Stuttgart: Wedekind, 1927; reprint, Stuttgart: Kramer, 1977

WERKBUND EXHIBITION, COLOGNE (1914)

The Werkbund Exhibition held in Cologne, Germany, on the eve of World War I was the first major manifesto of the Deutscher Werkbund (DWB; German Work Association), an organization founded in 1907 by artists, architects, and industrialists to address the problem of form and design in the industrial age. The exhibit sought to show the world the Werkbund’s successful attempt to ally the creative potential of art with the modern power of industry to create more aesthetically pleasing and higher-quality products and thereby raise German exports in an increasingly competitive world market. Architecturally, the exhibit gained nearly instant fame through a number of very Downloaded by [Central Uni Library Bucharest] at 03:22 26 September 2013 innovative exhibit pavilions built by some of Germany’s most distinguished architects as well as the theoretical “Werkbund Debate,” which greatly influenced the future of modern German design and architecture after the war. Much like a world’s fair, the exhibition was a microcosm of prewar German culture, products, and know-how designed by more than 1000 Werkbund members. The vast exhibits contained “everything from couch cushions to city building,” as a contemporary Entries A–Z 953 slogan proclaimed. The primary exhibits featured architecture and applied arts, but there were also displays on sport, women’s fashion, religious art, colonial wares, worker housing, factories, cabaret, cinema, transportation, theater, garden design, funerary sculpture, and much more. A large amusement park was integrated into the exhibit to provide entertainment and eating establishments for the more than one million visitors who came. The city built advanced mass transit systems to ensure easy access to the fairgrounds from all over the world. Although the city of Cologne previously had very few connections to the Werkbund, by agreeing to pay for the exhibit, and with its strategic location in the center of one of Germany’s most industrialized regions and close to the French border, Cologne proved to be an ideal host for this exhibit of the pride of German industry. Intent on success, the organizers commissioned the famed architect and designer Peter Behrens to create the overall exhibit organization and hired only the biggest-name architects to design the various pavilions. The main festival hall by Behrens, the primary exhibit building by Theodor Fischer, several buildings by Hermann Muthesius, the Austrian Pavilion by Josef Hoffmann, as well as most of the other buildings at the fair were all designed in a spare form of German Neoclassicism, a formal vocabulary based on established traditions and conventions that regained popularity after the exuberant, individualist Art Nouveau style at the turn of the century. Other buildings were more purely classical or Renaissance in style, and a mock vernacular town was built in a stylized version of local brick architectural traditions to introduce visitors to regional culture. There were, however, three major exceptions to these conservative designs. One of the first buildings that visitors saw on entering the fairgrounds that received much attention in the press was the small “Glass House” designed by Bruno Taut to display products of the German glass industry. It was intended as a poetic essay in glass block, colored glass, tile, mirrors, light, and water that were to show off the completely new aesthetic that could be achieved by a more intense use of glass in the building industry. A theater with an innovative, flexible stage configuration, designed by the Belgian designer Henri van de Velde, was equally popular. It featured bold geometric volumes, softened through some flowing curves in plan and in the main facade, as well as some sculptural reliefs by Hermann Obrist that recalled the Art Nouveau style of a few years earlier. Finally, toward the rear of the exhibit, Walter Gropius designed a model Werkbund factory and office building with a symmetrical brick facade inspired by American technology and the designs of Frank Lloyd Wright but flanked by two daring concrete spiral stairs cantilevered inside glass cylinders. The rear elevation of the same building featured a glass curtain wall that looked out over a large courtyard and exhibit hall crammed full of modern machines and engineering, including some Pullman car interiors by Gropius. The contrast between the rather conventional, classicized designs and the more individualized, artistically daring buildings formed the backdrop to a very heated debate Downloaded by [Central Uni Library Bucharest] at 03:22 26 September 2013 that erupted almost without warning at the exhibit. During his opening speech, Muthesius, the vice president of the Werkbund, outlined a series of ten programmatic points to direct the future of the Werkbund’s efforts. He called for more standardized, typical, and conventionalized forms in architecture and industrial design to counter the rampant individualism and arbitrary forms that he perceived in the modern, industrialized consumer culture around him. On the basis of interpretations of the knotty word Encyclopedia of 20th-century architecture 954 Typisierung (meaning “type” or “standardize”) used by Muthesius, many historians have given him credit for anticipating the standardization and machine aesthetic that were to become hallmarks of avant-garde design and International Style modern architecture after World War I in Germany. Stanford Anderson, however, has more perceptively argued that Muthesius intended to reinforce the conservative statement made by the classicism of his own buildings and that he surely spoke for many of the reform-minded architects present. Others at the exhibit, however, disagreed completely with Muthesius and were outraged that he voiced these ideas as Werkbund policy. The next day, speaking for a group of younger architects, including Gropius and Taut, van de Velde proposed ten “countertheses” that insisted that the road to success for the Werkbund lay not in fostering standards, norms, or conventions but rather in the creative, individual artistic talents of designers in search of innovative forms and production techniques. Those historians who have seen Muthesius’s remarks as an early call for standardization have criticized van de Velde’s countertheses as a retreat to earlier, Romantic sensibilities about artistic genius espoused by Art Nouveau rather than as the more general recantation of stultifying norms that Anderson credits him with. The intense debate between the Muthesius and van de Velde camps concerning the future of Werkbund policy raged on until the exhibition suddenly closed its doors on 1 August 1914, just as the German kaiser declared war on Russia and on nearby France and, with it, the beginning of World War I. Although discussion halted in the fervor of war, the legacy of the debate continued for decades. Blaming German industry for much of the devastation of the Great War and with the revolutionary zeal to replace everything that was old, established, and conservative after the war, the younger architects took over the Werkbund in 1919 and insisted on van de Velde’s theses that individual artistic design was the key to modern design. Paradoxically, however, through the writings of critics such as Adolf Behne and Adolf Loos, the Werkbund, alongside the Bauhaus and modern architects and designers all over Germany, began to connect the search for new artistic forms with an increasingly rational, standardized, and industrially mass-produced aesthetic. The uniform International Style architecture that became the norm for most of the Western world just before and after World War II thus combined aspects of both the artistic and the standardized sides of the famous Werkbund debate initiated at the Cologne exhibit. KAI K.GUTSCHOW See also Art Nouveau; Bauhaus; Bauhaus, Dessau; Hoffmann, Josef (Austria); International Style; Loos, Adolf (Austria); Muthesius, Hermann (Germany); Taut, Bruno (Germany); van de Velde, Henri (Belgium); Wright, Frank Lloyd (United States) Downloaded by [Central Uni Library Bucharest] at 03:22 26 September 2013 Further Reading

The catalog Der westdeutsche Impuls, edited by Herzogenrath, is the most complete overall description and analysis of the 1914 exhibit, whereas his other work listed offers a reprint of the exhibit catalog. Conrads’s book includes English translations of Entries A–Z 955 Muthesius’s and van de Velde’s theses. Campbell offers the most complete account of the Werkbund in English, though Schwartz’s work offers a more intensive interpretation of the consumer and commodity culture inspired by the Werkbund. Anderson’s article, part of a large body of work on the role of “convention” in modern architecture, revises the traditional interpretations of the Muthesius-van de Velde debate. Anderson, Stanford, “Deutscher Werkbund—The 1914 Debate: Hermann Muthesius versus Henry van de Velde,” in Companion to Contemporary Architectural Thought, edited by Ben Farmer and Hentie J.Louw, London and New York: Routledge, 1993 Banham, Reyner, “Germany: Industry and Werkbund,” in Theory and Design in the First Machine Age, by Banham, London: Architectural Press, and New York: Praeger, 1960 Behrendt, Walter Curt, “Die Deutsche Werkbund Ausstellung in Köln,” Kunst und Künstler, 12/12 (September 1914) Burckhardt, Lucius (editor), The Werkbund: History and Ideology, 1907–1933, translated by Pearl Sanders, Woodbury, New York: Barron’s, 1980; as The Werkbund: Studies in the History and Ideology of the Deutscher Werkbund, 1907–1933, translated by Pearl Sanders, London: The Design Council, 1980 Campbell, Joan, The German Werkbund: The Politics of Reform in the Applied Arts, Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press, 1978 Conrads, Ulrich (compiler), Programme und Manifeste zur Architektur des 20. Jahrhunderts, Berlin: Ullstein, 1964; as Programs and Manifestoes on 20th-Century Architecture, translated by Michael Bullock, Cambridge, Massachusetts: MIT Press, 1970 Deutsche Form im Kriegsjahr: Die Ausstellung Köln 1914, Munich: Bruckmann, 1915 Fischer, Wend (editor), Zwischen Kunst und Industrie: Der Deutsche Werkbund (exhib. cat.), Munich: Die Neue Sammlung, Staatliches Museum für Angewandte Kunst, 1975 Herzogenrath, Wulf (editor), Frühe Kölner Kunstausstellungen: Sonderbund 1912, Werkbund 1914, Pressa USSR 1928, Cologne: Wienand, 1981 Herzogenrath, Wulf, Dirk Teuber, and Angelika Thiekötter (editors), Der Westdeutsche Impuls, 1900–1914: Kunst und Umweltgestaltung im Industriegebiet: Die Deutsche Werkbund-Ausstellung, Köln, 1914, Cologne: Kölnischer Kunstverein, 1984 Junghanns, Kurt, Der Deutsche Werkbund: Sein erstes Jahrzehnt, Berlin: Henschelverlag Kunst und Gesellshaft, 1982 Schwartz, Frederic, The Werkbund: Design Theory and Mass Culture before the First World War, New Haven, Connecticut: Yale University Press, 1996

WILLIAMS, AMANCIO (1913–89)

Architect, Argentina Downloaded by [Central Uni Library Bucharest] at 03:22 26 September 2013 Amancio Williams is considered one of the most significant architects in Argentina’s history. His work is characterized by recurring modernist themes: the use of technology to generate lyrical forms, concern for hygienic and functional issues, and minimal application of ornament. The thematic schemes of Le Corbusier and the classicist tendency and attention to detail of Mies van der Rohe also influenced his projects. Williams’s work addressed the concept of type or paradigmatic space. Over time these Encyclopedia of 20th-century architecture 956 concepts were explored, refined, and often expressed through the building section. Aspects of modern life can be seen in his development typologies, such as the “Housing in Space” project, the large cultural complex, the office tower, the airport, the hospital, and the exhibit space. Williams’s projects are identified and qualified through the integration of type, structure, architecture, and site. From 1948 to 1951, Williams served as construction supervisor for Le Corbusier’s Currutchet House project in La Plata, Argentina. Williams produced most of the construction documents for this house and supervised the project’s structural and concrete work. In his Housing in Space project (1943), Williams explored the relationship between site and climate. Williams’s new approach toward creating a settlement is revealed in the manner in which the units are stepped to maximize light and ventilation, and a gentle curving roof offers broader views for all residents. The House over the Brook (1945) in Mar del Plata synthesized many significant ideas for Williams. Designed for his father, a musician, it remains one of his few built projects. Williams described this house, which embodies his classicist attitudes, as “a form in space that cannot deny nature…concrete—its material—is exposed, and textured by mechanical and chemical procedures: form, structure and quality are thus here the same thing” (Frampton, p. 10). Two pillars support the bridgelike structure, and the curvature of the building responds to the landscape. The manner in which the house spans the brook is related to Maillart’s bridge (1933) over the Schawanbach River. It exemplifies Williams’s belief in the confluence of engineering and architecture. The interior displays his concern for detail and his poetic sensibility toward the use of materials. Structural typology also plays a crucial role in Williams’s proposal for the Airport of (1945). The solution is logical in its simplicity. Located 8 kilometers from the city, the airport was proposed to sit on massive slabs resembling airplane wings and was supported by enormous pillars embedded into the shallow river. The proposal connected the airport with the city via a platform, beneath which hung all airport circulation and services. The Suspended Office Building project (1946) was designed in collaboration with Janello, Janello and Butler. This suspended skyscraper, designed for a site in Buenos Aires, is the most paradigmatic among all Williams’s projects. Four concrete columns support two beams from which hang a steel framework for 28 floors divided into three sectors. The first slab was suspended 18 meters above the entrance, thereby generating a covered open space for a densely populated area of the city. The interior had flexible partitions, a structural type that was developed decades later by Sir Norman Foster in the Hong Kong and Shanghai Bank Buildings. In Williams’s Hall for Visual Spectacle and Sound in Space (1953), the development of the typology is determined not by the location but rather by objective scientific study. Downloaded by [Central Uni Library Bucharest] at 03:22 26 September 2013 Research that investigated the propagation of sound in space was used to shape the auditorium and optimize acoustics for all listeners. Rotating a vertical axis generated the shell; thus, it created a mushroomlike amphitheater capable of providing a variety of visual spectacles. Since the late 1940s, Williams produced a series of projects that studied the relationships between program-function, sitestructure, and climate-city. Several of these, Entries A–Z 957 executed from 1951 to 1966, employed concrete building shells of minimum thickness. Others in the early 1960s rearticulated his strategies for the use of high roof structures. In both cases the structures consisted of thin building shells or roofs that were supported by large columns. The shells in several projects acted as umbrellas that either grouped together or isolated spaces. They were carefully calculated to incorporate alternative functions to easily accommodate production processes and responded to differing contexts and programs. Among these proposals are the Hospitals in Corrientes, the proposals for Mbucuruyá and Curuzu-Cuatia (1948–53), the Gas Station (1955) in Avellaneda, the Industrial School (1960) in Olavarría, the House (1960) in Punta del Este, and the Bunge and Born Exhibition Stand (1966). The series of projects employing high roof structures is part of Williams’s research and innovative attitude toward design. In these cases individual shells are replaced with continuous large roof structures supported by few columns. Horizontal panels or glass membranes hang from the roof to offer protection from the climate and provide continuity with the existing context. The basic structural components generate ample space that can accommodate diverse programs and activities. Examples of this approach are the factory building proposal (1962) for Iggam, a small furniture shop (1962) in Buenos Aires, and a monument (1964) for the city of Berlin. Many of Williams’s later major projects were also unrealized. Among these is an urban proposal for a linear city of 300 kilometers in length by 6 kilometers in width. It is modeled after Le Corbusier’s approach to urban design, with the buildings supported by pilotis, thereby reclaiming the ground space to promote greater contact with nature. An additional unrealized project is Williams’s design for a 200-meter-high cross standing over the river (1988). It was to be situated on a large platform outside the port of Buenos Aires. In 1981 the critic Kenneth Frampton wrote that Williams “was an enigmatic figure…a brilliant designer whose influence has been totally disproportionate to the extent of his own rather limited output” (Frampton, 1981). A renewed interest in architectural typology and Latin American architecture led to Williams’s work being exhibited at Harvard University in 1987. The exhibit contributed to a greater understanding and deeper appreciation of Williams’s contribution to modern architecture. JOSE BERNARDI See also Argentina; Buenos Aires, Argentina; Corbusier, Le (Jeanneret, Charles- Édouard) (France); Foster, Norman (England); Maillart, Robert (Switzerland)

Biography

Downloaded by [Central Uni Library Bucharest] at 03:22 26 September 2013 Born in Buenos Aires, 19 February 1913, son of the composer Alberto Williams. Studied engineering and aviation before graduating as an architect from the University of Buenos Aires (1941); opened his architectural practice in Buenos Aires in 1942. His work was mostly experimental, and very few of his projects were ever built. Williams was one of the Argentinean members of CIAM (Congrès Internationaux d’Architecture Moderne). Died in Buenos Aires, 14 October 1989. Encyclopedia of 20th-century architecture 958

Selected Works

Housing in Space (project), 1943 House over the Brook, Mar del Plata, Argentina, 1945 Airport of Buenos Aires (project), 1945 Suspended Office Building (project), 1946 Hall for Visual Spectacle and Sound in Space (project), 1953

Further Reading

Frampton, Kenneth, Casabella, 468 (1981) Glusberg, Jorge, Breve historia de la arquitectura argentina, Vol. 2. Buenos Aires: Editorial Claridad, 1991 Irace, Fulvio, “Amancio Williams,” Abitare, 342 (1995) Pronsato, Graciela, and Roberto Capelli, 7+1 Lamparas de la arquitectura argentina (7+1 Lamps of Argentinean Architecture), La Plata: Ediciones Capro, 1993 Silvetti, Jorge (editor), Amancio Williams, New York and Cambridge, Massachusetts: Rizzoli and Harvard University Graduate School of Design, 1987

WILLIAMS, E.OWEN 1890–1969

Architectural engineer, England Considered to be one of the individuals responsible for the establishment of modern architecture, Sir (Evan) Owen Williams is best known as the civil engineer who introduced structural methods pioneered in Europe, notably by the Swiss engineer Robert Maillart, into Great Britain. Williams was one of a number of architects who were skeptical about the imitators and vulgarizers of the new modern architecture who lacked integrity. As early as 1932, he denounced “Facadism” as forgery. Born in Tottenham, London, Williams studied at the University of London before working for Electric Tramways between 1905 and 1911. He served as chief aircraft designer for Wells Aviation until World War I, setting up an independent engineering practice in 1919. From about 1930 on, Williams dispensed with the collaboration of a consulting architect and produced his own designs, building up a successful practice

Downloaded by [Central Uni Library Bucharest] at 03:22 26 September 2013 specializing in industrial and commercial buildings using reinforced-concrete frame construction. In 1924 Williams was appointed consulting engineer for the British Empire Exhibition, Wembley, in association with architect Sir John Simpson, with whom he collaborated on the design of Wembley Stadium (1925). Williams’s reinforced-concrete design for the Dorchester Hotel (1930) in London was thought far too advanced, and Curtis Green was employed to devise a suitably restrained and elegant facade. Entries A–Z 959 In the 1930s Williams designed a number of bridges in reinforced concrete, working mostly with the architect Maxwell Ayrton, but it was his design for the Boots Factory (1932) in Beeston, Nottingham, that was to be one of the most remarkable buildings of the Modern movement in Britain. New constructional techniques were employed on a more complete, vast, and uncompromising scale than in any other European building. Williams, an engineer with a sophisticated tectonic sensibility, showed how ideally fitted “mushroom” construction was for industrial buildings. The use of reinforced-concrete columns from which the concrete floor slabs spring outward in all directions created wider spans and allowed movement of goods around unobstructed voids. The floors are entirely supported by a row of these columns down each wing of the building, and the external walls, relieved of their load-bearing responsibilities, are glass clad from floor to ceiling. The central space was a sort of nave interrupted by cross galleries and top lit by a thin-glass, brick-and-concrete membrane roof. The effect was assertive and tough yet ennobling, a quality that understandably endeared it to the so-called New Brutalists of the 1950s. The laboratory of a cement factory (1932) at Thurrock in Essex is a simple rectangular building. Reinforced-concrete benches, suitably clad, run round the walls with a shelf above, and the walls are opaque to this level, with glass above with slender concrete mullions. Powerful electric lamps were employed to provide an equivalent to daylight. The warehouse for Lilley and Skinner (1933) again used “mushroom” columns and slab construction. Long horizontal bands run between the windows, which wrap around the corners of the building. The Empire Swimming Pool (1934) at Wembley, the largest hall to be built in England to date, covered a space of 341 feet by 236.5 feet. The pool was constructed with a reinforced-concrete frame and used a grid system; the use of standardized units contributed to the speed of its eight-month construction. The Pioneer Health Centre (1935) in Peckham, London, was privately developed and financed and became famous as a pioneer social and health enterprise. Its founders believed that physical disorders were the result of environmental factors. The flexible space created in this rectangular three-story structure of reinforced concrete provided opportunities for various physical, social, and cultural activities. Members could meet and discuss their problems with trained staff who could give diagnoses and advice. The ultimate aim was not to cure conventional diseases but, rather, through preventive action, to sustain the health of the community. Various parts of the building were grouped around a central swimming pool, covered by a steeply pitched glass roof. The gymnasium was on the left, the theater on the right, and between them the children’s covered playground with sliding glazing designed to make it an open-air space. On the first floor were spacious lounges with their shallow, bowed bays, cafeteria, and kitchen. The second floor housed medical rooms, a library, a study, and rest rooms. Unfortunately, because of a lack of support, the center closed in March 1950. Downloaded by [Central Uni Library Bucharest] at 03:22 26 September 2013 Williams was consulting engineer for Ellis and Clarke, who designed the Daily Express Buildings in Fleet Street, London (1932), Manchester (1939), and Glasgow. His other work included Dollis Hill Synagogue (1938) in London and a proposal (1935) for a new Wateroo Bridge. Postwar work includes all bridges on the M1 motorway and the maintenance headquarters at Heathrow Airport in London. HILARY GRAINGER Encyclopedia of 20th-century architecture 960 See also Airport and Aviation Building; Brutalism; Reinforced Concrete

Further Reading

Cottam, D., F. Newby, S.Rosenberg, and G.Stamp, Sir Owen Williams, London: Architectural Association, 1986. Gold, M., “Sir Owen Williams, K.B.E.,” Zodiac (1968) Rosenberg, S., W. Chalk, and S. Mullin, “Sir Owen Williams,” Architectural Design (July 1969) The Architecural Review (May 1935)

WILLIAMS, PAUL REVERE 1894–1980

Architect, United States A native of Los Angeles, Paul Revere Williams designed some of the most distinctive residences and public structures known throughout the United States during a long and distinguished career. His achievements paralleled the growth of Los Angeles, where his eclectic practice varied from designing homes for the city’s elite, including famous figures of the entertainment industry, to important institutional and commercial landmarks. These accomplishments reflect his mastery for adapting a multitude of revival and modern styles to the culture of southern California’s Mediterranean climate. His success is also notable considering that Williams was the first African American architect licensed in California (1921) and the first to be accepted as a member of the American Institute of Architects (AIA) (1923). His recognition as a master designer, member of numerous civic and government bodies, and mentor to generations of minority architects led to his induction as the first African American Fellow of the AIA (1957). On graduation from the University of Southern California, Williams worked for another noted Los Angeles architect, John C.Austin (1920–22), expanding his knowledge while working on major civic structures, including the 5000-seat Shrine Auditorium (1922) and numerous public schools. His association with Austin led to a collaboration on many future projects and a lifelong friendship. Recognizing his diverse skills as a city planner, Williams was appointed to Los Angeles’s first planning com-mission (1920), beginning service on what would amount to more than a dozen public bodies during his 60-year career at the local, state, and federal levels. By 1923 Williams opened his own practice, Paul R.Williams and Associates, Architects, in the fashionable Stock Exchange Downloaded by [Central Uni Library Bucharest] at 03:22 26 September 2013 Building at the core of a booming Los Angeles. His first projects were for politician and developer Senator Frank J.Flint for his new development of Flintridge in the hills overlooking Pasadena. Williams adapted to the cultural racial biases of his times, including restrictions against his living in most of the communities where he designed homes. Nonetheless, he designed many cultural institutions and businesses for the booming African American Entries A–Z 961 community at or below cost to improve opportunity and activities in his community of south-central Los Angeles. These included many neighborhood YMCAs (1925–27) and churches, including the Second Baptist Church (1924). His client roster included Hollywood royalty and elite of the booming region. So great were his talents in diminishing the boundaries to success that he would create sketches for Anglo clients upside down, sitting opposite so as not to come into close contact with them. This so impressed many skeptics that he rarely lost a commission because of the color of his skin. Prejudices aside, Williams was able to design comfortable surroundings that evoked a sense of grandeur while maintaining

Theme Building at Los Angeles International Airport, by Paul Revere Williams © Joseph Sohm; Chromo Sohm Inc./CORBIS

a human scale. Past experience with master architects taught Williams a deep respect for the varied revival-style structures that were in vogue throughout his practice. This, in turn, influenced the fashion-conscious of Hollywood to seek out his design sensibilities. Following World War II, Williams embraced modernism like most of his contemporaries, but with a style and grace that evoked the balanced classical compositions of the prewar period. This can best be seen in his addition to the Beverly Hills Hotel (1947–51), the Los Angeles County and Hall of Administration (1955), and the Frank Sinatra residence (1956). The postwar years also saw expansion with allied offices in Bogota, Colombia, and Washington, D.C. The number of Downloaded by [Central Uni Library Bucharest] at 03:22 26 September 2013 commissions for public and commercial structures following World War II eclipsed his prewar residential commissions, with his offices swelling to more than 60 draftsmen. It was during this period that one of his greatest landmarks was designed in association with Pereira and Luckman and Welton Becket Associates: the Los Angeles International Airport Theme Building (1961–65). After a prosperous career, Williams spent his final years lecturing around the world Encyclopedia of 20th-century architecture 962 about dedication to one’s desires and the obstacles that must be overcome to achieve them. He continued his practice until the mid-1970s, taking on projects that more closely resembled those from his practice during the first two decades of his career. Williams understood more keenly than most design professionals that many outside influences affected how and what is built. His dedication to improving design went well beyond the drafting room tables. JEFFREY B.SAMUDIO

Biography

Born Los Angeles, 18 February 1894, son of poor recent immigrants from the southern United States, orphaned at an early age. Attended Los Angeles Polytechnic High School; attended the Los Angeles School of Art and the Beaux-Arts School of Design Atelier 1912–16; winner of the Beaux-Arts Medal and First Prize for a Neighborhood Center in Pasadena, California. Attended the University of Southern California School of Engineering, specializing in structural design and engineering 1916–19. Married Della Mae Givens 27 June 1917. Member of the first Los Angeles Planning Commission 1920– 28; certified as an architect, state of California 1921. Established firm of Paul R. Williams, Architect 1922; became member of the Southern California Chapter of the American Institute of Architects 1923; appointed to the National Monuments Committee by President Calvin Coolidge 1929; appointed to the first Los Angeles Housing Commission 1933–41. Won first AIA award for design of the Music Corporation of America corporate offices (1937), Beverly Hills, in 1939; received honorary doctorate of science degree, Lincoln University, Missouri. Enlisted as a navy architect during World War II 1942–45. First major public buildings 1940–41, Long Beach Naval Station; followed after the war with major additions to the Los Angeles General Hospital 1947; also that year he was appointed to the board, serving as vice president, then director of Broadway Federal Savings and Loan, the oldest federal savings and loan headed by African Americans west of the Mississippi. Appointed by governor, and later chief justice of the Supreme Court, Earl Warren, to the California Housing Commission 1949–55. Received honorary doctor of architecture degree, Howard University (presented by President Truman); appointed to the National Commission on Housing by President Eisenhower 1953. Retired from practice following his commission to design a sorority house at his alma mater, USC 1973. Died in Los Angeles, 23 January 1980.

Selected Publications

Downloaded by [Central Uni Library Bucharest] at 03:22 26 September 2013 Small Homes of Tomorrow, 1945 New Homes for Today, 1946 Entries A–Z 963

Further Reading

Hudson, Karen E., Paul R.Williams, Architect: A Legacy of Style, Rizzoli, 1993 Hudson, Karen E., The Will and the Way, New York: Rizzoli, 1994

WILLIAMS, TOD (1943–) AND BILLIE TSIEN (1949–)

Architects, United States The architecture of Tod Williams and Billie Tsien has been characterized as one that is preoccupied with the craft of making. Working together in practice in New York, these two architects have developed particular interests in the inherent qualities of materials that they have combined with investigations of the details of the physical and philosophical nature of construction. They have explored these interests through a range of projects that originated in designs for exhibitions and performance and that have subsequently developed to embrace more conventional architectural commissions that have included houses, educational facilities, and civic buildings. After studying architecture at Princeton University and working for Richard Meier for six years, Tod Williams opened his own office in 1974. Billie Tsien’s first degree was in fine arts, and she went on to study architecture at the University of California, Los Angeles, before joining Williams. Together they have developed a practice that has been significantly influenced by their backgrounds in architecture and fine art. However, theirs is also a practice that reflects a collaborative effort that grows out of their relationship as a married couple, and they have frequently spoken of their interest in “bringing together the issues of life and architecture.” In their early work, Williams and Tsien experimented with materials in the designs for installations at the Museum of the Chinese in the Americas in New York and elsewhere. They used unconventional materials and also reconsidered how familiar materials could be used in unfamiliar ways. For an exhibition of Noguchi’s Akari lanterns, they used obsidian with lit fiberglass screens, and a project that was developed with the Elisa Monte Dance Company in New York advanced the ideas of large screens to create a dynamic backdrop for the staging of dance productions. These investigations informed their subsequent architectural work. The design for new

Downloaded by [Central Uni Library Bucharest] at 03:22 26 September 2013 galleries at the Phoenix Art Museum explored the use of glass and metal and of different aggregates in the making of the concrete for the building. The systems of construction were also developed to define paths of movement that organize the new galleries and link them into an existing building. This consideration of the as an organizing element in architecture and also as a place of meeting and social interaction has become increasingly influential in their work. In the planning of the Neurosciences Institute in La Jolla, California, a theoretical and clinical research campus for the study of the brain, Williams Encyclopedia of 20th-century architecture 964 and Tsien designed places of informal meeting that are integrated with spaces for work by creating a series of paths that become meandering walks through the building. These paths also integrate the institute into a surrounding natural landscape framed by the Santa Rosa Mountains. In the development and design of the Cranbrook Estate in Michigan, the architect , together with his client George Booth, established a strong relationship among landscape, art, and architecture. It was a relationship that was also reflected in the organization of a curriculum that sought to connect the mental and the physical through the integration of academic and athletic activities there. Increases in enrollment at Cranbrook prompted the need for new and improved facilities, and Williams and Tsien were commissioned to prepare a plan for new buildings there to provide gymnasiums, exercise rooms, and a swimming pool. Their design developed ideas of movement and path embodied in their earlier designs for academic buildings in California, at Princeton, and at the University of Virginia. The coeducational natatorium at Cranbrook has been planned to connect to existing buildings, and large occuli and doors enable the building to be opened up during spring and summer. These devices successfully connect the building to the landscapes of the Cranbrook Estate. The first building in this phased development, which was completed in 1999, is one of the most successful new educational buildings in the United States. Commissions to design houses for sites in New York City, Long Island, and Phoenix have enabled Williams and Tsien to explore these issues of materiality, path, and the integration of building with site at another scale. These explorations are particularly successful in the houses in Phoenix and Long Island, which were completed in 1997 and 1999, respectively. In 1998 Williams and Tsien received a commission to design the Museum of Folk Art in New York. This project develops these ideas within the confines of a restricted site on Fifty-third Street. Of necessity the scheme organizes the galleries as a series of spaces that are linked vertically. An elevator is itself designed as a gallery. Internally, a series of shafts are also cut through the building to link spaces and define the paths that connect them with natural light. The facade on the 40-foot-wide street front-age, proposed as a folded plane of white bronze panels, is mainly solid. Not only does the fold give the museum a greater presence on the street, but the material was selected to reflect the dynamism of changing light throughout the day. This new museum opened in 2001. In its preoccupation with materials and the details of fabrication, the work of Williams and Tsien recalls that of Charles and Ray Eames. By working closely together, they have been able to develop interests in the craft of making architecture and shaping space to a level that articulates an important alternative to corporate practice and the overwhelmingly generic buildings that frequently result from industrial production. BRIAN CARTER Downloaded by [Central Uni Library Bucharest] at 03:22 26 September 2013

Selected Publications

Works, 2G Monographs, 1999 Entries A–Z 965

Further Reading

Carter, Brian, and Annette LeCuyer (editors), Tod Williams Billie Tsien, Ann Arbor: Michigan Architecture Papers, 1998 M.S., “Walden Revisited,” The Architectural Review (September 1999)

WILSON, (SIR) COLIN ST. JOHN 1922

Architect, England Colin Wilson, with his firm of Colin St. John Wilson and Partners, founded in 1971, is responsible for the largest and most expensive (£511 million) architectural commission in Britain—the British Library—which on its completion in 1998 had been some 36 years in the making. Wilson faced hostility and ridicule during the design and construction, but his courage and confidence finally brought vindication—today the British Library enjoys immense popularity and prestige. While this monumental building constitutes Wilson’s chief constructed architectural legacy, as an educator and persuasive author, Wilson has had an effect on architecture that transcends his numerically modest built output. He has been a very important voice for those who care about integrity more than fashion and who believe that architecture should serve human needs over time, be embellished by use, served in and provide a frame in which human actions are made manifest. Educated at Cambridge University and University College, London, after wartime naval service, Wilson served in the Housing Division of the London County Council (LCC) between 1950 and 1955, when public housing was the most important task on the architectural agenda in a Britain still recovering from wartime damages. After a year with the developer John De Vere Hunt, Wilson moved to Cambridge at the invitation of Leslie Martin, principal architect at the LCC before his appointment in 1956 as professor at the School of Architecture, to teach and to associate with him on architectural projects. Initially, Wilson had been captivated by Le Corbusier, especially his sculptural post war Brutalist work. Thus, Wilson’s extension to the Architecture School at Cambridge has the textured roughness of Le Corbusier’s Unite d’Habitation (Marseilles, 1946–52) and the Maisons Jaoul (Paris, 1952–56). Ultimately, however, Alvar Aalto would be much more influential. Wilson often quotes the Finnish master’s observation about modern architecture of the heroic period, made when Aalto received the RIBA Medal in 1957: “Like all revolutions it starts with enthusiasm and stops with some sort of Downloaded by [Central Uni Library Bucharest] at 03:22 26 September 2013 Dictatorship” (Architectural Reflections, p. 84). Thus, Wilson began to seek an alternative tradition for modern architecture, which he found in the work of other Scandinavians like Sigurd Lewerentz and Gunnar Asplund, as well as German organicists like Hugo Här-ing and Hans Scharoun. Aalto’s immediate effect can be recognized in Harvey Court at Gonville and Caius College, Cambridge, in the dominant materials of brick (rather than the prevailing béton brut), natural wood, and copper; in the Encyclopedia of 20th-century architecture 966 arrangement of a raised courtyard (as at the Town Hall, Säynatsalo, 1950–52) with a pyramidal skylight admitting light to below; and in the way the stairs are expressed (both devices also recalling Aalto’s Baker House at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 1946–49). Although at Harvey Court the image of La Tourette also lingered, increasingly it was Aalto and the German Expressionists who excited Wilson’s admiration. Thus, the fan shape of the William Stone Building at Peterhouse College (1960–64) brings to mind one of Aalto’s favorite motifs. In his designs and his writings, Wilson vigorously combats the leading tendency of the 1980s and 1990s to view architecture as autonomous and as a discipline, a mode of abstract thinking, that exists outside the practice of making buildings and creating space. Wilson has also set himself against “inauthenticity,” which he has found both in the modernism of the International Style and in Postmodernism. Probity is a revered quality, and Wilson seeks an ethical dimension that is hardly new; its sources can be found in A.W. N. Pugin and John Ruskin no less than H.P. Berlage or Aalto—all intellectual forebears. Nourished on a diet of astute English critics of widely varied opinions, including Ruskin, Geoffrey Scott, and Adrian Stokes, Wilson is passionate about architecture without being narrowminded or doctrinaire. He is also a bibliophile, and it is appropriate that he should have become a specialist in redefining the program of the contemporary library. Thus, with Martin he designed three libraries for Oxford University (1959–64), with Long he worked on the National Libraries Feasibility Study as well as the libraries for the Bishops’ School and for Queen Mary College, and he acted as consultant for the Harold Washington Library in Chicago by Hammond Beeby Babka. At the same time, Wilson is also profoundly involved in the visual arts as painter, draftsman, and sculptor; as museum trustee; and as collector. He has been the intimate friend, and often mentor, of many artists: Peter Blake, Eduardo Paolozzi, R.J. Kitaj, Howard Hodgkin, Richard Hamilton, and William Turnbull, among others; his extensive collection of their work has been promised to the Pallant House Gallery in Chichester, for which he designed an extension. In 1994 Wilson suggested that Long and their associate Rolfe Kentish establish a new partnership to supplement the existing firm, and he subsequently has involved himself with projects by Long and Kentish. Although many laurels have come his way since the opening of the British Library—for example, a knighthood and an exhibition at the British Pavilion of the Venice Biennale (1996), as well as numerous invitations to teach and lecture—Wilson is still deeply engaged in shaping architectural practice to embody his deeply felt principles. HELEN SEARING See also Aalto, Alvar (Finland); Asplund, Erik Gunnar (Sweden); Banham, Reyner (United States); British Library, London; Congrès Internationaux Downloaded by [Central Uni Library Bucharest] at 03:22 26 September 2013 d’Architecture Moderne (CIAM, 1927–); Corbusier, Le (Jeanneret, Charles- Édouard) (France); Häring, Hugo (Germany); International Style; Loos, Adolf (Austria); Scharoun, Hans (Germany); Unite d’Habitation, Marseilles Entries A–Z 967

Biography

Born Cheltenham, England, 14 March 1922. Corpus Christi College, Cambridge 1940– 42; master’s degree 1942. Bartlett School of Architecture, University of London 1946– 49; diploma of architecture 1949. Royal Naval Volunteer Reserve 1942–46. Housing Division, Architects’ Department, London County Council 1950–55; development office of John De Vere Hunt 1955–56. Private partnership with Leslie Martin 1956–70. Senior partner, Colin St. John Wilson and Partners, London, since 1971. Partner, Long and Kentish, since 1994. Instructor, School of Architecture, Cambridge University 1956–59; professor and head of School of Architecture, Cambridge 1975–1989. Visiting critic Yale University School of Architecture 1960, 1964, 1983, 1985, 2000; William Henry Bishop Visiting Professor jointly with M.J. Long 2002; Bemis Visiting Professor of Architecture, MIT 1970–72. Trustee Tate Gallery 1973–80; National Gallery, London 1977–80.

Selected Works

Own Practice Wilson apartment conversion, Primrose Hill, London, 1952 City Center Project for Team X Meeting (with Peter Carter), 1956 Extension, School of Architecture, Cambridge University (with Alex Hardy), 1959 Pair of houses (one the Wilson house), Grantchester Road, Cambridge, 1964 Cornford House, Madingley, Cambridge (with M.J. Long), 1967 Civic and Social Center, St. John’s Gardens, Liverpool (with M.J. Long), 1970 With Sir Leslie Martin Housing, St. Pancras, London, 1957 Harvey Court Residential Building, Gonville and Caius College, Cambridge, 1962 William Stone Residential Building, Peterhouse College, Cambridge, 1962 Three Libraries, Oxford University, 1964 Library, British Museum, Bloomsbury, London, 1964 Colin St. John Wilson and Partners New Extension, British Museum, London (1st project, 1970; 2nd project, constructed, 1973–79), 1979 Bishop Wilson Memorial Library, Bishops’ School, Springfield, Essex, 1984 New Wing, Johnson House, Barton Road, Cambridge, 1986 Queen Mary College Library, University of London, 1989 Home for the Deaf, Annaly House, Wandsworth, London, 1995

Downloaded by [Central Uni Library Bucharest] at 03:22 26 September 2013 Extension to Pallant House Gallery, Chichester, 1999

Selected Publications

The Design and Construction of the British Library, London: The British Library, 1998 The Other Tradition of Modern Architecture, London: Academy Editions, 1995 Encyclopedia of 20th-century architecture 968 Architectural Reflections: Studies in the Philosophy and Practice of Architecture, Oxford: Butterworth, 1992

Further Reading

Banham, Reyner, The New Brutalism, London: Architectural Press, 1966 Frampton, Kenneth, R.B.Kitaj, and Martin Richardson, Colin St. John Wilson, London: Royal Institute of British Architects, 1997 Maxwell, Robert, New British Architecture, New York: Praeger, 1973 Searing, Helen “The Other Tradition,” Constructs, New Haven: Yale University School of Architecture, 2000.

WOOD

The dramatic technological, environmental, political, and economic changes that occurred during the 20th century irrevocably changed the way in which wood is used in all types of building. Three major themes can be discerned: improved technology and accelerating scientific research have resulted in novel uses for wood as well as in structural and decorative substitutes for wood; improved transportation, rising demand, and freer trade have created large, new worldwide markets for all types of timber and wood fiber; and, despite constantly shifting styles, steady change in construction technology has reduced wood’s relevance to architecture. The immense investment of energy, time, and wealth in scientific research by governments, businesses, and universities throughout the 20th century bore fruit in practically every field of endeavor, and wood, despite its seemingly elemental nature, was not neglected. The fundamental innovations of the 20th century were to devise new ways to break wood down into its boards, strips, strands, fibers, and even molecules and to concoct new and better ways to reattach these components. Another breakthrough, although of questionable environmental merit, was the gradual development of improved techniques for planting, growing, and harvesting trees. These innovations had the net result of increasing both the usefulness and the value of wood in society. They also permitted, for the first time, many physical weaknesses of wood to be significantly ameliorated. Except for scarce “old growth” timber, which can be up to 10 feet in diameter and over 100 feet in length, trees produce lumber that is not very long, very straight, or very stable. Downloaded by [Central Uni Library Bucharest] at 03:22 26 September 2013 Premodern carpentry accommodated the slender, flexible, environmentally sensitive nature of wood by devising intricate, laborintensive methods of combining small pieces of wood to create architectural surfaces and structural frames. Carpenters in the 20th century, by contrast, were able to use many new wood products that are, in theory, infinitely wide, flat, long, stiff, uniform, and stable. The most famous example of this is plywood, actually a trade name for a Douglas fir product that was first exhibited at the Entries A–Z 969 Lewis and Clark Centennial Exposition of 1905. Plywood is best known because, by the middle of the 20th century, it was being used for everything from furniture designed by Frank Lloyd Wright to P.T. boats, but it is just one of many different types of composite wood panels made up of layers of wood veneer glued together. Because the layers of veneer are laid at cross angles to one another, plywood warps, shrinks, and cracks very little. Although it is sold today primarily in panels four feet wide by eight feet long, it can theoretically be manufactured to any dimension and in virtually any thickness. Many types of veneer panel were being manufactured in limited quantities during the 19th century, but the growing usefulness of composite wood panels in the 20th century depended primarily on the increasing strength, durability, and water resistance of the adhesives. Composite panels could also be made from straw, wood, sugarcane, or practically any other kind of vegetable fiber. Such products as Masonite, Homasote, Celotex, Insulite, and Presdwood were developed and produced throughout the 20th century and offered builders some of the same advantages as plywood, namely, perfect uniformity of size and strength, extreme economy, and tremendous structural efficiency. Because these products had limited insulating quality—and also because they were cheap, easy to produce, and manufactured from agricultural or lumber waste products—they were in extremely high demand during World War II. As the Masonite Man boasted in a wartime advertisement:

Many a U.S. fighting man, from the north pole to the tropics, lives and works in a Quonset Hut, lined entirely with Masonite Presdwood. The entire lining for a Hut is shipped easily in one compact crate…painted and ready to install. These Masonite Presdwood walls resist both the frigid blasts of the Arctic and the heat, humidity and insects of the equator.

Another product that achieved popularity and importance in the 20th century was the “glue-lam” timber. The first recorded use of glued laminated arches was in Basel, Switzerland, in 1893. In 1901 the first patent was awarded to Otto Hetzer of Weimar, Germany. Thereafter, glued laminated arches were known in Europe as the Hetzer construction method. In the United States, the first glued laminated timbers were manufactured by Max C. Hanisch, Sr., a German immigrant and the founder of the Unit Structures Corporation of Peshtigo, Wisconsin, in 1934. The principle of the glue- laminated beam was probably first employed by Bronze Age fletchers who manufactured bows of extreme flexibility and power by gluing thin strips of animal horn together. In the case of the glue-lam timber, however, scientists in the 20th century developed efficient ways to laminate small, dry boards together to create, in theory, infinitely long, deep timbers of uniform cross section and stable composition. Gluelam timbers could also be bent into any shape, increasing the variety of architectural effects that could be

Downloaded by [Central Uni Library Bucharest] at 03:22 26 September 2013 achieved. In the past several decades, numerous variations on these two themes have been developed in an effort to reduce costs, preserve timber, increase efficiency, and raise profits. Oriented strand board, Para-lam timbers, pre-primed plywood siding, and trussjoists, to list just four among hundreds of brand-new products, utilize super-strong new waterproof adhesives and small, thin, dry boards or even mill scraps. The advantage Encyclopedia of 20th-century architecture 970 of all this innovation has been constantly increasing speed of construction, vastly increased efficiency in the use of diminishing timber resources, ever lighter-weight structures, and lower building costs. The drawback to all these new products is greater fire hazard, slimmer margins of engineering safety, shorter life spans, and a reliance on an increasing number of synthetic glues and preservative chemicals. Throughout the 20th century, but particularly after World War II, many nations and regions began to export formerly untapped timber resources, and many developing nations established strong new wood-manufacturing industries. Increased trade in the 20th century had two major effects: the largest Western economies were benefited from the increased availability of foreign wood species, were formerly tiny, insular economies were being affected by international trends in construction, timber harvesting, and manufacturing. The international timber trade is at least as old as recorded history. In biblical times the ceiling of Solomon’s temple was reputedly framed of cedar beams imported from Lebanon. During the Middle Ages, most of the highest-quality oak boards used in England for doors and furniture were brought by ship from the Baltic. One result of growing trade in the 20th century, however, was the availability of larger and comparatively less expensive quantities of foreign timber than ever before. The species might be exotic, such as teak from Myanmar or mahogany from Brazil, valued by shipbuilders, cabinetmakers, and other specialty secondary industries, or they might simply be inexpensive softwood for framing, such as the huge quantities of fir, spruce, hemlock, and pine pouring onto the world market from Canada, Russia, and other Baltic countries. Naturally, this increased trade was largely a result of rising demand. Annual world demand for all types of wood is expected to rise in 2010 to approximately 2.7 billion cubic meters, according to the . This is approximately 15 percent higher than the world’s production capacity in 1997. Increased international trade also increased pressure in many markets to standardize or to adopt new techniques. In Japan, for example, where carpentry is a ferociously defended traditional craft, pressures were mounting to incorporate Westernstyle framing because of its low cost and its efficient earthquake resistance. This was contrary both to popular opinion in Japan, where traditionally framed structures are believed to flex and bend with earth tremors, and to carpenters’ preferred methods of work. Nevertheless, the effectiveness of Western-style framing was demonstrated during the Kobe earthquake of 1995. Following the terrible devastation, engineers in Japan noted that modern American- style plywood boxes had proven quite durable, whereas many traditionally framed postwar buildings had performed poorly. American-style platform framing, however, relies on standardized kiln-dried lumber and plywood, which American lumber companies are eager to begin exporting to Japan in larger quantities. Japanese carpenters and lumber companies, on the other hand, would much prefer to import select American Downloaded by [Central Uni Library Bucharest] at 03:22 26 September 2013 logs and process the lumber themselves, thereby preserving jobs and, they believe, increasing quality. The serious consideration in Japan of the adoption of Western-style framing, Western lumber dimensions, and offshore labor exemplifies the power of international trends to change even the most entrenched traditional local uses of wood in construction. Such shifts have occurred throughout the world. Probably the most interesting—and misleading—force that influenced wood’s use in Entries A–Z 971 the 20th century was the fluctuating popularity of many different fads, trends, styles, and practitioners of architecture. These influences are difficult to disentangle from simultaneous technological, economic, and political changes and indeed were usually precipitated by the more powerful shifts of the world at large. One of the most notable shifts of the early 20th century was a worldwide move away from romantic, historicizing styles of building to the International Style. In the United States, this meant that , Neoclassical, Craftsman, Edwardian, Art Nouveau, and a host of other styles of building were slowly overcome by the machinery of the building itself. This shift was not merely stylistic. As Henry-Russell Hitchcock noted as early as 1928, “Indeed a client, while he may ask for a Tudor or a Georgian or even a Maya design, is unlikely to permit any serious sacrifice of le comfort moderne to the exigencies of a past style” (Hitchcock, 1928). In retrospect, it was inevitable that as the building became filled with more and more lighting, heating, cooling, communication, and transportation equipment, not to mention a strong new steel skeleton, it would divide into at least three parts: guts, bones, and skin. The inconsistency of having fresh, young, vigorous guts and bones sealed in a leathery old skin from a previous millennium slowly became more objectionable until advocates of the International Style proposed a solution: the entire building ought to be a new, up- to-date machine for living. Naturally, this shift had a powerful influence on how wood was used in architecture. Where the Greene brothers, Charles Rennie Mackintosh, and glorified the skill of the craftsman, the physical beauty of architectural materials, and the expense and complexity of fabricating architecture, the International Style celebrated the economy, simplicity, and directness of mass-produced materials and components. Metals, glass, concrete, plastics, and rubber became the preferred palette of leading architects from the 1930s on. Wood was acceptable if it was served up in flat, straight, square, uniform, repetitive chunks—in other words, if it imitated the stripped-down, mass-produced aesthetic of the other parts of the machine. Frank Lloyd Wright expressed the disgust that many modern architects felt toward traditional wooden embellishments very clearly when he wrote:

Wood, therefore, has more human outrage done upon it than man has ever done, even upon himself…. In his search for novelty, wood in his hands has been joined and glued, braced and screwed, boxed and nailed, turned and tortured, scroll sawed, beaded, fluted, suitably furbelowed and flounced at the carpenter’s party—enough to please even him. By the aid of “modern” machines the carpenter-artist got it into Eastlake composites of trim and furniture, into Usonian jigger porches and corner-towers eventuating into candle snuffer domes or what would you have?; got it all over Queen Anne houses outside and Downloaded by [Central Uni Library Bucharest] at 03:22 26 September 2013 inside—the triumph of his industrial ingenuity—until carpentry and millwork became synonymous with butchery and botchwork. (Wright, 1928)

According to Wright, the machine itself was not to blame—it could easily produce the smooth, rectangular, geometrically pure pieces that he and many other modernists desired and put to use in Wright’s Prairie-style houses and many other buildings. Naturally, Encyclopedia of 20th-century architecture 972 therefore, the scientific and technological advances in the use of wood during the early 20th century appealed to modern architects, and they made excellent use of new materials and techniques. What is not obvious, perhaps even to the architects and critics of the Modern movement themselves, is that some of the bestknown and most contentious commentators of the 20th century were merely running a few steps ahead of the pack, ten moist fingers to the wind. Far more influential—and ultimately irresistible in its power—was the tide of economics and technology that swept everything architectural in its wake. Rising labor costs, decreasing quality of timber resources, sudden enormous wartime demands, the growth and monopolization of wood industries, and, most important, the growing dominance of mechanical systems have been far more influential than any style or architect despite what some might say about Alvar Aalto’s plywood chairs or Tadao Ando’s rustic wall treatments. According to Kenneth Frampton, two-thirds of the total budget of any large building built in the 1990s is expended on mechanical and electrical provisions of one kind or another, from airconditioning to piped information. This observation has many implications. First, combined with the fact that most large buildings today are framed in steel, it means that high-status architecture utilizes very little wood and consequently has practically no influence on the lumber industry. Custom-furnishings manufacturers provide the entire (small) package of fittings, furnishings, trim, and moldings. Wherever possible in their design, they will substitute a cheaper synthetic material, such as plastic laminate or metal. Where wood is absolutely required, it will usually be a thin veneer over a particleboard backing. Second, because most “vernacular” structures—everything from tract homes to taco stands—are designed with absolute economy and relatively short life expectancies, lumber manufacturers are in cutthroat competition to produce the cheapest possible structural components—and these vernacular wood-framed buildings, designed by builders and engineers, make up nearly 86 percent of all American structures and a growing percentage of new structures worldwide. The innovations of the lumber industry, consequently, will rarely reflect the stylistic or philosophical attitudes of architects, and because architects have little reason to be interested in the lumber industry anyway, only contractors, engineers, and environmentalists will be left to argue over how scarce timber resources ought to be used, protected, or augmented. In short, wood has moved out of the purview of the most influential architects. The main difficulty in an analysis of any topic as broad as the 20th-century use of wood is to distinguish causes from effects. Scientists and engineers in the 20th century created marvelous new uses for wood and surprising new ways to reconfigure wood. Large new supplies of timber came onto the world market from all corners of the world; and, most noticeably to those of us who are architects and historians of architecture, there were extremely novel and exciting new applications for wood devised in the 20th Downloaded by [Central Uni Library Bucharest] at 03:22 26 September 2013 century. No one who has visited one of Alvar Aalto’s buildings can fail to be impressed by his sensitive handling of a material as mundane as birch plywood, and no one who has stood in a modern church sanctuary vaulted by glue-lam beams can fail to be impressed by their warmth, clarity, and dramatic effect. However, wood is rarely a major component in high-status architecture. Wood’s flexibility, warmth, beauty, and dynamic vitality are used by leading architects only as special effects. Instead of being revered as Entries A–Z 973 the essential, expensive, natural material that it once was, it has become another cheap mass-produced commodity sold by the truckload to weekend do-it-yourselfers and tract home builders. Scientific technology, which facilitated so many exciting changes in wood’s use throughout the 20th century, eventually brought forth other materials and systems. Those new systems, namely, electrical, plumbing, insulating, heating, communication, and transportation, have assumed prominence in construction projects of all types, and they, far more than any structural or decorative material, will continue to be primary architectural influences throughout the 21st century. A.GORDON MACKAY See also Aalto, Alvar (Finland); Ando, Tadao (Japan); Craftsman Style; Greene, Henry M. and Charles S. (United States); Hitchcock, Henry-Russell (United States); Horta, Victor (Belgium); Mackintosh, Charles Rennie (Scotland); Wright, Frank Lloyd (United States)

Further Reading

Elliott, Cecil D., Technics and Architecture: The Development of Materials and Systems for Buildings, Cambridge, Massachusetts: MIT Press, 1992 Haygreen, John G., Forest Products and Wood Science: An Introduction, Ames: Iowa State University Press, 1982; 3rd edition, 1996 Hitchcock, Henry-Russell, Jr., “Modern Architecture: I. The Traditionalists and the New Tradition,” Architectural Record (April 1928) Jester, Thomas C., editor, Twentieth-Century Building Materials: History and Conservation, New York: McGraw-Hill, 1995 Schniewind, Arno P., Concise Encyclopedia. of Wood and Wood-Based Materials, Cambridge, Massachusetts: MIT Press, and Oxford: Pergamon, 1989 Wilson, Forrest, “Wood: Holding Its Place through Decades of Change,” Architecture: The AIA Journal, 87/2 (February 1988) Wright, Frank Lloyd, “In the Cause of Architecture: IV. The Meaning of Materials— Wood,” Architectural Record (May 1928)

WOOLWORTH BUILDING, NEW YORK CITY

Designed by Cass Gilbert; completed 1913

Downloaded by [Central Uni Library Bucharest] at 03:22 26 September 2013 The Woolworth Building in New York was designed by the architect Cass Gilbert during 1910–13. Frank Woolworth, the founder of the popular F.W.Woolworth Company, undertook the project in 1910, after having expanded his business from a single store in Lancaster, Pennsylvania, established in 1879 to a chain of 318 stores. That year, he selected a site at Broadway and Park Place, across from the Brooklyn Bridge and Fronting City Hall Park. For the purposes of financing his skyscraper, Woolworth formed Encyclopedia of 20th-century architecture 974 a limited partnership, the Broadway-Park Place Company, with Irving National Exchange Bank. Woolworth chose Gilbert as the project’s architect after Gilbert designed the Broadway Chambers (1896–1900) and the West Street buildings (1905–07), achieving renown for his skyscrapers. Gilbert’s West Street Building, his first “skyscraper Gothic” design, featured rational verticals inspired by ’s Bayard Building and a pinnacled, picturesque crown. Woolworth selected the Victoria Tower at the Houses of Parliament in London, a tower, as the model for his skyscraper. Gilbert’s objective, however, was to create a “civic” or “commercial” identity for the headquarters of the F.W.Woolworth Company. This he based on his study of the secular Gothic hotels des villes, cloth halls, and belfries of medieval Flanders. Woolworth also envisioned his project as a “giant signboard.” In November 1911, he merged his chain with those of competitors to create the F.W. Woolworth Company, Downloaded by [Central Uni Library Bucharest] at 03:22 26 September 2013 Entries A–Z 975

Graphite sketch for elevation of Woolworth Building, by Cass Gilbert

© Library of Congress Downloaded by [Central Uni Library Bucharest] at 03:22 26 September 2013 Encyclopedia of 20th-century architecture 976

Woolworth Building, New York (1913)

© Museum of the City of New York. Gift of Collection LeRoy Barton Downloaded by [Central Uni Library Bucharest] at 03:22 26 September 2013 with a new total of 597 stores; his new retailing empire stretched from England across the Atlantic to the American shores of the Pacific. The Woolworth Building’s final design, which Gilbert completed in January 1911, had Gothic verticals showing a heightened energy and rhythm. An ingenious system of portal arch wind bracing, designed by the project’s structural engineer, Gunvald Aus, made possible the exterior’s soaring, attenuated, and diaphanous qualities. Flamboyant Gothic Entries A–Z 977 canopies, the gables of the crown, the tower’s recessing stages, and the culminating tourelles—all of which were modeled in ivory-colored terracotta—enhanced the design’s picturesqueness in the city. Gilbert used accenting blues, greens, and yellows to suggest depth and shadows in the elevations and to relate the tower to the surroundings of clouds and sky. Woolworth, who chose to build in an already overbuilt market for office space, devised strategies for advertising the Woolworth Building to prospective tenants. He and his press agent, Hugh McAtemney, exploited the skyscraper’s design and construction as the “world’s highest” in an aggressive program of publicity. They had President Woodrow Wilson push a telegraphic button in Washington, D.C., on 24 April 1913, staging the skyscraper’s opening as a great lighting spectacle. In January 1915 Woolworth installed a permanent lighting scheme that he hailed as a “standing advertisement.” Woolworth also developed the tower as a sensational pinnacle observatory, which drew up to 1000 visitors a day and became an important landmark in the tourist’s itinerary of the city. The Woolworth Building’s lobby-arcade, designed as an entrance to both the F.W.Woolworth Company and Irving National Bank, was one of the most opulent and colorful in the city. A cross between a Romanesque cathedral nave and the early Christian mausoleum of Galla Placidia, it featured C. Paul Jennewein’s murals “Labor” and “Commerce.” The interior’s semipublic spaces, among them Irving National Bank’s “Elizabethan” banking hall, the “medieval German” Rathskeller, and Woolworth’s own Napoleonic “” executive offices on the 24th story, enriched the experience of office work with environments of fantasy that evoked the treasures of Europe. Offices for tenants were unusually light filled, and some had ceilings 20 feet high. Tenant conveniences included 18 stores in the lobby-arcade, direct access to two adjacent subway lines, and 26 high-speed electric elevators outfitted with Ellithorpe air cushions. Woolworth and McAtemney touted the skyscraper as “the highest, safest, and most perfectly appointed office structure in the world (Real Estate Record, p. 587). The Woolworth Building was christened the “Cathedral of Commerce” by the Reverend S.Parkes Cadman in 1916, and during the vibrant economy of the 1920s, it was viewed at home and abroad as a symbol of America’s optimism, progress, and material success. After the Depression, however, it became a lightning rod for modernist historians, who chided its Gothic ornament as out of step with the times. It was named a national historical landmark in 1983 and subsequently underwent two restorations, the first by the Ehrenkrantz Group in 1978–80 and the second by Beyer Blinder Belle, Architects and Planners, in 1998–99. GAIL FENSKE See also Gilbert, Cass (United States); New York, New York, United States; Skyscraper Downloaded by [Central Uni Library Bucharest] at 03:22 26 September 2013 Further Reading

Koeper (1969) examines the Woolworth Building in relation to the evolution of the Gothic style in skyscrapers, and Jones (1982) argues that Gilbert’s design for the building showed his indebtedness to the architectural cultures of both the Midwest and the East. Encyclopedia of 20th-century architecture 978 Fenske (1988) analyzes Woolworth and Gilbert’s project in the context of the skyscraper as a building type, the urbanization of New York, and the objectives of the City Beautiful movement. Fenske, Gail, “The ‘Skyscraper Problem’ and the City Beautiful: The Woolworth Building,” Ph.D. dissertation, MIT, 1988 Irish, Sharon, Cass Gilbert, Architect: Modern Traditionalist, New York: Monacelli Press, 1999 Jones, Robert Allen, “Cass Gilbert’s Career in New York,” Ph.D. disserataion, Case Western Reserve University, 1976; New York: Arno Press, 1982 Koeper, Howard Frederick, “The Gothic Skyscraper: A History of the Woolworth Building and Its Antecedents,” Ph.D. dissertation, Harvard University, 1969 Landau, Sarah, and Condit, Carl, Rise of the New York Skyscraper, 1865–1913, New Haven and London: Yale University Press, 1996 Real Estate Record and Builders’ Guide, 89 (March 23, 1912)

WORLD TRADE CENTER, NEW YORK CITY

Designed by ; completed 1976, destroyed 11 September 2001 The design and building of the World Trade Center complex (1966–76) comprised a unique architectural vision, the application of innovative technology, and public interest. Conceived of as a public project in 1960 by the Port Authority Commissions of New York and New Jersey, the World Trade Center was intended to unite private and public interests in trade and commerce in one major building complex. Among the goals were bringing together government agencies and international trade businesses, rehabilitating the appearance of the lower Manhattan financial district, and attracting new businesses to the blighted downtown neighborhood by adding more modern office space. The building site, encompassing 16 acres located on the far west side of Manhattan along the Hudson River, was chosen as a prominent place for an important architectural statement. The convergence of major transportation routes from northern Manhattan, Brooklyn, and New Jersey was also a consideration for conceiving a central trade center. The selection of Minoru Yamasaki, a Michigan-based architect with no experience in designing skyscrapers, over other major figures in International Style design offered a distinctive vision of modern architecture to the landscape of lower Manhattan. The Port Authority’s mandate for more than ten million square feet of space required the additional assistance of Emery Roth, a noted builder of many large-scale commercial and residential projects Downloaded by [Central Uni Library Bucharest] at 03:22 26 September 2013 in New York City. Minoru Yamasaki, born in 1912 in Seattle, presented an that showed a preference for subtly ornamented modern structures set within open plaza spaces. After several experimental models, Yamasaki presented a design for a World Trade Complex that included a pair of giant towers, surrounded by three smaller buildings: a hotel, the first in lower Manhattan since 1836; a large above-ground plaza; and a subterranean Entries A–Z 979 shopping and transportation concourse. A below-ground parking garage was the site of a terrorist attack in 1993, foreshadowing the devastating destruction of the two towers by terrorist attacks on 11 September 2001. The plaza and underground spaces reflected Yamasaki’s concern for the functional needs of people in an urban setting and were intended to serve as a contemplative open space for public respite from the noise and congestion of the narrow, crowded streets of lower Manhattan. The placement of the twin towers at angles to one another offset the importance of the plaza and drew attention to the buildings themselves. Encased in new Alcoa aluminum and rising more than 110 stories to 1368 feet, to become the tallest buildings in New York City since the Empire State Building, the towers were intended to be seen from a distance as gleaming monoliths, symbolic of the power of New York commerce. Closer views of the twin-tower complex, particularly from street level, show that the steel-encased piers commenced on the open ground floor area as expansive, glass-filled spaces that narrowed into Gothic arches and rose to the top of the structure. The subtle Gothic design imposed on the exterior and visible in lower interior lobby areas related to Yamasaki’s personal aesthetic interest in architectural elements, most notably the arch, borrowed from notable buildings of the past—in this case from Venetian architecture. In his incorporation of historic details, Yamasaki transformed the meaning and interpretation of the modern glass skyscraper, popularized in the International Style. As a result the appearance of the World Trade Center stood out from other notable skyscrapers built in lower Manhattan in the same period, including the Chase Manhattan Bank (1960) and the Marine Midland Bank (1967) buildings, both designed by Skidmore, Owings and Merrill, the architects and promoters of glass skyscraper architecture in New York City. The construction of the World Trade Center, which commenced in 1966, contained many feats of modern engineering. The excavation of the site alone required innovative planning and the implementation of new technologies. The prime waterfront property, actually landfill extending about 600 feet from the original shoreline, required that the foundations for the two towers be dug to a very deep level to reach the bedrock of Manhattan Island. The depth of the digging, to 75 feet, or about six stories below the bottom of the adjacent Hudson River, also caused the underground train service to be temporarily elevated, Downloaded by [Central Uni Library Bucharest] at 03:22 26 September 2013 Encyclopedia of 20th-century architecture 980

World Trade Center towers under construction, 27 March 1972

Photograph by T.Sheehan © Museum of the City of New York and The Port Authority of New York

but it was not disrupted at any point during construction. A slurry wall system, previously Downloaded by [Central Uni Library Bucharest] at 03:22 26 September 2013 used for the construction of subway tunnels, was implemented to anchor the concrete foundations to heavy steel plates that were bolted into the bedrock. The dirt dug for the foundations led to the creation of a new neighborhood along the riverbank that became another notable new neighborhood: Battery Park City. The construction of the twin towers also required engineering ingenuity. The structural engineering firm Skilling, Helle, Christiansen, Robertson coordinated the buildings to be Entries A–Z 981 built from the inside out, starting at the elevator cores. Through tests conducted on models of the towers in wind tunnels, a shock-absorbing damping system was devised to minimize the swaying of the tall buildings in high-wind conditions. The elevator system was sectionalized into three separate banks. Express elevators were designed to reach sky lobbies constructed at various intervals, where passengers would then board another set of local elevators to reach the intervening floors. The result was greater efficiency in terms of both the movement of people and the opening up of more valuable floor space for office rental. The exterior walls were constructed with prefabricated panels combining two horizontal windows and three vertical windows, producing a uniform pattern of fifty-eight 22-inchwide windows spread across each facade and separated by spandrels and columns. Prefabrication was also introduced in the floor framing. The exterior walls were also designed to be load bearing. With the assistance of Skilling, Helle, Christiansen, Robertson, a bracing system of vierendrel trusses, consisting of horizontal and vertical members, was incorporated into the exterior wall design, applying a nontraditional kind of stabilizing system that appeared to be lighter and did not diminish usable interior space. With more than 30 million visitors reported to have made the vertical journey to the observation deck on the 107th floor of the second tower, the World Trade Center more than fulfilled Yamasaki’s expressed confidence that the monoliths would be experienced as some of the most significant and loved New York City buildings. The numbers of visitors and tourists alike who continue to be drawn to the site in downtown New York City, which is still undergoing repair and reconstruction as of 2003, indicates the symbolic and iconic resonance the World Trade Center buildings maintained for a quarter of a century. EVIE T. JOSELOW See also Empire State Building, New York City; International Style; New York (NY), United States; Skidmore, Owings and Merrill (United States); Skyscraper; Yamasaki, Minoru (United States)

Further Reading

Darton, Eric, Divided We Stand: A Biography of New York’s World Trade Center, New York: Basic Books, 1999 Gillespie, Angus Kress, Twin Towers: The Life of New York City’s World Trade Center, New Brunswick, New Jersey: Rutgers University Press, 1999 White, Anthony G., and Minoru Yamasaki, Minoru Yamasaki: A Selected Bibliography, Monticello, Illinois: Vance Bibliographies, 1990 Yamasaki, Minoru, A Life in Architecture, New York: Weatherhill, 1979 Downloaded by [Central Uni Library Bucharest] at 03:22 26 September 2013 Encyclopedia of 20th-century architecture 982

WRIGHT, FRANK LLOYD 1867–1959

Architect and designer, United States Frank Lloyd Wright remains America’s most original, influential, and significant architect. His works are more popular today, more than a century after he began his practice in 1893 and more than 40 years after his death, than they were at any time during his lifetime. During his 72-year career, Wright designed more than 600 built works and 600 unbuilt projects, employing an astonishing range of forms and methods, yet he always described his life’s work as being one singular effort, emphasizing the fundamental and unchanging ordering principles that consistently determined his work from beginning to end. The first of these fundamental ordering principles, and by far the most important, was the primacy of the space of inhabitation, which he called “the space within.” Wright’s concepts for architectural space evolved first in his designs for interior spaces and were only later projected or expressed in the exterior forms. For Wright, the spatial composition must be determined by the experience of the inhabitants and not by some preconceived formal order. The second principle was that space is given its essential character through its construction. Wright believed that the way a space is experienced is directly related to the way it is constructed and that the architect must work with “the nature of materials.” The third principle was that architecture takes place in nature, where interior and exterior space are woven together to make an integral whole. The relationship between architecture and the landscape was of fundamental importance to Wright, and he believed that the design of a building should start with the ground from which it was to grow. Wright designed buildings not simply as freestanding forms but as contributing elements in the larger order of both the landscape and the city. Wright was raised in a household where the rigorously structured study of natural forms, the Unitarian faith, the ideas of American Transcendental philosophy, and the Froebel kindergarten training methods were all powerfully present. These complementary systems of thought had in common the belief that the material and spiritual worlds could not be separated but were in fact one and the same. Emerson had written that “all form is an effect of character,” and Wright came to believe that every physical form had spiritual and moral meaning. Wright’s development as an architect involved the evolution of this moral imperative through the search for a more principled relation to historical form, for a monumentality appropriate to the young American nation, and for a systematic yet personal process of architectural design. Downloaded by [Central Uni Library Bucharest] at 03:22 26 September 2013 Wright’s education as an architect took place in Chicago from 1888 until 1893, when he apprenticed for his mentor, Louis Sullivan. In his public lectures at this time, Sullivan was calling attention to the absence of an appropriate American architecture but also warning against efforts to speed its arrival by transplanting European historical styles onto the American continent. Rejecting imported Beaux-Arts classicism, Sullivan held that any truly organic American architecture would develop only on a regional basis, with Entries A–Z 983 variations dependent on local climate, landscape, building methods, and materials. Wright, who would later fulfill this prophecy of Sullivan’s, assisted Sullivan in his search for alternatives to what they believed to be the exhausted European classical tradition, analyzing the patterns from Islamic, Oriental, and Celtic sources presented by Owen Jones in The Grammar of Ornament. In 1893, the year Wright started his own practice, he saw the efforts of Sullivan’s Chicago School style overwhelmed by the dictated for the World’s Columbian Exposition of 1893 in Chicago. This academic classicism, as defined by the Beaux-Arts School in Paris, was canonically uniform, explicitly noncontextual, and intended to be the same around the world—the first true “International Style.” For Wright, it was this universal applicability, as something that had nothing to do with the particular character of a place, that would always be unacceptable and that led him to later oppose International Style modernism as forcefully as he now opposed BeauxArts classicism. Yet, even as Wright attacked the Beaux-Arts as a superficial style, he was directly engaging its source, integrating the formal order underlying the architecture of classical antiquity into his work of the Prairie period (1895–1915). In the first comprehensive national publication of his work in 1908, “In the Cause of Architecture,” written when he was 40 years old, Wright challenged the academic classicists’ exclusive control over historical form. He argued that his designs, with their symmetry, axial planning, and hierarchical ordering from earth to sky, but without any classical forms, demonstrated a more principled manner of relating and remaining true to the architectural forms inherited from history. Although Wright characterized the appearance of his buildings as radical in comparison with the prevalent classicism, he noted that his designs were the result of reverential yet rigorous analyses of the great architecture of the past. While this battle raged in the professional publications, Wright was in fact well on his way to winning the war by establishing a truly American architecture, one based on his perfection of a particularly American building type, the single-family suburban house. By 1910, when his designs were first extensively published in Europe, Wright had completed more than 150 built works, the vast majority of them houses. The prairie house was first defined in Wright’s two prototypes published in Ladies’ Home Journal in 1901 and built out in the Ward (1902), the Thomas Hardy House (1905), the Robert Evans House (1908), and the Avery (1908). The Frederick (1909) was Wright’s greatest urban residential design, engaging its compressed site to create a dynamic sequence of interlocking spaces, culminating in the famous living room and dining room, joined by their common ceiling, which passes through the open center of the fireplace. The Darwin Martin House (1904), five structures comprising a series of interpenetrating cruciform spaces woven into the landscape, was Wright’s greatest suburban residential design, its plan an astonishingly resolved masterpiece of formal Downloaded by [Central Uni Library Bucharest] at 03:22 26 September 2013 composition and the inhabitation of its exquisitely articulated interior spaces a comforting yet profoundly meaningful experience. In Wright’s prairie house, the solid fireplace mass anchored the center while the space opened out in all directions at eye level, the outriding walls and overhanging eaves acting to layer the house into the earth, giving the suburban site a geometric order so that the house and the landscape were inextricably bound to each other. Wright’s prairie houses Encyclopedia of 20th-century architecture 984 combined the formal order of symmetrical planning with the dynamism of interpenetrating spaces to produce the open, multifunctioning interiors, integrated with surrounding nature, that have since become the most popular characteristic of modern domestic architecture. Wright’s prairie houses crystallized a uniquely American interpretation of the dwelling place, allowing the inhabitant to experience both comfort and inspiration, shelter and outlook, freedom and order. In addition to the reinvention of the American house, Wright’s Prairie period also produced new forms for public architecture. At the time Wright left Sullivan’s office, an appropriate monumental form for American public architecture had not yet emerged. The legacy of the steel-framed office tower, which Wright had received from Sullivan and the Chicago School, had proved totally incapable of giving monumental form to the architecture of the public realm. As a manifestation of the economic determinism of scale and massing, the universal planning grid, and the production of uniform interior spaces to be “styled” later by tenants, the Chicago frame skyscraper was a projection of private commercial interests at a scale heretofore given only to public buildings yet without any of the essential qualities necessary for monumentality. Wright understood monumentality to originate in the fundamental uniqueness of each place, regardless of its scale within the city. This understanding was reflected in Wright’s work only a year after leaving Sullivan’s office with his project for the Monolithic Concrete Bank (1894), a diminutive single-room edifice that nevertheless had the powerful presence of an Egyptian temple. In his repeatedly revised designs for the All Souls Church, later renamed the Abraham Lincoln Center (1897–1905), Wright transformed the spatial uniformity of Sullivan’s skyscrapers into a monumental form that precisely articulated on the exterior the diverse functional spaces of the interior. Wright achieved his fully developed vision of an appropriate monumentality for public buildings with his design and construction of the Larkin Building (1904) and (1906). The plans of these two buildings were simple rectangles, with mezzanines surrounding and overlooking a central multistory space, lit by high clerestory windows and continuous skylights and allowing no views out at eye level. On the exterior these buildings were closed and solid and possessed a severity of form unlike anything else of their time, seeming to relate more to the stark rectilinearity of ancient monuments. For Wright the monumentality appropriate to American public spaces would inevitably take the form of an introverted compound, seen from the outside as a grouping of powerful independent masses bound together by mutual purpose. Entry occurred between these masses, leading to a low, dark, horizontal, rotating movement sequence that compressed and then released the occupant into the tall, light, hidden, vertical central space. The singularity of the central space, and the manner in which it fused form, structure, material, and experience, were profoundly monumental. The entire spatial and ornamental program for Wright’s public buildings, from plans and massing to furniture Downloaded by [Central Uni Library Bucharest] at 03:22 26 September 2013 and carpet patterns, was given order through developments of the square and cube, which Wright considered to be the most perfect of geometries. Wright intended that his public buildings be experienced as sacred spaces, whatever their function, their introspective interiors flooded from above with transcendent light to create a morally edifying effect for those inhabiting the public place. Wright went through a personal and professional crisis in 1909, closing his Oak Park Entries A–Z 985 office, abandoning his family, and taking up residence in Italy. There, he and a select group of draftsmen prepared drawings for publication by the Wasmuth Company, a German publishing house that was to issue a set of drawings of Wright’s work in 1910 and a book of photographs of Wright’s built works in 1911 that together were to exercise considerable influence in Europe. That year, Wright returned to the United States and began construction on his home and studio, called (1911), outside Spring Green, Wisconsin. Like his favorite of the prairie houses, the Coonley House, Taliesin was organized around an exterior garden courtyard, framing but not completely enclosing the brow of the hill on which it was built. This courtyard house type was developed by Wright in response to commissions, such as those for the unbuilt Henry Ford (1909) and Harold McCormick (1907) Houses and the Aline Barnsdall “Hollyhock” House (1917– 20), built around the brow of Olive Hill in Los Angeles, which called for far larger compositions than what could be organized within the pyramidal massing of the prototypical prairie house. During this same period, from 1909 to 1920, Wright designed a series of public buildings that focused on interior garden courtyards. In contrast to his courtyard houses, which were inevitably asymmetrical and informal in plan, these public courtyard buildings were rigorously symmetrical, illustrating Wright’s use of symmetry to distinguish between the public and the private realms. The (1913), an indoor and outdoor garden for music and dining, is perhaps Wright’s most completely resolved total work of art, for here he designed not only the architecture but also the band shell, interiors, furniture, dishes, sculpture, decorations, and landscaping. The Imperial Hotel (1914–22), a commission that required Wright to live in Japan during its construction, was a composition of monumental grandeur, unlike anything else in Wright’s opus. This massive building was designed by Wright to float on a field of structural piers sunk into the unstable soil, an innovative seismic precaution almost immediately tested when the Imperial Hotel survived the devastating 1923 Tokyo earthquake. Wright engaged new materials with almost every design, yet reinforced concrete proved to be the most consistently challenging to him. Despite his early success with reinforced concrete in Unity Temple, Wright remained critical of concrete’s lack of inherent order and its ability to be formed into any shape at the whim of the designer; unlike all other construction materials, concrete did not exhibit a “nature” that would determine its appropriate use. In 1906, the same year that construction began on Unity Temple, Wright designed what he later called “the first block house,” developing the concrete-block system of construction that he would realize 17 years later. The Alice (1923), the John Storer House (1923), the Charles (1923), and the Samuel Freeman House (1923), all built in Los Angeles, were constructed using concrete blocks cast in custom-designed forms. In these houses, Wright succeeded in Downloaded by [Central Uni Library Bucharest] at 03:22 26 September 2013 finding a means of expression suitable to reinforced concrete, the modular order imparted to the concrete blocks giving character to this previously formless material. In 1932, during the Great Depression in the United States, Wright was already 65 years old, having written his autobiography while building only two houses since 1923. It is thus understandable that both the American public and the architectural establishment assumed that Wright had retired from active practice. However, Wright was already Encyclopedia of 20th-century architecture 986 laying the foundations for the most remarkable resurgence in architectural history, and he would go on to construct almost twice as many designs in the next 27 years as he had built in the preceding 40. Pivotal in this resurgence were the publication of Wright’s Autobiography, which brought new clients, and Wright’s opening of the Taliesin Fellowship, an apprenticeship school and office housed in the new Drafting Room (1932) addition to Hillside School (1902) at Taliesin, which provided both the architectural and the farming workforce. The astonishing works that Wright designed in 1934–37 effectively reestablished his dominance of the American architectural profession. With their publication in the January 1938 issue of Architectural Forum and Time magazine, Wright was again hailed as the greatest living architect. The Edgar Kaufmann House (1937), called , together with his own winter home and studio, (1938), exemplified Wright’s belief that architecture is born of its place and thus can never be the product of an “International Style,” as European modernism was represented in 1932 at the Museum of Modern Art. Fallingwater, built above a mountain stream in southwestern Pennsylvania, is Wright’s greatest “natural” house, a place where man can truly be at home in nature. Taliesin West, built in the desert outside Scottsdale, Arizona, celebrated both the ephemerality of life, with its canvas roofs that had to be replaced seasonally, and the permanence of place, with its boulders cast into the concrete walls, still showing the carvings of the original Native American inhabitants of this land-scape. The Johnson Wax Building (1939) is Wright’s great “cathedral of work,” with its innovative thin-shell concrete columns standing in small brass shoes that delicately touch the floor of the central top-lit workroom, clad in streamlined brick and lit by tube glass laid up like bricks in clerestories and skylights. Like his own Drafting Room at Taliesin, employees work here in a room that feels as if it is in the forest, among the column trees, in the light filtering down through the skylight leaves. Although dedicated to work and not worship, the central room of the Johnson Wax Building illustrates the way in which Wright celebrated everyday rituals and functions by housing them in sacred spaces. It is without question one of the greatest spaces in architectural history. (1934) was Wright’s visionary proposal for a pattern of land development that sought to establish an ordered pattern of cultivation and inhabitation for the enormous scale of the Jeffersonian grid while providing every household a place in nature. A complete plan for the future expansion of America’s communities, it had public, commercial, and religious structures woven into its underlying fabric of single- family houses, giving the suburb an appropriate and precise spatial and social order. The Herbert Jacobs House (1937) was the first of Wright’s “Usonian” houses, small and affordable homes for the rapidly growing American middle class that were to be placed on oneacre sites to form the basic pattern of Broadacre City. In the last 20 years of his life, Wright designed hundreds of these Usonian houses for various climates and Downloaded by [Central Uni Library Bucharest] at 03:22 26 September 2013 construction types, each one a masterpiece of spatial generosity within remarkably small total floor areas. Broadacre City was Wright’s counterproposal to the traditional city, to the isolation of agrarian life, and to the sprawling spread of the developer’s speculative suburb. The last ten years of Wright’s life were incredibly productive, with hundreds of designs emerging from Taliesin for virtually every conceivable building type. Among the Entries A–Z 987 best of this last period was the Solomon Guggenheim Museum (1943–59), built facing Central Park in New York City. A glorious expression of the plastic formal possibilities of reinforced concrete, the Guggenheim Museum also explored dynamic spatial and experiential territory, suspending the art and its spectators in a continuously spiraling volume that opens toward the sky. The Beth Sholom Synagogue (1954), with its seating within a folded concrete base anchored to the earth and its roof a translucent tent scaled to the heavens, is a powerful summary of man’s condition as both permanent dweller and perpetual wanderer. Finally, the Marin County Civic Center (1957–66), a series of horizontal planes bridging between the low hills, although unfinished at his death, is perhaps Wright’s most brilliant site design. Despite the extraordinary public commissions of his last years, it could be argued that Wright’s greatest accomplishment remained his designs for hundreds of modest, inexpensive, yet spatially rich and experientially powerful Usonian houses. In a surprisingly humble definition, Wright had early on stated his belief that architecture was the background or framework for the daily life that takes place within it. Wright’s system of design was measured, scaled, and calibrated precisely by the human body and its experience, and although the geometric rigor of Wright’s planning is well known, the esteem in which he held the concepts of use and comfort is not widely understood. The intellectual and formal order of Wright’s designs was balanced by the physical and spiritual engagement of the inhabitant: For Wright, architecture was understood to be the shared discipline of principled place making. It could be argued that Wright’s achievement was virtually unmatched in the 20th century, which produced a rich assortment of new architectural forms but few systematic conceptions that link spatial form and order to human occupation and experience. ROBERT McCARTER

Biography

Born in Richland Center, Wisconsin, 8 June 1867. Attended the School of Engineering, University of Wisconsin, Madison 1885–87. Married 1) Catherine Lee Tobin 1889 (separated 1909; divorced): 6 children; lived with Mrs. Mamah Bortwich Cheney 1909– 1914 (died in Taliesin fire); married 2) Miriam Noel 1915 (separated 1924; died 1927); married 3) Olgivanna Lazovich 1925:1 child; sons Lloyd and John became architects, son David joined a firm manufacturing concrete blocks like those used by Wright. Junior draftsman for Allen D.Conover, Madison 1885–87; junior draftsman for Lyman Silsbee, Chicago 1887; assistant architect, 1888–89, head of planning and design department, 1889–93, Adler and Sullivan, Chicago. Partnership with Cecil Corwin, Chicago 1893–96; private practice in Oak Park, Illinois 1896–97 and Chicago 1897–1909; traveled in Downloaded by [Central Uni Library Bucharest] at 03:22 26 September 2013 Europe and stayed in Fiesole, Italy 1909–11. Built first Taliesin house and studio and resumed practice, Spring Green, Wisconsin 1911; reopened Chicago office 1912; Taliesin partially destroyed by fire and rebuilt as Taliesin II 1914; established an office in Tokyo in conjunction with work on the Imperial Hotel 1915–20; compiled the Spaulding Collection of Japanese Prints while in Japan; worked on the first concrete “texture block” houses, California 1921–24; Taliesin II partially destroyed by fire and rebuilt as Taliesin Encyclopedia of 20th-century architecture 988 III 1925; worked in La Jolla, California 1928; established his southwestern headquarters, Ocatillo, in Chandler, Arizona 1928–29; founded the Wright Foundation Fellowship at Taliesin 1932 with annual winter transfers of fellowship activities from Wisconsin to Chandler, Arizona 1933–38 and Scottsdale, Arizona after 1938; worked on major theoretical studies for Broadacre City from 1933; built Taliesin West, near Scottsdale, Arizona 1938; continued to practice in Wisconsin and Arizona until 1959; his students formed Taliesin Associated Architects to complete works after his death. Honorary member, Académie Royale des Beaux-Arts, Brussels 1927; honorary member, Akademie Royal der Künste, Berlin 1929; honorary member, National Academy of Brazil 1932; honorary member, Royal Institute of British Architects 1941; honorary member, National Academy of Architects, Uruguay 1942; honorary member, National Academy of Architects, Mexico 1943; honorary member, National Academy of Finland 1946; member, National Institute of Arts and Letters 1949; honorary member, Royal Academy of Fine Arts, Stockholm 1953. Royal Gold Medal, Royal Institute of British Architects 1941; Gold Medal, American Institute of Architects 1949. Died in Phoenix, Arizona, 9 April 1959.

Selected Works

Frank Lloyd Wright House and Studio, Oak Park, Illinois, 1889–1911 Charnley House, Astor Street, Chicago (with Louis Sullivan), 1891 Monolithic Concrete Bank, Chicago, 1894 Hillside Home School Buildings, near Spring Green, Wisconsin, 1902 Willits House, Highland Park, Illinois, 1902 Martin House, Buffalo, 1904 Larkin Company Administration Building (destroyed), Buffalo, 1904 All Souls Church (now Abraham Lincoln Center), Chicago, 1905 Hardy House, Racine, Wisconsin, 1905 Unity Temple, Oak Park, Illinois, 1906 McCormick House (unbuilt), 1907 Evans House, Chicago, 1908 Coonley House and Annexes, Riverside, Illinois, 1908–12 Robie House, South Woodlawn, Chicago, 1909 Ford House (unbuilt), 1909 Taliesin, near Spring Green, Wisconsin, 1911; remodeled 1914, 1925 Midway Gardens (destroyed), Chicago, 1913 Barnsdall House and Annexes, Los Angeles, 1917–20 Imperial Hotel, Tokyo, 1922 Downloaded by [Central Uni Library Bucharest] at 03:22 26 September 2013 Millard House (La Miniatura), Pasadena, 1923 Storer House, Los Angeles, 1923 Ennis House, Los Angeles, 1923 Freeman House, Los Angeles, 1923 Taliesin Fellowship Complex, near Spring Green, Wisconsin, 1932 Broadacre City model and exhibition plans, 1934 Entries A–Z 989 Jacobs House I, Madison, 1937 Kaufmann House (Fallingwater), Bear Run, Pennsylvania, 1937 Taliesin West, near Scottsdale, Arizona, 1938 S.C.Johnson and Son Company Administration Building and Annexes, Racine, Wisconsin, 1939 S.C.Johnson Research Tower, Racine, Wisconsin, 1944 Beth Sholom Synagogue, Elkins Park, Pennsylvania, 1954 Solomon R. Guggenheim Museum, New York, 1959 Marin County Civic Center, San Raphael, California, 1966

Selected Publications

The Japanese Print: An Interpretation, 1912 Experimenting with Human Lives, 1923 The Life Work of the American Architect Frank Lloyd Wright, 1925 Modern Architecture, 1931 Two Lectures on Architecture, 1931 An Autobiography, 1932 The Disappearing City, 1932; revised edition as When Democracy Builds, 1945; as The Living City, 1958 Architecture and Modern Life (with Baker Brownell), 1937 An : The Architecture of Democracy, 1939 Frank Lloyd Wright on Architecture: Selected Writings 1894–1940, edited by Frederick Gutheim, 1941 Genius and the Mobocracy, 1949 The Future of Architecture, 1953 The Natural House, 1954 An American Architecture, edited by Edgar Kaufmann, 1955 The Story of the Tower, 1956 A Testament, 1957 Drawings for a Living Architecture, 1959 The Solomon R. Guggenheim Museum, 1960 Frank Lloyd Wright: Writings and Buildings, edited by Edgar Kaufmann, Jr., and Ben Raeburn, 1960 The Drawings of Frank Lloyd Wright, edited by Arthur Drexler, 1962 Buildings, Plans and Designs, 1963 Frank Lloyd Wright: His Life, His Work, His Words, edited by Olgivanna Lloyd Wright, 1966 Downloaded by [Central Uni Library Bucharest] at 03:22 26 September 2013 Architectural Essays from the Chicago School, 1967 Frank Lloyd Wright: The Early Work, 1968 In the Cause of Architecture: Essays by Frank Lloyd Wright for the Architectural Review 1908–1952, edited by Frederick Gutheim, 1975 Letters to Apprentices: Frank Lloyd Wright, edited by Bruce Brooks Pfeiffer, 1982 Letters to Architects: Frank Lloyd Wright, edited by Bruce Brooks Pfeiffer, 1984 Encyclopedia of 20th-century architecture 990 The Guggenheim Correspondence, edited by Bruce Brooks Pfeiffer, 1986 Frank Lloyd Wright: Letters to Clients, edited by Bruce Brooks Pfeiffer, 1986 Studies and Executed Buildings by Frank Lloyd Wright, edited by Vincent Scully, 1986 Modern Architecture: Being the Kahn Lectures for 1930, 1990

Further Reading

Three comprehensive monographs exist on Wright. The earliest, Hitchcock, although not including the work of Wright’s last two decades, is the only monograph written with Wright’s direct involvement and approval. Levine 1996 and McCarter 1997 vary dramatically in approach, with the former placing Wright in the larger context of art- historical interpretations, whereas the latter documents the experience of inhabiting the spaces of Wright’s built works. Both of these monographs benefit from access to Wright’s archival material after its organization and selected publication by Bruce Brooks Pfeiffer, documented in Futagawa 1984–88 (12 vols.). Wright’s own writings, including his An Autobiography, are collected in Wright 1992–95 (5 vols.). A comprehensive catalog of all Wright’s built work is contained in Storrer. Several essay collections offer appropriately varied views of Wright, including Riley 1994, McCarter 1991, and Bolon, Nelson, and Seidel 1988. Finally, a number of excellent single-building or building-type studies exist, such as Sergeant 1976, which, due to their narrow focus, allow a sufficiently extended analysis to capture the richness of Wright’s individual designs. Bolon, Carol, Robert Nelson, and Linda Seidel (editors), The Nature of Frank Lloyd Wright, Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1988 Futagawa, Yukio (editor), Frank Lloyd Wright Monograph, text by Bruce Brooks Pfeiffer, 12 vols., Tokyo: A.D.A. Edita, 1984–88 Hitchcock, Henry-Russell, In the Nature of Materials, 1887–1941: The Buildings of Frank Lloyd Wright, New York: Duell, Sloan and Pearce, 1942; with new foreword and bibliography, New York: Da Capo Press, 1973 Levine, Neil, The Architecture of Frank Lloyd Wright, Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press, 1996 McCarter, Robert, Frank Lloyd Wright, London: Phaidon Press, 1997 McCarter, Robert (editor), Frank Lloyd Wright: A Primer on Architectural Principles, New York: Princeton Architectural Press, 1991 Riley, Terrance (editor), Frank Lloyd Wright, Architect, New York: Museum of Modern Art, 1994 Sergeant, John, Frank Lloyd Wright’s Usonian Houses, New York: Whitney Library of Design, 1976

Downloaded by [Central Uni Library Bucharest] at 03:22 26 September 2013 Storrer, William Allin, The Frank Lloyd Wright Companion, Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1993 Wright, Frank Lloyd, Frank Lloyd Wright Collected Writings, edited by Bruce Brooks Pfeiffer, 5 vols., New York: Rizzoli, 1992–95 Entries A–Z 991

WU LIANGYONG 1922

Architect, China Wu Liangyong was born in 1922 in . He received his Bachelor of Architecture degree from the National Central University in in 1944 and completed his Master of Architecture and Urban Design degree under Eliel Saarinen at Cranbrook Academy in Cranbrook, Michigan, in 1949. On his return to China in 1950, he joined the faculty of the Department of Architecture at , a major school in China for technical and engineering studies. Wu has been recognized as a leading architectural designer and urban planner in China, especially since the 1970s. He played a major role in the replanning and design of Tiananmen Square, located in the center of . Surrounding the square are the National Congress Hall and the National Museum of History. In 1976 Wu worked with a team of five senior architects to win the competition for the design of the National Library of China. In the projects he has designed, he strives to combine traditional spirit in architecture with modern construction to create a new form of Chinese contemporary architecture. Wu’s most well-known project in urban and architectural preservation is the New Courtyard House Complex (1987) at Juer Hutong, located in northeastern Beijing. Facing the challenges of rapid economic growth, the single-story courtyard houses, which were the major housing form for the old city of Beijing, had been in danger of disappearing entirely from the city to make room for high-rise apartments. Wu and his design and research group selected a typical neighborhood in the eastern district of Beijing as an experimental project. It bears the main features of a multicourtyard system of housing with multiple—usually three—stories in the structures to accommodate more residents. The salvation of this traditional housing form turned out to be a success. The Juer Hutong project won the World Habitat Award from the United Nations in 1993 and the Gold Medal in Architecture from the Architects’ Regional Council in 1992. Wu worked as a designer and planner for several cities in China: Beijing, Handan, Beidaihe, Baoding, and Tangshan in the north; Beihai, Guilin, and Liuzhou in the south; Jiuquan in the west; and Suzhou and Wuxi in the east. Zhangjiagang is a newly planned city, and Wu worked there in 1993. He focused on Beijing for research in city design and planning; he is on the committee for capital planning as a consultant for the municipal government, helping in the strategic planning of the city. He vation for the city. also participates in policy making and research on historic preser Downloaded by [Central Uni Library Bucharest] at 03:22 26 September 2013 As an educator in architecture, Wu led the School of Architecture at Tsinghua University as the dean from 1977 to 1983. He was invited by the eminent architectural scholar to participate in the founding of the school in 1946. Wu has since then been one of the school’s most influential professors. He has formed two research centers at Tsinghua: the Institute of Architecture and Urban Studies and the Center for Human Settlements. He serves as the director of both; many design and research projects Encyclopedia of 20th-century architecture 992 were completed by the centers under his directorship. The Institute of Confucianism in Qufu, Confucius’s hometown, is one of the most recent projects that they have completed. Wu’s teaching covers studio instruction and lectures on theory and history of cities. His A Brief History of Ancient Chinese City Planning (1986) is the first English-language book on the topic ever published by a scholar of mainland China. Wu used this book as a main reference when he taught at Gesamthochschule in Kassel, Germany. His teaching extended to the seminar courses in Beijing for mayors. Wu was awarded the Jean Tschumi Prize by the UIA (Union Internationate des Architect) in 1996 for his renowned contributions in architectural education. A Theory of Integral Architecture (2001) advanced Wu’s ideas in China for dealing with design issues in a global perspective. His book A General Theory of Architecture (1990, Beijing; 1992, Taipei) discusses human settlements, world urbanism, China’s responses to the challenges of environmental changes, and architectural regionalism, among many other topics. Wu proposes that architectural studies in China should employ “holistic thinking” and “cross-disciplinary research.” In that sense architectural and urban studies in China should be combined closely in a system but should remain general: architecture and its humanistic presence of time and space, architecture and its geographical presence of time and space, architecture as the presence of culture and tradition, technical essence in architecture, and finally, architecture as a cultural expression for its aesthetic forms. Wu uses diagrammatic charts to illustrate his theory, and he concludes that the general theory is a new subject that he calls a “science of human settlement.” He further distinguishes his theory as a “new regionalism.” China opened the door to the world after the Cultural Revolution that took place between 1966 and 1976, and it resumed its international connections to the architectural world in the mid-1970s. Wu has performed a major role in representing China’s architectural professionals in world organizations and conferences. In addition to his busy schedule as visiting professor and research fellow in the United States and Europe, he served as a vice president of UIA (1987–90) and the president of the World Society of Ekistics. He is an honorary fellow of the American Institute of Architects and an honorary fellow of the Royal Institute of British Architects, among other professional memberships. Most recently, in the summer of 1999, he co-chaired the Beijing conference of UIA and drafted the UIA Beijing Charter. YUNSHENG HUANG

Biography

Born in Nanjing, Jiangsu Province, China, 7 May 1922. Attended National Central Downloaded by [Central Uni Library Bucharest] at 03:22 26 September 2013 University, Chongqing (bachelor’s degree 1944), and Cranbrook Academy, Cranbrook, Michigan (master’s degree 1949). Married Yao Tongzhen, a landscape architect. Taught part-time at Lawrence Institute of Technology, , Michigan, 1949–50; then lifelong professor at the School of Architecture, Tsinghua University, Beijing 1951–; visiting scholar, Cambridge University 1995; visiting professor, University of Hong Kong 1983; visiting professor, University of California, Berkeley, 1988; and other universities. Has Entries A–Z 993 exhibited artwork in China, , the United States, and Germany.

Selected Works

Automobile Body Design Building, GM Technical Research Center, Detroit, Michigan, 1950 New East Wing of the Beijing Hotel, 1973 “Beijing 2000” Urban Design Plan, Shichahai District, Beijing, 1979 New Courtyard House Complex at Juer Hutong, Beijing, 1987 Extension of the National Museum of History, Beijing, 1994

Selected Publications

A Brief History of Ancient Chinese City Planning, 1986 A General Theory of Architecture, 1990 (in Chinese) Reflection at the Turn of the Century: The Future of Architecture, 1999 (in Chinese) Rehabilitating the Old City of Beijing: A Project in the Ju’er Hutong Neighbourhood, 1999

Further Reading

Most articles about Wu Liangyong are in Chinese journals. American Institute of Architects Memo, 9 (January 1990) (special issue) Liang, Ssu-ch’eng, A Pictorial History of , Cambridge, Massachusetts: MIT Press, 1984

WURSTER, WILLIAM 1895–1973

Architect, United States William Wurster was a chief exponent of the “Bay Region School” of architecture in the United States. His development as an architect coincided with the years of the Great Depression (1929–35) and his maturation with the years 1935–42, preceding World War II. Wurster’s architecture, like that of his contemporaries Pietro Belluschi, Harwell Downloaded by [Central Uni Library Bucharest] at 03:22 26 September 2013 Hamilton Harris, and O’Neil Ford, exemplified a form of rooted and indigenous modernism that flourished in the United States before the internationalist orientation of the 1950s. Wurster and his contemporaries believed that architecture, whether designed for the Northwest, the Pacific coast, or the Southwest, should visibly express the identity of a region. Between 1913 and 1918, Wurster visited works by well-known Bay Region architects, Encyclopedia of 20th-century architecture 994 among them Bernard Maybeck,

Saxon Pope House, Orinda, California (1940)

Ezra Stoller © Esto

Ernest Coxhead, and Willis Polk. Wurster especially appreciated Maybeck’s Christian Science Church, which synthesized BeauxArts ornamental exuberance with experimental building techniques and the Arts and Crafts ideals of simplicity, authenticity, and naturalism. Wurster traveled to Paris in 1922 and from there departed on sketching tours throughout Europe during 1922–23. Italy and Spain were key destinations: Their vernacular traditions and rural landscapes held significance for California. After his return William Adams Delano assisted Wurster with the financing of his own office in Berkeley in 1924 and with introductions to some of Wurster’s most important early clients. Wurster launched his career with the Gregory Farmhouse (1927–28) near Santa Cruz. Designed for Mrs. Warren (Sadie) Gregory, whom Wurster met through a friend of Delano’s, the Farmhouse was widely published and functioned as a clear visual statement of Wurster’s architectural principles. First, both Wurster and his client envisioned an architectural character of crafted simplicity and calculated understatement. Wurster, who was committed to the “cleanliness” of wood carpentry and inspired by the vernacular structures in California’s gold-mining towns and early Monterey, conceived and detailed Downloaded by [Central Uni Library Bucharest] at 03:22 26 September 2013 a composition that was both ranchlike and modern yet conscientiously devoid of any particular style. Finally, Wurster devised numerous strategies for integrating the house with its country setting. Each individual room, for instance, opened onto a corredor, or terrace, some of which served as “outdoor rooms,” and the house’s L-shaped plan framed a central courtyard, recalling at once European manor houses, Italian villas, and the Spanish-influenced adobe houses of old Monterey. Entries A–Z 995 During the years following the Gregory commission, Wurster continued to refine his modern regionalist approach. In the early 1930s he designed 13 houses for Pasatiempo, a country club and residential community near Monterey Bay, among them the MacKenzie-Field House (1931). Wurster’s Pasatiempo houses, which he viewed as antidotes to an overmechanized urban life, showed that he continued to develop his vernacular-inspired architectural vocabulary, simple yet refined techniques of wood construction, integration of indoor and outdoor spaces, and sensitivity to the natural surroundings. The Voss House (1931) in the countryside of Big Sur, with a profile embedded in the landscape, kitchen “cave,” and direct confrontation of the ocean vista, epitomized Wurster’s search for a modern architecture that embodied the California yearning for the simple yet “good” life in the open. By the mid-1930s Wurster’s practice was well established. As his regionalist sensibility matured, his houses also became more consistently modernist and abstract. Wurster’s Clark House (1937) in Aptos, which had cubic volumes and flush planar surfaces, and his Saxton Pope House (1940) in Orinda, with powerful geometries and construction in concrete block and corrugated steel, exemplified his new, starker approach. These houses suggested a greater affinity with the European avant-garde, at the time promoted by the Museum of Modern Art as the “International Style.” Wurster, however, argued that “modern” was a point of view and not a style. In 1937 Wurster made his second European journey, with the objective of seeing the modern architecture of Scandinavia and, in particular, the work of Alvar Aalto. Wurster valued Aalto’s “humanist” approach; that is, his integration of architecture with the natural surroundings and his attention to vernacular resources and to the sensuality of craftsmanship in wood. After Wurster discovered Aalto’s own house on the outskirts of , the two architects visited Aalto’s Savoy Restaurant, Sunila Pulp Mill, and Paimio Sanatorium; they discussed their shared philosophical viewpoints and established a friendship that lasted throughout their lives. During the 1930s, Wurster became increasingly involved with the problem of low-cost housing. His designs for individual minimum dwellings, such as his “Unit Steel House” (1937) for the Soule Steel Company, along with housing communities such as Valencia Gardens (1939) in San Francisco, a 246-unit project, demonstrated his command of a range of housing scales. In 1939 Wurster met Catherine Bauer, whose Modern Housing (1934) had become the seminal work on the subject. They married in 1940, and Bauer’s emphasis on the virtues of large-scale projects and rationalized construction techniques, along with her study of garden communities such as Radburn, influenced Wurster’s approach to designing communities for war workers in the early 1940s. Among these were his Carquinez Heights (1941) in Vallejo. In this project and others, such as Chabot Terrace (1942) in Vallejo and Parker Homes (1943) in Sacramento, Wurster aspired to integrate current thinking on standardized housing with Downloaded by [Central Uni Library Bucharest] at 03:22 26 September 2013 his own long-standing commitment to the client and to the environmental specifics of landscape, climate, and views. GAIL FENSKE See also Aalto, Alvar (Finland); Maybeck, Bernard R. (United States) Encyclopedia of 20th-century architecture 996

Biography

Born in Stockton, California, 20 October 1895. Studied at the University of California, Berkeley 1912–13; worked in a surveyor’s office 1913–14; studied naval architecture and marine engineering at the University of California 1914–16; went to sea as an engineer 1916–18; finished studies at the University of California 1919–20; bachelor’s degree in architecture 1920; traveled in Europe 1922–23. Married Catherine Bauer 1940 (died 1964): 1 child. Assistant in the office of E.B.Brown, Stockton 1910; worked for the firm of John Reid, Jr., San Francisco 1920; employed by the Filtration Division, City of Sacramento, California, under architect Charles Dean 1921–22; worked for the firm of Delano and Aldrich, New York 1923–24; returned to California to design a filtration plant for East Bay Water Company 1924–25. In private practice, San Francisco 1926–43; partner, with Theodore Bernardi and Donn Emmons, Wurster, Bernardi, and Emmons, San Francisco from 1945. Fellow, Harvard Graduate School of Design 1943–44; dean, School of Architecture and Planning, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge 1944–50; dean, College of Architecture, 1950–59, dean, College of Environmental Design, 1959–63, dean emeritus, 1963–73, University of California, Berkeley. Chairman, Architects Advisory Committee, United States National Housing Agency 1942; chairman, 1949–50, California State, Member, 1959–67, National Capitol Park and Planning Commission; member, Architectural Advisory Panel, Office for Foreign Buildings, United States State Department 1958–63. Fellow, American Institute of Architects; fellow, American Academy of Arts and Sciences; fellow, Royal Academy of Fine Arts, Copenhagen; member, Akademie der Künste, Berlin; honorary corresponding member, Royal Institute of British Architects; affiliate, American Institute of Planners. Gold Medal, American Institute of Architects 1969. Died in Berkeley, 19 September 1973.

Selected Works

Gregory Farmhouse, Santa Cruz, California, 1928 MacKenzie-Field House, Monterey Bay, California, 1931 Voss House, Big Sur, California, 1931 Clark House, Aptos, California, 1937 “Unit Steel House” (project), Soule Steel Company, 1937 Housing Development, Valencia Gardens, San Francisco, 1939 Saxton Pope House, Orinda, California, 1940

Downloaded by [Central Uni Library Bucharest] at 03:22 26 September 2013 Carquinez Heights, Vallejo, California, 1941 Chabot Terrace, Vallejo, 1942 Parker Homes, Sacramento, 1943 Entries A–Z 997

Selected Publications

“From to Modern House,” New York Times Magazine (20 January 1946) “When Is a Small House Large,” House and Garden (August 1947) “Architectural Education,” AIA Journal (January 1948) “Architecture Broadens Its Base,” AIA Journal (July 1948) “The Outdoors in Residential Design,” Architectural Forum (September 1949) “Row House Vernacular and High Style Monument,” Architectural Report (August 1958) “College Planning,” Architectural Record (September 1959)

Further Reading

Michelson provides a definitive account of Wurster’s career and includes a house-by- house bibliography, a list of Wurster’s writings, and a chronology. Treib’s exhibition catalog expands Michelson’s account with eight essays that situate Wurster’s career within the broader social and intellectual milieu of the United States. Hille provides complete visual documentation of Wurster’s key residential works. Fenske, Gail, “Lewis Mumford, Henry-Russell Hitchcock, and the Bay Region Style,” in The Education of the Architect: Historiography, Urbanism, and the Growth of Architectural Knowledge. Essays Presented to Stanford Anderson, edited by Martha D.Pollak, Cambridge, Massachusetts: MIT Press, 1997 Gregory, Daniel P., “An Indigenous Thing: The Story of William Wurster and the Gregory Farmhouse,” Places, 7 (Fall 1990) Hille, R.Thomas, Inside the Large Small House: The Residential Design Legacy of William W.Wurster, New York: Princeton Architectural Press, 1994 Michelson, Alan Richard, “Towards a Regional Synthesis: The Suburban and Country Residences of William Wilson Wurster, 1922–1964,” Ph.D. dissertation, Stanford University, 1993 Peters, Richard C., “The Integrity Is Implicit, the Sincerity Intense: William Wilson Wurster, Gold Medalist, 1969,” AIA Journal, 51 (May 1969) Riess, Suzanne B., interviewer, William Wilson Wurster, 1895–1973 (d. Sept. 19, 1973): College of Environmental Design, University of California, Campus Planning, and Architectural Practice, Berkeley: University of California Press, 1964 Treib, Marc (editor), An Everyday Modernism: The Houses of William Wurster (exhib. cat.), San Francisco: San Francisco Museum of Modern Art, and Berkeley: University of California Press, 1995 Downloaded by [Central Uni Library Bucharest] at 03:22 26 September 2013 Y

YAAMA MOSQUE, TAHOUA, NIGER

Designed by Falké Barmou, completed 1982 The Yaama Mosque is a mud-brick building, but it is one that is strikingly different from the Dyula-type mosques found in Mali. This is an example of a building built in a local style but whose growth over time shows a desire for monumentality in size, form, and the complexity of its decoration. It also emphasizes that there can be monuments within a vernacular style of architecture. A mud-brick and tamped-earth building, the mosque was designed by mason and farmer Falké Barmou in a semidesert region of Niger. Twenty years in the making, this Friday mosque was completed in 1982. The client and the construction team was the community of Yaama. The mosque is squarish in plan. The initial building was a hypostyle hall, a field of closely spaced heavy columns whose visual weight lends the building’s interior a somber air. The building was initially roofed with a simple post-and-lintel system. In 1975 Barmou took advantage of the need to fix a leaking roof to replace the ceiling with a livelier vaulted system. Barmou had traveled to Dakar and to Mecca and thus was exposed to, and incorporated into his work, many building techniques. Frequently referred to simply as “Hausa,” Labelle Prussin feels that a more accurate term is “Fulani-Hausa.” Her term acknowledges the dual influences of the nomadic Fulani, a Fulbe-speaking people who migrated into the region, which today lies in northern Nigeria and Niger. The Hausa were the sedentary people native to the area. Barmou used one of the most significant features of Hausa architecture: arches, vaults, and domes made of bundled and bent reeds covered with a mud-and-straw mortar. On top of these groin vaults, sticks are laid in a basket-weave pattern. When he replaced the roof, Barmou also removed a central column that created a central space over which he added a dome. This imposition of a central dome into the hypostyle hall shows the interconnectedness of mosque architecture with multidomed Byzantine Christian

Downloaded by [Central Uni Library Bucharest] at 03:22 26 September 2013 churches, such as St. Mark’s in Venice. This vaulted-and-domed construction system demonstrates the continuity into a permanent kind of architecture of tech niques derived from less-exalted kinds of architecture, such as tents and straw huts. With temporary structures a material (fabric, hides, or straw) is laid over a framework. Prussin writes, “The Fulani-Hausa dome can be construed as a visual synthesis of several contradictory aspirations into a unified image: Entries A–Z 999 mobility, identity with Islam, and sedentarization” (Prussin, 1986). The largest element in the project is the hypostyle prayer hall. As is customary with mosques, a mihrab, or prayer niche, occupies the middle of the qibla wall (qibla denotes the direction toward Mecca). As there is a central row of columns, in the Yaama Mosque the mihrab is slightly off center so that it lies at the end of a visual axis. A low perimeter wall creates an enclosed compound that can be used as an overflow area for prayers. Some mosques (e.g. Djenné and Niono) are rectangular in plan, and the entry is in the center of one of the long sides. This allows rows of worshipers to extend laterally as far as possible. Other mosques are square in plan, something that Prussin argues relates to the Islamic magic square. The magic square is an arrangement of numbers in a graphic pattern found in a variety of Islamic arts. A typical example is a three-by-three nine- house square. Both the overall plan of Yaama and the square-based dome are similar in form to the Islamic magic square. The roof is made of bundles of sticks that are visible on the interior although skim coated with mud on the exterior. This kind of architecture, built of local materials and using local craftsmen, was sustainable before the term sustainability achieved its current popularity. This building was literally built by the community. There are four corner towers, all different in form. The towers are divided into vertical zones with setbacks. An initial simplicity has been augmented over time by an increasing desire to add detail and monumentality, particularly considering the towers. Over time, there has been an increasing concern for aesthetics and decoration. None of the four towers, however, functions as a minaret. A minaret, the tower from which worshipers are called to prayer, is not an essential part of a mosque. Minarets are frequently significant vertical elements in the design of Ottoman and Middle Eastern mosques. The selection of the Yaama Mosque for an Aga Khan Award in 1986 provoked a controversy within the Islamic architectural community. One of six winners, it was controversial, but not because of any perceived failings of this particular mosque. By excluding projects such as airports and skyscrapers, dissenting members of the judging panel felt that the overall message sent by the Aga Khan Awards was overtly nostalgic and traditional. Islamic architecture did not, they argued, have to be antiWestern, antimodern, and antitechnology. The Yaama Mosque reconciles local tradition and a modern Islam with a grace and ease that were lacking in the Aga Khan Award debacle. At once restrained and massive, delicate and decorative, this project shows the creative energy that still exists within traditional African building techniques. MARK HINCHMAN

Downloaded by [Central Uni Library Bucharest] at 03:22 26 September 2013 Further Reading

Campbell, Robert, “The Aga Khan Awards for 1987 Raise Issues of Tradition,” Architecture (January 1987) Holod, Renata, and Hasan-Uddin Khan (editors), The Contemporary Mosque: Architects, Clients, and Designs since the 1950s, New York: Rizzoli, 1997; as The Mosque and the Modern World: Architects, Patrons, and Designs since the 1950s, London: Thames Encyclopedia of 20th-century architecture 1000 and Hudson, 1997 “Permeating Excellence: Third Cycle of the Aga Khan Award for Architecture,” Arts and the Islamic World, 4 (Autumn/Winter 1986) Prussin, Labelle, Hatumere: Islamic Design in West Africa, Berkeley: University of California Press, 1986 “Yaama Mosque, Niger,” Architectural Review, 180 (November 1986) “Yaama Mosque, Niger,” The Architectural Record, 175 (January 1987)

YAMASAKI, MINORU 1912–86

Architect, United States Driven by the sincere belief that architecture should make daily life more beautiful and emotionally fulfilling, JapaneseAmerican architect Minoru Yamasaki developed a highly ornamental architecture that drew on his world travels for inspiration. Although other architects (notably Edward Durell Stone and Philip Johnson) also explored the combination of modernist forms and materials with historicist motifs and elements, Yamasaki’s ornamental eclecticism (drawing from a variety of sources, from mosques to Gothic cathedrals) set him apart from his contemporaries. Although the sheer size of Yamasaki’s best-known work, the World Trade Center Towers (1976) in New York overwhelmed its neo-Gothic ornament, the majority of his architecture reflected an interest in human scale and lightness of materials. This approach pervades the McGregor Memorial Conference Center (1958) at in Detroit, which Yamasaki adorned with triangular arches and inverted pyramidal canopies over a glass atrium, all surrounded by a series of fountains and platforms. Although derived from his genuine desire to harmonize architecture with humanity, this preoccupation with ornament and surface effects has led many critics to deride his work as self-indulgent, formalist, and overly decorative. Regardless of these criticisms, Yamasaki enjoyed considerable suc cess with a public weary of the anonymity of glass-and-steel modernism constructed in the second half of the 20th century. The 33 orange brick blocks of Yamasaki’s Pruitt Igoe Houses (1952–55) in St. Louis seem an unlikely beginning for an architect committed to an architecture of serenity and delight (Yamasaki even excluded the project from his autobiography). The award- winning design for low-income public housing was praised for its modernist features (including window-lined galleries intended to serve as outdoor socializing areas, reminiscent of Le Corbusier) and cost-efficient design. However, in reality, the housing project was a spectacular failure, plagued by crime, low occupancy, vandalism, and ill- Downloaded by [Central Uni Library Bucharest] at 03:22 26 September 2013 functioning services. The buildings’ demolition in 1972 received worldwide coverage and was seen as representing the ultimate failure of the social engineering and functionalist rhetoric of modernism. Even with the initially positive reception of the Pruitt Igoe housing project, Yamasaki would depart radically from such doctrinaire modernism for the rest of his career. Contemporary to the design of Pruitt Igoe, Yamasaki, Hellmuth, and Leinweber received Entries A–Z 1001 the commission for a new airport for the city of St. Louis. Intended to serve the demands of air travel while functioning as a monumental entrance to the city, the soaring concrete groin vaults of Lambert Airport (1956) recalled the grandeur of American railroad depots in the early 20th century, such as New York’s Grand Central Station. The sweeping and elegant concrete vaults of the Terminal Building established Yamasaki’s international reputation and introduced a new idiom for airport design (further refined and developed in the works of ). Following the success of Lambert Airport, Yamasaki increasingly incorporated overt Gothic-, Islamic-, and Japanese-inspired ornament into his architecture. The elaborately patterned aluminum screen walls at the Reynolds Metals Regional Sales Office (1959) in Southfield, Michigan, demonstrate his interest in exotic patterns, whereas the concrete ogee arches and canopies of the Dhahran Air Terminal (1961) in Dhahran, Saudi Arabia, attempted to harmonize with the surroundings. Among his most elaborate works was the enormously popular Federal Science Pavilion (1962) at the Seattle World’s Fair, which consisted of a series of lacy canopies with parabolic arches, rendered in a kind of space- age neo-Gothic style. Yamasaki’s particular blend of ornament and modernist structure ensured him a prominent place in the architecture of the United States and throughout the world. His architecture was chosen to represent the United States with the U.S. Pavilion (1959) at the World Agricultural Fair in New Delhi. Additionally, Yamasaki was invited to design the Founders Hall (1983) in Shinji Shumeikai, Shiga prefecture, Japan. Overall, Yamasaki was one of a few architects who dared to question the modernist mantra “Less is more.” Through his inventive combination of historicist motifs and elements, Yamasaki created an architecture that addressed far more than its overt functions, striving to make modern architecture enjoyable to a broad spectrum of the public. MATTHEW S.ROBINSON See also Johnson, Philip (United States); Ornament; Pruitt Igoe Housing, St. Louis, Missouri; Skyscraper; Stone, Edward Durell (United States); World Trade Center, New York City Downloaded by [Central Uni Library Bucharest] at 03:22 26 September 2013 Encyclopedia of 20th-century architecture 1002

Japan Center, San Francisco (1968)

Photo © Mary Ann Sullivan

Biography

Born in Seattle, Washington, 1 December 1912. Studied at the University of Washington, Seattle 1930–34; bachelor’s degree in architecture 1934; attended New York University 1934–35. Worked as a designer for Githens and Keally, New York 1935–37; designer for Shreve, Lamb and Harmon, New York 1937–43; designer for the firm of Harrison and Fouilhoux, New York 1943–44; designer for Raymond Loewy Associates, New York 1944–45; chief architectural designer, Smith, Hinchman and Grylls, Detroit, Michigan 1945–49. Principal, Minoru Yamasaki and Associates, Troy, Michigan from 1949; partnership with Joseph Leinweber, Yamasaki, Leinweber and Associates, Detroit 1949– 55; partnership with Leinweber and George Hellmuth, Leinweber, Yamasaki and Hellmuth, St. Louis, Missouri 1949–55. Instructor at New York University 1935–36 and Columbia University, New York 1943–45. Fellow, American Institute of Architects 1960; fellow, American Academy of Arts and Sciences 1960. Died in Detroit, 6 February 1986. Downloaded by [Central Uni Library Bucharest] at 03:22 26 September 2013 Selected Works

Pruitt Igoe Housing Project (destroyed), St. Louis, Missouri, 1955 Terminal Building, Lambert Airport, St. Louis, Missouri, 1956 McGregor Memorial Community Conference Center, Wayne State University, Detroit, Michigan, 1958 Reynolds Metals Regional Sales Office, Southfield, Michigan, 1959 U.S.Pavilion, Entries A–Z 1003 World Agricultural Fair, New Delhi, 1959 Dhahran Air Terminal, Dhahran, Saudi Arabia, 1961 Federal Science Pavilion, World’s Fair, Seattle, Washington, 1962 Japan Center, San Francisco, Calfornia, 1968 World Trade Center, New York City (with Emery Roth and Sons; destroyed), 1976 Rainier Square Bank Tower (architectural design and detailing only), Seattle, Washington, 1977 Saudi Arabian Monetary Agency Headquarters, Riyadh, 1982 Founders Hall, Shinji Shumeikai, Shiga prefecture, Japan, 1983

Selected Publications

Minoru Yamasaki: The Architect and His Use of Sculpture as an Integral Part of Design (exhib. cat.), 1967 A Life in Architecture, 1979

Further Reading

Unfortunately, there is a relative dearth of information concerning the life and architecture of Minoru Yamasaki. The primary source for information about Yamasaki is his autobiography, A Life in Architecture (1979), which offers insight into his practice and philosophy of architec-ture. Articles by Veronese, Huxtable, and a host of others position Yamasaki in the context of the late 1950s and early 1960s. Yamasaki enjoyed a degree of prominence in the American press, appearing on the cover of Time magazine in 1963; the accompanying article, “The Road to Xanadu,” balances a sympathetic appraisal of his architecture with more critical statements by his fellow architects. Other than some ongoing commentary surrounding the World Trade Center Towers, Yamasaki is infrequently discussed by critics and historians. Huxtable, Ada Louise, “Minoru Yamasaki’s Recent Buildings,” Art in America, 50 (Winter 1962) “The Road to Xanadu,” Time (18 January 1963) Veronese, Giulia, “Minoru Yamasaki, Edward Durell Stone,” Zodiac, 8 (1961)

YUGOSLAVIA

Downloaded by [Central Uni Library Bucharest] at 03:22 26 September 2013 Although Yugoslavia existed as an official state through much of the 20th century, its architecture has been commonly presented through separate, regional surveys rather than general overviews. On the basis of the major political events of the century, three phases can be considered distinctive in terms of architectural analysis: the period before the creation of Yugoslavia in 1918, the of the , and the period after World War II, when the country was officially the Socialist Federal Encyclopedia of 20th-century architecture 1004 Republic of Yugoslavia. Constituted on territory shared through the centuries by two quite different empires, the Habsburg and the Ottoman, Yugoslavia had unequal potential for the development of modernity in its eastern and western regions. However, the modern age was brought to the whole country from the same source: the Central European metropolis. Being in Austro-Hungarian territory at the turn of the century, buildings in , , and Bosnia-Herzegovina were designed either by foreign builders or by domestic architects educated at leading schools of the empire. On the other hand, Serbia and Montenegro, emancipated from the Ottoman government in the mid-19th century, passed through an intense transformation, catching up with the trends of contemporary Europe. The first Serbian architects to bring modern architectural features to the kingdom of Serbia (independent from 1878) were educated in Vienna, similar to their fellows from the western regions. The turning point in Slovenian architecture was the earthquake of 1895, after which the cultural capital of Slovenia, , was rebuilt following the plans of Camillo Sitte and . Besides shaping the modern urban structure of Ljubljana, Max Fabiani (1865–1962) brought the Viennese Secession to Slovenia, designing many public and residential buildings, such as Hribar House (1905), Bamberg Palace (1906–07), and the girls’ school Mladika (1906–07). The first decades of 20th-century architecture in Croatia are associated with the name of Viktor Kovacic (1874–1924), a student of Otto Wagner, who initiated an enthusiastic struggle against “dogmatic historicism.” Joining a group of young artists and writers, the founders of the magazine Zivot (Life), Kovacic published a manifesto titled “Modern Architecture” in its first issue of 1900. Whereas his projects such as Frank House (1910) and the Church of St. Blaz (1913) vary the recognizable idiom of the Wagnerschule, other chief examples of the Croatian Secession, such as Ignjat Fischer’s Sanatorium (1908) and Rudolf Lubinsky’s University Library (1913), both in Zagreb, pres ent a closer interpretation of the Viennese “geometric” forerunner. After the Austrian occupation of Bosnia-Herzegovina of 1878, the favored style for new public buildings, chosen to present the distinctiveness of the mixed population, was the pseudo-Moorish. Richly decorated edifices in Sarajevo, such as Wittek and Ivekovic’s City Hall (1892–96, almost destroyed in the civil war, 1992–95) or the Evangelistic Church (1899), designed by the leading architect of the time, Karlo Parzik (1857–1942), exemplify the popular within-the-empire trend of compiling “exotic,” pseudo-Moorish and neo-Byzantine elements with the forms of Western Medieval Revival. With exceptions such as Jan Kotera’s Slavija Bank (1910–11) in Sarajevo, whose pure geometric forms anticipated his “revolutionary” Urbánek’s Mozarteum Building in Prague, characteristic Secessionist buildings in Bosnia-Herzegovina were a mixture of eclectic features and new decorative motifs, as on the Post Office in Sarajevo Downloaded by [Central Uni Library Bucharest] at 03:22 26 September 2013 (1907–13, severely damaged in the civil war, 1992–95), designed by Josip Vancas (1859–1932). Before the establishment of an architectural program at Belgrade Technical Faculty in 1897, the first generation of Serbian architects earned their degrees from universities in Vienna, Munich, Berlin, Karlsruhe, and Zurich, bringing back both the academic traditions as well as the new, turn-of-the-century tendencies. The Secession appeared in Entries A–Z 1005 Serbia in two different manners, one of which came as a synthesis of the eclectic method and modern architectural elements (e.g., large continuous glass screens, characteristic railings, and floral decoration) that can be seen on Svetozar Jovanovic’s Officers Union (1908) in Belgrade. The other Secessionist manner, represented in the work of Branko Tanazevic (1876–1945), such as the Telephone Exchange (1907–08) and the Ministry of Education (1912–13), both in Belgrade, was closely related to the turn-of-the-century National of the Central European countries that introduced modern, stylized folk motifs as the new forms of expression. This mode of Serbian Secession was a further step in the creation of a “true” national idiom, already announced in the academic neo- Byzantine designs of the earlier generation of Theophil von Hansen’s pupils. After the formation of the Kingdom of Serbs, , and Slovenes in 1918 (in 1929 renamed the Kingdom of Yugoslavia), building was intensive in the strongest economic centers, Ljubljana and Zagreb, and especially brisk in Belgrade, the capital of the entire country. The significant event was the foundation of architectural schools at the Technical Faculty of Ljubljana, led by Joze Plecnik (1872–1957) and Ivan Vurnik (1884– 1971); at the Technical Faculty of Zagreb, guided by Viktor Kovacic and Edo Schön (1877–1949); and at the Academy of Fine Arts, also in Zagreb, conceived by the radically modern Drago Ibler (1894–1964). At the same time, the architectural faculty at the Technical University of Belgrade was strengthened by a generation of professors who faithfully continued academic traditions. The architectural character of the three national capitals of the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats, and Slovenes (Belgrade, Zagreb, and Ljubljana) reflected their different cultural climates and political aspirations. Whereas Belgrade’s desire to grow into the capital of a major nation was promoted by the forms of “late academicism” and the architectural face of Ljubljana was changed with enthusiasm to demonstrate Slo-vene national character, Zagreb became the only strong center of the architectural avant-garde of that time. Different methods of dealing with historical vocabulary dominated the architectural production of Yugoslavia during the interwar period. In addition to Belgrade, where academic historicism determined the architectural scene during the 1920s and resulted in noteworthy projects, such as those by Nikola Nestorovic (1868–1957), including the University Library (1919–26, with Dragutin Djordjevic) and the Technical Faculty (1925–31, with Branko Tanazevic), the eclectic method was also employed by architects from the other regions. The Mortgage Bank (1923) in Zagreb, designed by one of the most remarkable Croatian modernists, Hugo Ehrlich (1879–1936), who became well known as Adolf Loos’s collaborator on the Villa Karma, on Lake , confirms that the strict line between the eclecticist and the modernist cannot be drawn. For the academic tradition, the writings of Belgrade architect Milutin Borisavljevic (Miloutine Borissavliévitch, 1889–1970) were the only theoretical statements from interwar Yugoslavia to receive a world reputation. Downloaded by [Central Uni Library Bucharest] at 03:22 26 September 2013 The Wagnerschule associates, Joze Plecnik and Viktor Kovacic, originated recognizable modes of modern expression without denying historical references. Plecnik’s achievements in Ljubljana, Zale Cemetery (1939–40) and the National University Library (1936–40), as well as Kovacic’s works in Zagreb, among them his masterpiece, the Stock Exchange (1922–27), can be considered distinguished examples of European modernism in general. Encyclopedia of 20th-century architecture 1006 A specific modern idiom of treating the past through the transformation of folk motifs—a National Romantic variant of the Art Deco—arose in Yugoslav regions, as among the majority of “small” European nations, from an attempt to create a unique national style. A colorful facade of the Trade Union Bank (1922) in Ljubljana, decorated with painted motifs reminiscent of peasant fabrics, informs Ivan Vurnik’s vivid approach of generating a Slovene national style. In Serbia, an established agenda of shaping a national style found its passionate devotee in Momir Korunovic (1883–1969). His most famous buildings, Post Office No. 2 (1927–28) and the Postal Ministry (1927–30), demonstrate his method of mixing motifs from folk art with elements from Serbian . Zagreb was the only Yugoslav center to accept the avant-garde ideas of European functionalism. Most of the leading Croatian architects of the time were either educated in the avant-garde European schools or worked with some of the most famous European architects: Loos, Behrens, Poelzig, and Le Corbusier. Peter Behrens’s involvement with the reconstruction of the Elsafluid Building in 1927 had a special impact on Zagreb’s architectural scene. Two architectural groups, Zemlja and Radna Grupa Zagreb (RGZ), became leading generators of the new climate, working both on new, radical designs and on architectural publications and exhibitions. The members of RGZ took an active role in CIAM (Congrès Internationaux d’Architecture Moderne) of 1933 in Athens, opposing, with their own proposals, the charter advanced by Le Corbusier. One of the rare examples of Belgrade functionalism is the Union Bank (1929–30), the masterpiece of Croatian architect Hugo Ehrlich. In contrast to the “monumental modernism” of the 1930s, which was gladly received by Serbian architects, functionalism found only a few followers: Djordje Tabakovic (1897–1971) in Novi Sad; Nikola Dobrovic (1897–1967), who built mainly outside Serbia; and Milan Zlokovic (1898– 1965), whose University Children’s Clinic (1933–40) in Belgrade is the main avant-garde accomplishment. Works of Dragisa Brasovan (1887–1965), among them the Government Building (1930–39) of the Danube Region in Novi Sad and the Air Force Headquarters (1935, damaged in the NATO bombing of 1999) in Zemun, offer key examples of the monumental Modern idiom, created through a refined juxtaposition of and “purified” Neoclassicism. The Albania Palace (1938–40) in Belgrade, designed by a team of architects from Zagreb and Belgrade, and especially the Yugoslavian Pavilion at the Paris International Exhibition of 1937, by Croatian architect Josip Seissel (1904–87), are outstanding examples of this “monumental manner. After World War II, the political system in Yugoslavia was radically changed. First associated with the politics of the Eastern bloc, “Tito’s socialism” shifted its course, breaking with Stalinist politics. Because of the immense loans taken from the West from the 1950s until the late 1970s, the potential for a high standard of architectural productions was better than in other Eastern European countries. Being socialistic in Downloaded by [Central Uni Library Bucharest] at 03:22 26 September 2013 content and capitalistic in form, Yugoslavian architecture of the post-World War II period dealt with a series of “socialistic” programs, such as collective housing, community centers, houses of culture, and partisan memorials (best represented through the work of Bogdan Bogdanovic), trying to keep abreast with current architectural trends in Western Europe. The urban planning associated with the controlled economy found its best expression in radical plans for new city districts, among which the one for New Entries A–Z 1007 Belgrade was the most ambitious. One of the rare examples of designs from the late 1940s, when Soviet models were still recommended, is the Federal Executive Government Building (1947–61) in Belgrade, begun according to a project by a group of architects from Zagreb, although its “Eastern” monumental features modified into the International Style during the construction as a result of the political shift. During the 1950s and early 1960s, the International Style dominated architectural production. Le Corbusier’s vocabulary occurred in works of his assistants, Juraj Neidhardt from Sarajevo and the Slovene Edvard Ravnikar, but emerged more obviously in Milorad Macura’s Military Printing House (1953) in Belgrade and Drago Galic’s Apartment Block (1953–56) in Zagreb. The “constructional aesthetic” of Pier Luigi Nervi found its reinterpretations in Vladimir Turina’s Dinamo Stadium (1954) in Zagreb as well as in Milorad Pantovic’s new Belgrade Fair (1956–57). A new, more individualistic and expressive trend of the international architecture appeared at the very end of the 1950s with Vjenceslav Richter’s Pavilion for Expo ‘58 in Brussels, Nikola Dobrovic’s Secretariat of National Defense (1957–63, severely damaged in the NATO bombing of 1999), and Ivan Antic’s Museum of Contemporary Art (1960–65, with Ivanka Raspopovic), the latter two in Belgrade. The most striking architectural events in Yugoslavia of the time were the last meeting of CIAM, held in Dubrovnik in 1956, and Kenzo Tange’s engagement with the reconstruction of the Macedonian capital, Skopje, after the earthquake of 1963. Yugoslav architects accepted the diversity of the late 1960s and 1970s following the manners of Brutalism, late modern Expressionism, structuralism, regionalism, High- Tech, and so on. Different Brutalist expressions can be summarized through a couple of remarkable examples, such as those in Skopje after the earthquake, including Alfred Roth’s Elementary School (1967), Janko Konstantinov’s Telecommunication Center (1971–74), and Marko Music’s University Complex (1974), as well as through others, in smaller Yugoslavian cities, including Svetlana Radevic’s Hotel Podgorica (1965–67) in the Montenegrin capital of Podgorica, Milan Sosteric’s Bakery (1971) in Makarska, Mladen Vodicka’s City Library (1976) in Karlovac, and the Military High School (1975) in Ljubljana, designed by the group Studio 7. Application of the High-Tech vocabulary found its best interpretations in Stojan Maksimovic’s Center Sava (1977–79) in Belgrade, Milan Mihelic’s Telephone Exchange (1978) in Ljubljana, Boris Magas’s Stadium Poljud (1979) in Split, and Stanko Kristl’s City Hospital (1979) in Izola. Designs of Bosnian architect Zlatko Ugljen include the National Theater (1978, with Jahiel Finci) in Zenica, Hotel Ruza (1978) in Mostar, and the White Mosque (1980) in Visoko, for which he received the Aga Khan Award of 1983 and which represents one the most respected works of the time. Various Postmodern modes of the late 1970s and 1980s were welcome among architects of different generations. The leading designs of the new wave, related to the Downloaded by [Central Uni Library Bucharest] at 03:22 26 September 2013 trends introduced by , Richard Meier, James Stirling, and the Berlin IBA, are associated with the names of Milos Bonca, the group Kras, Penezic and Rogina, Branko Siladjin, and Petar Vulovic. As a consequence of the civil war and the breakup of the country in the last decade of the 20th century, a possible summary of Yugoslavian architecture of the 1990s includes more examples of destruction than of construction. TANJA DAMLJANOVIC Encyclopedia of 20th-century architecture 1008

Further Reading

With the exception of the post-World War II period, general surveys of the architecture of Yugoslavia hardly exist. Architectural monographs dealing with the most influential figures from specific former-Yugoslav regions serve as the best point of departure. Kultermann, Udo, Zeitgenössische Architektur in Osteuropa, Cologne: DuMont Buchverlag, 1985 Mambriani, Alberto, L’architettura moderna nei Paesi Balcanici, Bologna: Cappelli Editore, 1969 Manevic, Zoran, et al., Arhitektura XX vijeka (Architecture of the 20th Century), Belgrade: Prosveta, 1986 Music, Marjan, “The Architecture of the Twentieth Century,” in Art Treasures of Yugoslavia, edited by Oto Bihalji-Merin, New York: Abrams, 1969 Straus, Ivan, Arhitektura Jugoslavije, 1945–1990 [Architecture in Yugoslavia, 1945– 1990], Sarajevo: Svjetlost, 1991 Downloaded by [Central Uni Library Bucharest] at 03:22 26 September 2013 Z

ZEVI, BRUNO 1918–2000

Architectural historian, Italy Bruno Zevi’s formation as Italy’s foremost architectural historian in the immediate postwar period is closely linked with his early political activity. Born into a distinguished Jewish family, Zevi studied at the Faculty of Architecture in Rome before the introduction of the Fascist racial laws induced him to move to London. Zevi then left Europe for the United States, studying at Columbia University in New York and Harvard University’s Graduate School of Design, then under the directorship of Walter Gropius, earning a bachelor’s degree in 1942. A significant amount of Zevi’s time abroad was spent in antiFascist activities, such as radio transmissions and the publication in Boston of the Carlo Rosselli—inspired Quaderni italiani (Italian Notebooks). The network of contacts he developed on such occasions brought him in touch with some influential Italian intellectuals, notably the art historians Carlo Ludovico Ragghianti and Lionello Venturi; hence the openness of Zevi’s cultural background and some of the peculiarities of his later intellectual engagement. After returning to Rome in 1944, Zevi became critically engaged in a cultural battle for a renewal of Italian architecture. Towards an Organic Architecture, his first book, was published in 1945. The title echoed Le Corbusier’s Vers Une Architecture, but the additional adjective, “organic,” hinted at the need to enrich the functionalist theories on which the many branches of European architectural research in the 1920s and 1930s had been based. The book was essentially a comparison of two worlds: Europe and the United States. In both, Zevi argued, recent developments in modern architecture had paved the way for a “humanisation” of the new language, a general tendency best illustrated by the domestic buildings of Frank Lloyd Wright and the work of Alvar Aalto and other Scandinavian architects. Italy was implicitly invited to follow the same route, and in 1945 Zevi founded the Association for Organic Architecture (APAO). For a time the association’s local branches were a focal point for some of the architects who hoped to

Downloaded by [Central Uni Library Bucharest] at 03:22 26 September 2013 play a leading role in the country’s reconstruction. Three years later his How to Look at Architecture was the result of a more ambitious approach that reflected Zevi’s familiarity with Benedetto Croce’s writing on aesthetics and his grow ing interest in the Vienna School of art history. Despite the long discussions about the peculiarities of architecture compared with other forms of artistic expression, the book was mainly a reflection on the purpose and methodology of architectural Encyclopedia of 20th-century architecture 1010 history. Zevi showed how the tools of modern architectural criticism (in particular a notion of “space” partly inspired by an analysis of Wright’s buildings) could serve as the basis for a new approach to the whole history of Western architecture. In his view, the gap that existed between modern architectural design and academic architectural history needed to be bridged to forge a link between the study of classical and medieval buildings and the daily battle for a better built world. In line with this principle, in 1948 Zevi began to teach architectural history at the universities in Venice (1948–63) and Rome (1948–51, 1963–79) and became more actively involved in the daily debates in the Italian architectural press. His ponderous History of Modern Architecture, originally published in 1950 as a completely rewritten version of his 1945 book, still stands as his most important work as a historian. It was the first comprehensive historical narrative about the origins and the development of the Modern movement to be published in Italy and one of the most original and sympathetic European studies on the subject to appear in the postwar period. Substantially revised in 1975 and 1996, the book was crucial in deciding the fortunes of architectural history as a discipline in the Italian academic world, a secondary effect well documented by the biographies of scholars such as Leonardo Benevolo and Manfredo Tafuri. The core themes of History are still central to most of Zevi’s subsequent studies, such as the ones on De Stijl architecture (1953) and (1970). Other essays from the 1950s and 1960s further extended the chronological boundaries of his research, focusing on a group of Renaissance architects, including Ferrara’s “planner” Biagio Rossetti (1960) and Michelangelo Buonarroti. However, Zevi’s prescriptive, operational approach to history increasingly began to show its limitations. His original sensitivity toward the visual analysis of buildings became constricted within an oversimplified, barely evolving conceptual framework based on a handful of binary opposites: classicism versus anticlassicism, symmetry versus asymmetry, spatial (and political) freedom versus dictatorship. It is therefore not surprising that Zevi’s most acclaimed and challenging book after History was not a historical one but rather an essay about the methodology of architectural design: the brilliant The Modern Language of Architecture, published in 1973. After Zevi’s involvement with the Partito d’Azione (Party of Action) between 1944 and 1947, he still occasionally became involved in politics and was elected to Parliament as a member of the Radical Party in 1987. In the late 1990s, renewed interest in his work gave him the opportunity to become editor of a second series of architectural studies (: Testo e Immagine, 1996–), following the one he had edited for Dedalo Editions (73 titles between 1978 and 1985). He also worked on a few historical overviews, the last of which was published in 1998 with the title Counterhistory and History of Architecture. FILIPPO DE PIERI See also ; Tafuri, Manfredo (Italy); Wright, Frank Lloyd Downloaded by [Central Uni Library Bucharest] at 03:22 26 September 2013 (United States)

Biography

Born in Rome, 22 January 1918. Studied at Faculty of Architecture, Rome, 1936–39; Entries A–Z 1011 Architectural Association’s School of Architecture, London, 1939; Columbia University, New York City, 1939–40; Harvard University, Cambridge, Massachusetts, 1940–42. Married Tullia Calabi, 1940. Moved to London, 1943–44; worked for the Office of Chief Engineer of the European Headquarters of the U.S. Army (February-July 1944). Returned to Rome, July 1944. Worked for the United States Information Service (USIS), 1945–46; founded the Associazione per l’architettura organica (APAO), 1945–50. Co-editor of the review Metron, 1945–55. Professional partnership with the architects Luigi Piccinato, Enrico Tedeschi, Cino Calcaprina, Silvio Radiconcini, 1946. Taught at the Faculty of Architecture in Venice, 1948–63. General Secretary of the Istituto Nazionale di Urbanistica (INU), 1951 -69. Editor of the review L’architettura-cronache e storia (1955– 2000); architectural critic of the magazine L’Espresso (1955–2000). Professional partnership with Errico Ascione and Vittorio Gigliotti, 1961. Taught architectural history at the Faculty of Architecture in Rome, 1963–79 (resignation). Honorary Fellow of the American Institute of Architects (1968); president of the Comité International des Critiques d’Architecture (CICA), 1978-. Editor of the series Universale di Architettura, Bari: Dedalo Libri (1978–85). Elected to the Chamber of Deputies in the ranks of the Radical Party, 1987. Degree honoris causa, Technion, Haifa, Israel, 1990. Honorary Fellow of the Royal Architectural Institute of Canada, 1990. Died in Rome, 9 January 2000.

Selected Publications

Verso un’architettura organica. Saggio sullo sviluppo del pensiero architettonico negli ultimi cinquant’anni, Turin: Einaudi, 1945; published as Towards an Organic Architecture, London: Faber and Faber, 1950 Frank Lloyd Wright, Milan: Il Balcone, 1947; expanded edition, 1955 Saper vedere l’architettura. Saggio sull’interpretazione spaziale dell’architettura, Turin: Einaudi, 1948; republished as Architecture as Space. How to Look at Architecture, translated by Milton Gendel, New York: Horizon Press, 1957; 3rd edition, New York: Da Capo Press, 1993 Erik Gunnar Asplund, Milan: Il Balcone, 1948 Architettura e storiografia. Le matrici antiche del linguaggio moderno, Milan: Politecnica Tamburini, 1950; expanded edition, Turin: Einaudi, 1974; reprinted in Leggere, scrivere, parlare architettura, Venice: Marsilio, 1997 “Frank Lloyd Wright and the Conquest of Space,” Magazine of Art (May 1950) Storia dell’architettura moderna, Turin: Einaudi, 1950; 5th edition, revised and expanded, Turin: Einaudi, 1975; 10th edition, revised and expanded, 2 vols., Turin: Einaudi, 1996 Downloaded by [Central Uni Library Bucharest] at 03:22 26 September 2013 Poetica dell’architettura neoplastica. Il linguaggio della scomposizione quadridimensionale, Milan: Tamburini, 1953; revised and expanded edition, Turin: Einaudi, 1974; reprinted in Leggere, scrivere, parlare architettura, Venice: Marsilio, 1997 Richard Neutra, Milan: Il Balcone, 1954 “Architettura,” in Enciclopedia universale dell’arte, volume I, 1958; revised and Encyclopedia of 20th-century architecture 1012 expanded edition, Architectura in nuce, Venice and Rome: Istituto per la Collaborazione Culturale, 1960 Biagio Rossetti, architetto ferrarese. Il primo urbanista moderno europeo, Turin: Einaudi, 1960; reissued as Saper vedere l’urbanistica. Ferrara di Biagio Rossetti, la prima città moderna europea, Turin: Einaudi, 1971 and 1997 Michelangiolo architetto (exhib. cat.), with contributions by Giulio Carlo Argan, Franco Barbieri, Lionello Puppi, Paolo Portoghesi, and Bruno Zevi, Turin: Einaudi, 1964 “History as a Method of Teaching Architecture,” in The History, Theory and Criticism of Architecture, edited by Marcus Whiffen, papers from the 1964 AIA-ACSA Teacher Seminar (Cranbrook), Cambridge, Massachusetts: MIT Press, 1965 Erich Mendelsohn, opera completa. Architettura e immagini architettoniche, Milan: Etas Kompass, 1970; Turin: Testo e Immagine, 1997 Cronache di architettura, 24 vols., Bari: Laterza, 1970–75, 1978–81 Il linguaggio moderno dell’architettura. Guida al codice anticlassico, Turin: Einaudi, 1973; reprinted in Leggere, scrivere, parlare architettura, Venice: Marsilio, 1997; republished as The Modern Language of Architecture, Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1978; New York, Van Nostrand Reinhold, 1981 Zevi su Zevi, Milan: Magma, 1977; Venice: Marsilio, 1993 Frank Lloyd Wright, Bologna: Zanichelli, 1979 , Bologna: Zanichelli, 1980 Linguaggi dell’architettura contemporanea, Milan: Etas Libri, 1993 Storia e controstoria dell’architettura in Italia, 3 vols., Rome: Newton Compton, 1997 Controstoria e storia dell’architettura, 3 vols., Rome: Newton Compton, 1998

Further Reading

“Architectural Criticism after Zevi,” Zodiac, (1999), essays by Carlo Olmo, Jean-Louis Cohen, Ignasi de Solà-Morales, Stanislaus von Moos, and others Fullaondo, Juan Daniel, and Muñoz, Maria Teresa, Zevi, Madrid: Kain, 1992 Oppenheimer Dean, Andrea, Bruno Zevi on Modern Architecture, New York: Rizzoli, 1983 Pigafetta, Giorgio, Architettura moderna e ragione storica: La storiografia italiana sull’architettura moderna, 1928–1976, Milan: Guerini, 1993 Tafuri, Manfredo, Theories and History of Architecture, New York: Harper and Row, 1979 (originally published as Teorie e storia dell’architettura, Bari: Laterza, 1968) Tournikiotis, Panayotis, The Historiography of Modern Architecture, Cambridge, Massachusetts, and London: MIT Press, 1999 Downloaded by [Central Uni Library Bucharest] at 03:22 26 September 2013 ZONNESTRAAL SANATORIUM 1926–31

Hilversum, Netherlands Thought to be a symbol of the solidarity of the Dutch workingclass movement at the Entries A–Z 1013 turn of the century, the Zonnestraal Sana-torium in is considered one of the most complex and influential buildings of its time. Deemed one of the major works by its designer, Johannes (Jan) Duiker (1890–1935), the Sanatorium has long been associated with the Modern architectural movement in the Netherlands. An independent and innovative architect, Duiker studied at Delft University of Technology with Bernhard Bijvoet (1889–1979), with whom he later became partners. Together they worked in the office of their former professor, Henri Evers, architect of the Rotterdam City Hall. Much of Duiker’s early influence can be attributed to Evers, and the Amsterdam School, and the American architect Frank Lloyd Wright. Duiker garnered later influence from the developing International Style and the Nieuwe Bouwen movement while employing new building materials and methods in the integration of architecture and science. It is believed that Duiker was also somewhat influenced by the De Stijl movement; however, he was more a proponent of the “nonaesthetic” Modern architecture and not the movement’s “decorative facade architecture,” feeling that it only concealed inferior floor plans. As a result, he became the movement’s principal antagonist, further illustrated by his lack of exposure in their periodical, choosing rather to subscribe to the philosophies of the functionalist De 8, later known as the De 8 and Opbouw group. Choosing functionality over aesthetic appearances, Duiker produced his own functionalist idiom, which became stronger and more expressive as his design philosophy developed. His quest for an ideal structural form created a dichotomy between simplistic and complex avant-garde architecture that was influential enough to have inspired Ludwig Mies van der Rohe’s Tuberculosis Sanatorium (1929–33) at Paimio, Finland. Duiker’s unfortunate early death at the age of 45 meant that his design repertoire was not as extensive as that of his peers. This and the demolition of much of what he did design are perhaps the reasons for his apparent international obscurity. As a result, his remaining architecture has suffered from indifference and neglect. After winning the competition for elderly housing in Alkmaar (1917), the socially conscious Duiker and Bijvoet desired to improve the quality of lower-income health facility construction. Through associations with Berlage, Duiker and Bijvoet were retained by the Koperen Stelen Fonds (KSF) foundation—a group of diamond workers organized in 1905 whose motto was “renewed vitality”—to design a convalescent facility for their tuberculosis-infected colleagues. Through fund-raising efforts by the foundation and by Delft professor Henri ter Meulen, in 1919 the KSF purchased the Pampahoeve, a country estate west of Hilversum. Designs were temporarily postponed, however, after the diamond industry collapse in 1920. Duiker, collaborating with structural engineer Jan Gerko Wiebenga, utilized the newest structural technology, creating a cantilever system that produced a buoyant and rhythmically tectonic architecture. Resting on concrete blocks, the skeletal structure of Downloaded by [Central Uni Library Bucharest] at 03:22 26 September 2013 the buildings consists of a three-meter (ten-foot) grid with structural columns every nine meters. Concrete was generously used in the floor slabs and the prefabricated paneled walls that were installed between steel I sections at each floor. Although still in its infancy, reinforced concrete and the prefabricated-concrete building systems played a monumental role in the development of the Sanatorium as well as the rest of Duiker’s architecture. Encyclopedia of 20th-century architecture 1014 The Zonnestraal Sanatorium consists of three large buildings: the main building, the Henri ter Meulen Pavilion, and the Dresselhuys Pavilion, along with various smaller outbuildings. The main building was begun in 1928 and was used to house the general facilities of the complex. The functions were grouped together by their practical relationships, dividing the boiler house/bathroom, the kitchen, the medical facility, and the infirmary into four distinct linear sections. The cruciform-shaped upper floor spans three of the four lower buildings, creating a unified mass. Flanking the main building are two independent pavilions. Also functionally distinct, each consists of a square central form connecting two long wings that flare out at different angles to provide maximum sunlight to the southern-exposed patient rooms and terraces. The Henri ter Meulen Pavilion was constructed in 1928, along with the skeleton of the Dresselhuys Pavilion, completed in 1931. Nowhere in the complex is Duiker’s coalescence of structure, form, and space so evident as in the pavilions. Structurally identical to the main building, the rhythmic grid system provides the convalescent living spaces. Between the years of 1919 and 1932, many outbuildings were constructed as part of the complex. Dormitory huts were built in 1929 for patients who were at the end of their convalescence, allowing them to transition out of the hospital setting. For economic and occupational therapy reasons, the convalescents themselves constructed a number of these buildings. Following the trends of the Amsterdam School, the first eight small utilitarian buildings, constructed in 1919–20, were timber-floored load-bearing brick structures. When construction resumed in 1924, Duiker’s conversion to concrete was evident. Most other buildings went unrealized. The most unusual was the Adamas diamond- polishing works (1928), designed to prepare the healed convalescents for their return to society. Construction, however, went no further than the reinforced-concrete skeleton. Its notable feature was the unusual roof, consisting of alternating asymmetrical sawtooth projections. Unfortunately, the Sanatorium’s insufficiently prepared steel framing and structural members proved unsuitable for the Dutch climate. After World War II, the complex was expanded, but without any regard to Duiker’s original design concept. Along with an apparent lack of interest in his architecture, by the 1970s the complex was in serious decline. Recently restored, however, it is now listed as a national monument. The Zonnestraal Sanatorium was the culmination of Duiker and Bijvoet’s utopian yet avant- garde design philosophy. By using the latest structural technology, both the architects and the buildings were significantly innovative for their time. ELISABETH BAKKER-JOHNSON See also Amsterdam School; Berlage, Hendrik Petrus; Concrete; De Stijl; Duiker, Johannes; Modernism; Wright, Frank Lloyd Downloaded by [Central Uni Library Bucharest] at 03:22 26 September 2013

Further Reading

A fairly comprehensive, albeit brief, history of Duiker and his architectural accomplishments can be found in Molema (1989). More detailed information on the Entries A–Z 1015 Sanatorium is provided by De Beek, et al. (1996) and Milelli (1978). Ibelings (1995) and Overy (1991) offer insight into the stylistic developments of the period. De Beek, Aimée, Sabine Berndsen, and Camiel Berns, Zeer aangenaam Verblijf: Het Dienstbodenhuis van J.Duiker op Sanatorium Zonnestraal (A Space of Their Own: The Servants’ House by J.Duiker at Zonnestraal Sanatorium), Rotterdam: Uitgeverij 010, 1996 Ibelings, Hans, 20th Century Architecture in the Netherlands, Rotterdam: Netherlands Architecture Institute, 1995 Milelli, Gabriele, Zonnestraal, il sanatorio di Hilversum (Zonnestraal, the Hilversum Sanatorium), Bari: Dedalo Libri, 1978 Molema, Jan, Jan Duiker: Obras y proyectos (Jan Duiker: Works and Projects), Rotterdam: Uitgeverij 010, 1989 Molema, Jan, and Peter Bak, Jan Gerko Wiebenga: Apostel van het Nieuwe Bouwen (Jan Gerko Wiebenga: An Apostle of the New Buildings Movement), Rotterdam: Uitgeverij 010, 1987 Overy, Paul, De Stijl, New York: Thames and Hudson, 1991

ZUMTHOR, PETER 1943

Architect, Switzerland Switzerland today represents one of the most important centers of modern architectural thought and practice, and has been among the major architects representing the country since the 1980s. Zumthor presents in his work not only beautiful form and masterly construction but the sensitive control of material and space achieved only by gaining intimate knowledge of all these factors. Trained as a cabinetmaker, Zumthor studied design instead of architecture at Basel’s school of arts and crafts. He has concentrated on adapting the rural form and materials of his headquarters, the Swiss canton of Graubuden, and he has built a small but captivating oeuvre almost exclusively in his adopted home since his arrival there in 1967. Zumthor has said that he “creates spaces with soul” that become part of the everyday and stand in opposition to the “general artificiality of the world” (Peter Zumthor, Works, 1998). He argues his case to great effect in all of his projects, including the Sogn Benedegt Chapel, a shingled, leaf-shaped church perched high in the misty Surselva Mountains. A weathered, earthy, and private place, the form is derived from the lemniscate, an algebraic figure-8-shaped curve that when proportionately shortened also determines the section. A delicate band of windows ringing the top of the building ensures steady natural

Downloaded by [Central Uni Library Bucharest] at 03:22 26 September 2013 light. The chapel is an artful combination of rationality and poetry existing in an almost dreamlike setting. The architect’s atelier in Haldenstein draws on the contrast between softly finished local wood and brushed steel details to highlight the beauty in each. The humble building, though sited in the middle of town, lends no notion to its purpose. The modern addition to a traditional farmhouse in Versam, Switzerland, is an example of Zumthor’s seamless straddling of old and new, tradition and modernization, and his dedication to rooting buildings to the landscape. The architect was able to match almost Encyclopedia of 20th-century architecture 1016 perfectly the wood of the original building and made a modern addition for a family without interrupting the spirit of the old house. The much publicized and much photographed thermal baths in Vals revisit the importance and sheer pleasure of bathing known in ancient Roman baths. The entire structure looks almost prehistoric, as if it emerged from the ground, and is con structed entirely of whole slabs of locally quarried, gray gneiss laid one on top of another, to a great monolithic effect. The beauty of the spa is awe-inspiring, as is its perfection in plan and construction. The sensuality of the color, the water, the sounds echoed in the chamber of the bath seem all but mathematically engineered by the architect—a stunning feat matched by few, if any, other of his projects. If the spa at Vals is all subterranean mystery, then Zumthor’s first non-Swiss site, the Kunsthaus in Bregenz, Austria, is all light and transparency. Nestled beside a lake, the glass box of a modern art museum goes from white to blue to glowing yellow during the course of day to night. The light skin of the building allows but a peek into the frame and at the silhouettes of the staircases between galleries. The glass panels of the museum’s skin are not perforated and hang on a system of metal brackets held in place by large, modified clamps. Lighting is controlled by the amount of natural light entering the building at any given time through the massive glass skin of the structure. The interior floors and walls of the gallery levels are concrete and uniquely climate controlled by the circulation of water to the gallery floors and walls from an underground stream. Zumthor’s plan for the Swiss Pavilion at the Hannover Expo 2000 was meant to echo a lumberyard in its use of piles of timber in parallel walls and the notion that the lumber will be sold after the close of the exposition. The multidimensional use of the space speaks to all the senses: lines of poetry are projected on the walls, and small troupes of dancers and musicians perform in the space, making it a living, beating organism. The architect has succeeded by trying the “obvious but difficult solutions” first. Those solutions make architecture the medium it is: construction, materials, earth and sky, structure. He handles each with respect to create structures true to their surroundings, reflective of their culture, and representative of an architect craftsman who blends invention and sensitivity, intuition and intelligence. EUGENIA BELL

Biography

Peter Zumthor was born in 1943 near Basel, Switzeland. The son of a furniture manufacturer, he was trained as a cabinetmaker. He enrolled at the Pratt Institute in New York as a visiting student in architecture and design in 1966, and opened his own architecture practice in Haldenstein, Graubunden, in 1979. He has taught at the Academy Downloaded by [Central Uni Library Bucharest] at 03:22 26 September 2013 of Architecture in Mendrisio, Switzerland, the University of Zurich, and the Southern California Institute of Architecture. Entries A–Z 1017

Selected Publications

Three Concepts: Thermal Bath Vals, Art Museum Bregenz, “Topography of Terror, “Berlin: Architekturgale Luzern, and Basel: Birkhauser, 1997 Peter Zumthor, Works: Buildings and Projects, 1979–1997, Basel: Birkhauser, 1998 Thinking Architecture, Basel: Birkhauser, 1998 Therme Vals, Vals, Graubunden, Switzerland, 1990–96 Swiss Pavilion for the Hannover Exposition, Germany, 2000

Further Reading

Zumthor, Peter, Plinio Bachmann, et al., Soundbodybook, Basel: Birkhauser, 2000 Downloaded by [Central Uni Library Bucharest] at 03:22 26 September 2013 NOTES ON CONTRIBUTORS

Adams Annmarie. School of Architecture, McGill University, Montreal, . Articles contributed to Encyclopedia of 20th-Century Architecture: HOSPITAL. Adams, Nicholas. Department of Art, Vassar College, New York. Articles contributed to Encyclopedia of 20th-Century Architecture: ELEVATOR; ERSKINE, RALPH (ENGLAND); GRAND CENTRAL STATION, NEW YORK; MUSEUM OF MODERN ART, NEW YORK; STOCKHOLM PUBLIC LIBRARY; STOCKHOLM, SWEDEN; TAFURI, MANFREDO (ITALY). Adams, Rick. Columbia University, New York. Articles contributed to Encyclopedia of 20th-Century Architecture: CAMPUS PLANNING; REGIONAL PLANNING; ROADWAY SYSTEMS; TRANSPORTATION PLANNING. Addington, Michelle D. Faculty of Architecture, Harvard University. Articles contributed to Encyclopedia of 20th-Century Architecture: HEATING, VENTILATION, AND AIR CONDITIONING (HVAC). Al-Hathloul, Saleh. Independent scholar, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia. Articles contributed to Encyclopedia of 20th-Century Architecture: RIYADH, SAUDI ARABIA; SAUDI ARABIA. Amundson, Jennifer A. Department of Architecture, Judson College. Articles contributed to Encyclopedia of 20th-Century Architecture: BURNHAM, DANIEL H. (UNITED STATES); CLASSICISM; DEMOLITION; GLASS SKYSCRAPER (1920– 21); HILBERSEIMER, LUDWIG (UNITED STATES and GERMANY); WANAMAKER STORE, PHILADELPHIA. Archer, John. Department of Cultural Studies, University of , . Articles contributed to Encyclopedia of 20th-Century Architecture: SUBURBAN PLANNING. Ashraf, Kazi. Department of Architecture, University of Hawaii at Manoa. Articles contributed to Encyclopedia of 20th-Century Architecture: DHAKA, BANGLADESH; ISLAM, MUZHARUL (BANGLADESH). Atti, Stefania. Independent scholar, Ferrara, Italy. Articles contributed to Encyclopedia of 20th-Century Architecture: LISBON, PORTUGAL; TÁ-VORA, FERNANDO (PORTUGAL). Bakker-Johnson, Elizabeth. Independent scholar, New York. Articles contributed to Encyclopedia of 20th-Century Architecture: DUDOK, WILLEM MARINUS (NETHERLANDS); EIGEN HAARD HOUSING ESTATE, AMSTERDAM; Downloaded by [Central Uni Library Bucharest] at 03:22 26 September 2013 HILVERSUM TOWN HALL, NETHERLANDS; OPEN-AIR SCHOOL, AMSTERDAM; ZONNESTRAAL SANATORIUM, HILVERSUM. Balmer, Jeffrey. Department of Architecture, Iowa State University, Ames. Articles contributed to Encyclopedia of 20th-Century Architecture: ; TORONTO (ONTARIO), CANADA. Bassnett, Sarah C. Binghamton University, New York. Articles contributed to Notes on contributors 1019 Encyclopedia of 20th-Century Architecture: EAMES, CHARLES AND RAY (UNITED STATES); INSTITUTES/ASSOCIATIONS. Bednar, Michael. School of Architecture, University of Virginia, Charlottesville. Articles contributed to Encyclopedia of 20th-Century Architecture: NATIONAL GALLERY OF ART, EAST BUILDING, WASHINGTON, DC; PLAZA; WASHINGTON (DC) UNITED STATES. Bell, Eugenia. Bell & Weiland Publishers, New York. Articles contributed to Encyclopedia of 20th-Century Architecture: CALATRAVA, SANTIAGO (SPAIN); CHAPEL OF NOTRE-DAME-DU-HAUT, RONCHAMP, FRANCE; DIENER AND DIENER (SWITZERLAND); FAGUS WERK, ALFELD GERMANY; UNITE D’HABITATION, MARSEILLES CITÉ RADIEUSE; ZUMTHOR, PETER (SWITZERLAND). Bellamy, Rhoda. Nova Arcadia Heritage, Ontario, Canada. Articles contributed to Encyclopedia of 20th-Century Architecture: AGA KHAN AWARD (1977–); ARQUITECTONICA (UNITED STATES); CANADA; REVELL, VILJO (FINLAND); VANCOUVER (BC), CANADA. Bernardi, Jose. School of Design, Arizona State University, Tempe. Articles contributed to Encyclopedia of 20th-Century Architecture: ALVAREZ, MARIO ROBERTO (ARGENTINA); ARGENTINA; BUENOS AIRES, ARGENTINA; CHILE; DIESTE, ELADIO (URUGUAY); KALACH, ALBERTO (MEXICO); MANTEOLA, SÁNCHEZ GÓMEZ, SANTOS, SOLSONA, VIÑOLY (ARGENTINA); SOLERI, PAOLO (UNITED STATES); WILLIAMS, AMANCIO (ARGENTINA). Bhatt, Vikram. School of Architecture, McGill University, Montreal. Articles contributed to Encyclopedia of 20th-Century Architecture: AHMEDABAD, INDIA; DOSHI, BALKRISHNA (INDIA). Black, Brian. Pennsylvania State University, Altoona. Articles contributed to Encyclopedia of 20th-Century Architecture: AGRICULTURAL BUILDINGS; AUTOMOBILE; RESTAURANT; STADIUM. Blessing, Benita Carol. Articles contributed to Encyclopedia of 20th-Century Architecture: COLOGNE, GERMANY; UNGERS, OSWALD MATHIAS (GERMANY). Bliznakov, Milka T. College of Architecture and Urban Studies, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University. Articles contributed to Encyclopedia of 20th-Century Architecture: GINZBURG, MOISEI (RUSSIA); TORRE, SUSANA (UNITED STATES). Bosley, Edward. School of Architecture, University of Southern California. Articles contributed to Encyclopedia of 20th-Century Architecture: GREENE, HENRY M. AND CHARLES S. (UNITED STATES). Boyle, Bernard. School of Architecture and Humanities, Arizona State University, Downloaded by [Central Uni Library Bucharest] at 03:22 26 September 2013 Tempe. Articles contributed to Encyclopedia of 20th-Century Architecture: BRUTALISM. Bozdogan, Sibel. Massachusetts Institute of Technology. Articles contributed to Encyclopedia of 20th-Century Architecture: ELDEM, SEDAD HAKKI (TURKEY). Bradley, Betsy. Case Western Reserve University, , Ohio. Articles contributed to Encyclopedia of 20th-Century Architecture: WAREHOUSE/STORAGE Notes on contributors 1020 FACILITY. Brakensiek, Stephan. Independent scholar, Dortmund, Germany. Articles contributed to Encyclopedia of 20th-Century Architecture: POELZIG, HANS (GERMANY); STUTTGART, GERMANY. Bretler, Marc Itamar. Independent scholar, Lausanne, Switzerland. Articles contributed to Encyclopedia of 20th-Century Architecture: MALLET-STEVENS, ROBERT (FRANCE). Brumfield, William C. German and Slavic Department, , New Orleans, Louisiana. Articles contributed to Encyclopedia of 20th-Century Architecture: CONSTRUCTIVISM; GOLOSOV, ILYA (RUSSIA); Moscow, RUSSIA; RUSSIA/SOVIET UNION; SHEKHTEL, FEDOR (RUSSIA); ST. PETERSBURG, RUSSIA; VESNIN, ALEXANDER, LEONID, AND VIKTOR (RUSSIA). Buelinckx, Hendrika. College of Architecture, Texas Technical University. Articles contributed to Encyclopedia of 20th-Century Architecture: BELGIUM; BRUSSELS, BELGIUM. Bunk, Brian. Independent scholar, Northampton, Massachusetts. Articles contributed to Encyclopedia of 20th-Century Architecture: PUIG I CADAFALCH, JOSEP (CATALAN); STUDIO PER (SPAIN). Buntrock, Dana. Department of Architecture, University of California, Berkeley. Articles contributed to Encyclopedia of 20th-Century Architecture: CHURCH ON THE WATER, HOKKAIDO, JAPAN; HASEGAWA ITSUKO (JAPAN); ITO, TOYO (JAPAN); METABOLISTS; METROPOLITAN FESTIVAL HALL, TOKYO; PEACE MEMORIAL AND MUSEUM, HIROSHIMA; SEJIMA, KAZUYO (JAPAN); TANGE, KENZO (JAPAN); TANIGUCHI, YOSHIO (JAPAN). Burns, Carol. Taylor MacDougall Burns Architects, Boston, Massachusetts. Articles contributed to Encyclopedia of 20th-Century Architecture: MOBILE HOME. Busbea, Larry. Independent scholar, New York. Articles contributed to Encyclopedia of 20th-Century Architecture: GRANDE ARCHE DE LA DEFENSE, PARIS; STRUCTURALISM. Campbell, Douglas G. Department of Fine Arts, George Fox University, Oregon. Articles contributed to Encyclopedia of 20th-Century Architecture: PORTLAND PUBLIC SERVICES BUILDING, PORTLAND, OREGON; SAARINEN, ELIEL (FINLAND). Carr, Angela. Department of Art History, Carleton University, Ottawa, Ontario. Articles contributed to Encyclopedia of 20th-Century Architecture: CHURCH; DEPARTMENT STORE. Carranza, Luis E. School of Architecture, Rogers William University, Rhode Island. Articles contributed to Encyclopedia of 20th-Century Architecture: NORTEN, ENRIQUE (MEXICO); O’GORMAN, JUAN (MEXICO). Downloaded by [Central Uni Library Bucharest] at 03:22 26 September 2013 Carso, Kerry Dean. Boston University. Articles contributed to Encyclopedia of 20th- Century Architecture: BOSTON (MA), UNITED STATES. Carter, Brian. School of Architecture, . Articles contributed to Encyclopedia of 20th-Century Architecture: ARUP, OVE (ENGLAND); BOOTS FACTORY, NOTTINGHAM, ENGLAND; PATKAU, PATRICIA AND JOHN (CANADA); ROCHE, KEVIN, AND JOHN DINKELOO (UNITED STATES); Notes on contributors 1021 WILLIAMS, TOD, AND BILLIE TSIEN (UNITED STATES). Castriota, Leonardo. School of Architecture, Federal University of Minas Gerais. Articles contributed to Encyclopedia of 20th-Century Architecture: LEVI, RINO (BRAZIL); POSTSTRUCTURALISM. Castro, Ricardo. School of Architecture, McGill University, Montreal. Articles contributed to Encyclopedia of 20th-Century Architecture: LEWERENTZ, SIGURD (SWEDEN); PLECNIK, JOZE (YUGOSLAVIA); SALMONA, ROGELIO (COLOMBIA). Cava, John M. Department of Architecture, University of Oregon. Articles contributed to Encyclopedia of 20th-Century Architecture: HODGETTS AND FUNG; TECTONICS. Chalana, Manish. College of Architecture and Planning, Univeristy of Colorado. Articles contributed to Encyclopedia of 20th-Century Archi-tecture: GREENBELTS AND GREENBELT TOWNS; NEW DELHI, INDIA. Chapman, Michael. Department of Architecture, University of Newcastle, New South Wales, Australia. Articles contributed to Encyclopedia of 20th-Century Architecture: ABRAHAM, RAIMUND (AUSTRIA AND UNITED STATES); BANK OF LONDON AND SOUTH AMERICA, BUENOS AIRES; BRASÍLIA, BRAZIL; COMPETITION (1931); SHANGHAI WORLD FINANCIAL CENTER, SHANGHAI. Chappell, Sally A.Kitt. Independent scholar, Chicago, Illinois. Articles contributed to Encyclopedia of 20th-Century Architecture: GRAHAM, ANDERSON, PROBST, AND WHITE (UNITED STATES). Chasin, Noah. Independent scholar, New York. Articles contributed to Encyclopedia of 20th-Century Architecture: EYCK, ALDO VAN (THE NETHERLANDS); HERTZBERGER, HERMAN (NETHERLANDS); MALA-GUEIRA QUARTER, ÉVORA, PORTUGAL; VON MOOS, STANISLAUS (SWITZERLAND). Chattopadhyay, Swati. History of Art and Architecture, University of California, Santa Barbara. Articles contributed to Encyclopedia of 20th-Century Architecture: CORREA, CHARLES MARK (INDIA); INDIA; PLAN OF NEW DELHI. Cheng, Renee. College of Architecture and Landscape Architecture, . Articles contributed to Encyclopedia of 20th-Century Architecture: GEHRY, FRANK (UNITED STATES); GUGGENHEIM MUSEUM, BILBAO; PETRONAS TOWERS, KUALA LUMPUR; REICHSTAG, BERLIN. Cody, Jeffrey. Department of Architecture, Chinese University of Hong Kong. Articles contributed to Encyclopedia of 20th-Century Architecture: HONGKONG AND SHANGHAI BANK, SHANGHAI; Lu YANZHI (CHINA). Collins, Christiane Crasemann. Independent scholar, West Falmouth, Massachusetts. Articles contributed to Encyclopedia of 20th-Century Architecture: HEGEMANN, Downloaded by [Central Uni Library Bucharest] at 03:22 26 September 2013 WERNER (GERMANY). Constant, Caroline. Taubman College of Architecture+Urban Design, University of Michigan. Articles contributed to Encyclopedia of 20th-Century Architecture: GRAY, EILEEN (IRELAND AND FRANCE). Cormier, Leslie Humm. Faculty, Department of Visual and Media Arts, Emerson College, Boston, Massachusetts. Articles contributed to Encyclopedia of 20th-Century Notes on contributors 1022 Architecture: BREUER, MARCEL (UNITED STATES); GROPIUS, WALTER (GERMANY); INTERNATIONAL STYLE; LINCOLN CENTER, NEW YORK; MUSEUM; NEW YORK (NY), UNITED STATES; SEAGRAM BUILDING, NEW YORK; SERT, JOSEP LLUÍS (UNITED STATES); URBAN PLANNING. Craig, Robert M. College of Architecture, Georgia Institute of Technology. Articles contributed to Encyclopedia of 20th-Century Architecture: ART DECO; MAYBECK, BERNARD R. (UNITED STATES); MORGAN, JULIA (UNITED STATES); PORTMAN, JOHN C. (UNITED STATES); STICKLEY, GUSTAV (UNITED STATES). Crosnier Leconte, Marie-Laure. Independent scholar, Levallois, France. Articles contributed to Encyclopedia of 20th-Century Architecture: GUADET, JULIEN (FRANCE). Dagenhart, Richard. College of Architecture, Georgia Institute of Technology. Articles contributed to Encyclopedia of 20th-Century Architecture: DE KLERK, MICHEL (NETHERLANDS); KOOLHAAS, REM (NETHERLANDS). Dalvesco, Rebecca. School of Design, Arizona State University. Articles contributed to Encyclopedia of 20th-Century Architecture: ARCOSANTI, ARIZONA; FULLER, RICHARD BUCKMINSTER (UNITED STATES); GLACIER MUSEUM, FJAERLAND FJORD, NORWAY; NORWAY; SAFDIE, MOSHE (CANADA, ISRAEL). Damljanovic, Tanja. Independent scholar, Belgrade, Serbia, and Montenegro. Articles contributed to Encyclopedia of 20th-Century Architecture: YUGOSLAVIA. Daniel, Ronn. School of Art and Art History, James Madison University, Harrisonburg, Virginia. Articles contributed to Encyclopedia of 20th-Century Architecture: BANHAM, REYNER (UNITED STATES); PARKING GARAGE; SHRINE OF THE BOOK, JERUSALEM. Dargavel, Richard. Manchester Metropolitan University, Manchester, England. Articles contributed to Encyclopedia of 20th-Century Architecture: FEHN, SVERRE (NORWAY). Davidson, Lisa. Historian, National Park Service Washington, D.C. Articles contributed to Encyclopedia of 20th-Century Architecture: APARTMENT BUILDING; HOTEL; RESORT HOTEL. Davis, Timothy. National Park Service Washington, D.C. Articles contributed to Encyclopedia of 20th-Century Architecture: PARKWAYS. De Pieri, Filippo. Department of Architecture, Politecnico di Torino, Italy. Articles contributed to Encyclopedia of 20th-Century Architecture: ZEVI, BRUNO (ITALY). Desmond, John Michael. Department of Architecture, Louisiana State University. Articles contributed to Encyclopedia of 20th-Century Architecture: JOHNSON WAX BUILDING, RACINE, WISCONSIN; TALIESIN WEST, NEAR PHOENIX, Downloaded by [Central Uni Library Bucharest] at 03:22 26 September 2013 ARIZONA. Diniz Moreira, Fernando. Department of Fine Arts, University of Pennsylvania. Articles contributed to Encyclopedia of 20th-Century Architecture: FEDERAL CAPITAL COMPLEX, BRASÍLIA. Draper, Joan E. College of Architecture and Planning, University of Colorado, Boulder. Articles contributed to Encyclopedia of 20th-Century Architecture: CHICAGO Notes on contributors 1023 (ILLINOIS), UNITED STATES. Dreller, Sarah M. Independent scholar, San Francisco. Articles contributed to Encyclopedia of 20th-Century Architecture: ARCHITECTURAL PHOTOGRAPHY. Drew, Philip. Author, New South Wales, Australia. Articles contributed to Encyclopedia of 20th-Century Architecture: AIRPORT AND AVIATION BUILDING; NORBERG-SCHULZ, CHRISTIAN (NORWAY); OTTO, FREI (GERMANY); SIREN, HEIKKI AND KAIJA (FINLAND); , AusTRALIA; SYDNEY OPERA HOUSE; TENSIONED MEMBRANE STRUCTURE; TENT; UTZON, JØRN (DENMARK). Dunham-Jones, Ellen. School of Architecture, Massachusetts Institute of Technology. Articles contributed to Encyclopedia of 20th-Century Architecture: EDGE CITY; SEASIDE, FLORIDA. Eaton, Leonard K. Author. Articles contributed to Encyclopedia of 20th-Century Architecture: BIRKERTS, GUNNAR (UNITED STATES); ; PURCELL, WILLIAM GRAY, AND GEORGE GRANT ELMSLIE (UNITED STATES). Eckert, Kathryn B. Author. Articles contributed to Encyclopedia of 20th-Century Architecture: CRANBROOK, MICHIGAN. Edwards, Clive. School of Art and Design, Loughborough University, Leicestershire, England. Articles contributed to Encyclopedia of ‘20thCentury Architecture: ALUMINUM. Eggener, Keith L. Department of Art History and Archaeology, University of Missouri, Columbia. Articles contributed to Encyclopedia of 20th-Century Architecture: BARRAGÁN, Luis (MEXICO); UNIVERSITY LI-BRARY, UNAM, MEXICO CITY. Elleh, Nnamdi. Department of Art History, Northwestern University, Evanston, Illinois. Articles contributed to Encyclopedia of 20th-Century Architecture: ABUJA, FEDERAL CAPITAL COMPLEX OF NIGERIA; HASSAN II MOSQUE, CASABLANCA; OUR LADY OF PEACE BASILICA, YAMOUSSOUKRO, IVORY COAST. Esperdy, Gabrielle. School of Architecture, New Jersey Institute of Technology. Articles contributed to Encyclopedia of 20th-Century Architecture: ALUMINAIRE HOUSE, LONG ISLAND, NEW YORK; COLUMBUS INDIANA), UNITED STATES; LAPIDUS, MORRIS (UNITED STATES); LUBETKIN AND TECTON (ENGLAND). Farmer, Graham. School of Architecture Planning and Landscape, University of Newcastle upon Tyne, England. Articles contributed to Encyclopedia of 20th-Century Architecture: SOLAR ARCHITECTURE (PASSIVE). Farnham, Katherine Larson. John Milner Associates. Articles contributed to Encyclopedia of 20th-Century Architecture: PENNSYLVANIA STATION, NEW YORK CITY; Row HOUSE. Downloaded by [Central Uni Library Bucharest] at 03:22 26 September 2013 Fausch, Deborah. Department of Art History, University of Illinois at Chicago. Articles contributed to Encyclopedia of 20th-Century Architecture: SCOTT BROWN, DENISE (UNITED STATES). Fedders, Kristin. Office of Fine Arts, Earlham College, Richmond, Indiana. Articles contributed to Encyclopedia of 20th-Century Architecture: ARCHIGRAM; RANCH HOUSE. Notes on contributors 1024 Fenske, Gail. Independent scholar, Winchester, Massachusetts. Articles contributed to Encyclopedia of 20th-Century Architecture: GILBERT, CASS (UNITED STATES); WOOLWORTH BUILDING, NEW YORK CITY; WURSTER, WILLIAM (UNITED STATES). Feuerstein, Marcia F. College of Architecture and Urban Studies, Virginia Polytechnic and State University, Blacksburg. Articles contributed to Encyclopedia of 20th-Century Architecture: BAUHAUS, DESSAU. Fisher, Roger C. School of Architecture, University of Pretoria, South Africa. Articles contributed to Encyclopedia of 20th-Century Architecture: AFRICA: SOUTHERN AND CENTRAL AFRICA. Fleming, Steven. School of Architecture and Built Environment, The University of Newcastle, Australia. Articles contributed to Encyclopedia of 20th-Century Architecture: SALK INSTITUTE, LA JOLLA, CALIFORNIA. Flores, Carol A. College of Architecture and Planning, Ball State University, Muncie, Indiana. Articles contributed to Encyclopedia of 20th-Century Architecture: GETTY CENTER, Los ANGELES; ORNAMENT; SYMBOLISM. Flowers, Benjamin. University of Minnesota. Articles contributed to Encyclopedia of 20th-Century Architecture: CORPORATE OFFICE PARK/ ESTATE/CAMPUS; THE ARCHITECTS COLLABORATIVE (TAC) (UNITED STATES); URBAN RENEWAL. Foggle Plotkin, Andrea. Author Newton, Massachusetts. Articles contributed to Encyclopedia of 20th-Century Architecture: HOLABIRD, WILLIAM, AND JOHN WELLBORN ROOT (UNITED STATES); L’INNOVATION DEPARTMENT STORE, BRUSSELS; MONUMENT TO THE THIRD INTERNATIONAL (1920). Frank, Suzanne. New York Institute of Technology. Articles contributed to Encyclopedia of 20th-Century Architecture: INSTITUTE FOR ARCHITECTURE AND URBAN STUDIES. French, Christine Madrid. Author, Charlottesville, Virginia. Articles contributed to Encyclopedia of 20th-Century Architecture: VISITOR CENTER. Froehlich, Dietmar E. College of Architecture, University of Houston. Articles contributed to Encyclopedia of 20th-Century Architecture: COOP HIMMELB(L)AU (AUSTRIA); CZECH, HERMANN (AUSTRIA). Gale, Dennis. Joseph C. Cornwall Center for Metropolitan Studies, Rutgers-The State University of New Jersey, Newark. Articles contributed to Encyclopedia of 20th-Century Architecture: CITY BEAUTIFUL MOVEMENT. Gamard, Elizabeth Burns. School of Architecture, Tulane University, New Orleans, Louisiana. Articles contributed to Encyclopedia of 20th-Century Architecture: BAUHAUS; DEUTSCHER WERKBUND; HÄRING, HUGO (GERMANY); HOLOCAUST MEMORIAL MUSEUM, WASHINGTON, DC; KAHN, ALBERT (UNITED STATES); POST OFFICE SAVINGS BANK, VIENNA; RICOLA Downloaded by [Central Uni Library Bucharest] at 03:22 26 September 2013 FACTORY, LAUFEN, SWITZERLAND; SCHAROUN, HANS (GERMANY); INTERNATIONAL COMPETITION, CHICAGO (1922). Garner, John. School of Architecture, University of Illinois-Urbana, Champaign. Articles contributed to Encyclopedia of 20th-Century Architecture: FACTORY/INDUSTRIAL TOWN PLANNING; GRAIN ELEVATOR. Gelernter, Mark. College of Architecture and Planning, University of Colorado at Notes on contributors 1025 Denver. Articles contributed to Encyclopedia of 20th-Century Architecture: REGIONALISM. Gilderbloom, John. Urban Studies Institute, University of Louisville, Kentucky. Articles contributed to Encyclopedia of 20th-Century Architecture: CUBA. Glassman, Paul. New York School of Interior Design. Articles contributed to Encyclopedia of 20th-Century Architecture: AT&T BUILDING, NEW YORK; GLASS HOUSE, NEW CANAAN, CONNECTICUT; GUGGENHEIM MUSEUM, NEW YORK; HOWE, GEORGE, AND WILLIAM LESCAZE (UNITED STATES). Gold, Martin. School of Architecture, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida. Articles contributed to Encyclopedia of 20th-Century Architecture: ACOUSTICS; LIGHTING. Gomez, Javier Alvarez-Tostado. Department of Architecture, Louisiana State University. Articles contributed to Encyclopedia of 20th-Century Architecture: EXPO 1992 SEVILLE CUADRA. Gournay, Isabelle. School of Architecture, Planning, and Preservation, University of Maryland. Articles contributed to Encyclopedia of 20th-Century Architecture: COHEN, JEAN-LOUIS (FRANCE); MONTREAL (QUEBEC), CANADA. Grainger, Hilary J. School of Art and Design, Staffordshire University, England. Articles contributed to Encyclopedia of 20th-Century Architecture: BAKER, HERBERT (ENGLAND); DARMSTADT, GERMANY; FosTER, NORMAN (ENGLAND); GARDEN CITY MOVEMENT; GRIMSHAW NICHOLAS AND PARTNERS (ENGLAND); HOLABIRD, WILLIAM, AND MARTIN ROCHE (UNITED STATES); LE HAVRE, FRANCE; LUTYENS, EDWIN (ENGLAND); McKIM, MFAD AND WHITE (UNITED STATES); NOTRE DAME, LE RAINCY; PERRET, AUGUSTE (FRANCE); WILLIAMS, E. OWEN (ENGLAND). Grash, Valerie. Department of Fine Arts, University of Pittsburgh at Johnstown. Articles contributed to Encyclopedia of 20th-Century Architecture: CHICAGO SCHOOL; KOHN PEDERSON Fox (UNITED STATES); SKIDMORE, OWINGS AND MERRILL (UNITED STATES); SKYSCRAPER. Gruber, Samuel. Jewish Heritage Research Center, Syracuse, New York. Articles contributed to Encyclopedia of 20th-Century Architecture: SYNAGOGUE. Gruskin, Nancy. Cambridge, Massachusetts. Articles contributed to Encyclopedia of 20th-Century Architecture: RAYMOND ELEANOR (UNITED STATES). Gutschow, Kai K. School of Architecture, Carnegie Mellon University, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. Articles contributed to Encyclopedia of 20th-Century Architecture: FRANKFURT, GERMANY; GERMANY; TAUT, BRUNO (GERMANY); WERKBUND EXHIBITION, COLOGNE (1914). Gyure, Dale Allen. College of Architecture and Design, Lawrence Technological University, Southfield, Michigan. Articles contributed to Encyclopedia of 20th-Century Downloaded by [Central Uni Library Bucharest] at 03:22 26 September 2013 Architecture: EMPIRE STATE BUILDING, NEW YORK; GAS STATION. Hadaya, Hagit. Independent scholar, Ottawa, Canada. Articles contributed to Encyclopedia of 20th-Century Architecture: ISRAEL; MOSQUE; PONTI, Gio (ITALY). Hahn, Hazel. College of Arts and Sciences, Seattle University, Washington. Articles contributed to Encyclopedia of 20th-Century Architecture: CITÉ INDUSTRIELLE, UNE (1901–04); CONTEMPORARY CITY FOR THREE MILLION INHABITANTS; DOM- Notes on contributors 1026 INO HOUSES (1914–15); HELSINKI, FINLAND; VOISIN PLAN FOR PARIS. Hale, Jonathan. Institute of Architecture, University of Nottingham, England. Articles contributed to Encyclopedia of 20th-Century Architecture: HOPKINS, MICHAEL AND PATTY (ENGLAND); PERRAULT, DOMINIQUE (FRANCE); SMITHSON, PETER AND ALISON (ENGLAND). Hammann, Ralph. School of Architecture, University of Arizona, Tucson. Articles contributed to Encyclopedia of 20th-Century Architecture: MENIL COLLECTION, HOUSTON, TEXAS; OFFICE BUILDING; PLATE GLASS; PREFABRICATION. Handa, Rumiko. Department of Architecture, University of Nebraska. Articles contributed to Encyclopedia of 20th-Century Architecture: ANDO, TADAO (JAPAN); GATEWAY ARCH, ST. Louis, MISSOURI; JAPAN; KOSAKU BUNKA RENMEI (JAPANESE WERKBUND); OLYMPIC STADIUM; TOKYO (1964). Harding, Anneliese. Author, Wellesley, Massachusetts. Articles contributed to Encyclopedia of 20th-Century Architecture: GROPIUS HOUSE, LINCOLN, MASSACHUSETTS. Harrod, W. Owen. Architect, Austin, Texas. Articles contributed to Encyclopedia of 20th-Century Architecture: PAUL, BRUNO (GERMANY); TESSENOW, HEINRICH (GERMANY). Hart, Linda. Southern California Institute of Architecture, Los Angeles. Articles contributed to Encyclopedia of 20th-Century Architecture: ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING; COMPETITIONS; PRITZKER ARCHITECTURE PRIZE. Hartoonian, Gevork. Faculty of Architecture, University of , Australia. Articles contributed to Encyclopedia of 20th-Century Architecture: MODERNISM. Hashem, Zouheir A. School of Architecture, University of Nevada, Las Vegas. Articles contributed to Encyclopedia of 20th-Century Architecture: JEDDAH, SAUDI ARABIA; PLASTICS; SPACE FRAME; STRUCTURAL SYSTEMS. Heathcott, Joseph. Department of History, Washington University, St. Louis, Missouri. Articles contributed to Encyclopedia of 20th-Century Architecture: PRUITT IGOE HOUSING, ST. Louis, MISSOURI. Hein, Carola. Program in Growth and Structure of Cities, Bryn Mawr College, Bryn Mawr, Pennsylvania. Articles contributed to Encyclopedia of 20th-Century Architecture: KANSAI INTERNATIONAL AIRPORT TERMINAL, OSAKA; KYOTO, JAPAN; MAKI, FUMIHIKO (JAPAN); TOKYO, JAPAN. Hendrix, John. School of Art, Architecture, and Historic Preservation, Roger Williams University, Bristol, Rhode Island. Articles contributed to Encyclopedia of 20th- Century Architecture: AULENTI, GAE (ITALY); BENEVOLO, LEONARDO (ITALY); GREGOTTI, VITTORIO (ITALY); NERVI, PIER LUIGI (ITALY); PORTOGHESI, PAOLO (ITALY). Heynen, Hilde. Katholieke Universiteit Leuven, Belgium. Articles contributed to Downloaded by [Central Uni Library Bucharest] at 03:22 26 September 2013 Encyclopedia of 20th-Century Architecture: AVANTGARDE; MAY, ERNST (GERMANY); POSTMODERNISM. Hietkamp, Lenore. Department of Art History, University of Washington. Articles contributed to Encyclopedia of 20th-Century Architecture: PARK HOTEL, SHANGHAI. Hinchman, Mark. Department of Architecture, University of Nebraska. Articles contributed to Encyclopedia of 20th-Century Architecture: ALLIANCE FRANCO- Notes on contributors 1027 SÉNÉGALAISE, KAOLACK, SENEGAL; GREAT MOSQUE OF NIONO, MALI; YAAMA MOSQUE, TAHOUA, NIGER. Ho, Puay-peng. Department of Architecture, Chinese University of Hong Kong, China. Articles contributed to Encyclopedia of 20thCentury Architecture: BANK OF CHINA TOWER, HONG KONG; CHINA. Hoekstra, Rixt. Institute for Art and Architectural History, Rijksuniversiteit Groningen, Netherlands. Articles contributed to Encyclopedia of 20th-Century Architecture: HISTORIOGRAPHY. Huang, Yunsheng. School of Architecture, University of Virginia, Charlottesville. Articles contributed to Encyclopedia of 20th-Century Architecture: WU LIANGYONG (CHINA). Hyland, Anthony D.C. Department of Architecture, National University of Science and Technology, Zimbabwe. Articles contributed to Encyclopedia of 20th-Century Architecture: AFRICA: NORTHERN AFRICA; EARTHEN BUILDING; FATHY, HASSAN (AFRICA); PEVSNER, NIKOLAUS (ENGLAND); RAMSES WISSA WASSEF ARTS CENTRE, GIZA, EGYPT; WASSEF WISSA (AFRICA). Jackson, Neil. School of Civil Engineering, University of Leeds, England. Articles contributed to Encyclopedia of 20th-Century Architecture: ELLWOOD, CRAIG (UNITED STATES); FREY, ALBERT (UNITED STATES). Jenner, Ross. School of Architecture, University of , New Zealand. Articles contributed to Encyclopedia of 20th-Century Architecture: SANT’ELIA, ANTONIO (ITALY); SCARPA, CARLO (ITALY). Johansson, Britt-Inger. Department of Art History, University of Uppsala Sweden. Articles contributed to Encyclopedia of 20th-Century Architecture: CONCERT HALL, HÄLSINGBORG, SWEDEN; GRUNDTVIG CHURCH, COPENHAGEN. Johnson, Donald Leslie. University of South Australia. Articles contributed to Encyclopedia of 20th-Century Architecture: BROADACRE CITY (1934–35); RATIONALISM; SEIDLER, HARRY (AUSTRALIA). Joselow, Evie T. Chief of Research, Commission for Art Recovery, New York. Articles contributed to Encyclopedia of 20th-Century Architecture: JEWISH MUSEUM, BERLIN; WORLD TRADE CENTER, NEW YORK. Kalner, Scott. Independent scholar, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. Articles contributed to Encyclopedia of 20th-Century Architecture: ADAPTIVE RE-USE; GLASGOW SCHOOL OF ART, GLASGOW. Kanekar, Aarati. Department of Architecture and Interior Design, University of Cincinnati. Articles contributed to Encyclopedia of 20th-Century Architecture: ENTREPRENEURSHIP DEVELOPMENT INSTITUTE, AHMEDABAD; HIGH MUSEUM OF ART, ATLANTA, GEORGIA; INDIAN INSTITUTE OF MANAGEMENT, AHMEDABAD; NATIONAL ASSEMBLY BUILDING, SHER-E- BANGLA NAGAR, DHAKA; VIDHAN BHAVAN (STATE ASSEMBLY), BHOPAL. Downloaded by [Central Uni Library Bucharest] at 03:22 26 September 2013 Kariouk, Paul. School of Architecture, Carleton University, Ontario, Canada. Articles contributed to Encyclopedia of 20th-Century Architecture: FERRISS, HUGH (UNITED STATES). Kezer, Zeynep. School of Architecture, University of British Columbia, Canada. Articles contributed to Encyclopedia of 20th-Century Architecture: MOSQUE OF THE GRAND NATIONAL ASSEMBLY, , TURKEY; TURKEY. Notes on contributors 1028 Khan, Hasan-Uddin. Department of Architecture, Massachusetts Institute of Technology. Articles contributed to Encyclopedia of 20th-Century Architecture: ARDALAN, NADER (IRAN); BAWA, GEOFFREY (SRI LANKA); CHADIRJI, RIFAT (IRAQ); GÜREL FAMILY SUMMER RESIDENCE, ÇANAKKALE, TURKEY; IRAN; REWAL, RAJ (INDIA); SOUTHEAST ASIA. Koeck, Monika. University of Cambridge, England. Articles contributed to Encyclopedia of 20th-Century Architecture: BÖHM, GOTTFRIED (GERMANY). Koeck, Richard. Independent scholar, Norman, Oklahoma. Articles contributed to Encyclopedia of 20th-Century Architecture: PIANO, RENZO (ITALY). Konicki, Leah. Independent scholar, Covington, Kentucky. Articles contributed to Encyclopedia of 20th-Century Architecture: TERRACOTTA. Kostich-Lefebvre, Gordana. Fine Arts Division, University of Pennsylvania. Articles contributed to Encyclopedia of 20th-Century Architecture: MEMPHIS (GROUP) (ITALY); VILLE RADIEUSE (C. 1930). Kremers, Jack. Department of Architecture, Judson College, Elgin, Illinois. Articles contributed to Encyclopedia of 20th-Century Architecture: BOSTON CITY HALL; SEARS TOWER, CHICAGO. Krieger, Peter. Instituto de Investigaciones Estéticas, U.N.A.M., Mexico City. Articles contributed to Encyclopedia of 20th-Century Architecture: CIUDAD UNIVERSITARIA CAMPUS AND STADIUM, MEXICO CITY; CONTEXTUALISM; UNITED NATIONS HEADQUARTERS, NEW YORK; UTOPIAN PLANNING. Krinsky, Carol Herselle. Department of Fine Arts, New York University. Articles contributed to Encyclopedia of 20th-Century Architecture: BUNSHAFT, GORDON (UNITED STATES); CHRYSLER BUILDING, NEW YORK; HAJ TERMINAL, JEDDAH AIRPORT; LEVER HOUSE, NEW YORK; ROCKEFELLER CENTER, NEW YORK. Krutulis, Rima. Independent scholar, Chicago, Illinois. Articles contributed to Encyclopedia of 20th-Century Architecture: EGYPTIAN REVIVAL. Kruty, Paul. Department of Architecture, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign. Articles contributed to Encyclopedia of 20th-Century Architecture: HORTA, VICTOR (BELGIUM); PLAN OF CANBERRA. Kuhlmann, Dörte. Department of Architecture, Vienna University of Technology, Austria. Articles contributed to Encyclopedia of 20thCentury Architecture: AALTO, ALVAR (FINLAND); GOFF, BRUCE (UNITED STATES); HOLLEIN, HANS (AUSTRIA); PIETILÄ, REIMA AND RAILI (FIN-LAND). Kvan, Thomas. Faculty of Architecture, University of Hong Kong, China. Articles contributed to Encyclopedia of 20th-Century Architecture: COMPUTERS AND ARCHITECTURE; HONG KONG, CHINA; HONG KONG INTERNATIONAL AIRPORT, HONG KONG. Downloaded by [Central Uni Library Bucharest] at 03:22 26 September 2013 La Marche, Jean. Department of Architecture, University at Buffalo, New York. Articles contributed to Encyclopedia of 20th-Century Architecture: HOUSE; LIBESKIND, DANIEL (UNITED STATES); TSCHUMI, BERNARD (FRANCE). Langdon, Philip. Author, New Haven, Connecticut. Articles contributed to Encyclopedia of 20th-Century Architecture: ROADSIDE ARCHITECTURE. Langmead, Donald. School of Architecture, University of South Australia. Articles Notes on contributors 1029 contributed to Encyclopedia of 20th-Century Architecture: OUD, J.J.P. (NETHERLANDS). Lara, Fernando. Federal University of Minas Gerais, Brazil. Articles contributed to Encyclopedia of 20th-Century Architecture: BRAZIL; BURLE MARX, ROBERTO (BRAZIL); PAMPULHA BUILDINGS, BELO HORIZONTE, BRAZIL; Rio DE JANEIRO, BRAZIL. Larrañaga, Enrique. Architect, Miami Beach, Florida. Articles contributed to Encyclopedia of 20th-Century Architecture: CARACAS, VENEZUELA. Lawrence, Attila. School of Architecture, University of Nevada. Articles contributed to Encyclopedia of 20th-Century Architecture: HELSINKI RAILWAY STATION, FINLAND; METRO STATION, PARIS. Leach, Neil. Department of Architecture and Civil Engineering, University of Bath, England. Articles contributed to Encyclopedia of 20th-Century Architecture: . LeCuyer, Annette. Department of Architecture, The State University of New York at Buffalo. Articles contributed to Encyclopedia of 20th-Century Architecture: MIRALLES, ENRIC, AND CARME PINÓS (SPAIN); POMPIDOU CENTER, PARIS; SCHLUMBERGER CAMBRIDGE RESEARCH CENTRE, ENGLAND. Lefaivre, Liane. Department of Architecture, Technical University of Delft, the Netherlands. Articles contributed to Encyclopedia of 20thCentury Architecture: Bò BARDI, LINA (BRAZIL). Lejeune, Jean-François. School of Architecture, University of Miami, Florida. Articles contributed to Encyclopedia of 20th-Century Architecture: CELEBRATION, FLORIDA; UNIVERSUM CINEMA, BERLIN. Lewittes, Deborah. Architectural historian, New York. Articles contributed to Encyclopedia of 20th-Century Architecture: CHANNEL 4 HEADQUARTERS, LONDON; CONNELL, AMYAS, , AND BASIL WARD (ENGLAND); HIGHPOINT 1 APARTMENT BLOCK, LONDON. Lindman, Timo. Architect, New York. Articles contributed to Encyclopedia of 20th- Century Architecture: HEIKKINEN AND KOMONEN (FIN-LAND); PALLASMAA, JUHANI (FINLAND). Lizon, Peter. College of Architecture and Design, The University of Tennessee Knoxville. Articles contributed to Encyclopedia of 20th-Cen-tury Architecture: CZECH REPUBLIC/CZECHOSLOVAKIA; LOVELL HEALTH HOUSE, Los ANGELES; PRAGUE, CZECH REPUBLIC. Loeffler, Jane. University of Maryland. Articles contributed to Encyclopedia of 20th- Century Architecture: EMBASSY. Loftin, Laurence Keith. College of Architecture and Planning, University of Colorado, Denver. Articles contributed to Encyclopedia of 20th-Century Architecture: Downloaded by [Central Uni Library Bucharest] at 03:22 26 September 2013 EINSTEIN TOWER, POTSDAM, GERMANY; VILLA MAIREA, NOORMARKKU, FINLAND. Lombard, Joanna. School of Architecture, University of Miami, Florida. Articles contributed to Encyclopedia of 20th-Century Architecture: DUANY AND PLATER- ZYBERK (UNITED STATES). Long, Christopher. School of Architecture, University of Texas at Austin. Articles Notes on contributors 1030 contributed to Encyclopedia of 20th-Century Architecture: AUSTRIA; FRANK, JOSEF (AUSTRIA); NEUTRA, RICHARD (AUSTRIA); OLBRICH, JOSEF MARIA (AUSTRIA); STEINER HOUSE, VIENNA; VIENNA SECESSION; WAGNER, OTTO (AUSTRIA). Lorance, Loretta. Graduate School and University Center, City University of New York. Articles contributed to Encyclopedia of 20th-Century Architecture: HADID, ZAHA (IRAQ); SMITH, CHLOETHIEL WOODARD (UNITED STATES). Lord, Jill Marie. Independent scholar, New York. Articles contributed to Encyclopedia of 20th-Century Architecture: GWATHMEY, CHARLES, AND ROBERT SIEGEL (UNITED STATES); HAMLIN, TALBOT (UNITED STATES). Mácel, Otakar. Department of Architecture, Delft University of Technology, Netherlands. Articles contributed to Encyclopedia of 20th-Century Architecture: CUBISM; KARL MARX HOF, VIENNA; MELNIKOV, KONSTANTIN (RUSSIA); TUGENDHAT HOUSE, BRNO, CZECH REPUBLIC. Maciuika, John V. Architectural History Department, University of Virginia, Charlottesville. Articles contributed to Encyclopedia of 20th-Century Architecture: MUTHESIUS, HERMANN (GERMANY). MacKay, A. Gordon. Foxcroft School, Middleburg, Virginia. Articles contributed to Encyclopedia of 20th-Century Architecture: ENGINEERED LUMBER; WOOD. Madanipour, Ali. Global Urban Research Unit, University of Newcastle upon Tyne, England. Articles contributed to Encyclopedia of 20th-Century Architecture: NEW TOWNS MOVEMENT. Maffei, Nicolas. Norwich School of Art and Design, England. Articles contributed to Encyclopedia of 20th-Century Architecture: VENTURI, ROBERT (UNITED STATES). Maxwell, Robert. Maxwell Scott Architects, London, England. Articles contributed to Encyclopedia of 20th-Century Architecture: ABSTRACTION; ROGERS, RICHARD (ENGLAND); ROWE, COLIN (UNITED STATES); STIRLING, JAMES (SCOTLAND AND ENGLAND); UNITED KINGDOM; VILLA SAVOYE, POISSY, FRANCE. Mayhall, Marguerite K. Department of Fine Arts, Kean University, New Jersey. Articles contributed to Encyclopedia of 20th-Century Architecture: CIUDAD UNIVERSITARIA, CARACAS; VILLANUEVA, CARLOS RAUL (VENEZUELA). Mayo, James. School of Architecture and Urban Design, University of Kansas. Articles contributed to Encyclopedia of 20th-Century Architecture: COUNTRY CLUB. McCarter, Robert. Department of Architecture, University of Florida. Articles contributed to Encyclopedia of 20th-Century Architecture: FALLINGWATER, BEAR RUN, PENNSYLVANIA; KAHN, Louis (UNITED STATES); SARASOTA SCHOOL; WRIGHT, FRANK LLOYD (UNITED STATES). McDonald, Margot. Department of Architecture California Polytechnic State University, San Luis Obispo. Articles contributed to Encyclopedia of 20th-Century Downloaded by [Central Uni Library Bucharest] at 03:22 26 September 2013 Architecture: CLIMATE; SUSTAINABILITY/. Meister, Michael. Department of History of Art, University of Pennsylvania. Articles contributed to Encyclopedia of 20th-Century Architecture: SANTOS, ADÈLE NAUDÉ (SOUTH AFRICA). Meneguello, Cristina. Department of History, State University of Campinas, Brazil. Articles contributed to Encyclopedia of 20th-Century Architecture: SÃO PAULO, Notes on contributors 1031 BRAZIL. Merlino, Kathryn Rogers. Department of Architecture, University of Washington. Articles contributed to Encyclopedia of 20th-Century Architecture: HOLL, STEVEN (UNITED STATES). Meyers, Andrew. Department of History, Ethical Culture Fieldston School, New York. Articles contributed to Encyclopedia of 20th-Century Architecture: NEW YORK WORLD’S FAIR (1939). Mical, Thomas. Department of Architecture, University of Oklahoma, Norman. Articles contributed to Encyclopedia of 20th-Century Architecture: HEJDUK, JOHN (UNITED STATES); JAHN, HELMUT (UNITED STATES); MORPHOSIS (UNITED STATES); Rossi, ALDO (ITALY). Miller, Char. Department of Public and International Affairs, George Mason University, Virginia. Articles contributed to Encyclopedia of 20th-Century Architecture: COLQUHOUN, ALAN (ENGLAND); LINCOLN MEMORIAL, WASHINGTON, DC; POPE, JOHN RUSSELL (UNITED STATES). Miller, Christopher. Department of Architecture, Judson College Elgin, Illinois. Articles contributed to Encyclopedia of 20th-Century Architecture: CLASSICISM. Miller, Naomi. Department of Art History, Boston University. Articles contributed to Encyclopedia of 20th-Century Architecture: DE CARLO, GIANCARLO (ITALY). Miller, William C. School of Architecture, University of Utah. Articles contributed to Encyclopedia of 20th-Century Architecture: ASPLUND, ERIK GUNNAR (SWEDEN); BLOMSTEDT, AULIS (FINLAND); FINLAND; PAIMIO SANATORIUM, NEAR TURKU, FINLAND. Millette, Daniel. Department of Architecture, University of British Columbia, Canada. Articles contributed to Encyclopedia of 20th-Century Architecture: CHOISY, AUGUSTE (FRANCE). Mitchell, Kevin. School of Architecture and Design, The American University of Sharjah, United Arab Emirates. Articles contributed to Encyclopedia of 20th-Century Architecture: DENMARK; MARKELIUS, SVEN (SWEDEN); MINISTRY OF FOREIGN AFFAIRS, RIYADH, SAUDI ARABIA; RASMUSSEN, STEEN EILER (DENMARK); SWEDEN. Monson, Christopher. Department of Architecture, Mississippi State University. Articles contributed to Encyclopedia of 20th-Century Architecture: COLOR. Moore, Fuller. Miami University. Articles contributed to Encyclopedia of 20th- Century Architecture: TENSILE STRUCTURES. Moore, Steven. School of Architecture, University of Texas at Austin. Articles contributed to Encyclopedia of 20th-Century Architecture: ENERGY-EFFICIENT DESIGN; ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES. Moravánszky, Ákos. Institute for the History and Theory of Architecture, Zürich, Downloaded by [Central Uni Library Bucharest] at 03:22 26 September 2013 Switzerland. Articles contributed to Encyclopedia of 20th-Century Architecture: BUDAPEST, HUNGARY; HUNGARY; MEDGYASZAY, ISTVÁN (HUNGARY); MOLNAR, FARKAS (HUNGARY). Moravánszky-Gyöngy, Katalin. Independent scholar, Zürich, Switzerland. Articles contributed to Encyclopedia of 20th-Century Architecture: BUDAPEST, HUNGARY; HUNGARY; MEDGYASZAY, ISTVÁN (HUNGARY); MOLNAR, FARKAS Notes on contributors 1032 (HUNGARY). Morgan, Keith N. Department of Art History, Boston University. Articles contributed to Encyclopedia of 20th-Century Architecture: PLATT, CHARLES ADAMS (UNITED STATES). Morgenthaler, Hans. Department of Architecture, University of Colorado, Denver. Articles contributed to Encyclopedia of 20th-Century Architecture: BOTTA, MARIO (SWITZERLAND); EXPRESSIONISM; MENDELSOHN, ERICH (GERMANY AND UNITED STATES); SWITZERLAND. Morton, Patricia. Department of the History of Art, University of California, Riverside. Articles contributed to Encyclopedia of 20th-Century Architecture: FEMINIST THEORY; PRIMITIVISM. Moy, Catherine. Venturi, Scott Brown, and Associates, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. Articles contributed to Encyclopedia of 20th-Century Architecture: KUROKAWA, KISHO (JAPAN); LIN, MAYA (UNITED STATES). Mumford, Eric. School of Architecture, Washington University, St. Louis, Missouri. Articles contributed to Encyclopedia of 20th-Century Architecture: ATHENS CHARTER (1943); CONGRÈS INTERNATIONAUX D’ARCHITECTURE MODERNE (CIAM, 1927–); FRAMPTON, KENNETH (UNITED STATES). Naylor, David. Department of Architecture, The University of Queensland, Australia. Articles contributed to Encyclopedia of 20th-Century Architecture: DULLES INTERNATIONAL AIRPORT, CHANTILLY, VIRGINIA; TWA AIRPORT TERMINAL, NEW YORK. Nesbitt, Kate. Author, Charlottesville, Virginia. Articles contributed to Encyclopedia of 20th-Century Architecture: GULLICHSEN, KRISTIAN (FINLAND); JACOBSEN, ARNE (DENMARK); LARSEN, HENNING (DENMARK). Neumann, Dietrich. Department of History of Art and Architecture, , Providence, Rhode Island. Articles contributed to Encyclopedia of 20th- Century Architecture: CATALAN (GUASTAVINO) VAULTS. Notaro, Anna. School of American and Canadian Studies, University of Nottingham, England. Articles contributed to Encyclopedia of 20th-Century Architecture: ROME, ITALY. Oberholzer, Mark. Department of Architecture, Rice University Houston, Texas. Articles contributed to Encyclopedia of 20th-Century Architecture: MAILLART, ROBERT (SWITZERLAND). Ochshorn, Jonathan. Department of Architecture, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York. Articles contributed to Encyclopedia of 20th-Century Architecture: BRICK; CURTAIN WALL SYSTEM; STEEL; STONE; TRUSS SYSTEMS. Olivarez, Jennifer Komar. Minneapolis Institute of Arts, Minnesota. Articles contributed to Encyclopedia of 20th-Century Architecture: FISKER, KAY Downloaded by [Central Uni Library Bucharest] at 03:22 26 September 2013 (DENMARK); PERKINS AND WILL (UNITED STATES). Oliver, Paul. School of Architecture, Centre for International Vernacular Studies, England. Articles contributed to Encyclopedia of 20th-Century Architecture: VERNACULAR ARCHITECTURE. Olsen, Patrice. Department of History, Illinois State University. Articles contributed to Encyclopedia of 20th-Century Architecture: CANDELA, FELIX (MEXICO); Notes on contributors 1033 GONZÁLEZ DE LÉON, TEODORO AND ABRAHAM ZABLUDOVSKY (MEXICO); LEGORRETA, RICARDO (MEXICO); MEXICO CITY, MEXICO; MORAL, ENRIQUE DEL, (MEXICO). Ostwald, Michael. School of Architecture and Built Envrionment, The University of Newcastle, Callaghan, Australia. Articles contributed to Encyclopedia of 20th-Century Architecture: AMUSEMENT PARK; BOFILL, RICARDO (SPAIN); CULTURAL CENTRE JEAN MARIE TJIBARONOUMIA, NEW CALEDONIA; MEIER, RICHARD (UNITED STATES); PARLIAMENT BUILDING, CHANDIGARH; SHINOHARA, KAZUO (JAPAN). Ott, Randall. Department of Architecture, University of Colorado at Boulder. Articles contributed to Encyclopedia of 20th-Century Architecture: BERLIN, GERMANY; GERMAN PAVILION, BARCELONA (1929); MEYER, HANNES (GERMANY). Papademetriou, Peter C. School of Architecture, New Jersey Institute of Technology. Articles contributed to Encyclopedia of 20th-Century Architecture: AMBASZ, EMILIO (ARGENTINA AND UNITED STATES); SAARINEN, EERO (FINLAND). Pelkonen, Eeva-Liisa. School of Architecture, Yale University New Haven, Connecticut. Articles contributed to Encyclopedia of 20th-Century Architecture: KADA, KLAUS (AUSTRIA); VELDE, HENRI VAN DE (BELGIUM). Perrotta, Marc. Independent scholar, Columbus, Ohio. Articles contributed to Encyclopedia of 20th-Century Architecture: Bus TERMINAL. Phipps, Linda. Independent scholar, Oakland, California. Articles contributed to Encyclopedia of 20th-Century Architecture: COSTA, LÚCIO (BRAZIL); HARRISON, WALLACE K., AND MAX ABRAMOVITZ (UNITED STATES); NIEMEYER, OSCAR (BRAZIL); NITZSCHKE, OSCAR (FRANCE). Picard, Michele. Canadian Center for Architecture, Montreal. Articles contributed to Encyclopedia of 20th-Century Architecture: EXPO ‘67, MONTREAL; HABITAT ‘67, MONTREAL. Pizzi, Marcela. Faculty of Architecture and Town Planning, University of Chile. Articles contributed to Encyclopedia of 20th-Century Architecture: SANTIAGO, CHILE. Popescu, Carmen. Independent scholar, Paris, France. Articles contributed to Encyclopedia of 20th-Century Architecture: BUCHAREST, RoMANIA; ROMANIA. Prakash, Vikramaditya. Department of Architecture, University of Washington. Articles contributed to Encyclopedia of 20th-Century Architecture: CHANDIGARH, INDIA. Prigmore, Kathryn. Einhorn Yaffee Prescott Architecture and Engineering P.C., Washington, D.C. Articles contributed to Encyclopedia of 20th-Century Architecture: ESCALATOR. Pursell, Timothy. University of Alaska, Fairbanks. Articles contributed to Encyclopedia of 20th-Century Architecture: BERLAGE, HENDRIK PETRUS Downloaded by [Central Uni Library Bucharest] at 03:22 26 September 2013 (NETHERLANDS); DÜSSELDORF, GERMANY; PALAIS STOCLET, BRUSSELS. Quinan, Jack. Department of Art History, The State University of New York at Buffalo. Articles contributed to Encyclopedia of 20th-Century Architecture: LARKIN BUILDING, BUFFALO, NEW YORK. Randolph, Dennis. Calhoun County Community Development, Battle Creek, Michigan. Articles contributed to Encyclopedia of 20th-Century Architecture: STEEL Notes on contributors 1034 FRAME CONSTRUCTION. Rappaport, Nina. Independent scholar, New York. Articles contributed to Encyclopedia of 20th-Century Architecture: BENNETON FACTORY, ITALY; FACTORY; FIAT WORKS, TURIN; OLIVETTI FACTORY, BUENOS AIRES; RENAULT DISTRIBUTION CENTER, SWINDON, ENGLAND; VAN NELLE FACTORY, ROTTERDAM. Riedinger, Edward A. , Columbus. Articles contributed to Encyclopedia of 20th-Century Architecture: LISBON WORLD EXPOSITION (1998); DE MOURA, EDUARDO SOUTO (PORTUGAL). Robinson, Matthew S. Pennsylvania State University, University Park. Articles contributed to Encyclopedia of 20th-Century Architecture: EXPO 1958, BRUSSELS; FALLOUT SHELTER; GRUEN, VICTOR DAVID (UNITED STATES); STONE, EDWARD DURELL (UNITED STATES); YAMASAKI, MINORU (UNITED STATES). Rodríguez-Camilloni, Humberto. College of Architecture and Urban Studies, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Blacksburg. Articles contributed to Encyclopedia of 20th-Century Architecture: SCULLY, VINCENT (UNITED STATES). Rohan, Tim. Department of Art, University of Massachusetts, Amherst. Articles contributed to Encyclopedia of 20th-Century Architecture: RUDOLPH, PAUL (UNITED STATES). Rujivacharakul, Vimalin. Department of Architecture, University of California, Berkeley. Articles contributed to Encyclopedia of 20th-Century Architecture: BAIYOKE TOWER, BANGKOK; BANGKOK, THAILAND. Rylance, Keli. Department of Art and Design, University of Wisconsin-Stout. Articles contributed to Encyclopedia of 20th-Century Architecture: BARCELONA, SPAIN; SPAIN. Sabatino, Michelangelo. School of Architecture, Yale University, New Haven, Connecticut. Articles contributed to Encyclopedia of 20th-Century Architecture: TORRE VELASCA, MILAN. Salny, Stephen. Architectural and design historian, Baltimore, Maryland. Articles contributed to Encyclopedia of 20th-Century Architecture: ADLER, DAVID (UNITED STATES). Samson, M. David. Department of Humanities and Arts, Worcester Polytechnic Institute, Massachusetts. Articles contributed to Encyclopedia of 20th-Century Architecture: HITCHCOCK, HENRY-RUSSELL (UNITED STATES); INTERNATIONAL STYLE EXHIBITION, NEW YORK (1932); JOHNSON, PHILIP (UNITED STATES). Samudio, Jeffrey B. Design Aid Architects, Hollywood, California. Articles contributed to Encyclopedia of 20th-Century Architecture: WILLIAMS, PAUL Downloaded by [Central Uni Library Bucharest] at 03:22 26 September 2013 (UNITED STATES). Sanchez, Alfonso. Independent scholar, Mexico. Articles contributed to Encyclopedia of 20th-Century Architecture: MEXICO. Sarkis, Hashim. Department of Urban Planning and Design, Harvard University, Cambridge, Massachusetts. Articles contributed to Encyclopedia of 20th-Century Architecture: BEIRUT, LEBANON; LYNCH, KEVIN (UNITED STATES). Notes on contributors 1035 Sauls, Allison. Department of Art, Missouri Western State College. Articles contributed to Encyclopedia of 20th-Century Architecture: MU-SEUM OF MODERN ART, FRANKFURT; PILGRIMAGE CHURCH AT NEVIGES. Schrenk, Lisa. Department of Art History, University of California, Davis. Articles contributed to Encyclopedia of 20th-Century Architecture: EXPOSITION, CHICAGO (1933); CONCRETE SHELL STRUCTURE; NATIONAL FARMERS’ BANK, OWATONNA, MINNESOTA; WEISSENHOFSIEDLUNG, DEUTSCHER WERKBUND (STUTTGART, 1927). Schulze, Franz. Department of Art, Lake Forest College, Lake Forest, Illinois. Articles contributed to Encyclopedia of 20th-Century Architecture: FARNSWORTH HOUSE, PLANO, ILLINOIS; MIES VAN DER ROHE, LUDWIG (GERMANY). Schumacher, Thomas. School of Architecture, Planning, and Preservation, University of Maryland. Articles contributed to Encyclopedia of 20th-Century Architecture: MORETTI, LUIGI (ITALY); TERRAGNI, GIU-SEPPE (ITALY). Schwarzer, Mitchell. California College of Arts and Crafts, San Francisco. Articles contributed to Encyclopedia of 20th-Century Architecture: GILL, IRVING (UNITED STATES); Loos, ADOLF (AUSTRIA). Searing, Helen. Smith College, Northampton, Massachusetts. Articles contributed to Encyclopedia of 20th-Century Architecture: ABTEIBERG MUNICIPAL MUSEUM, MÖNCHENGLADBACH, GERMANY; AMSTERDAM, THE NETHERLANDS; AMSTERDAM SCHOOL; ART NOUVEAU (JUGEND-STIL); BRITISH LIBRARY, LONDON; DUIKER JOHANNES (NETHERLANDS); GLASGOW SCHOOL; GOODY, JOAN (UNITED STATES); INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION OF DECORATIVE ARTS, PARIS (1925); LASDUN, DENYS (ENGLAND); LONDON, ENGLAND; NETHERLANDS; NEUE STAATSGALERIE, STUTTGART; POLSHEK, JAMES STEWART (UNITED STATES); ROTTERDAM, NETHERLANDS; SAINSBURY WING, NATIONAL GALLERY, LONDON; STERN, ROBERT A.M. (UNITED STATES); WILSON, COLIN ST. JOHN (ENGLAND). Segre, Roberto. Faculty of Architecture and Urbanism, Federal University of Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. Articles contributed to Encyclopedia of 20th-Century Architecture: CHURCH OF ST. FRANCIS OF ASSISI, BRAZIL; FAVELA; ROMAÑACH, MARIO (CUBA); NATIONAL ART SCHOOLS, HAVANA, CUBA; TESTA, CLORINDO (ARGENTINA). Sekler, Eduard F. Professor Emeritus, Harvard University, Cambridge, Massachusetts. Articles contributed to Encyclopedia of 20th-Century Architecture: HOFFMANN, JOSEF (AUSTRIA). Shanken, Andrew M. Department of Art, Oberlin College, Ohio. Articles contributed to Encyclopedia of 20th-Century Architecture: GIEDION, SIGFRIED (SWITZERLAND); GLASS; MEMORIAL. Downloaded by [Central Uni Library Bucharest] at 03:22 26 September 2013 Sieira, Maria. Independent scholar, New York. Articles contributed to Encyclopedia of 20th-Century Architecture: NOUVEL, JEAN (FRANCE); REPRESENTATION. Simon, Madlen. College of Architecture, Planning and Design, Kansas State University. Articles contributed to Encyclopedia of 20th-Century Architecture: EDUCATION OF ARCHITECTS SCHOOLS. Siry, Joseph. Department of Art and Art History, Wesleyan University, Connecticut. Notes on contributors 1036 Articles contributed to Encyclopedia of 20th-Century Architecture: CARSON PIRIE SCOTT STORE, CHICAGO; PLAN OF CHICAGO, ILLINOIS; SULLIVAN, Louis (UNITED STATES); UNITY TEMPLE, OAK PARK, ILLINOIS. Smith, Cynthia Duquette. Department of Communication and Culture, Indiana University, Bloomington. Articles contributed to Encyclo-pedia of 20th-Century Architecture: ASHBEE, C.R. (ENGLAND); BUNGALOW; CRAFTSMAN STYLE; LEVITTOWN, NEW JERSEY AND NEW YORK. Sobti, Manu. College of Architecture, Georgia Institute of Technology. Articles contributed to Encyclopedia of 20th-Century Architecture: MAIDAN. Sokol, David M. Department of Art History, University of Illinois, Chicago. Articles contributed to Encyclopedia of 20th-Century Architecture: JACOBS, JANE (UNITED STATES). Speck, Lawrence W. School of Architecture, University of Texas at Austin. Articles contributed to Encyclopedia of 20th-Century Architecture: HERZOG, JACQUES, AND PIERRE DE MEURON (SWITZERLAND); HOUSTON, (TX), UNITED STATES; KIMBELL ART MUSEUM, FORT WORTH, TEXAS; MOORE, CHARLES (UNITED STATES). Sprague, Paul. Author, Rockledge, Florida. Articles contributed to Encyclopedia of 20th-Century Architecture: ROBIE HOUSE, CHICAGO. Stankard, Mark. Department of Architecture, Iowa State University. Articles contributed to Encyclopedia of 20th-Century Architecture: DE STIJL; DOESBURG, THEO VAN (NETHERLANDS); VANNA VENTURI HOUSE, PHILADELPHIA; VENICE BIENNALE PAVILIONS, ITALY. Steer, Linda. Department of Art History, Binghamton University, New York. Articles contributed to Encyclopedia of 20th-Century Architecture: SUPERMODERNISM Steinhardt, Nancy. Department of Asian and Middle Eastern Studies, University of Pennsylvania. Articles contributed to Encyclopedia of 20th-Century Architecture: LIANG SICHENG (CHINA). Suzuki, Hiroyuki. Faculty of Engineering, University of Tokyo, Japan. Articles contributed to Encyclopedia of 20th-Century Architecture: ISOZAKI, ARATA (JAPAN). Swanson, Randy. College of Architecture, University of North Carolina, Charlotte. Articles contributed to Encyclopedia of 20th-Century Architecture: CENTER FOR INTEGRATED SYSTEMS, STANFORD UNIVERSITY; EXHIBITION BUILDING; RESEARCH CENTER. Thompson, Jennifer. Princeton Architectural Press, New York. Articles contributed to Encyclopedia of 20th-Century Architecture: CARRÈRE, JOHN MERVIN, AND THOMAS HASTINGS (UNITED STATES). Thompson, W.P. Department of Architecture, University of Manitoba, Canada. Articles contributed to Encyclopedia of 20th-Century Architecture: COLLINS, PETER Downloaded by [Central Uni Library Bucharest] at 03:22 26 September 2013 (CANADA). Thorne, Martha. Department of Architecture, The Art Institute of Chicago. Articles contributed to Encyclopedia of 20th-Century architecture: JIRICNA, EVA (ENGLAND); MONEO, RAFAEL (SPAIN); NAVARRO BALDWEG, JUAN (SPAIN); SIZA VIEIRA, ÁLVARO J.M. (PORTUGAL); SOTA, ALEJANDRO DE LA (SPAIN). Tilman, Jeffrey Thomas. School of Architecture and Interior Design, University of Notes on contributors 1037 Cincinnati. Articles contributed to Encyclopedia of 20th-Century Architecture: CITY HALL; EXPOSITION UNIVERSELLE, PARIS (1900); HISTORICISM; LAS VEGAS, NEVADA, UNITED STATES; PANAMA PACIFIC EXPOSITION, SAN FRANCISCO (1915); SUBWAY. Tomlan, Michael A. Department of City and Regional Planning, Cornell University. Articles contributed to Encyclopedia of 20th-Century Architecture: HISTORIC PRESERVATION. Toure, Diala. University of California, Berkeley. Articles contributed to Encyclopedia of 20th-Century Architecture: BUREAUX D’ETUDES HENRI CHOMETTE (FRANCE AND WEST AFRICA). Tournikiotis, Panayotis. School of Architecture, National Technical University of Athens, Greece. Articles contributed to Encyclopedia of 20th-Century Architecture: GREECE; NEORATIONALISM. Townsend, Gavin Edward. Department of Art, University of Tennessee at Chattanooga. Articles contributed to Encyclopedia of 20th-Century Architecture: SHAW, HOWARD VAN DOREN (UNITED STATES). Triff, Kristin. Department of Fine Arts, Trinity College, Connecticut. Articles contributed to Encyclopedia of 20th-Century Architecture: CASA MILÀ, BARCELONA; MIAMI, (FL) UNITED STATES. Troiani, Igea. School of Architecture, Queensland University of Technology, Australia. Articles contributed to Encyclopedia of 20th-Century Architecture: CODERCH Y DE SENTMENAT, ANTONIO, JOSÉ (SPAIN); TEAM X (NETHERLANDS). Trowles, Peter. Glasgow School of Art, Scotland. Articles contributed to Encyclopedia of 20th-Century Architecture: MACKINTOSH, CHARLES RENNIE (SCOTLAND). Trubiano, Franca. Department of Fine Arts, University of Pennsylvania. Articles contributed to Encyclopedia of 20th-Century Architecture: EXHIBITION HALL, TURIN; FASCIST ARCHITECTURE; LIBERA, ADALBERTO (ITALY). Turan, Belgin. Department of Architecture, Middle East Technical University, Ankara, Turkey. Articles contributed to Encyclopedia of 20th-Century Architecture: ISTANBUL, TURKEY; SOCIAL SECURITY COMPLEX, ISTANBUL. Turnbull, Jeffrey John. Faculty of Architecture, Building and Planning, University of , Australia. Articles contributed to Encyclopedia of 20th-Century Architecture: AUSTRALIA; CANBERRA, AUSTRALIA; GRIFFIN, WALTER BURLEY, AND (UNITED STATES); MELBOURNE, AUSTRALIA. Udovicki-Selb, Danilo François. School of Architecture, University of Texas at Austin. Articles contributed to Encyclopedia of 20th-Century Architecture: AEG TURBINE FACTORY, BERLIN; ; PERRIAND, CHARLOTTE Downloaded by [Central Uni Library Bucharest] at 03:22 26 September 2013 (FRANCE). Valentine, Maggie. School of Architecture, University of Texas, San Antonio. Articles contributed to Encyclopedia of 20th-Century Architecture: Los ANGELES (CA), UNITED STATES; MOVIE THEATER. Van Slyck, Abigail A. Department of Architectural Studies, Connecticut College. Articles contributed to Encyclopedia of 20th-Century Architecture: LIBRARY; Notes on contributors 1038 PHOENIX PUBLIC LIBRARY, ARIZONA; SCHOOL. Van Vliet, Willem. College of Architecture and Planning, University of Colorado, Boulder. Articles contributed to Encyclopedia of 20th-Century Architecture: ORDINANCES: ZONING; PUBLIC HOUSING. Van Vynckt, Randall J. Author, Chicago. Articles contributed to Encyclopedia of 20th-Century Architecture: TIMBER FRAME. Vanderburgh, David J.T. Unite Architecture, Universite Catholique de Louvain, Louvain-la-Neuve, Belgium. Articles contributed to Encyclopedia of 20th-Century Architecture: PRISON; TYPOLOGY. Vinegar, Aron. Department of Art History and Communication Studies, McGill University, Montreal, Canada. Articles contributed to Encyclopedia of 20th-Century Architecture: GARNIER, TONY (FRANCE). Volait, Mercedes. Université François-Rabelais, Tours, France. Articles contributed to Encyclopedia of 20th-Century Architecture: CAIRO, EGYPT; GABR, A. LABIB (AFRICA). Waldheim, Charles. School of Architecture, University of Illinois at Chicago. Articles contributed to Encyclopedia of 20th-Century Architecture: ILLINOIS INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY, CHICAGO; O’HARE AIRPORT, CHICAGO; VIETNAM VETERANS MEMORIAL, WASHINGTON, DC. Walker, Paul. Faculty of Architecture, Building and Planning, University of Melbourne, Australia. Articles contributed to Encyclopedia of 20th-Century Architecture: NEW ZEALAND. Walters, David. College of Architecture, University of North Carolina, Charlotte. Articles contributed to Encyclopedia of 20th-Century Architecture: CITTÀ NUOVA (1914); GLASGOW, SCOTLAND; NEW URBANISM; ORDINANCES: DESIGN; PELLI, CESAR (ARGENTINA AND UNITED STATES). Webb, Bruce. College of Architecture, University of Houston. Articles contributed to Encyclopedia of 20th-Century Architecture: BEST PRODUCTS SHOWROOM, HOUSTON; DISNEY THEME PARKS; MOTEL. Weiss, Ellen. School of Architecture, Tulane University New Orleans, Louisiana. Articles contributed to Encyclopedia of 20th-Century Architecture: TAYLOR, ROBERT R. (UNITED STATES). Weisser, Amy. Dia Center for the Arts, New York. Articles contributed to Encyclopedia of 20th-Century Architecture: BARNES, EDWARD LARRABEE (UNITED STATES). Wheeler Borum, Katherine. School of Architecture and Planning, Massachusetts Institute of Technology. Articles contributed to Encyclopedia of 20th-Century Architecture: BERLIN PHILHARMONIC CONCERT HALL; RIETVELD, GERRIT (NETHERLANDS); SCHRÖDER-SCHRÄDER HOUSE, UTRECHT, Downloaded by [Central Uni Library Bucharest] at 03:22 26 September 2013 NETHERLANDS. White, Jerry. University of California. Articles contributed to Encyclopedia of 20th- Century Architecture: CONCRETE; EYRE, WILSON (UNITED STATES); MASONRY BEARING WALL; POWER PLANT; PRECAST CONCRETE; REINFORCED CONCRETE; SHOPPING CENTER. Whiting, Sarah. Faculty of Architecture, Harvard University. Articles contributed to Notes on contributors 1039 Encyclopedia of 20th-Century Architecture: EISENMAN, PETER (UNITED STATES); GOLDBERG, BERTRAND (UNITED STATES). Wiederspahn, Peter H. Department of Architecture, Northeastern University, Boston. Articles contributed to Encyclopedia of 20th-Century Architecture: CHAREAU, PIERRE (FRANCE); MAISON DE VERRE, PARIS. Williams, Celeste. College of Architecture, University of Houston, Texas. Articles contributed to Encyclopedia of 20th-Century Architecture: HIMMELB(L)AU, COOP (AUSTRIA); CZECH, HERMANN (AUSTRIA). Wilson, Christopher. Faculty of Art, Design and Architecture, Bilkent University, Ankara, Turkey. Articles contributed to Encyclopedia of 20th-Century Architecture: BERLIN WALL, BERLIN; CASA MALAPARTE, CAPRI; PHILADELPHIA (PA), UNITED STATES; RAILROAD STATION; ROYAL INSTITUTE OF BRITISH ARCHITECTS. Wilson, Richard Guy. School of Architecture, University of Virginia, Charlottesville. Articles contributed to Encyclopedia of 20th-Century Ar-chitecture: SCHINDLER, RUDOLPH M. (AUSTRIA AND UNITED STATES); UNITED STATES. Windsor, Alan. Author, London, England. Articles contributed to Encyclopedia of 20th-Century Architecture: BEHRENS, PETER (GERMANY); LE CORBUSIER (JEANNERET, CHARLES-ÉDOUARD) (FRANCE); PARIS, FRANCE; VOYSEY, CHARLES F.A. (ENGLAND). Wiseman, Carter. Author, Westport, Connecticut. Articles contributed to Encyclopedia of 20th-Century Architecture: CRAM, RALPH ADAMS (UNITED STATES); CRET, PAUL PHILIPPE (UNITED STATES); GOODHUE, BERTRAM GROSVENOR (UNITED STATES); HOOD, RAYMOND (UNITED STATES); PEI, I.M. (UNITED STATES). Wojtowicz, Robert. Department of Art, Old Dominion University, Norfolk, Virginia. Articles contributed to Encyclopedia of 20th-Century Architecture: MUMFORD, LEWIS (UNITED STATES). Wroble, Lisa A. Author, Plymouth, Michigan. Articles contributed to Encyclopedia of 20th-Century Architecture: AMERICAN INSTITUTE OF ARCHITECTS; GAUDÍ, ANTONI (SPAIN); TERRAZZO. Young, Victoria. Department of Art History, University of St. Thomas, St. Paul, Minnesota. Articles contributed to Encyclopedia of 20th-Century Architecture: PREDOCK, ANTOINE (UNITED STATES); U.S. AIR FORCE CHAPEL, COLORADO SPRINGS. Young, William H. Department of American Studies, Lynchburg College, Lynchburg, Virginia. Articles contributed to Encyclopedia of 20th-Century Architecture: . Zabel, Craig. Department of Art History, Pennsylvania State University, University Downloaded by [Central Uni Library Bucharest] at 03:22 26 September 2013 Park. Articles contributed to Encyclopedia of 20th-Century Architecture: FLATIRON BUILDING, NEW YORK. Zapatka, Christian. Architect and author, Washington, DC. Articles contributed to Encyclopedia of 20th-Century Architecture: AGREST, DIANA, AND MARIO GANDELSONAS (UNITED STATES); GRAVES, MiCHAEL (UNITED STATES). Zipf, Catherine W. Independent scholar, San Francisco, California. Articles Notes on contributors 1040 contributed to Encyclopedia of 20th-Century Architecture: ARTS AND CRAFTS MOVEMENT; FENG SHUI; HUXTABLE, ADA LOUISE (UNITED STATES); IMPERIAL HOTEL, TOKYO. Zygas, K.Paul. School of Architecture, Arizona State University, Tempe. Articles contributed to Encyclopedia of 20th-Century Architecture: LEONIDOV, IVAN ILICH (RUSSIA). Downloaded by [Central Uni Library Bucharest] at 03:22 26 September 2013 Downloaded by [Central Uni Library Bucharest] at 03:22 26 September 2013 INDEX

Note: Main encyclopedia entries are indicated by bold type. Figures are indicated by italicized type. Plates are indicated by the letters i (Volume 1), ii (Volume 2), and iii (Volume 3). Plates can be found in the middle of each volume.

Aalto, Alvar, 1–4; acoustical ray tracing diagrams, 11; churches by, 256; comparison with Blomstedt, 148; Finnish Pavilion (1956), ; industrial town planning, 435; influence in Denmark, 354, 355; influence in United Kingdom, ; Jyväskylä Workers’ Club, 1, 460, 461; Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Baker dormitory, 2, 159, 207; Paimio Sanatorium, , 1–969, 1; relation with environmental issues, 410; relation with William Wurster, 1; renovations to his works, 574; Sunila Pulp Mill, 2ii; town halls by, 265; Turun Sanomat Newspaper Building, 461; use of wood, 1; Villa Mairea, 2, 438, 937, 1–1416; work in Finland, 462; work in Helsinki, 601, 602 Abbott, Berenice, 60 Abby Aldrich Rockefeller Sculpture Garden, 893, 897 Abdelhalim, Abdelhalim I., Cultural Park for Children in Cairo, 202, 203 Abdul Raouf Hasan Khalil Museum, 710 Abraham, Raimund, 4–5 Abramovitz, Max. See Harrison and Abramovitz abstract art, 5–6 abstraction, 5–7;

Downloaded by [Central Uni Library Bucharest] at 03:22 26 September 2013 in domestic architecture, 656; importance to modernism, 860; Kazuyo Sejima’s works, 458; Richard Neutra’s work, 918 Abstract Modernism in United States, 458 Abteiberg Municipal Museum, 7–9, 8, 635, 170 Abuja, Federal Capital Territory of Nigeria, 9–10; Index 1043

design model, 10 Academic Bookshop in Helsinki, 602 Academic Bookstore in Stockholm, 574 acoustics, 10–12; Aalto’s ceilings, 1, 2; Berlin Philharmonic Concert Hall, 143 adaptive re-use, 12–14; awards for, 25; Boston, 160; of convents, by Fernando Tàvora, 696; Cummins Engine Company building, 282; Ellis Island, 696; factory to recreation center, 150–51; Fiat Works (Turin), 93; Gasometers in Vienna, 307–8; by Giancarlo De Carlo, 345; Glass Palace, 276; Grand Rapids Art Museum, 42; Paris, 25; projects in Chile, 248; railroad station buildings, 226; Rovaniemi Art Museum, 10; Tate Gallery of Modern Art, 607; timber buildings, 735; warehouses, 735 Addis-Ababa, 191 additive architecture principle, 735 adhesives, 406, 407; mortar, 819 Adler, Dankmar. See Adler and Sullivan Adler, David, 14–16 Adler and Sullivan, 629; Auditorium Building, Chicago, 11, 655, 629; Kaehilath Anshe Ma’ariv Synagogue, 675 adobe, 383, 385 Advanced Factory Units, 558–59 AEG Turbine Factory, 17–18, 18, 269, 566 aeronautical forms: Air Force Academy Chapel, Colorado Springs, 256; Ciudad Universitaria auditorium, Caracas, 268; Kansai International Airport Terminal, 727–29;

Downloaded by [Central Uni Library Bucharest] at 03:22 26 September 2013 Lyon-Satolas Station for Lyon Airport, 226; TWA terminal in New York City, 368 Africa. See Northern Africa; Southern and Central Africa; West Africa African American architects, 698, 700 African architects, 19, 193 Index 1044

Afrocentricity, 25 Aftimos, Yousif, 129 Aga Khan Award, 25–26; impact on Northern Africa, 21. See also Pritzker Architecture Prize Agrest, Diana, 454, 678. See also Agrest and Gandelsonas Agrest and Gandelsonas, 26–29, 1i agricultural buildings, 29–30; as models for country clubs, 319; in Wright’s Broadacre City, 177. See also grain elevators Ahmedabad, India, 30–32; Balkrishna Doshi’s projects, 367; Entrepreneurship Development Institute, 407–8; Indian Institute of Management, 676–77 AIA (American Institute of Architects). See American Institute of Architects (AIA) air circulation. See heating, ventilation, and air conditioning (HVAC) airfield design, 33 air-inflated structures, 609 airports and aviation buildings, 32–35, 609; as nonplaces, 637; use of concrete shells, 296 Alamar, 331 Alamillo Bridge, 203 Alcoa Building, 40, 590, 935, 494 Alexandra Road complex, 788 al-Faisaliah Center, 409 Algeria, 19, 20 Al-Ghadir Mosque, 688 Algiers, Le Corbusier’s plan for, 21 al-Kindi Plaza in Riyadh, 407 Allgemeine Elektricitäts Gesesells (AEG). See AEG Turbine Factory Alliance Française, 407 Alliance Franco-Sénéfalaise, 35–36; exterior, 36, li All India Handloom Board Pavilion, 314–15 Alls Souls Church (Abraham Lincoln Center), 407 All-Star Sports and Music Resorts, 67–68 Alpine Architecture (Taut), 426 Al-Sharq Waterfront in Kuwait City, 63

Downloaded by [Central Uni Library Bucharest] at 03:22 26 September 2013 Altamira Building, 215 Altera Art Gallery, 727 Alter Palmero Plaza towers, 816 Alton West, 788 Altounian, Mardiros, 129 Aluar Housing Project, 816 Aluminaire House, 36–38, 38–39, 474; Index 1045

exterior, 37 aluminum, 38–40; facade details, 163; Otto Wagner’s use of aluminum pins, 163; space frames, 538; use in Berlin Philharmonic Concert Hall, 142; use in Getty Museum, 498; use in U.S. Air Force Academy Chapel, 538. See also Aluminaire House Aluminum City Terrace townhouse, 169 Alvarado Palace, 164 Álvarez, Augusto H., 844 Alvarez, Mario Roberto, 40–41, 66 Alvorada Palace, 449 al-Wakil, Abd al-Wahid, 883 Ambasz, Emilio, 41–43 American Academy in Rome, 825 American Foursquare, 43–45. See also bungalows; ranch houses; row houses American Hotel, 47 American influence: Cairo, 201–2, 203; Caracas, 215–16; Chile, 247; Denmark, 354; on European architecture, 274; Germany, 496; Japan, 670; London, 789; Montreal, 866; New Zealand, 932; Shanghai, 241; on Swedish architecture, 593; Turkey, 593 American Institute of Architects (AIA), 389, 679; 45–46; Climate Control Project, 271; “Guidelines for Architectural Design Competitions,” 284; national headquarters, 46;

Downloaded by [Central Uni Library Bucharest] at 03:22 26 September 2013 reaction to prefabrication, 39 American modernism: Aluminaire House, 38; Sullivan’s prescription for, 593 American Pharmaceutical Association Building, 147 American Radiator Building, 647; exterior, 648 Index 1046

American Shingle style, 441 American Spirit of Architecture (Hamlin), 585 American University of Cairo, Desert Research Center, 444 American Vitruvius: An Architects’ Handbook of Civic Art (Hegemann), 597 Amstel Bridge, 135 Amsterdam, Netherlands, 46–49; Eigen Haard Housing Estate, 392–93; Open-Air School, 953–55 Amsterdam School, 49–50, 346, 912–13. See also De Stijl Amsterdam Stock Exchange, 135, 171 amusement parks, 50–52 “analogous architecture,” 335 Anderson, William Pierce. See Graham, Anderson, Probst, and White Ando, Tadao, 52–55, 740; Chapel of the Sea, 259; Church of the Light, 293; Church on the Water, 258–59; Theater on the Water, 259; use of concrete, 293; work in Tokyo, 743 Andreu, Paul, 251, 540 Anglo-Palestine Bank in Jerusalem, 836 Anthony House, 823 Anthroposophical movement, 649 anti-architecture groups, 57–58 Antonakakis, Dimitris and Suzana, 550 apartment building complexes: Alison and Peter Smithson’s innovations, 649; Byker Wall, 412; futurist, 261; Les Espaces D’Abraxas, 152–53; St. Petersburg (Leningrad), 544, 546, 548; Vancouver, 548 Apartment Building Petrusgasse, 339 apartment buildings, 55–57, 473; in Brussels, 179; high-rise, 55 Apartment House in Moscow, 507 Apartments, Mercatorplein, 913 Aquapolis, 839

Downloaded by [Central Uni Library Bucharest] at 03:22 26 September 2013 arcades, Las Vegas Fremont Street, 751 archaeological projects: Northern Africa, 21; Society for Commercial Archaeology, 305 Archbishopric Museum, 451 arches: AEG Turbine Factory, 17, 18; Index 1047

by Antoni Gaudí, 487, 488; AT&T Building, 85; Egyptian architecture, 390; Gateway Arch (St. Louis), 486–87; Gateway to the West, 367; Grande Arche de la Défense, 540–42; Helsinki Railway Station, 604, 605; India Gate, 920; Shekhtel’s multistoried, 473; steel truss system, 607. See also memorials Archigram, 57–58, 306, 789, 607; comparison with Metabolists, 839 Architect, The: Reconstructing Her Practice (Hughes), 454 Architectural Design magazine, 469 architectural drawing, 58–59; Auguste Choisy’s technique, 252; futurist examples, 261; Hugh Ferriss’s technique, 457; by Mario Gandelsonas, 28; by Morphosis, 877; by Paul Rudolph, 353; by Raimund Abraham, 4; and representation, 262; Steven Holl’s diagrams, 634. See also computer-aided design architectural photography, 59–61, 263 architectural technology, 389. See also technology architectural theories: Adolf Loos, 790–91; Agrest and Gandelsonas, 28; Bernard Tschumi, 263 Colin St. John Wilson, 263 “de-architecture,” 145; Hermann Czech, 338; Herzog and de Meuron, 284; Jørn Utzon’s additive principle, 284; , 216; Julien Gaudet, 568; Mario Blomstedt, 148–49;

Downloaded by [Central Uni Library Bucharest] at 03:22 26 September 2013 Peter Collins’ history of, 275; Raimund Abraham, 4–5; Sigfried Giedion, 97–98; Talbot Faulkner Hamlin, 585; Venturi and Scott Brown’s, 435–7; Vittorio Gregotti’s influence on, 554–55; Wu Liangyong’s “new regionalism,” 437; Index 1048

architecture: as an “affair of the elite,” 635; as communal art form, 217; as dramatic backdrop for life, 486; as language, 159, 169, 170; as a natural organism, 161; “of silence,” 602–3; as “society of rooms,” 723–24; as vehicle for social change, 933 Architecture: Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries (Hitchcock), 625 Architecture and Feminism, 454 Architecture and Nature movement, 157 Architecture of the Well Tempered Environment (Banham), 107 Architecture without Architects exhibition, 157 arcology, 61 Arcosanti, Arizona, 61–62, 520, 521; Crafts III Building, 62 arctic climate construction, 209, 412 Ardalan, Nader, 62–65, 689–90 ARDEV (The Architects of Devetsil), 178 Argentina, 66–67 Argentina Televisor Color, 815 Argentinian architecture, 725 Arhus University, 465; Main Building, 354 Arizona State University, Nelson Fine Arts Center, 186 Ark, The (London), 412 Arneberg, Arnstein, 939 Arnoff Center for Design and Art, 279, 2i ARO Building, 183 Arquitectonica, 67–69, 684, 851–52 Arroyo Silo Parkway, 308 Art Center College of Design in Pasadena, 399 Art Deco, 69–72, 866; Ali Labib Gabr’s use, 481; Argentina, 65; Brazil, 165; Buenos Aires, 186; Cairo, 201–2, 202; Chile, 247; Chrysler Building, 253;

Downloaded by [Central Uni Library Bucharest] at 03:22 26 September 2013 city halls, 264; and Egyptian revival styles, 391; Empire State Building lobby, 404; Hong Kong, 641; India, 30, 671; Indonesia, 528; Josef Hoffman’s relation with, 629; Index 1049

Los Angeles, 795; Mexico, 843; Miami, Florida, 850, 851; Netherlands, 913; New York City, 927; New Zealand, 932; Northern Africa, 20; ornament, 958; Park Hotel, 29; relation with Art Nouveau, 74; Rio de Janeiro, 294; Santiago, Chile, 391; skyscrapers in Boston, 158; United Kingdom, 391; United States, 391; use of terracotta, 716; use of terrazzo, 721 Arthur Norman House, 89 “artistic will,” 17 art moderne. See Art Deco art museums. See museums Art Nouveau (Jugendstil), 72–75; Argentina, 65; aspect of Einstein Tower, 394; Austria, 91–92; Belgium, 131, 721; Berlage’s opposition to, 136; Bruno Paul’s role, 41; Brussels, 178, 8; Cairo, 201; Catalan adaptation, 223; Chile, 247; curvilinear vs. rectilinear, 912; Czechoslovakia, 341; Germany, 495; Hungary, 662; influence of primitivism on, 196; Istanbul, 697; London, 787; Melbourne, 829; Netherlands, 912;

Downloaded by [Central Uni Library Bucharest] at 03:22 26 September 2013 New York City, 926; ornament, 958; Palais Stoclet as example, 8; Paris, 840, 20; poster, 73; Prague, 178; relation with Expressionism, 425; Index 1050

relation with Glasgow School, 510; relation with Vienna Secession, 178; Romania, 328; Russia and Soviet Union, 359; Switzerland, 654; in Van Nelle Factory, 654; Victor Horta’s contribution to, 650, 782; Vienna, 8 Arts and Crafts Movement, 75–78, 1258–59; Australia, 89; Budapest, 185; and environmental issues, 409; Glasgow School relation with, 510; Herbert Baker’s domestic work, 102; Hungary, 663; influence on London subway, 625; influence on Pompidou Center, 141; London, 787; Melbourne, 829; need for liberation from, 6; Peter Behrens’s analysis of, 343; relation with Art Noveau, 72, 73; relation with Prairie School, 181; relation with primitivism, 196; relation with regionalism, 251; Southern and Central Africa, 22; United States, 251 use of timber framing, 733. See also bungalows; Craftsman Style Arup, Ove, 78–80 Asahi Beer Hall and Brewery, 739 Ashbee, C.R., 80–81, 343. See also Arts and Crafts Movement Asiad Village, 673–74 Asian architecture, 672 Asian Games Building, 280 Asilomar Conference Center, 875; Phoebe Apperson Hearst Administration Building, 251 Asmussen, Erik, 651 Aso Hill (Abuja), 9

Downloaded by [Central Uni Library Bucharest] at 03:22 26 September 2013 Asplund, Erik Gunnar, 81–84, 593; Gothenburg City Hall Extension, 648; influence in Sweden, 650; Stockholm Public Library, 82, 269, 589–1256, 7iii Association for Organic Architecture, 589 associations. See institutes and associations Astrodome, 659, 551 Index 1051

ATC (Argentina Televisora Color) Building, 187 ATC (Argentina Televisor Color), 815 Atheneum (Meier), 827 Athens Charter, 86–87, 297 Atlanta, Georgia, works by John C. Portman Jr., 151 Atlanta, Georgia High Museum of Art, 608–10 Atlanta, Georgia , 153 Atlántida Church, 362 Atlantis Condominiums, 67 Atlantis in Miami, 684 atmospheric theaters, 890 Atomium (Molecule Building), 420 atriums. See also courtyards in architecture; plazas: Aalto’s Academic Bookstore, 574; Academic Bookshop, 602; Ardalan’s use of, 64; Asplund’s use of, 83; glass, 518; glass-canopied, 84; High Museum of Art, 609; in hotels, 154; Hyatt Regency Hotels, 655; Lever House, 759; multistory, 474; National Gallery of Art, East Building, 906; Old Post Office Building in Washington, D.C., 12; Turkish Historical Society, 154;; vertical, 571 AT&T Building, 84–86, 621, 716, 506; exterior, 85 Auditorium Annex, Chicago, 633 Auditorium Building, 655, 629; acoustics, 11 auditoriums. See also concert halls; theaters: Ciudad Universitaria, Caracas, 268 Auev Workers’ Club, 527 Aukrust Museum, 451

Downloaded by [Central Uni Library Bucharest] at 03:22 26 September 2013 Aulenti, Gae, 87–89; designs for exhibitions, 87; Gare d’Orsay, 12 Austral Group, 65–66 Australia, 89–91; Art Deco, 70–71; Australian National University, 212–13 Index 1052

Australian architects, 90; work abroad, 90–91 Australian architecture, 660 Austria, 91–94 Austrian architecture, 719 Austrian Pavilion for International Exhibition of Decorative Arts in Paris, 629 autobahns, 34 automobiles, 94–97; effect on house design, 657; effect on storefront window design, 481; glass used in, 516; impact on regional planning, 244; impact on restaurants, 272; pavilions at New York World’s Fair (1939), 931; place in Voisan Plan for Paris (1925), 272; separation from pedestrians, 304–5; and suburban planning, 619. See also Futurism; gas stations; parking garages; roadway systems; visitor centers avante-garde, 97–99; Adolf Loos, 792; Austria, 93; Berlin, 137, 138; Brussels houses and housing development, 178; Church of St. Francis of Assisi, 257–58; Einstein Tower, 393; Hannes Meyer, 848; Heinrich Tessenow, 724; impact of Bank of London and South America on, 110; Otto Wagner’s influence on Central Europe, 724; Philip Johnson, 715, 716; Robert Mallet-Stevens’s role, 814; Rome, 478; Soviet Union, 830 Avenida Bolivar, 216 Avenue de los Presidentes, El Vedado, 126 Avery Fisher Hall, acoustics, 11 Avery Index to Architectural Periodicals, 585

Downloaded by [Central Uni Library Bucharest] at 03:22 26 September 2013 awards, 25–26. See also Aga Khan Award; competitions; institutes and associations; Pritzker Architecture Prize; Reynolds Company, 30 , 14 Index 1053

Babson Stable and Service Building, 220 Bacardi and Company buildings, 213 Backer, Lars, 940 Bacon, Henry, Lincoln Memorial, 779–81 Badovici, Jean, 544 Badran, Rasem, 299 Baer, Steve, 410 Bagdad, Iraq, 231 Bagdad Conference Palace, 488 Bagdad University, 731 Bagsvaerd Church, 731 Baiyoke Tower, 101–2 Bakas, Sergio. See Arquitectonica Baker, Herbert, 22, 102–4, 110; relationship with Edwin Lutyens, 801–2; work in New Delhi, 919 Baker School, 23 Balboa in San Diego, 532 Bal-Tic-Tac ballroom, 478 Banco de Mexico Building, 845 Bang, Ove, 940 Bangkok, Thailand, 104–7 Bangladesh College of Arts and Crafts, 360 Bangladesh Polytechnique Institutes, 692 Banham, Peter Reyner, 107–8, 365, 427, 519 Bank Austria Client Service Center in Vienna, 340 Bankinter Building, 865 Bank of America Tower, 50, 6ii Bank of Buenos Aires Headquarters, 815 Bank of China Tower, 108–10, 455–56, 49, 501 Bank of London and South America, Buenos Aires, 110–11, 187, 726 Bank of Mexcio Building in Veracruz, 844 Bank of Montreal, 867 Bank of the Southwest Tower, 706 banks: banking halls, 415; first in China, 249; by Louis Sullivan, 631; Philadelphia, 87; by Purcell and Elmslie, 220;

Downloaded by [Central Uni Library Bucharest] at 03:22 26 September 2013 Toronto, 220 Banque de Luxembourg’s headquarters, 68 Banque du Liban et d’Outre Mer, 129 Barbican Estate, 788 Barbizon Apartment Hotel, 70 Barcelona, Spain, 111–14. See also International Exhibition (Barcelona 1929) Index 1054

Barcelona Anti-Tubercular Dispensary, 462 Barcelona Chairs, 854 Barcelona School, 113, 540, 613 Bardi’s Bowl (chair), 151 Barkhin, Grigory, Izvestiia Building, 362 Barmou, Falké, Yaama Mosque, 362–1462 Barnes, Edward Larrabee, 114–16 Barnes House, 39 barns, 29; as billboards, 30 Baroque style: Brazil, 165, 166; in Christian Norberg-Schulz’s works, 936; churches, 254; Memphis Group’s innovations, 835 Barr, Alfred H., Jr., 685 Barragán, Luis, 116–18, 845; Casa Cristo, 117; Cuadra San Cristóbal, 327–29, 2i; relation with environmental issues, 410; use of color, 279 Basel, Switzerland, 361 Bash House, 577 Basil Street Workers Housing, 938 Bass House, 356 Bastei restaurant, 277 Bauer, Catherine, 356 Bauhaus, 118–21, 388, 495; chair, 119; color theory, 278–79; factories, 433; Henri van de Velde’s role, 356; influence in Israel, 695; influence in Spain, 540; influence on the Architects Collaborative, 729; relation with Cubism, 333; relation with International Style, 681, 682, 683; relation with primitivism, 198; ties with constructivists, 303. See also Bauhaus Dessau Bauhaus Dessau, 121–23;

Downloaded by [Central Uni Library Bucharest] at 03:22 26 September 2013 Hannes Meyer’s directorate, 849; Ludwig Mies van der Rohe’s relation with, 854; move of Bauhaus to, 120; night view from North, 122. See also Bauhaus , 523, 198 Bawa, Geoffrey, 123–25 Index 1055

Bay Region School (San Franciso, California), 198 bay windows, 709 beach hotels, by Geoffrey Bawa, 124 beach houses by Paul Rudolph, 353 beam-and-mast system, 260 beauty in architecture, 648, 705 Beaux-Arts classicism: ateliers, 388; campus planning, 206, 207; Caracas, 215; department stores, 356; Frank Lloyd Wright’s rejection, 260; impact of New York World’s Fair (1939), 929; London, 787; Montreal, 866; New York City, 926–27; Rome, 332 Beelman, Claude, 793 Behne, Adolf, 419 Behnisch, Gunter: Hysolar Research Institute, 266; Olympic Games Tent in Munich, 549, 550 Behrens, Peter, 125–28; AEG Turbine Factory, 17–18, 269, 566; curtain-wall system, 433; exhibition buildings, 566; impact on Düsseldorf, 377; project at International Exhibition of Decorative Arts (Paris 1925), 680; relation with Deutscher Werkbund, 357; Synagogue of Zilina, 673; time at Darmstadt artists’ colony, 343, 344; work in Czechoslovakia, 342; work in Frankfurt, 473 Behrens House, 126 Beijing, China, 250 Beirut, Lebanon, 128–30 Beit Nassif, 709 Belém Cultural Centre, 783 Belfort Theater, 944 Belgiojoso, Lodovico B. di, 673 Belgium, 130–32;

Downloaded by [Central Uni Library Bucharest] at 03:22 26 September 2013 Art Nouveau (Jugendstil), 673; Social Democratic Workers’ Party headquarters, 73 Belo Horizonte, Brazil: Church of St. Francis of Assisi, 257–58; Pampulha Buildings, 13–974 Benedictine Monastery in Las Condes Santiago de Chile, 248 Benetton Factory, 134–35 Index 1056

Benevolo, Leonardo, 132–34, 623, 624 Ben Franklin Parkway, 87 Benjamin, Walter, 98 Benjamin Franklin’s “house” and museum, 87 Benjamin Henry Latrobe (Hamlin), 585 Bennett, Edward H., 104; Plan of Chicago, 104 Bentley Wood, 733 Bergpolder, 343 Berlage, Hendrik Petrus, 135–37, 912; Amsterdam Stock Exchange, 171; Apartments, Mercatorplein, 913; Bourse, 47; influence on European architecture, 372; Plan for Amsterdam South, 47; relation with Amsterdam School, 49; tectonics, 706 Berlin, Germany, 137–42. See also Berlin wall; AEG Turbine Factory, 17–18, 269, 566; housing projects by Bruno Taut, 692; Reichstag, 255–1095; Universum Cinema, 255–1376; Werner Hegemann’s writings on, 597 Berlin architects, 138 Berlin National Gallery, 854 Berlin Philharmonie, 142–44, 421; acoustics, 11, 143; exterior, 143 Berlin Wall, 140–41, 144–45 Berman House, 454 Bernhard, Karl, 17 Best Products Showroom, 145–46; exterior, 146 Beth Shalom Synagogue (Wright), 675 Beverly Hills Hotel, 675 Bianchi House, 161 Revival, 576 Big Duck, The, 304, 305 Bijlmermeer, 48 Bijvoet, Bernard, 373

Downloaded by [Central Uni Library Bucharest] at 03:22 26 September 2013 Bill, Max, 305 Binet, René, 424 Bingham House, 822 Bioclimatic Chart, 271 Birkerts, Gunnar, 146–48 black brick, 647 black colleges, 388 Index 1057

Blacker House, 552 Black Mountain College plan, 207 Blair House, 14 Bloemenwerf, 130, 305 Blomstedt, Aulis, 148–50, 462, 463–64 Bò Bardi, Lina, 150–52, 167 Boccaro, Charles, 20 Boccioni, Umberto, 394 Bodley, George, 305 Bofill, Ricardo, 152–54, 621, 171, 596 Bogardus, James, 193 Bohigas Guardiola, Oriol, 113, 114 Böhm, Dominikus, 277, 278 Böhm, Gottfried, 154–55; church design, 256; Pilgrimage Church at Neviges, 99–1016 Boley Building, 516 Bolt, Beranek and Newman, 11 bond patterning, 819 Bonet, Pep, 613 Boots Pure Drugs Factory, 155–56, 613 Boston, Massachusetts, 158–60; high-tech corridor on Route 128, 386; urban development, 613 Boston City Hall, 156–58, 159, 265; competition, 285–86; exterior, 157 Boston Government Services Center, 357 Boston Public Library, 158, 771 Boston Symphony Hall, 11 Botta, Mario, 160–63, 657 Bourne End, 298 Bourne-White, Margaret, 60 Bourse, 47 Bouwma, S.J., 913 bow windows, 657 Boyd, Robin, 90, 830 Brandstron, Howard, 775 Brasilia, 163–65; impact on Rio de Janerio, 294; Niemeyer’s role, 934;

Downloaded by [Central Uni Library Bucharest] at 03:22 26 September 2013 Rino Levi’s proposal for, 761. See also Federal Capital Complex, Brasilia Braun Headquarters, 587 Brazil, 40, 165–68; Church of St. Francis of Assisi, 257–58 Brazilian architects, 165 Brazilian architecture, 318, 569, 12 Index 1058

Brazilian influence: on African architecture, 24; on Israel architects, 695–96 at New York World’s Fair (1939), 931, 934 Breuer, Marcel, 167–70, 344; Bauhaus chair, 119; Black Mountain College plan, 207; relation with International Style, 682; Whitney Museum of American Art, 599 brick, 170–73; Aalto’s use of, 2; apparently collapsing, 145; Behren’s use of, 127; Berlage’s use of, 135; black, 647; curtain walls, 337; Dutch varieties, 912; glass bricks, 229; Holland brick, 14; Michel de Klerk’s use of, 392; reinforced, 362; at Tuskegee Institute, 699; use in Expressionism, 426; use in United Kingdom, 699; white, 647 bridges: Amstel, 135; by E. Owen Williams, 699; glass, 237; Paolo Soleri’s drawings, 521; by Robert Maillart, 808; by Santiago Calatrava, 203–4; Seville, 422; truss systems, 607 Brief History of Ancient Chinese City Planning, A (Wu Liangyong), 607 Briley, Jenifer. See Arquitectonica Brinkman, Johannes Andreas, 342; Van Nelle Factory, Rotterdam, 342–1396 Brion-Vega Tomb and Cemetery, 414; Chapel, 414; entrance and meditation pavilion, 415

Downloaded by [Central Uni Library Bucharest] at 03:22 26 September 2013 British architects, 155–56, 180; Archigram, 57 British architecture, 512 British influence: Cairo, 201; New Zealand, 932 British Library, 173–75, 512; Index 1059

exterior, 174 British Museum, Great Court, 467, 468, 6i British Pavilion at Expo ‘92, 559 Broadacre City, 175–78, 512512– map of regional layout, 177; model, 176 Broadgate, 789 Bronx River Parkway, 34 Bronx Zoo, African Habitat, 935 Brooklyn Institute of Arts and Sciences, 824 Brown Decades, The (Mumford), 891 Bruder, Will, Phoenix Public Library, 89–1012 Brunei, 532 Brussels, Belgium, 178–80; L’Innovation Department Store, 781–82 Brussels Exposition (1958), 416, 419–20 Brutalism, 180–82; Alan Colquhoun’s relation with, 280; Argentina, 66; Australia, 90; Boston City Hall design, 157; Brasilia Federal Capital Complex, 449; Canberra, 213; Israel, 697; London, 788; of Marcel Breuer, 169; Netherlands, 914; New Zealand, 932; Oswald Mathias Ungers’s work, 532; Paul Rudolph’s relation with, 353; Peter and Alison Smithson’s works, 512; of Peter Reyner Banham, 107; relation with primitivism, 198; Southern and Central Africa, 24; that used brick, 172; United Kingdom, 198; United States, 198; use of concrete, 293; Yugoslavia, 198 Bryant Park, 124 Bryggman, Erik, 461, 462

Downloaded by [Central Uni Library Bucharest] at 03:22 26 September 2013 Bucharest, Romania, 182–84 Buck House, 423 Budapest, Hungary, 184–86 Buenos Aires, Argentina, 186–88; Agrest and Gandelsonas apartment buildings, 28; Olivetti Factory, 951–52 Buenos Aires Airport proposal, 423 Index 1060

building demolition. See demolition building envelopes, thin-skin, 368 building materials: sustainability and sustainable architecture: at Chicago World’s Fair (1933), 230; and climate, 272; computer quantification of, 288; Dutch, 50; effect on house design, 657; and energy-efficient design, 405; Finnish, 601; “green,” 642; Hans Poelzig’s symbolic use of, 131; Hassan II Mosque minaret, 592, 593; James Stewart Polshek’s use of metal, 136; Kazuyo Sejima’s innovative use, 458; light-emitting surfaces, 775; Middle Eastern, 709; Renzo Piano’s experiments, 92; responses to light, 522; semiprecious stones, 10; symbolism, 658; used by Frank Lloyd Wright, 669; used by Itsuko Hasegawa, 590; used by Tadao Ando, 52–53; used in Expressionism, 426; used in prefabrication, 192. See also locally available materials use buildings, companionability among, 169, 174, 541, 906, 2, 421. See also sites, compatibility with buildings Buildings of England series (Pevsner), 81 built-in furniture, 431 bungalows, 96, 188–89; Australian, 89; California, 188; Los Angeles, 794; Midwestern, 188; origins of, 920. See also American Foursquare; ranch houses; row houses

Downloaded by [Central Uni Library Bucharest] at 03:22 26 September 2013 Bunshaft, Gordon, 189–91; Hirshhorn Museum, 190, 497; Lever House, 190, 518, 596, 759–60, 928, 494, 505–6; National Commercial Bank Headquarters, 710; work in United States, 506; Bureaux d’Etudes Henri Chomette, 191–93 Bürger, Peter, 8, 26 Index 1061

Burle Marx, Roberto, 193–94 Burnham, Daniel Hudson, 194–98, 534, 85, 529; Flatiron Building, 466–67, 716; , 171, 391, 819; Plan of Chicago, 104; Wanamaker Store, 104–1432; World’s Columbian Exposition (Chicago 1893), 262 bus terminals, 198–99; Art Deco, 71; platform design, 198; relationship with rail stations, 198, 199 Byker Wall, 412, 413, 169 Byzantine Museum in Thessaloniki, 549 Byzantine Revival style in synagogues, 673

cable nets, 960 cable-suspended systems, 607 Caesar’s Palace, 750 Cafe Aubette, 349 Cafe Museum in Vienna, 791 Cairo, Egypt, 19, 20, 21, 201–2 Calatrava, Santiago, 202–4, 607; bridges for Expo 607, 422; church design, 255; Gare Do Oriente, 783, 784, 785; Lyon-Satolas Station for Lyon Airport, 226 Caldwell, Alfred, 668 California, Craftsman style, 322 California chic homes, 399 “California style” architects, 490 Calthorpe, Peter, 922 Cambridge, England: city center, 412; Schlumberger Cambridge Research Center, 426–1179 Campo Volantin Footbridge, 204 camps for children, 114 “camp” style, 355 campus planning, 205–8; Australia, 212–13; Belgium, 132; Boston, Massachusetts, 159;

Downloaded by [Central Uni Library Bucharest] at 03:22 26 September 2013 by Cass Gilbert, 502; International Style, 355; by Joan Edelman Goody, 533; by Ralph Adams Cram, 323; by Wallace K. Harrison, 589 Canada, 208–11 Canada chancery in Berlin, 401 Index 1062

Canada Place, 355 Canadian architects, 208 Canadian architecture, 40, 41 Canadian Clay and Glass Gallery, 40 Canberra, Australia, 211–13; Plan, 101–1018 Candela, Felix, 213–15; church design, 255; first shell building, 267; use of concrete shells, 296 “Can Lis,” 101 Cansever, Turgut, 101 Cape Dutch Revival, 22 Capela de Pampulha, 166–67 Cape Town, South Africa, 102 capital cities: Abuja, 9–10; Basília, 163–65; Canberra, 102–1018; Caracas, 215–17; Chandigarh, India, 235–36; New Delhi, 919–20, 107–1021; Sher-e-Banglanagar complex, 902–4; in Southern and Central Africa, 25 Capitalism’s impact on architecture: along with architectural photography, 60; antagonism with high culture, 17; in China, 982; Garden City Movement, 621; Manfedo Tafuri’s writings on, 678; Plan of Chicago, 107; roadside architecture, 302; skyscrapers, 77; Thailand, 106; Turkey, 77; utopian plan of Global City, 77 Capitol Park, 509 Capitol Theatre in Melbourne, 557 Capotesta houses, 728 Capri, 221 Caracas, Venezuela, 215–17;

Downloaded by [Central Uni Library Bucharest] at 03:22 26 September 2013 Ciudad Universitaria, 267–69 Bay Opera House, 581 carioca school, 294 Carlo Felice Theater in Genoa, 337 Carlyle Hotel, 851 Carnegie Hall Tower, 50–3 Carnegie Libraries, 771 Index 1063

Carpenter Center for the Visual Arts, 159, 310 Carrère and Hastings, 217–19, 16 Carson Pirie Scott Store, 219–21, 631; exterior, 220 Carter House, 556 Cartier Museum, 942; exterior, 943 Casa Agustí, 112 Casa Albert Lleó i Morera, 112 Casa Antoni Amatller, 214, 216; detail, 215 Casa Astrea, 874 Casa Batllo, 488 Casablanca, 20, 21; Hassan II Mosque, 592–94 Casa Cristo, 117 Casa de les Punxes, 216 , 716, 718 Casa Girasole, Rome, 874, 874 Casa Malaparte, 221–23, 768, 4i interior, 222 Casa Martí, 214 Casa Milà, 223–25; exterior, 223, 224, 5i Casa Regás and Belvedere Giorgina, 614 Casa Rotunda, 162 Casa Terrades, 216 Casa Ugalde, 273 Casa Vittoria, Isla de Pantelleria, 613 Case Study Houses, 381, 795, 568 CASFPI tower, 816 Casio del Fascio, 443 Castel Beranger, 959 Castilla-León Congress Center, 568 cast iron. See also cast steel: spheroidal graphite, 261 Castle Hill, 14 castles, adaptive reuse, 13 “castle” style of Edwin Lutyens, 801 cast steel, 141 Catalan architects, 273, 857, 460

Downloaded by [Central Uni Library Bucharest] at 03:22 26 September 2013 Catalan architecture, 111, 213 Catalan craft revival, 224 Catalan (Guastavino) vaults, 111, 224, 225–26 Catalan , 111 “Cathedral of Commerce, The,” 213 Cathedral of St. John the Divine, 255 CBS Building. See Columbia Broadcasting System Headquarters Index 1064

Cedars-Sinai Comprehensive Cancer Clinic, 878 Celebration, Florida, 226–27, 624 cement, 290; white, 911. See also concrete Cement Hall at Swiss National Exhibition (1939), 809 cemeteries, 858; by Sigurd Lewerentz, 764, 765. See also Brion-Vega Tomb and Cemetery Cemetery of San Cataldo, 338 Centraal Beheer Insurance offlces, 605–6, 946 Central European architecture, 730 Central Institute of Educational Technology, 282 Central Post Office of Paris, 568 Central Station of Stuttgart, 616 Central University Campus in Caracas, 215 Centro Escolar Benito Juarez, 947 Centrust Tower, 852 Century of Progress Exposition (Chicago 1933), 229–31, 230, 242 CEPAL (Comisión Económica Para America Latina), 247–48 Ceramica Artistica Solimene, 522 Chadirji, Rifat, 231–34 chairs: Barcelona Chairs, 854; Bardi’s Bowl, 151; Bauhaus, 119; Marcel Breuer cantilevered, 168; Superleggera, 146 Chame-Chame House, 151 Chandigarh, India, 235–36 Changing Ideals in Modern Architecture, 1750–1950 (Collins), 622 Channel 4 Headquarters, London, 236–37; windows, 236 “Chaos and Machine” (Shinohara), 146 Chapel of Capuchinas Sacramentarias, 327 Chapel of Notre-Dame-du-Haut, 237–39, 256; exterior, 235 Chapel of St. Ignatius in Seattle, Washington, 634 Chapel of the Sea, 259 Chareau, Pierre, 239–40; Maison De Verre, 810–11

Downloaded by [Central Uni Library Bucharest] at 03:22 26 September 2013 House, 431 Charter of the New Urbanism, 922 Chassagne stone, 68 Chassé Theatre in , 606 Château d’Eau, 424 Château style, 210 Chatterjee, Sris Chandra, 672 Index 1065

Checkhov Museum, 475 Chemosphere House, 795 Chen, Zhi, 240–41 Chermayeff, Serge, 734 Cheung Kong Centre, 642 Chiado National Gallery, 784 Chiat/Day in Venice, 490 Chicago, Illinois, 241–44; Carson Pirie Scott Store, 219–21; Century of Progress Exposition (1933), 229–31; Daniel Hudson Burnham’s work in, 195; Plan of 734, 196–97, 242, 263, 104; Postmodernism, 246; Sears Tower, 447–1189; urban development, 447. See also Chicago School Chicago Board of Trade, 630 Chicago Convention Hall, 447 Chicago Daily News Building, 242, 630 Chicago Exposition (1933–34), 416 Chicago School, 244–46, 632; influence in Chile, 247; skyscrapers, 504 “Chicago Style” skyscrapers, 468 Competition. See Tribune Tower International Competition (Chicago 1922) Chicago window, 244, 632 Chick House, 822 Children’s Home in Amsterdam, 428 Chile, 246–49 Chilean architecture, 248 Chile House, 426 China, 249–51 Chinese architects, 250, 269, 49. See also feng shui Chinese architecture, 241, 642–43, 765, 466 “Chippendale” skyscraper, 84, 85 Chocolate Factory in Blois, 943 Choisy, Auguste, 251–52 Choy, Jose Antonio, 331 Chrysler Building, 252–54, 927, 504; competition with Empire State Building, 403

Downloaded by [Central Uni Library Bucharest] at 03:22 26 September 2013 churches, 253–57; Art Deco, 70; Brasilia, 934; China, 249; Cologne, Germany, 277–78; Cuba, 330; Denmark, 355; Index 1066

by Eladio Dieste, 362; Finland, 463; by Gottfried Böhm, 154; in Muurame (Alvar Aalto), 1; by Prairie School architects, 180; Southern and Central Africa, 24; Sweden, 651; by Tadeo Ando, 53–54 Church in Rárósmulyad, 826 Church of Saint-Joseph in Le Havre, 755 Church of St. Francis of Assisi, 257–58, 14 Church of St. Leopold am Steinhof, 14 Church of the Holy Spirit in Ottakring, 127 Church of the Light, 53–54, 293 Church of the Sagrada Familia, 489 Church of the Virgen de la Medalla Milagroso, 214 Church on the Water, 258–59 CIAM (Congrès Internationaux de l’Architecture Moderne). See Congrès Internationaux de l’Architecture Moderne (CIAM) Çinici, Behruz and Can, Mosque of the Grand National Assembly, 884–86 circulation. See paths of movement Cirici, Cristian, 613 Cité de Circulation, 613 Cité de Refuge, 517 Cité Industrielle, Une, 259–60 Citicorp Center, 684 Cities and the Wealth of Nations (Jacobs), 703 Citrohan House, 366 Città Nuova, 260–62 City, The (Park), 613 City Beautiful Movement, 262–64; application to shopping centers, 480; Ben Franklin Parkway, 87; and campus planning, 206; Cass Gilbert’s involvement in, 502; influence on Seaside, Florida, 451; relation with urban renewal, 451; United States, 451; use in colonial capitals, 919; Vancouver, 451. See also memorials

Downloaded by [Central Uni Library Bucharest] at 03:22 26 September 2013 city centers; Ahmedabad, India, 30; Athens Charter position on, 86; Beirut, 130; Cambridge, England, 412; Glasgow, 514; Hilberseimer’s approach to, 613; Index 1067

Ho Chi Minh City, 532. See also redevelopment projects “City for 10 Million People,” 839 City for Three Million Inhabitants. See Contemporary City for Three Million Inhabitants city halls, 264–66; Denmark, 354; plaza design near, 124 See also Boston City Hall; Toronto City Hall City in History, The (Mumford), 891 city planning. See urban planning City Planning: Housing (Hegemann), 598 Ciudad Universitaria, Caracas, 267–69 Ciudad Universitaria Campus and Stadium, Mexico City, 266–67 Civic Center, Bucharest, 184 , 535 Civil Government Offices in Tarragona, 524 Civil Rights Memorial in Montgomery, 776, 777 cladding, 170; AT&T Building, 84, 85; brick, 171, 172; brick and steel, 172; copper, 607; on Getty Museum, 498; plastic, 112; porcelain-enameled steel panels, 305; purpose of thin skin, 594; relation to curtain-wall system, 335; Shanghai World Financial Center, 466; steel, 572; stone, 597; stone veneer vs. brick, 172; terra cotta, 135; theories of, 629; titanium, 571 Clark House, 15, 597 Clark/Maple Gasoline Service Station, 525 Clason, Isak Gustaf, 593 Classicism, 269–70; Asplund’s motifs, 81–82; Auguste Choisy’s writings, 252;

Downloaded by [Central Uni Library Bucharest] at 03:22 26 September 2013 Australia, 89; Bucharest, 184; Cairo, 202; churches, 254; of Daniel Hudson Burham, 197; effect of Sant’Elia’s drawings on, 262; Finland, 460; Index 1068

Gio Ponti’s use of, 144; Joseph Maria Odbrich’s move towards, 950; in Kenzo Tange’s works, 45; Nordic, 601; Norway, 939; Robert Stern’s affinity for, 575; Southern and Central Africa, 22; synagogues, 673; in Tony Garnier’s work, 483, 484; at Tuskegee Institute, 699; in works of Cass Gilbert, 502 classroom acoustics, 11 claustra walls, 35 Cleveland, Ohio, Plan, 263 Cleveland Terminal Group buildings, 534 client-centered architects, 590; James Stewart Polshek, 136; Richard Neutra, 918 climate, 270–73; and construction in United Kingdom, 136; global changes in, 272; housing experiments by Coderch, 273; relation with site, 136; and use of Mediterranean architecture in Finland, 462. See also arctic climate construction; desert climate construction; wind pressure design climate control, 46; Bauhaus, Dessau, 121; Benetton Factory, 135; British library, London, 174–75; with canvas, 682; indigenous methods of, 682; relation with curtain walls, 336; at Rocky Mountain Institute, 643; shopping centers, 480; stadiums, 550; street with, 550; telescope temperature control, 497; U.S. Embassy in New Delhi, 603; using patios, 813.

Downloaded by [Central Uni Library Bucharest] at 03:22 26 September 2013 See also energy-efficient design; heating, ventilation, and air conditioning (HVAC); solar architecture Clotet, Lluis, 613 clubhouse designs, 320; by McKim, Mead and White, 824; by Stepanovich Melnikov, 831 Index 1069

“cluster” blocks, 753 CNIT, Palais des Expositions, 23 CNU (Congress for the New Urbanism), 369 Cobb, Henry Ives, 206 Coca-Cola Bottling Plant in Los Angeles, 795 Cocoon, 355 Cocoon House, 402 Coderch y de Sentmenat, José Antonio, 112, 113, 273–74 Cogan Residence, 578 Cohen, Jean-Louis, 274–75 Colisee buildings in Nimes, 738 Collage City (Rowe and Koetter), 306 Collins, Peter, 275–76, 622 Cologne, Germany, 276–78 Colonial Revival, 241; United States, 241 colored concrete, 361 color photography, 60 colors, 278–80; adding to concrete, 291, 292; Baiyoke Towers, 101; Bruno Taut’s urban design with, 692; Frank Gehry’s use of, 491; Hassan II Mosque, 593; Josep Lluis Sert’s use of, 462; Luis Barragán’s use of, 116, 845; Portland Public Services Building, 151; Susana Torre’s use of, 151; Theo van Doesburg’s use of, 151; use at Fagus Werk, 436; use at gas stations, 485; use at Panama-Pacific International Exposition in San Francisco, 16; use at Schroöder-Schräder House, 433; use by Gwathmey and Siegel, 577, 578; use by Ralph Erskine, 412; used at Weissenhofsiedlung (Stuttgart 1927), 433; used by Glasgow School, 510; use for structural balance, 146; use in Woolworth Building, 146; use of discordant, 222 Colquhoun, Alan, 280–81

Downloaded by [Central Uni Library Bucharest] at 03:22 26 September 2013 Columbia Broadcasting System Headquarters, 368, 504 Columbia University: Alfred Lerner Hall, 504 Low Library, 927; plan, 206 Columbus, Indiana, 281–84; Gateway Study, 282 Index 1070

columns: by Antoni Gaudí, 487, 488, 489; Cranbrook Academy, 12; Great Mosque of Niono, 546; High Museum of Art, 609; of ivory, 964; Johnson Wax Administrative Building, 313, 714, 715; at Lincoln Memorial, 780; memorial, 833–34; “mushroom,” 12; Sainsbury Wing, National Gallery, London, 378; tall buildings as, 620; tilted, 40 comfort, human. See also climate control: Eileen Gray’s emphasis, 544 commercial buildings, definition, 12 Commercial Center of Fountivegge, 338–9 commercialism. See Capitalism’s impact on architecture Commerzbank Tower, 474, 520 Commissariat of Agriculture in Moscow, 302 Commons shopping center, Columbus, Indiana, 565 communication via architecture, 57 Communist impact on architecture: Bucharest, 183–84; Budapest, 185; China, 250; Cuba, 330–31; East Germany, 496; Hungary, 663–64; Prague, 178; use of demolition, 352 community and architecture, 441; communities of builders, 441; exclusionary communities, 621; shopping centers as community centers, 565. See also paths of movement community centers. See cultural centers community/individual relationship through architecture, 142, 362, 605 company towns, 434–35 competitions, 284–87. See also awards

Downloaded by [Central Uni Library Bucharest] at 03:22 26 September 2013 Complexity and Contradiction in Architecture (Venturi), 166, 668- 668 computer-aided design, 59, 287–88; climate data software, 271, 272; Frank Gehry’s use of, 491, 492; for Guggenheim Museum (Bilbao), 571; lighting, 775; Morphosis’s use of, 878; Index 1071

Peter D. Eisenman’s use of, 395, 396; sustainable architecture tools, 641; of tensile structures, 708; for utopian planning, 708 computers and architecture, 287–89 Concert Hall, Hälsingborg, Sweden, 289–90 concert halls: acoustics, 10–11, 11; seating, 142 concrete, 290–94; colored, 361; corrugated, 675; Edward Stone’s screen walls, 603; ferro-cement, 418–19; first use of precast, 193; high-strength, 77–81; influence on factory design, 433; István Medgyaszay’s work with, 826; Knitlock system, 557; Louis Kahn’s use of, 381; magnesite, 746; mixed with coquina stone, 217; mixed with marble aggregate, 529; Ove Arup experiments with, 78; Paul Rudolfs use of, 353, 356; Pier Luigi Nervi’s construction techniques, 910; for private house, 150; in PVC pipes, 36; Soleri’s experiments with, 61; and stone walls, 599; trusses, 599; use at Fiat Works (Turin), 459; use in Brutalism, 180; use in grain elevators, 538. See also reinforced concrete concrete-shell structure, 294–96; Philips Pavilion, 292–93; Shrine of the Dome, 485 Condition Postmoderne, La (Lyotard), 170 Condominium Apartments in Acapulco, 454 Coney Island, 52;

Downloaded by [Central Uni Library Bucharest] at 03:22 26 September 2013 Destruction of Dreamland, 51 Congregation Beth El in Detroit, 673 Congrès Internationaux de l’Architecture Moderne (CIAM), 296- 98, 587; Athens meeting, 549; British branch, 298; Frankfurt congress, 473; Hungarian group, 663, 863; Index 1072

influence in Spain, 540; influence on urban planning, 540; Japanese branch, 736; Norwegian branch, 450, 940; Pruitt-Igoe Public Housing Project impact on, 206. See also Athens Charter; Frank, Josef Congress for the New Urbanism (CNU), 369, 922, 623 Conklin House, 431 Connell, Ward and Lucas, 298–99 construction management, 299–301; computer use for, 288–89 Construction Management at Risk system, 300 construction techniques: Arts and Crafts Movement, 75–78; “bundled tubes,” 447; of E. Owen Williams, 447; Empire State Building, 404; innovations in Mexico, 843; innovative concrete, 952; of Paolo Soleri, 521; precast construction, 185–1057; at Pruitt-Igoe Public Housing Project, 204; of Ramses Wissa Wassef, 204; School of Construction Technicians, 947; skeletal, 37; of Skidmore Owings and Merrill, 493, 494; St. Petersburg (Leningrad), 544; thin-skin building envelopes, 368; using wood, 368; welded buildings, 40; wooden stud frame, 423; World Trade Center, 423. See also construction management; masonry bearing walls; prefabrication; steel-frame construction; structural systems Constructivism, 301–4; Berlin, 140; demise, 5;

Downloaded by [Central Uni Library Bucharest] at 03:22 26 September 2013 in Ilya Golosov’s work, 526, 527; impact on Czechoslovakia, 341; influence on James Stirling, 917; of Ivan Ilich Leonidov, 758; Moisei Ginzburg’s contribution to, 506; Monument to the Third International in, 869; Moscow, 879; Index 1073

Netherlands, 913; relation with Bauhaus, 119; relation with Futurism, 478; relation with modernism, 861–62; Russia, 361, 363; St. Petersburg (Leningrad), 544–6; United States, 546;; use of trusses for expression, 546;; of Vesnin brothers, 546; contemporary art. See modern art and architecture Contemporary Arts Center in Cincinnati, 581 Contemporary City for Three Million Inhabitants, 304–5, 366, 546; relation with Ville Radieuse, 546; Contemporary Museum of Art in Los Angeles, 693 Contextualism, 305–6; Aalto’s exemplary work of, 3; of Alvaro Siza, 490; of Antoine Predock, 187; by Arne Emile Jacobsen, 705; of Dominique Perrault, 64, 68; of Enric Miralles and Carme Pinós, 857; exceptions to, in Romania, 328; and house design, 657–58; Johannes Duiker’s exception, 955; Malaysia, 53; of Moshe Safdie, 375; Paul Rudolph’s six determinants of form, 353; relation with historicism, 621; of Richard Rogers, 324; Social Security Complex, Istanbul, 516 contour planning, 434 convenience stores, 486 convention-facilities, 654 Conway, Patricia, 453, 732 Conway Building, 241 Cook, Peter, 306–7, 516. See also Archigram Coonley House, 312 Coop Himmelblau, 307–9; Falkenstrasse Roof Construction Project in Vienna, 93; Groninger Museum, 3i;

Downloaded by [Central Uni Library Bucharest] at 03:22 26 September 2013 “Open House,” 657; relation with Deconstructivism, 350, 351 Copan Building, 399 Copenhagen, Plan, 233 Copenhagen, Denmark, 353; Grundtvig Church, 567 Copenhagen Town Hall, 264 Index 1074

Copley Square: buildings, 159, 160; redesign, 125 copper roof shingles, 228 coquina stone, 217 coral reef building materials, 709 Le Corbusier, (Jeanneret, Charles-Edouard), 309–13; Ahamedabad buildings, 30, 31; appreciation of Eileen Gray’s work, 545; appreciation of vernacular buildings, 125; buildings at Weissenhofsiedlung (Stuttgart 1927), 125; Carpenter Center for the Visual Arts, 159, 310; Chapel at Ronchamp, 667; Chapel of Notre-Dame-du-Haut, 237–39, 256; Contemporary City for Three Million Inhabitants, 304–5, 366, 667 Dom-ino Houses, 292, 304, 310, 365–67, 656; “Five Points of a New Architecture,” 311; impact in Chile, 247, 248; influence in Brazil, 318; influence in Buenos Aires, 186; influence in Hungary, 663; influence in Israel, 696; influence of Choisy on, 252; Maisons Jaoul at Neuilly-sur-Seine, 172; opinion of Fiat Works (Turin), 459; opinion of Highpoint I, 611–12; Palace of the Soviets Competition entry, 4, 6; Paris architects who inspired, 19; Paris buildings, 21; Parliament Building, 6ii; pavilion at International Exhibition of Decorative Arts (Paris 1925), 680; Philips Pavilion, 419; photography, 59, 264; praise of Algerian pisé buildings, 385; redesign of Chandigarh plan, 235; relation with Brutalism, 180–81; relation with Cubism, 333; relation with environmental issues, 410; relation with International Style, 681, 682; relation with primitivism, 198; role in CIAM, 297, 298;

Downloaded by [Central Uni Library Bucharest] at 03:22 26 September 2013 tectonics in works of, 706; typological reasoning, 706; Unite d’Habitation, 56, 312, 706–1359; urban planning designs, 706; use of color, 279; use of concrete, 292; use of concrete shells, 296; Index 1075

use of glass, 517; views on urbanism, 706; Villa Savoye, 31, 706–1418; Ville Radieuse, 706–1420; Le Corbusier, (Jeanneret, Charles-Edouard) (continued) Voisin Plan for Paris, 311, 706–1423; work in Brazil, 165; writings about airport architecture, 33. See also Athens Charter Córdoba, 66 cornice on Flatiron Building, 466 Cornich Mosque, 710 Corning Museum of Glass, 147, 148 corporate logos, 485; by Erich Mendelsohn, 836 corporate plazas, 126 corporate visitor centers, 126 corprorate office park, estate, and campus, 313–14; in edge cities, 386 Correa, Charles, 314–17; Ghandi Smarak Sangrahalaya, 31, 315; relation with environmental issues, 411; use of traditional building methods, 126; Vidhan Bhavan (State Assembly), 126–1409, 7iii; work in India, 673, 674 Cosanti, 521 Costa, Lúcio, 165, 166, 317–19, 931, 294; Brasilia plan, 163; Ministry of Education Building in Rio de Janeiro, 318; work on Brasilia, 447 Cottage style in Toronto, 748 country clubs, 319–21 Court of the Universe, 16 courtyards in architecture: Alliance Franco-Sénéfalaise, 35; bungalow court, 188; Entrepreneurship Development Institute in India, 407–8; Frank Lloyd Wright’s public buildings, 16; Jørn Utzon’s use of, 16; Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Riyadh, 856; traditional Chinese architecture, 249 Cowles House, 114

Downloaded by [Central Uni Library Bucharest] at 03:22 26 September 2013 Crabtree, William, 787 Craftsman Style, 321–22; of Gustav Stickley, 581–1252 Cram, Ralph Adams, 322–24, 581; Boston works, 158; campus planning, 206; Cathedral of St. John the Divine, 323; Index 1076

Rice University, 658 Cranbrook, Michigan, 324–25 Cranbrook Academy, 12; renovation, 12 Crawford House, 878 Creanga, Horia, 183 Cret, Paul Philippe, 325–27, 87; campus planning, 206; influence on Chinese architects, 765 , 152, 87; Cultural Centre Jean Marie Tjibaou, 335; effect on use of concrete, 293; Kenneth Frampton’s theory of, 470; relation with environmental issues, 410; relation with Historicism, 621 Croly, Herbet, 122 Crow Island School, 59, 430; exterior, 430 Crown Hall, Illinois Institute of Technology, 667, 668 Crystal Cathedral, 256 Crystal Chain, 426 Crystal Palace, 417 crystals, use in Expressionism, 426 Cuadra San Cristóbal, 327–29; exterior, 328 Cuba, 329–32; use of Catalan vaults, 225 Cuban architecture, 324 Cuban Pavilion at Expo ‘67, 422 Cubism, 332–34, 384, 262; impact on architectural drawing, 58–59; impact on Czechoslovakia, 341; influence in Prague, 178; influence in Riyadh, 297; influence on Amsterdam School, 913; influence on Gropius House, 560; influence on Michael Graves, 542; relation with International Style, 683 Cueto House, 325 CUJAE, 331 Cultural Center, Le Havre, 933

Downloaded by [Central Uni Library Bucharest] at 03:22 26 September 2013 cultural centers: Alliance Franco-Sénéfalaise, 35–36; mosques, 884 Cultural Centre Jean Marie Tjibaou-Noumia, 334–35, 3ii; interior, 335 Cultural Congress Center Concert Hall, 11 Cultural Park for Children in Cairo, 202, 203 Index 1077

culture: architectural, 358; vs. capitalism, 17 Cummins Engine Company, 281–82 Cunha Lima House, 569 Cuno House, 127 curtain wall system, 335–37; adaptation, in Brussels, 179; aluminum, 39, 40; Bank of China Tower, 109; concrete, Bank of London and South America, Buenos Aires, 110; effect on interior climate control, 594; “floating,” 436; glass, 121, 337, 515, 516, 517, 519, 54; as image-making device, 943, 54; Institut du Monde Arabe, 26; by Peter Behrens, 433; tinted Thermopane glass, 590 Curtis, Louis S., 516 curved rooms, 8 curvilinear Art Nouveau (Judendstil), 72, 74, 912 Cushicle, 57 Cuypers, Eduard, 49 cyburbia, 386 cylindrical forms, 427; brick fireplace, 521; grain elevators, 538; staircase with wall of glass, 527 Czech, Hermann, 337–40 Czech Republic and Czechoslovakia, 340–42

Dacca. See Dhaka, Bangladesh Dalcroze Institute for Rhythmic Dance, 724 Dallas Museum of Art, 115 Dangler, Henry C., 14 Danish architects, 355 Danish architecture, 704 Danteum project for Rome, 718 Dar-al-Islam, 445 Darmstadt, Germany, 343–44 Darvich, Djhanguir, 690

Downloaded by [Central Uni Library Bucharest] at 03:22 26 September 2013 Darwin Martin House, 718 De 8, 47–48 Death and Life of Great American Cities, The (Jacobs), 616, 703, 166 De Bazel, Karel P.C., 372 de Beauvior, Simone, 453 , 343 De Carlo, Giancarlo, 344–46 Index 1078

Deconstructivism, 350–52, 672; architectural drawings of, 59; Daniel Libeskind’s work, 768; Denmark, 355; exhibit at Modern Museum of Art, New York, 717; and house design, 657; Hungary, 664; ornament, 959; relation with Contextualism, 306; relation with Cubism, 333; United States, 672 use of brick, 172; Zaha M.Hadid’s contribution to, 581 decorated shed, 29, 751, 435 Defense Corps Building in Jyväskylä, 1 de Klerk, Michel, 346–48; Eigen Haard Housing Estate, 392–93, 8i; Expressionist work, 427 De-La-War Pavilion, 836 Delft School, 435, 344 De Lijnbaan, 343 de Meuron, Pierre. See Herzog and De Meuron “Democracity,” 930 democracy, representation in buildings: Brasília Federal Capital Complex, 448; at Canberra, 102; embassies, 401; Reichstag, 255 demolition, 352–53; Berlin, 141; Istanbul, 699; Pruitt-Igoe Public Housing Project, 206. See also adaptive reuse Denmark, 353–56 Denver Art Museum, 145 Denver Park Mayfair East Apartments, 819 Denver Public Library, 543 department stores, 356–57; Art Deco, 70; Cairo, 201; Carson Pirie Scott Store, 219–21;

Downloaded by [Central Uni Library Bucharest] at 03:22 26 September 2013 Chicago, 632; Czechoslovakia, 341, 342; designs by Eva Jircna, 713; escalators, 414; European, 782; Germany, 377, 494, 497; by Graham, Anderson, Probst and White, 535; Index 1079

parking garages, 31; Philadelphia, 85. See also plate glass Depression Moderne, 929 Derrida, Jacques, 350, 351, 395 desert climate construction, 405; by Erich Mendelsohn, 836; Haj Terminal, Jeddah Airport, 584; Riyadh, 855, 856 Desert Research Centre, 445 design: Adolf Loos Raumplan, 792; alterations on-site, 124; asymmetrical, 683; Barnes’s theory, 115; Birkerts’s process, 147–48; Bruno Zevi’s writings, 405; buffalo-shaped house, 524; Charles Voysey’s work, 405 charrett process, 451; by Chloethiel Woodard Smith, 509; Ciudad Universitaria, Caracas auditorium, 268; community involvement, 412; controversy over Church of St. Francis of Assisi, 257–58; in cultural context, 27–28; effect of plastic on, 112; Entrepreneurship Development Institute in India, 407–8; evolution of public housing, 211; fan-plan motif of Alvar Aalto, 2, 211; of Frank Lloyd Wright, 180; Frank Lloyd Wright’s rectilinearity, 310; gender and sex in, 453–54; of Gordon Bunshaft, 190; Gropius’ Bauhaus, Dessau, 121; Heikkinen and Komonen’s technique, 599; Henning Larsen’s whimsical, 747; Herzog and de Meuron’s approach, 286; as image not text, 42; impact of lighting of, 774; as interdisciplinary discourse, 41; of Itsuko Hasegawa, 591;

Downloaded by [Central Uni Library Bucharest] at 03:22 26 September 2013 John Hejduk’s technique, 599–600; Kazuo Shonhara’s emphasis on chaos, 477 Kazuyo Sejima’s residential, 458; Kenzo Tange’s structural, 684; mosques, 546; Ove Arup’s totally integrated, 79–80; of Raj Rewal, 280; Index 1080

of , 734–35; Scandinavian modern, 471; Shanghai World Financial Center, 466; Steven Holl’s conceptual, 634; theory of Hermann Muthesius, 898; timeliness of, 53; as way to better living, 381. See also computer-aided design; construction techniques; energy-efficient design; ordinances Despotopoulos, Ionnais, 548 Dessau Bauhaus. See Bauhaus Dessau De Stijl, 348–50, 912–13; Berlage’s relation with, 136; impact in Rotterdam, 341; impact on architectural drawing, 59; influence in Schroöder-Schräder House, 433; J.J.P.Oud’s role, 962–63; Johannes Duiker’s relation with, 374; Norway, 940; ornament, 958; Theo van Doesburg’s role, 433; Thomas Gerrit Rietveld’s importance, 286; use of color, 278. See also Amsterdam School , 503 Deutsche Bank, 473 Deutscher Werkbund, 357–59, 495; influence of Hermann Muthesius on, 898. See also Nihon Kosaku Bunka Renmei (Japanese Werkbund); Weissenhofsiedlung (Stuttgart 1927) Deutscher Werkbund Exhibition (Cologne 1914), 415 Deutscher Werkbund Exhibition (Stuttgart 1927), 359 Dhaka, Bangladesh, 359–61; National Assembly Building, 902–4 Dharmala Sakti Office, 528, 533 4D house (Fuller), 39, 475 Diagoon Houses, 606 Diamond Series Houses, 600 Diba, Kamran, 689

Downloaded by [Central Uni Library Bucharest] at 03:22 26 September 2013 Diener and Diener, 361–62 Dieste, Eladio, 225, 362–63 diners, 303 Dinkeloo, John, 313, 316 Diplomatic Quarter in Riyadh, 300, 409 Student and Conference Center, 96 Director’s House at Dessau Colony, 564 Index 1081

“disappearing” column memorial, 833 Disney Corporation Headquarters, 621 Disney theme parks, 363–65, 862 display designs: by Eva Jircna, 713; Williams and Tsien’s museum exhibits, 96 disposable architecture, 57, 230 Djenne conservation project, 384 Dogan Media (Printing) Center, 96 Dome House, 521 Domènech i Montanar, Luis, 111, 112 Dome of Discovery, 39–40; alloy girders, 39 domes: aluminum, 39–40; Brasilia Federal Capital Complex, 448; Church in Rárósmulyad, 826; copper-cladded, 604; floating concrete, 908; geodesic dome structure, 476; glass, 251, 515; Hagia Sophia, 254; Hassan II Mosque minaret, 592, 593; King Saud Mosque, 710, 883; Millennial Dome at Greenwich, 324, 397; mud-brick, 397; on Olbrich’s Vienna Secession exhibition hall, 950, 951; of reeds, mud, and straw, 397; Reichstag, 256; in ring-beam moat, 213; Shrine of the Book, 483, 485; stadium, 550; structures for, 605, 608; synagogues, 673 Dom-ino Houses, 292, 304, 310, 365–67, 656 Domino’s Pizza World Headquarters, 147 Dominus Winery, 607–8 Donnelley and Sons, 469 Donnènech I Montaner, Lluis, 225; Palau de la Música, 226 Doshi, Balkrishna V., 367–69, 674, 675, 469;

Downloaded by [Central Uni Library Bucharest] at 03:22 26 September 2013 Ahmedabad buildings, 31 double-glazed glass, 517 Douglas House, 827 Dover Sun House, 242 Drake University Science and Pharmacy buildings, 266 drawn glass, 516 Dreyfus, Henry, 930 Index 1082

drive-in restaurants and theaters, 95, 302–4 Duany and Plater-Zyberk, 369–71, 956, 304; Seaside, Florida, 369, 922, 923, 450–1192 duck, 751, 436 ducts, 595; Salk Institute, 381 Dudok, Willem Marinus, 334, 371–73, 913; Hilversum Town Hall, 265, 614–15; Town Hall for Hilversum, 265 Duhart, Emilio, 247–48 Duiker, Johannes, 373–75, 381; Open Air School, 953–55 Dujarric, Patric, Alliance Franco-Sénéfalaise, 35–36, li Dulles International Airport, Chantilly, Virginia, 375–77, 644 Düsseldorf, Germany, 377–79 Dutch architects, 915, 527 Dutch architecture, 48, 135, 912; in southern Africa, 22 Dutch Expressionism, 426, 427 Dutch Functionalism, 913, 914, 527 Dutch Pavilion, 527 Dutch structuralism, 429 Dymaxion Airocean World Map, 476 Dymaxion House, 475, 476, 568

Eames, Charles and Ray, 381–83, 568; Case Study Houses, 568; documentary on Dulles International Airport, 376; relationship with Eero Saarinen, 367 Eames House, 381, 382, 367 earthen building, 383–86, 405; by Hassan Fathy, 444; mud-dried bricks, 546; Vietnam Veterans Memorial, 405; Yaama Mosque, 405 Earth House, 521 Earthworks, 776 East Berlin architecture, 140–41 Eastern Columbia Building, 793 East Germany, 496 Eastland Mall in Detroit, 566

Downloaded by [Central Uni Library Bucharest] at 03:22 26 September 2013 Eaton, Norman, 24 Eaton Center, 521 École des Beaux-Arts, 388, 568 Ecological Design Institute of Sausalito, 643 “Eco”-logic types, 410–11 ecology, 405 ecotourism, 52 Index 1083

edge cities, 386–87, 643; Northpark, 154 educational institutions, 387–90 , 786, 787 egalitarian architecture, 49 Egyptian architects, 19, 21, 444, 445 Egyptian Revival style, 390–92 Ehime Prefectural Museum of General Science, 738 Ehn, Karl, Karl Marxhof, 729–31 Ehrencrantz, Ezra, 427, 430 Ehrenhof, 378 Eigen Haard Housing Estate, 392–93, 427; exterior, 393, 8i Einstein Tower, 393–94; as Expressionist work, 426 Eisenman, Peter, 394–96; Arnoff Center for Design and Art, 279, 2i; designs, 306; House VI, 657; importance in United States, 430; Institute for Architecture and Urban Studies, 677–78; relation with Deconstructivism, 350; use of color, 280; Wexner Center for the Visual Arts, 172, 777 Ekelund, Hilding, 461 El-Dar Restaurant, 430 Eldem, Sedad Hakkí, 396–98, 699, 430; Social Security Complex, 516–1223; use of traiditional building methods, 516 electric light, 774 “electropolis,” 138 elevation, 58 elevators, 398–99; effect on Sears Tower, 447; exposed, 237; parking garage, 32; platform, 32; use for air circulation, 595; in World Trade Center, 32 el-Khoury, Pierre, Banque du Liban et d’Outre Mer, 129 Elkins, Frances, 15–16

Downloaded by [Central Uni Library Bucharest] at 03:22 26 September 2013 Ellwood, Craig, 399–400 Ellwood houses, 399, 400 Elmslie, George Grant, 218–1075 El Pedregal, 117, 847 El-Wakil, Abdel Wahid, King Saud Mosque, 710 Embarcadero Center, 154 embassies, 400–403 Index 1084

Emergency Services College in Kuopio, 599 Emery House, 557 Emory University, R. Howard Dobbs Center, 154, 155 emotional architecture, 327, 329, 821, 17 Empire State Building, 403–4, 927, 504; competition with Chrylser Building, 253; exterior, 404 Empire State Plaza, 589 Empire style, 23 Empire Swimming Pool, 504 Endell House, 419 energy-efficient design, 336, 404–6; Canada, 209; and climate, 271; impact of wind farms on landscape, 176; by Joan Edelman Goody, 533; by Michael and Patty Hopkins, 649; with plastic, 112; precast concrete, 193. See also solar architecture engineered lumber, 406–7. See also wood engineers, architects’ relations with, 45–46 Enoch Pratt Free Library, 772 Enso-Gutzeit Headquarters, 3, 574 Entelechy I and II, 156 Entertainments Tower, 57 entrance, AT&T Building, 84–85 entrances, Frank Lloyd Wright buildings, 714 Entrepreneurship Development Institute, 407–8; exterior, 408 environmental design: by Balkrishna Doshi, 367; Barragán’s mix of, 117; combined with cultural sensitivity, 123; David Victor Gruen’s interest in, 565; by Michael and Patty Hopkins, 650; by Paolo Soleri, 521; rainwater collection, 239; Ramses Wissa Wassef Arts Centre, 228–1080; suburban developments, 623;

Downloaded by [Central Uni Library Bucharest] at 03:22 26 September 2013 by Vincent Scully Jr., 441 environmental issues, 408–11; conservation, 21; Kenneth Frampton’s writings, 470; power plants, 176; skyscrapers, 504; Social Security Complex, Istanbul, 516; Index 1085

sustainability assessment methods, 645. See also energy-efficient design; sustainability and sustainable architecture environmental technology. See climate control EPCOT, 364 ergonomic design, 767, 768 Erickson, Arthur, 645 Ernst Ludwig Haus, 950 Erskine, Ralph, 411–14, 169, 595, 651 Ervi, Aarne, 462 escalators, 414–15; external, 237 Ethiopia, 191 Ethiopian embassy, 403 EUR’42, 443, 333 Euro Disney, 365 European architecture: Arts and Crafts Movement, 77; department store design, 356; Garden City Movement in, 482–83; in Southern and Central Africa, 22–23 European Court of Human Rights, 323 European influence: on American architects, 350, 678; Bangkok architecture, 104; Buenos Aires, 186; Cairo, 201–2, 203; in Iran, 688; in Melbourne, 829; in Mexico, 843; Montreal, 867; New York City, 928; Turkey, 678; United Kingdom, 599; United States, 599; Vancouver, 599 European Parliament in Brussels, 179 E.1027 villa, 544 evolving architecture, 338, 339 E-Walk redevelopment project, 68 exclusionary zoning, 957

Downloaded by [Central Uni Library Bucharest] at 03:22 26 September 2013 exhibition building, 415–16; Art Nouveau, 73; Czech contributions to, 342; Fascist architecture and, 443; Gae Aulenti’s designs, 87; by Hodgetts and Fung, 626; by Josef Hoffman, 629; Index 1086

Joseph Maria Olbrich’s Vienna Secession, 950, 951; Panama-Pacific International Exposition, San Francisco, 16, 17. See also pavilions Exhibition Hall, Turin, Italy, 416–19; interior, 418 Exhibit of the Fascist Revolution (1932), 443 exoskeletons, 565 Experience Music Project in Seattle, 491 Expiatory Temple of the Holy Family, 489 Expo 565, Montreal, 210, 416, 420–22, 538. See also Habitat 538, Montreal Expo 538, Seville, 416, 422–23 Expo 1958 (Brussels), 416, 419–20 Expo in Barcelona, 540 exposed elevators, 398–99 Exposition des Arts et Techniques (1937), 21 Exposition Universelle, Paris (1900), 415, 423–25 Expressionism, 425–28; in Alvar Aalto’s works, 3; Australia, 90, 91; Bauhaus, 119; Berlin, 137, 138; Canada, 210; in church design, 255; in Einstein Tower, 394; Erich Mendelsohn’s relation with, 835; Finland, 462–63; Germany, 495, 496–97; Grundtvig Church, Copenhagen, 567; in Hans Poelzig’s work, 131; impact on architectural drawing, 59; influence of primitivism on, 196; Kyoto, Japan, 740; Melbourne, 829, 830; Norway, 940; Oswald Mathias Ungers’s analysis, 196; in Paul Rudolph’s works, 353; relation of skyscrapers to, 6–7;

Downloaded by [Central Uni Library Bucharest] at 03:22 26 September 2013 relation with functionalism, 419; roots in Cologne, Germany, 276; Switzerland, 654–5; using brick, 171 Expressionist House of Culture, 2, 3 Extremadura Government Offices at Mérida, 908 exurbs, 386 Index 1087

Eyecatcher, 115 Eykelenboom, Walter, 422 Eyre, Wilson, 430–31

Fabiani, Max, 115 fabrics used for tensioned membrane structures, 710; Canada Place, 710 facades: of Alvar Aalto, 3; by Antoni Gaudí, 488–89; Art Deco, 69; cast-iron, 192; Ciudad Universitaria Campus and Stadium, Mexico City, 267; Cubism and, 333; divorced from function, 50; of Erich Mendelsohn, 836; glass, 109; Great Mosque of Niono, 546, 547; indeterminate, 145; integrating old and new, 83; Larkin Building, 746; L’Innovation Department Store, 782; Mario Botta’s buildings, 162; Museum of Folk Art in New York, 192; Museum of Modern Art, New York, 896, 897; by Oscar Nitzchke, 935; Paris, 20; Prudential Building, 40; of Rifat Chadirji, 231; tenements in Glasgow, 514; Vanna Venturi House, 20 factories, 433–34; adaptive reuse, 13; AEG Turbine Factory, Berlin, 17–18; Behrens’, 127; Boots Factory, 155–56; brick-walled, 171; Gothic style, 468; planning, 434–35. See also industrial buildings Fagus Werk, 435–36, 1ii

Downloaded by [Central Uni Library Bucharest] at 03:22 26 September 2013 Fair Store, 63 Fakhoury, Pierre, Our Lady of Peace Basilica, 964–65 Falk Apartment Building, 423 Falkenstrasse Roof Construction Project in Vienna, 93 Fallingwater, 436–38, 423; exterior, 436; interior, 436 Index 1088

fallout shelters, 438–40 fan/heating systems, 594 farm buildings. See agricultural buildings Farmer, Graham, 410 Farnsworth House, 440–42, 656, 854–55, 568; comparison with Glass House, 716; exterior, 441, 442 Farrell, Terry, 789, 568 Fascist architecture, 442–44, 331; Adalberto Libera’s relation with, 767; Antonio Sant’Elia and, 386; Casa del Fascio, 716; influence in Switzerland, 655; Italian pavilion at Century of Progress Exposition (Chicago 1933), 229; of Luigi Moretti, 874; relation with Expressionism, 427; stone, 597 Fathy, Hassan, 21, 444–46; Beit Nassif, 709; influence on Africa, 24; relation with environmental issues, 411; use of traditional building methods, 597; work with adobe, 385 , 384 favelas, 446–47; Rio de Janerio example, 446; São Paulo, Brazil, 399 Federal Capital Complex, Brasilia, 167, 447–50; exterior, 448, 449; Lúcio Costa’s role, 318–19, 447 Federal Granary Building, 808 Federal Reserve Bank in Minneapolis, 147 Federal Science Pavilion at Seattle World’s Fair, 399 Federation style in Australia, 661 Fehn, Sverre, 450–52; Glacier Museum, 451, 508–9; Norway Pavilion (1962), 661; Norwegian Pavilion, 420; Villa Busk, 939 Felix Nussbaum Haus, 769 Fellowship House, 517

Downloaded by [Central Uni Library Bucharest] at 03:22 26 September 2013 feminist theory, 452–55; house design, 658; and shopping centers, 480 feng shui, 455–56; of Bank of China Tower, 109 Fergus Factory, 563 Ferriss, Hugh, 71, 456–58, 955 Index 1089

ferro-cement, 418–19, 911; Renzo Piano’s use at Menil Collection, 837 Festival of Britain, 788 Fiat Works (Turin), 458–59, 93; exterior, 458 fiberboard, 406 fiber-optic light, 775 fiber-reinforced plastic, 112, 114 Field Museum of Natural History, 534 film sets, 625; amusement park similarities, 50; Robert Mallet-Stevens work, 814 Financial Times Printing Plant in London, 434, 559 Finland, 459–64; Aalto’s relationship with, 3; Villa Mairea, 2, 438, 12–1416 Finlandia Concert Hall, 602 Finnish architects, 462, 463 Finnish architecture, 148, 574, 600, 10 Finnish Embassy, in New Delhi, 96 Finnish Embassy in Washington, D.C., 599 Finnish National Theatre annex, 486 Finnish Parliament House, 460 Finnish Pavilion (Aalto, 1956), 486 Finnish Pavilion at Paris Expo (1990), 424, 459, 371 Finnish Pavilion Brussels World Fair, 96 Finnish Pavilion New York World’s Fair (1939), 931 Finnish Science Center, 598 fins, glass, 519 Finsbury Health Centre, 799, 800 Fire Station Five, 96; exterior, 96 First Christian Church, 370, 373 First Christian Church, Columbus, Indiana, 281 First Church of Christ, Scientist, Berkeley, 322, 822, 823, 734 First National Bank of Chicago, 60–1 First Source Center, 707 First Unitarian Church, Rochester, New York, 724 First Unitarian Meeting House in Madison, 256 Fischer, Theodor, 357, 586–87; exhibition buildings, 61

Downloaded by [Central Uni Library Bucharest] at 03:22 26 September 2013 Fishdance Restaurant, 490 Fisker, Kay, 353, 464–65; project at International Exhibition of Decorative Arts (Paris 1925), 680 Fitch, James Marston, 271 Flamingo Hotel, 749 Flatiron Building, 466–67, 716; exterior, 466 Index 1090

Flemish architects, 132 Fletcher, A.L., 234 float glass, 52 Floating Mosque, The, 592 flooring, barns, 29 floor plans, 58 plan, 207 fluorescent lighting, 774 Folger Shakespeare Library, 326, 327 Fontainbleau Hotel, 270 Football Stadium in Mendoza, 815, 816 Foote House, 875 Forbidden City, 766 Ford, Henry, 176–77, 722 Ford House, 523, 524, 270 Ford Plant Offices, Highland Park, 721, 722 form: accidental, 73; in James Stirling’s work, 585 form and function, contradictions between, 585 form as expression: of function, 218; Guggenheim Museum (Bilbao), 7 form follows function, 220, 909; Alan Colquhoun’s focus on, 281; British Library, London, 175; Constructivism, 301; disadvantage of, 746; in factory building, 433; Frank Lloyd Wright’s belief in, 237; Louis Sullivan’s belief about, 634; served vs. servant spaces, 724 forms: Alvar Aldo’s fan-motif, 2, 634; Art Nouveau (Jugendstil), 72; balloon-frame, 29; cantilever, 168; connection with technique, 252; crystal, 17; cylindrical, 162, 723; cylindrical void, 734;

Downloaded by [Central Uni Library Bucharest] at 03:22 26 September 2013 describing digitally, 288; dodecagon, 53; equality with space, 82; Expressionist, 426; harmony among, 506; indeterminacy of, 43; James Stewart Polshek’s use of square, 134; Index 1091

late 20th-century skyscraper, 109; nonorthoganal, 525; paraboloid, in churches, 255; polyhedral-based structures, 566; pyramidal, 164; schism with content, 146; shell, 213; spiral, 869; used by Arata Isozaki, 693, 694; used by Wallace K.Harrison, 589; Wright’s spiral, 572. See also form follows function; nautical forms Forms and Functions of Twentieth Century Architecture (Hamlin), 585 Fort-Brescia, Bernado. See Arquitectonica Foster, Norman, 405, 467–69, 474, 640, 649–50, 789; Al-Faisaliah Center, 409; construction techniques, 426; Hong Kong and Shanghai Bank Corporate Headquarters, 946; Reichstag, 255; Renault Distribution Centre, 469, 260–1097; Sainsbury Centre, 566; solar architecture, 519; Stansted airport, 33, 34; works of, 519 Foster and Partners: British Museum, 6i; Chek Lap Kok airport terminal, 34; Hong Kong International Airport, 643–45 Foundation Beyler Museum, 94 Foundation Miro, 462 Fountainbleau Hotel, 743; gardens, 744 Fox, Sheldon, 732 Fragrant Hill Hotel, 250, 49 Frampton, Kenneth, 469–71, 623; critique of postmodernism, 172; relation with environmental issues, 410; study of streets, 678; on Sverre Fehn’s work, 509

Downloaded by [Central Uni Library Bucharest] at 03:22 26 September 2013 France, New Urbanism in, 924 Frank, Josef, 471–72; “accidentism,” 339 Frankfurt, Germany, 472–74 Frankfurt Museum, 610 Frank Sinatra residence, 172 Franz Josef-Stadtmuseum, 172 Index 1092

Fraser University, 172 Freed, James Ingo, 621; Holocaust Memorial Museum (Washington, D.C.), 632, 637–39 Freedom Lane Housing in Amsterdam, 347 French architects, 182; in Algeria, 19 : Jean-Louis Cohen’s writings, 274; Peter Collins’s writings, 275 French influence: Southeast Asia, 526–9; United Kingdom, 529;; United States, 14, 568 Fresh School for the Health Child, 374 Frey, Albert, 474–75; Aluminaire House, 36–38, 38–39 Frey House 1, 474 Frey House 2, 475 Friedrichstrasse department store, 943 Fry, Maxwell, 430 Fukuoka Prefectural International Hall, 43 Fuller, Richard Buckminster, 475–78; 4D house, 39, 475; Dymaxion House, 475, 476, 568; Dymaxion Principle, 405, 410; Triton City, 374; U.S. Pavilion at Expo 374, 421, 422 Fuller Building. See Flatiron Building Fuller House, 188 Functionalisim, relation with abstraction, 6 Functionalism, 275; Aalto’s conversion to, 1; Amsterdam, 48; Asplund’s, 82–83; Berlin, 137; Blomstedt’s, 149; Czechoslovakia, 342; Denmark, 353; Farkas Molnár’s role, 863; Finland, 460–62, 1; Gunnar Asplund’s manifesto, 593;

Downloaded by [Central Uni Library Bucharest] at 03:22 26 September 2013 Helsinki, 601; “integrated,” 529; Johannes Duiker, 373, 593; Juan O’Gorman, 946–47; Kay Fisker, 464–65; London, 787; Mexico, 844; Index 1093

Mexico City, 847; Netherlands, 913, 914, 593; Norway, 940; pioneering work of, 289; relation with Expressionism, 427; Richard Rogers, 321; Romania, 330; in Rotterdam, 341; Russia, 363; Sven Markelius’s work, 818; Switzerland, 655; Tokyo, 738; in Viljo Gabriel Revell’s work, 276; of Villa Savoye, 276; Walter Gropius’s contribution to, 562; Yugoslavia, 276. See also form follows function Fung, Hsin-Ming, 625–27 furniture, 28; built-in, 188–89; by Charlotte Perriand, 72; by Eileen Gray, 544; Stickley, 581 Futurama exhibit, 581 Futurism, 478–79, 387; and expositions, 416; impact on architectural drawing, 58–59; impact on Berlin architecture, 137; Italian, 260; of Ville Radieuse, 387

Gabr, A. Labib, 481–82 Gage Building, 632 Galacia City of Culture, 396 Galeria Jardin, 40–41 Gallaratese, 338 Gamble House, 77, 552, 553, 794, 197; drawing for, 553; use of timber framing, 733 Gandelsonas, Mario. See Agrest and Gandelsonas Garage Ponthieu, 69

Downloaded by [Central Uni Library Bucharest] at 03:22 26 September 2013 garages, 96 Garatti, Vittorio, 901 garden apartments, 55 garden city developments: Belgium, 131; Brussels, 178; Canada, 209; Index 1094

Northern Africa, 19 Garden City Movement, 482–83, 621; Bruno Taut’s work, 689; Hong Kong, 641; impact on Chandigarh, 234; impact on Disney theme parks, 364; importance to United Kingdom, 689; influence on New Towns Movement, 921; Marktown, 470; Montreal, 866; New Delhi, 109; relation with industrial town planning, 434; Santiago, Chile, 391. See also greenbelts and greenbelt towns garden suburbs, Australia, 89 Gare Do Oreinte, 783, 784, 785 Gare d’Orsay, 12, 424, 25 Garnier, Tony, 483–85; project at International Exhibition of Decorative Arts (Paris 1925), 680; Une Cité Industrielle, 259–60 Garvey House, 25 Gasometers in Vienna, 307–8 gas stations, 96, 485–86, 302. See also automobiles GATCPAC (Grup d’Artistes i Tècnics pe Progrés de l’Arquitectra Contemporània), 112 Gateway Arch (St. Louis), 486–87, 570 Gateway Center in Minneapolis, 189 Gateway to the West, 367 Gatti Wool Factory, 260 Gatwick airport terminal, 32–33, 34 Gaudet, Julien, 568–69, 252 Gaudí, Antoni, 111, 487–90; Casa Milà, 223–25, 489, 5i; Sagrada Familia, 540 Gaussa vault, 362 Geddes, Bel, 71, 36; Futurama exhibit, 36 Gehry, Frank, 490–92; campus plan, 207; Der Neue Zolhof, 375, 379; Festival Disney concourse, 365;

Downloaded by [Central Uni Library Bucharest] at 03:22 26 September 2013 influence in Los Angeles, 795; National Netherlands Building, 178; relation with Deconstructivism, 350; relation with environmental issues, 411; University of Iowa, Advanced Technology Laboratory, 178; use of color, 280; work in Czechoslovakia, 342. Index 1095

See also Guggenheim Museum (Bilbao) Gehry House, 490, 491, 571 General Archives of Columbia, 383 General Motors Technical Center, 268, 368 Genoa harbor revitalization, 92 gentrification, 92 geodesic domes, 421, 422, 476; Fuller’s conception, 476, 607 (See also space frames) geometric aspects of architecture: Austrian architecture, 92; Baiyoke Towers, 101; Behrens’s use of, 126; Berlage’s use of, 135; Bernard Tschumi’s work, 607; Botta’s use of, 162; cube-based house, 577–78; Eisenman’s use of, 395; Frank Lloyd Wright’s work, 607; Hans Poelzig’s use of forms in design, 131; Henri van de Velde’s design strategy, 131; Irving John Gill’s work, 504; Islamic architecture, 63, 53; Kazuo Shonhara’s work, 476 Kisho Kurokawa’s work, 738; Kyoto Symphony Hall, 740; Michel de Klerk’s, 392; multiples of a square, 67; of Muzharul Islam, 692; National Gallery of Art, East Building, 906; Netherlands, 912; Oswald Mathias Ungers’s work, 476; Philip Johnson’s work, 716; in rationalism, 236, 238; Stepahnovich Melnikov, 831; by Susana Torre, 238; Thailand, 105; used by Heikkinen and Komonen, 599; Vittorio Gregotti’s view on, 554; works by Corbusier, Le (Jeanneret, Charles-Edouard), 238; Zaha M. Hadid’s forms, 581

Downloaded by [Central Uni Library Bucharest] at 03:22 26 September 2013 Georgeakopoulos, Periklis, 549 George Washington Memorial Parkway, 308 Gerhardt, Paul, Marmon Hupmobile Auto showroom, 391 German architects, 129 German Architectural Museum in Frankfurt, 129 German architecture, 377; East vs. West Berlin, 140–41; Index 1096

influence of Hermann Muthesius, 898; in Southern and Central Africa, 22- 23 German Architecture Museum, 497 German Arts and Crafts Society. See Deutscher Werkbund German Embassy, St. Petersburg, 127 German Pavilion, Expo 1967 Montreal, 960 German Pavilion (Barcelona 1929), 492–94, 682, 854; exterior, 493; use of glass, 517 German Romanticism, Hugo Häring’s work, 586 Germany, 494–98; environmentalism, 409; industrial town planning, 434–35 Gerz, Jochen, 833–34 Gesamtkunstwerk (total work of art), 129 GESOLEI exposition, 378 Getty Center, 498–500, 827, 894; exterior, 499; interior, 500 Getty Villa in Malibu, 894 Ghandi Smarak Sangrahalaya, 31 Ghirardo House, 727 Giedion, Sigfried, 97–98, 500–502; on Aldo Van Eyck’s work, 428; on Brasilia, 449; on International Style, 427; “new regionalism,” 940 Gifu Kitagata Apartments, 460 Gilbert, Cass, 206, 502–4, 502, 590; campus planning, 206; Woolworth Building, 502, 501–1451 Gill, Irving John, 504–6; work in Los Angeles, 794 Ginzberg, Moisei, 506–8, 363; Palace of the Soviets Competition entry, 4; relation with Constructivism, 301, 302–3; work with Vesnin brothers, 4 Girault, Charles, 424 Giurgola, Romaldo, 212 Glacier Museum, 451, 508–9, 940 Glasgow, Scotland, 513–15

Downloaded by [Central Uni Library Bucharest] at 03:22 26 September 2013 Glasgow School, 509–11 Glasgow School of Art (Scotland), 511–13, 805; exterior, 513 Glaspalast, 276 glass, 515–19; bricks, 229; bridge, 237; Index 1097

Corning Museum of Glass, 147, 148; curtain walls, 121, 337, 515, 516, 517, 519, 54; fins, 519; floors, 163; heat absorbing, 760; Helmet Jahn’s use of, 708; importance to American architecture, 163; Klaus Kada’s experiments with, 719–20; laminates, 519; in plastic, 114; Toyo Ito’s use of, 700; undulating, 522; use in Expressionism, 426; use in Penn Station, 515; Walter Gropius’ use of, 563; wired, 516; in Zuev Workers’ Club, 527. See also plate glass glass block, 810 Glass Chain (chain letters), 419 glass curtain walls, Van Nelle Factory, 419 Glass House (Bardi), 150 Glass House (Johnson), 517, 519–21, 656, 568, lii; comparison with Farnsworth House, 716; interior, 520 Glass House (Taut), 689–92,692, Glass Palace, 462, 276 Glass Pavilion, 426, 515 Glass Skyscraper, 521–22 Glenn Martin Aircraft Plant, 566 Global City, 566 glue-laminated timber, 406. See also laminated timber; wood GM (General Motors) Technical Center, 314 Goetheanum, 427, 655 Goetz Gallery, 607 Goff, Bruce, 409, 522–24, 795, 655 Goldberg, Bertrand, 243, 524–26 golf course design, 320 Golosov, Ilya, 526–28, 364

Downloaded by [Central Uni Library Bucharest] at 03:22 26 September 2013 Golosov, Panteleimon, 527 Gómez, Javier Sánchez, 815 Gondomar Convent, 696 Gön Leather Product Factory, 698, 699 González de Léon, Teodoro, 528–30, 845 Goodhue, Bertram Grosvenor, 323, 530–32 “good roads” movement, 696 Index 1098

Goodwin, Philip L., 896 Goody, Joan, 532–34 Gotardi, Roberto, 901 Göteborg Law Courts Annex, 83 Gothenburg City Hall Extension, 648 Gothic Deco, 70 Gothic Revival, 620, 196 Gothic Style: arches in World Trade Center, 196; Auguste Choisy’s writings, 252; Boston, 158; Chicago, 242, 243; churches, 254, 255; college campuses, 206–7; factories, 468; last cathedral in, 468; “Mediterranean Gothic,” 489; Ralph Adams Cram, 322–24; skyscrapers, 504; United States, 504; use of glass, 515 government-sponsored projects: Abuja, Federal Capital Territory of Nigeria, 9–10; apartment buildings, 56; Art Deco, 69; Canada, 208; effect on urban blight in United States, 504; historic preservation, 617; India, 673; Mexico, 529; mosques, 883; works in Chicago, 242; New Zealand, 932; Northern Africa, 21; Romania, 330; Spain, 540; , 277; U.S. , 12; in U.S., during the Depression, 34; Vietnam Veterans Memorial’s difference from, 34. See also Chandigarh, India;

Downloaded by [Central Uni Library Bucharest] at 03:22 26 September 2013 Fascist architecture; regional planning Graham, Anderson, Probst, and White, 241, 534–37 grain elevators, 537–38; importance to Canada, 209 Grand Central Terminal, 538–40; perspective drawing, 539 Index 1099

Grande Arche de la Défense, 540–42, 541, 5ii Grand Ecran, Le, 26 Grand Rapids (Michigan) Art Museum, 42 Grand Union Walk Housing, 559 Grange-Blanche Hospital, 484 Granja Sanitaria, 947 Granville Island Public Market, 26 Graves, Michael, 364, 365, 542–44; Denver Public Library, 26; Humana Building, 620; Portland Public Services Building, 542, 148–1040, 148; relation with historicism, 621; relation with Postmodernism, 168 Gray, Eileen, 544–46 Graz architects, 719 Graz School, 93 Great Mosque of Djenne, Mali, 385 Great Mosque of Niono, 546–48; facade, 547 Great Synagogue in Jerusalem, 676 Greece, 548–51 Greek Revival Architecture in America (Hamlin), 585 Green, Leslie, 625 “green” architecture. See sustainability and sustainable architecture greenbelts and greenbelt towns, 551–52; Canberra, 212; Cologne, Germany, 277; New Deal towns, 621; relation with Garden City Movement, 482; relation with regional planning, 244–6 Greene, Charles Sumner, 552, 554. See also Greene and Greene Greene, Henry Mather, 552, 554. See also Greene and Greene Greene, Herb, 524 Greene and Greene, 322, 552–53, 253; Arts and Crafts designs, 77; use of timber framing, 733 Greene King Beer Warehouse, 649, 650 Gregory Farmhouse, 733 Gregotti, Vittorio, 554–55

Downloaded by [Central Uni Library Bucharest] at 03:22 26 September 2013 Greyhound Bus Terminal in Louisville, Kentucky, 198 Griffin, Marion (Lucy) Mahony, 555–58, 829 Griffin, Walter Burley, 555–58, 829, 662; Plan of Canberra, 212, 101–1018 Grimshaw, Nicholas, and Partners, 405, 434, 558–60, 101 Groep 32, 914 Groniger Museum East Pavilion, 307, 3ii Index 1100

Groote Schuur, 102 Gropius, Walter, 562–65; Bauhaus Dessau, 121–23; Black Mountain College plan, 207; exhibition buildings, 101; Fagus Werk, 435–36, 1ii; impact in Boston, 158–59; Impington Village College, 430; influence on Deutscher Werkbund, 358; Palace of the Soviets Competition entry, 4; relation with Expressionism, 138; role in The Architects Collaborative, 729; urban planning goals, 729; work with Bruno Taut, 692; work with Peter Behrens, 126–27. See also Bauhaus Gropius House, 560–62, 564; exterior, 561 Grosses Schauspielhaus, 132 Groundswell (1993), 777 “group form,” 811 Group R (Barcelona), 112–13 Gruen, Victor, 482 Gruen, Victor David, 565–66 Grundtvig Church, Copenhagen, 567, 2ii Grup d’Artistes i Tècnics Catalans pe Progrés de l’Arquitectra Contemporània (GATCPAC), 112 Gruppo 7, 767 Guadalajara, Mexico, 116 Guaranty Building, 631 634 Guastavino, Rafael, 225 Guastavino tile, 627 Guedes, Joaquim, 569–70 Guggenheim Museum (Bilbao), 7, 306, 490, 570–72; effect on Deconstructivism, 351; exterior, 570; skycourt, 571, 7i Guggenheim Museum (New York), 572–74, 746, 928, 627; exterior, 573 Guggenheim Museum (Vienna and Salzburg), 636 Guild House in Philadelphia, 172, 627 Guimard, Hector:

Downloaded by [Central Uni Library Bucharest] at 03:22 26 September 2013 Castel Beranger, 959; Metro Stations in Paris, 840–41 Gullichsen, Kristian, 574–75 Gürel Family Summer Residence, 575–76; exterior, 576 Gustavo Gili Publishing House, 113 Gut Garkau, 588 Index 1101

Guy, Simon, 410 Gwathmey, Charles, 573, 576–78 Gwathmey Residence and Studio, 577, 578

Haas House, 636; interior, 636 Habermas, Jürgen, 172 Habitat 172, Montreal, 210, 422, 579–81, 867–68, 375; exterior, 580; interior, 581 Hadassah Hospital in Jerusalem, 836 Hadid, Zaha M., 581–83, 641, 375; relation with Deconstructivism, 350, 351 Hague, The, 266 Haj Terminal, Jeddah Airport, 583–85, 710, 412, 497 Hakata Bay Oriental Hotel and Resort, 54 Hall, Peter, 665 Hall for Visual Spectacle and Sound in Space, 665 Hallidie Building, 516 Hamburger Vorhalle, 126 Hamlin, Talbot Faulkner, 585–86 Hammerstrasse Apartment Complex, 361 Hammond Compound, 242 HAMS Code (Gorden Cullen), 956 Hancock Tower, 518 Hannover Principles (McDonough), 642 Harbour Square, 509 Hardboard, 406 Häring, Hugo, 586–88; relationship with Hans Scharoun, 419 Harris, Harwell Hamilton, 517 Harrison and Abramovitz, 588–90, 320; acoustical design, 11; Alcoa Building, 40, 935; Avery Fisher Hall, 11; Lincoln Center, 778–79; United States Embassy in Cuba, 330 Hartman-Cox, 320 Harvard University: Center for Study of World Religions, 464;

Downloaded by [Central Uni Library Bucharest] at 03:22 26 September 2013 Fogg Art Museum Lecture Hall, 11; Graduate Center, 729, 731; Josep Lluis Sert’s works, 464. See also Carpenter Center for the Visual Arts Hasegawa, Itsuko, 590–92, 743 Hassan II Mosque, 592–94 Hass House, 93 Index 1102

Hastings, Thomas. See Carrère and Hastings Hatton House and Guest House, 474 Havana, Cuba, National Art Schools, 901–2 Havana architecture, 329 Hawley, Christine, 307 Haystack Mountain School of Crafts, 114–15 Healey Guest House, 354 Hearthstone, the, 875 heating, ventilation, and air conditioning (HVAC), 594–96; air circulation, 594; costs in construction, 354; and design of Kansai International Airport Terminal, 727; and glass, 518; Haj Terminal, Jeddah Airport, 584; health risks of sealed buildings, 641; Hong Kong International Airport, 645; hotels, 655; innovation at Maison De Verre, 810; Jeddah homes, 709; Lever House, 760; Olivetti Factory, 952; Phoenix Central Library, 89; plate glass and, 119; Pompidou Center, 25; Reichstag reconstruction, 256; Rietveld’s “core” house idea, 286; stadiums, 708; using courtyards for, 407; Wright’s Larkin Building, 746. See also energy-efficient design; lighting Hecker, Zvi, 696 Hedrich-Blessing, 60 Hegemann, Werner, 596–98 Heikkinen, Mikku, 355, 598–99 Hejduk, John, 599–600 Heliopolis, 201 Helix City Plan for Tokyo, 737, 839 Helsingborg Concert Hall, 817 Helsinki, Finland, 600–603 Helsinki Finnish Worker’s Institute, 149

Downloaded by [Central Uni Library Bucharest] at 03:22 26 September 2013 Helsinki Railway Station, 460, 601, 603–5, 225, 370; exterior, 604 Helsinki Technical University Chapel, 601 Henneberry Press Building, 468 Hennebique, François, 459; work with concrete, 290, 292 Hennebique frame, 365 Index 1103

heritage preservation. See historic preservation Herman Miller Distribution Centre, 558 Herman Miller Furniture Company, 382, 383 Heron, Ron, 57 Hershey Sports Arena, 295 Hertzberger, Herman, 605–6, 946 Hervanta Congregational, Leisure and Shopping Center, in New Delhi, 96 Herzog, Jacques. See Herzog and De Meuron Herzog, Thomas, 405 Herzog and de Meuron, 606–8; Ricola Storage Building, 284–1109 Heurtley House, 182 High and Over, 298 High Museum of Art, 608–10; exterior, 610; interior, 609 Highpoint 1 Apartment Block, 78, 610–12, 799; exterior, 611 highrise. See apartment buildings; skyscrapers High-Tech style, 558, 670; Belgium, 132; Canada, 211; Hungary, 664; influence of Craig Ellwood on, 399; influence of Olivetti Factory on; Insitut du Monde Arabe, 943; Kyoto, Japan, 740; London, 788, 789; Michael and Patty Hopkins, 649; Norman Foster’s work, 467; origins, 670; ornament, 959; pavilions at Expo 670, Seville, 423; Pompidou Center, 141; and power plants, 175; Ralph Erskine, 413; Renault Distribution Centre, 260; Richard Rogers, 237, 321; Schlumbeger Cambridge Research Center, 426;

Downloaded by [Central Uni Library Bucharest] at 03:22 26 September 2013 Southeast Asia, 532; United Kingdom, 532 United States, 532; use of aluminum, 40; use of trusses, 532; Yugoslavia, 532. See also machine aesthetic Index 1104

highway building, 94, 96 Hilberseimer, Ludwig, 612–13 Hill House, 76–77, 805, 806, 5i Hillside Terrace Complex in Tokyo, 811 Hilversum Community Bath, 372 Hilversum Sanatorium Zonnestraal, 374, 532–1470 Hilversum Town Hall, 265, 614–15, 913 Hiroshima Peace Memorial and Museum, 44–990, 684 Hirshhorn Museum and Sculpture Garden, 190, 497 Hispanic American architecture exhibit, 497 historical context of architecture: in Aldo Rossi’s work, 339; Benevolo’s exploration of, 133; Brussels, 179; city halls, 264; importance in United States, 339; Manfredo Tafuri’s writings, 678; meaning from, 161; mosques, 883, 885; Sullivan’s search for independence from, 629 historical revivalism, Austria, 91–92 Historicism, 619–22; Edward Durell Stone use of, 601; of Edwin Lutyens, 802; Istanbul, 698; Joseph Maria Olbrich’s relation with, 950. See also typology historicist design, 619 historic preservation, 616–19; awards for, 26; Belgium, 132; Boston, 160; British Library, London, 173; Canada, 211; Chicago, 243; Fascist architecture, 443; Germany, 497; Glasgow, 514; by Joan Edelman Goody, 533; Mexico, 845; Northern Africa, 21; Palace of Fine Arts, 17;

Downloaded by [Central Uni Library Bucharest] at 03:22 26 September 2013 Paris, 26; by Philip Johnson, 716; as reaction to globalism, 253; roadside architecture, 305; Savannah, Georgia, 125; St. Petersburg, 548; United States, 548; Index 1105

Vincent Scully’s advocacy, 441. See also adaptive reuse; demolition; redevelopment projects historiography, 622–24 History of Modern Architecture (Zevi), 441 Hitchcock, Henry-Russell, 619, 624–25; influence on Collin Rowe, 349; International Style Exhibition, 685–87 Hitler, Adolf, 139 Ho Chi Minh City, 532 Hodgetts and Fung, 625–27 Hoffmann, Josef (Franz Maria), 92, 627–30; exhibition buildings, 532; Palais Stoclet, 130–31, 656, 8–972; project at International Exhibition of Decorative Arts (Paris 1925), 680; relation with Deutscher Werkbund, 357; role in Vienna Secession, 8 Höger, Fritz, 426 Holabird, William, and Martin Roche, 632–33; Marquette Building, 241; Stevens Hotel, 654 Holabird, William, and Root, John Wellborn, 630–32; Chicago Daily News Building, 242 Holberseimer, Ludwig, 668 Holden, Charles, 787 Holl, Steven, 325, 633–35 Holland House, 135 Hollein, Hans, 93, 635–37; Abteiberg Municipal Museum, 7–9, 635, 170; Haas House, 90; Museum of Modern Art, Frankfurt, 894–96; Retti Candle Shop, 90 Hollyhock, 422 Holocaust Memorial Museum, 621, 637–39; Hall of Witness, 638; rear facade, 639 Holocaust Museum in Berlin, 7 Holy Prophet Mosque of Medina, 407 homosexual style, 355–6 Hong Kong: Bank of China Tower, 108–10;

Downloaded by [Central Uni Library Bucharest] at 03:22 26 September 2013 Chek Lap Kok airport terminal, 34 Hong Kong, China, 639–43; Bank of China Tower, 108–10, 455–56, 922, 501 Hong Kong and Shanghai Bank Corporation Headquarters, 469, 640, 645–47, 946; exterior, 646 Hong Kong Bank, 455 Hong Kong Club, 641, 643, 455, 4iii Index 1106

Hong Kong International Airport, 640, 642, 643–45 Hong Kong Peak Club, 581 Hood, Raymond, 90, 647–49, 687, 3iii; Rockefeller Center, 927, 126, 316–1126 Hopewell Baptist Church in Oklahoma, 523 Hopkins, Michael and Patty, 649–50, 316; Schlumberger Cambridge Research Centre, 426–1179 Horta, Victor, 650–52, 840; and Art Nouveau, 73; L’Innovation Department Store, 781–82; Tassel House, 130 hospitals, 652–54; by Bertrand Goldberg, 526; Greece, 548–49; by Rino Levi, 761; sanatoriums, 954; use of terrazzo, 721 Hotel Camino Real, 756 Hotel Du Mobilier National, 68 Hotel Flamingo, 750 Hotel Industriel Berlier, 65, 639 Hotel Kempinski, 708 Hotel Metropole, 879 Hotel Nacional, 329 hotels, 654–55; Canadian railway, 210; escalators, 415; near Disney theme parks, 364, 543; Northern Africa, 21 Hotel Santiago in Cuba, 331 Hotel Sylvia, 639 Hotel Vancouver, 639 House and Garden in Valle Del Bravo, 726 House and Garden magazine, 430 House at Kuwahara, 591 House at Lowicks, Surrey, 639 House for Stephan Riabushinskii, 472, 473 House in Aspen, Colorado, 250 House LE, 293, 938 House of Culture in Helsinki, 2, 3 House of Glass (Chareau), 239, 240

Downloaded by [Central Uni Library Bucharest] at 03:22 26 September 2013 House of Michaelerplatz, 791, 792 House of Rain, 908 “House of the Future” by Peter and Alison Smithson, 512 “House of Tomorrow” (Keck), 519 House-on-Hill (Celia Tobin Clark House), 15 House on the Mesa, 686 House Over the Brook, 519 Index 1107

houses, 655–58; Art Nouveau (Jugendstil), 72; Bauhaus, 119; Belgium, 130, 131; Brussels, 179; Bucharest, 182; existing vernacular, 519 by Frank Lloyd Wright, 519; as group of “found objects,” 28; “house as a city,” 393; India, 671, 672; Levittown, 763; Muthesius’ suburban Landhaus, 898; by Purcell and Elmslie, 220; steel in, 568–70; use of plate glass, 119; zones within, 430. See also mobile homes Houses N and R i Valle de Bravo, 937, 938 House Stekhoven, 393 House under High Voltage Lines, 743 House VI (Eisenman), 657 housing: Athens Charter position on, 86; created from industrial properties, 13; exhibits at International Style Exhibition, 686–87; low-density, 202, 203; uses of prefabrication, 192 Housing Complex in Novazzano, 162 housing developments: by Adèle Naudé Santos, 393–5; Hong Kong, 641; of Josef Frank, 471; by Kay Fisker, 464; London, 788; low-rise, 355; Moscow, 830; Vienna, 729 housing estates: Amsterdam, 48; Arquitectonica’s, 67;

Downloaded by [Central Uni Library Bucharest] at 03:22 26 September 2013 Australia, 90; Barragán’s, 116, 117; Bauhaus, 120, 121; Behrens’s, 126–27; Levittown, 95; low-scaled density, 138; Southwark, London, 56 Index 1108

housing for displaced persons, 395;; India, 31; Tokyo, 738 housing for workers, 816, 342; by Ali Labib Gabr, 481; Berlin, 138; Cuba, 325; by Heinrich Tessenow, 724; India, 673–74; by J.J.P. Oud, 963; by John , 505; Malagueira Housing Quarter, 813–14; Marktown, 470; Mexico, 872, 938; Mexico City, 846; Russia, 361; Sunila, 2; Sunnyside Gardens, 622; by Viljo Gabriel Revell, 276; by William Wurster, 276 Housing in Space, 276 housing projects: Amsterdam, 47; Barcelona, 112, 113; by Bruno Taut, 692; Budapest, 185; Caracas, 216; by Carlos Raúl Villanueva, 692; by Corbusier, Le (Jeanneret, Charles-Edouard), 692; Cuba, 331; East and West Berlin, 140; Eric Mendelsohn, 692; by Heinrich Tessenow, 724; multifunction, 847; new town of Tapiola, 149; by Rogelio Salmona, 383; Stockholm, 595; Sweden, 650; Switzerland, 654; Turkey, 654 Houston, Texas, 658–60;

Downloaded by [Central Uni Library Bucharest] at 03:22 26 September 2013 Best Products Showroom, 145–46; Menil Collection, 837–38 Houston Astrodome, 551 Howard, Ebenezer, 482; New Towns Movement, 920–21 Howard Johnson’s motel, 887; restaurants, 272 Index 1109

Howe, George, and William Lescaze, 660–62; PSFS Building, 13 Howe and Lescaze, 85; design for Museum of Modern Art, New York, 896; Philadelphia Savings Fund Society (PSFS) Building, 504; PSFS Building, 661 Hubertus House, 429 Hughes, Francesa, 454 Humana Building, 542, 543, 620 humanistic approach to architecture, 59; of Alvar Aalto, 59; of Josep Lluis Sert, 462; Moshe Safdie, 375; of William Wurster, 375 humanitarian considerations. See social responsibility of architecture Hungary, 662–64; industrial town planning, 434–35 Husser House, 310 Huxtable, Ada Louise, 658, 664–65 HVAC (heating, ventilation, and air conditioning). See heating, ventilation, and air conditioning (HVAC) Hvitträsk, 370 Hyatt Hotel in Atlanta, 518, 154 Hydraulic Museum of the Segura River Mills, 908 hypermodernism. See supermodernism Hysolar Research Institute, 266

Ibelings, Hans, 637–9 IBM headquarters in Buenos Aires, 41 IBM tower, 115 IDS Center in Minneapolis, 716 Igualada Cemetery, 858 Illinois grain elevator and office, 537 Illinois Institute of Technology, 207, 667–69; Chemistry Laboratory, 265; Crown Hall, 854; master plan, 854; student center, 708 Image of the City, The (Lynch), 802, 265 Imperial Crown style in Tokyo, 740 Imperial Hotel, 738

Downloaded by [Central Uni Library Bucharest] at 03:22 26 September 2013 Imperial Hotel (Tokyo), 669–71; exterior, 670 Imperial Palace in Addis-Ababa, 191 impermanence in architecture, 700 Impington Village College, 430 inclusionary zoning ordinances, 958 Independence Mall, 87 Index 1110

Independent Group in London, 106 India, 671–76; Vidhan Bhavan (State Assembly), 87–1409 India Gate, 920 Indian architects, 31, 671 Indian architecture, 317, 367, 671, 280; Western influences, 30 Indian Institute of Management, 676–77, 724; exterior, 676 Indira Gandhi Institute for Development, 672, 674 indirect light, 775 Indonesian architecture, 528, 530 industrial buildings: by , 721–22; definition, 12; by Graham, Anderson, Probst and White, 536; in Hungary, 664; by Kristian Gullichsen, 574; by Nicholas Grimshaw, 558; plastic, 114; by Ricardo Legorreta, 756. See also factories; mill buildings industrial product designs, 43 industrial town planning, 434–35 ING Bank Headquarters, 643 Inland Revenue Headquarters in Nottingham, 649 , 242–43, 494 Inn River bridge, 809 Inside Architecture (Vittorio), 554, 555 Institut du Monde Arabe, 943, 26 Institute for Architecture and Urban Studies, 27, 677–78 Institute for Lightweight Structures, 961 Institute of Confucianism, 26 Institute of Indology, 367 institutes and associations, 678–80 Insurgentes Theater, 938 interior design: Aluminaire House, 37; churches, 254; by Eva Jiricna, 713; floating floor slabs, 110;

Downloaded by [Central Uni Library Bucharest] at 03:22 26 September 2013 Glasgow School, 510; by Griffin and Griffin, 557; Henri van de Velde, 26; Jewish Museum, Berlin, 712; Le Corbusier’s functionalist approach, 70; office space, 946; by Patricia Conway, 732–33; Index 1111

space designated by furniture, 70; Unite d’Habitation, 70; use of woven metal textiles, 65; Williams and Tsien’s museum exhibits, 65; Yale University, Art and Architecture Building, 355. See also climate control; furniture; lobbies International Exhibition (Barcelona 1929), 111; German Pavilion, 415, 492–94 International Exhibition of Decorative Arts (Paris 1925), 65, 680–81 International Institute of Appropriate Technology, 445 International Movement for Rational Architecture (MIAR), 443 International Situationism, 98 International Style, 681–85; apartment buildings, 56; Argentina, 66; Austria, 92; Bangkok, 105; Banham’s writings about, 107; Belgium, 131–32; Bruno Paul’s projects, 41; Brutalism’s rejection of, 180; Budapest, 185; Cairo, 202–3; Canada, 210; Caracas, 215; Chile, 247; China, 249, 251; churches, 256; college campuses, 207; department stores, 356–57; Frank Lloyd Wright’s rejection, 41; gas stations, 95; Germany, 496; Henry-Russell Hitchcock Jr. contribution to, 624; Hong Kong, 641; houses, 120; Hungary, 664; impact on architectural photography, 60; impact on use of wood, 120;

Downloaded by [Central Uni Library Bucharest] at 03:22 26 September 2013 India, 30; Istanbul, 699; Kisho Kurokawa’s reaction against, 737–38; Las Vegas, 749; Lubetkin and Tecton’s works, 799; Mexico, 844; Mexico City, 847, 848; Index 1112

Moscow, 881; Netherlands, 913; New York City, 927–28; Northern Africa, 20; ornament, 958; Philadelphia, 85; relation with Expressionism, 427; Rotterdam, 341; Santiago, Chile, 392; São Paulo, Brazil, 399; Saudi Arabia, 710; of Studio Per, 611; Switzerland, 654; Toronto, 654; Toronto City Hall, 745; Torre Velasca break from, 745; and U.N.Headquarters design, 745; use of stone, 597; Yugoslavia, 597. See also regionalism International Style Exhibition (New York 1932), 685–87 Inter-University Center for Astronomy and Astrophysics, 315, 316, 317–18 Inventure Place, Inventors Hall of Fame, 137 Iran, 687–91 Iranian architects, 688 iron: ironwork at Glasgow School of Art (Scotland), 511; prefabrication with, 192; symbolism, 868; use in Paris Metro Station, 841; Victor Horta’s use of, 782. See also cast iron; steel Irwin, Robert, 499 Irwin Union Bank and Trust, Columbus, Indiana, 281–82 Islam, Muzharul, 360, 361, 691–92 Islamic architects, 26 Islamic architecture, 63, 687; geometric aspects, 54; symbolism, 77. See also maidans;

Downloaded by [Central Uni Library Bucharest] at 03:22 26 September 2013 mosques Isozaki, Arata, 692–94, 839, 893, 171, 239 Israel, 694–97 Israeli architects, 695 Israeli Museum, 483 Istanbul, Turkey, 697–99; Sedad Hakkí Eldem’s projects, 397; Index 1113

Social Security Complex, 516–1223 Italian architects, 87, 144, 716 Italian architecture, 133; and , 443 Italian Rationalism Movement, 238 Italy, Benetton Factory, 134–35 Ito, Toyo, 699–701; Kazuyo Sejima’s relation with, 460 Ivory Coast, Africa, Our Lady of Peace Basilica, 964–65 Izenour, Stephen, 750, 306 Izvestiia Building, 362

Jacobs, Jane, 703–4, 167; Death and Life of Great American Cities, The, 616, 703, 166 Jacobsen, Arne Emil, 354, 704–6 Jahangirnagar University, 692; student dormitories, 691 Jahn, Helmut, 706–9 Jami Masjid, 109 Jansen, Hermann, 109 Jansen House, 423 Japan, Church on the Water, 258–59 Japan Center, San Francisco, 423 Japanese architects, 590, 736, 737, 740, 458, 736; Tadao Ando, 52–55 Japanese architecture, 736, 738; influence on Abuja in Nigeria, 10; Kenzo Tange’s views of, 45; use of aluminum, 40 Japanese influence: on American architects, 135, 180, 196; in American architecture, 524; on Charlotte Perriand, 73; Denmark, 354 Jardines del Pedregal, 117 Jazz Moderne, Australia, 90 Jeanneret, Charles-Edouard. See Corbusier, Le (Jeanneret, Charles-Edouard) Jecquier, Emilio, 247 Jeddah, Saudi Arabia, 709–11; Haj Terminal, Jeddah Airport, 583–85, 710, 412, 497 Jefferson Memorial, 147 Jencks, Charles, 167

Downloaded by [Central Uni Library Bucharest] at 03:22 26 September 2013 Jensen-Klimt, Peder Vilhelm, Grundtvig Church, 567, 2ii Jerusalem, Israel: Ashbee’s work, 81; Erich Mendelsohn’s work, 836; Moshe Safdie’s work, 374; Shrine of the Book, 483–1208 Jewish Museum, Berlin, 711–12, 768; exterior, 711, 4ii; Index 1114

interior, 712 Jiricna, Eva, 712–13 Johannesburg, 24, 102 John F.Kennedy Airport, TWA Terminal, 375 John F.Kennedy Library, exterior, 47–8 , 242, 246, 683, 684, 494; windows, 49 Johns Hopkins University, 205, 206 Johnson, Philip, 715–18; Abby Aldrich Rockefeller Sculpture Garden, 893; admiration for Farnsworth House; AT&T Building, 84–86, 621, 716, 506; “camp” style, 355; church design, 256; Glass House, 519–21, 568, 1ii; International Style Exhibition, 685–87; memorial for commuters, 833; Museum of Modern Art renovation, 896, 897; New York State Theater, 778; postmodern origins, 446; relation with International Style, 683–84; relation with J.J.P.Oud, 963; relation with postmodernism, 171; use of glass, 517; work in Houston, Texas, 659 Johnson and Burgee, AT&T Building, 506 Johnson Wax Administration Building, 313, 713–15, 746, 258 joinery: aesthetics of, 705, 706; beam-and-mast system, 260; Craftsman, 321; Griffin house, 557; space frame, 536; truss, 573; used in Glacier Museum, 509; wood, 406 Jourdaine, Franz, Samaritaine Department Store, 21 Joypurhat Housing, 692 Juer Hutong project, 21 Jugendstil. See Art Nouveau (Jugendstil) Jujol i Gilbert, Josep Ma, 111

Downloaded by [Central Uni Library Bucharest] at 03:22 26 September 2013 Jurkovic, Dusan, 341 JVC Center in Guadalajara, 308 Jyväskylä Workers’ Club, 1, 460, 461

Kada, Klaus, 719–20 Kaehilath Anshe Ma’ariv Synagogue, 675 Kafka’s Castle, 152 Index 1115

Kahn, Albert, 720–22, 675, 1iii; Altamira Building, 215; Congregation Beth El in Detroit, 673; Glenn Martin Aircraft Plant, 566 Kahn, Julius, 720 Kahn, Louis I., 722–26; air circulation designs, 595; Capital Complex project in Dhaka, 359, 361; classicism style of, 269; Indian Institute of Management, 676–77; influence in Africa, 24; influence in Denmark, 354; influence on Balkrishna Doshi, 367; Kimbell Art Museum, 731–32; “Monumentality,” 486; National Assembly Building, Dhaka, 902–4; question about brick, 170; relation with rationalism, 238; relation with Robert Venturi, 238; Salk Institute, 293, 653, 724, 266, 381–1157; tectonics in works of, 706; Temple Beth El, 676; University of Pennsylvania, Richards Medical Research Building, 172, 723–24, 266; use of brick, 172; work in Philadelphia, 87; works in United States, 87 Kalach, Alberto, 726–27 Kalinin Prospekt (New Arbat buildings), 881 Kallmann, Gerhard, 156 Kandinsky, Wassily, 119, 302, 303 Kansai International Airport Terminal, 34, 727–29, 93; exterior, 728 Karfik, Vladimir, 341 Kärjensivu Rowhouse, 277 Karl Marxhof, 729–31; exterior, 730 Karmi, Dov, 695 Kasai Rinkai Visitors’ Center, 687 Kaufhaus Tietz Building, 276 Kaufmann House, 918, 919 Kemaleddin, 698

Downloaded by [Central Uni Library Bucharest] at 03:22 26 September 2013 Kemper Arena in Kansas City, 706 Kentlands, Maryland, 370 Keyes Condon Florance (KCF), 687 Kharkov, constructivism in, 303 Kiasma Museum, 634 Kiesler and Bartos, Shrine of the Book, 483–6 Kikutake, Kiyonori, 838, 839 Index 1116

Kimbell Art Museum, 724, 731–32, 706; interior, 731; lighting, 774 King Abdul Aziz Historic Center, 298 King Saud Mosque, 710, 883 King’s Road House, 794, 421, 423 Klauder, Charles Zeller, 206–7 Klee, Paul, 119 Kleines Café/Little Cafe, 338, 339 Klimt, Gustav, 629, 423 Klint, P.V. Jensen, 353 Knesset in Jerusalem, 696 Knights of Columbus Headquarters, 314 Knitlock concrete tile system, 557, 829 knowledge-based design processes, 288 Knowles, Edward, 156 Knutsen, Knut, 940 Kocher, Lawrence, 36 Kohn, A. Eugene, 732 Kohn Pederson Fox, 732–34; Proctor and Gamble Headquarters, 314; Shanghai World Financial Center, 464–6 Kolonihavehus, 65 Komonen, Markku, 355, 598–99 Konstantinidis, Aris, 550 Koolhaas, Rem, 734–36, 914 Koppers Building, 535 , 530 Korean War Veterans Memorial, 834 Korsmo, Arne, 940 Kosaku Bunka Renmei (Japanese Werkbund), 736–37 Kotera, Jan, 341 Kovicic, Viktor, 530 Kramer, Piet, 427 Kreis, Wilhelm, 377, 378 Krier, Leon, 270, 922, 923, 924; neo-Rationalism of, 909 Kroeller-Mueller project, 853 Krokos, Kyriakos, 550; Byzantine Museum, 549 Kromhout, Willem, 47

Downloaded by [Central Uni Library Bucharest] at 03:22 26 September 2013 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia, Petronas Towers, 77–81,532 “Kubus,” 532 Kulczewsky, Luciano, 247 Kunsthaus, 532 Kurokawa, Kisho, 737–39, 838, 839 Kursaal Cultural Center, 865 Kuwait City, waterside development, 63, 64 Index 1117

Kyoto, Japan, 739–41 Kyoto Station Building, 740

laboratories. See research centers La Città Nuova, 385, 387, 389 LACMA Pavilion for Japanese Art, 523 Lafayette Park in Detroit, 855 Laguna West, 922 Lake Shore Drive Apartments, 245, 246, 854 Lakeside Press Building, 468 Laloux, Victor, 424 Lambert Airport in St. Louis, 468 laminated timber, 733; in architecture, 936; integration of houses with, 402; Panama-Pacific International Exposition in San Fancisco, 16; relation with European schools, 428. See also glue-laminated timber; wood landscape landscape design: Abuja, Federal Capital Complex of Nigeria, 9–10; by Alberto Kalach, 726, 727; Brazil, 194; country clubs, 320; feng shui, 455; gardens of Charles A.Platt, 122; by Maya Lin, 776; “rooms,” 124. See also Contextualism; nature integrated with buildings Land Title Building, 85 land use regulations. See zoning ordinances La Nouvelle Maison, 131 Lapidus, Morris, 743–45, 851, 270 Lapsipalatsi Building. See Glass Palace Laredo Transit Center, 199 large-scale projects: Arquitectonica, 67; Denmark, 353. See also multifunction complexes Larkin Building, 715, 745–46, 270; exterior, 745

Downloaded by [Central Uni Library Bucharest] at 03:22 26 September 2013 Larsen, Henning, 746–48; Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Riyadh, 855–57, 412 Lasdun, Denys, 752–54, 412 Las Vegas, 748–52; Fremont Street Experience Light and Sound Show, 538 Laszlo, Hudec, Park Hotel, 26–9 La Tendenza, 29 Index 1118

Latin America: influence of CIAM on, 297; modernism, 40; need for different architectural solutions, 362 Latin American architecture, 248, 29 Latinoamericana Tower, 844 Latvian National Library, 148 L’Aubette in Strasbourg, 6 League of Nations Building in Geneva, 285 Learning from Las Vegas, 750, 305, 435 Lebanese architects, 129, 130 Lechner, Ödön, 662 Le Corbusier: Elements of a Synthesis (Von Moos), 435 LED lamps, 775 Legorreta, Ricardo, 755–57, 4ii Le Havre, France, 754–55 Leicester University, Engineering Building, 181 Lenin Institute, 757 Lenin Memorial, 833 Lenningrad, Constructivism in, 303 Leonidov, Ivan Ilich, 757–59 Leon Roos House, 822 Le Parc tower in Buenos Aires, 41 Les Arcades Du Lac, 152, 153 lesbian views and architecture, 454 Lescaze, William, 660–62 Les Espaces D’Abraxas, 152–53 Letchworth, 434, 482 Lethaby, W.R., 75 Lever House, 190, 518, 596, 759–60, 928, 494, 505–6; exterior, 759 Levi, Rino, 760–62 Le Viaduc, 152 Levittown, 96, 762–64, 623; aerial view, 95 Lewerentz, Sigurd, 354, 764–65 Liang Sicheng, 765–66 Libera, Adalberto, 478, 766–68; Casa Malaparte, 221–23, 4i Libeskind, Daniel, 768–70; Holocaust Museum in Berlin, 7;

Downloaded by [Central Uni Library Bucharest] at 03:22 26 September 2013 Jewish Museum, Berlin, 711–12, 4ii, 768; relation with Deconstructivism, 350 libraries, 770–73; Aalto’s compared with Larsen’s, 748; Ciudad Universitaria, Mexico City, 267; by Colin St. John Wilson, 623. See also Phoenix Central Library Index 1119

Libya, 20 Liebknecht-Luxemburg Memorial, 853 Liederhall in Stuttgart, 616 light as building material: Birkert’s use of, 147–48; Cartier Museum, 942–43; Fumihiko Maki’s use of, 812; Getty Museum, 499; Hans Poelzig’s “light architecture,” 131; Peter Zumthor’s use of, 131; Renzo Piano’s use, 94; Toyo Ito’s work, 700 lighting, 773–76; Boston City Hall, 158; British Library, London, 174; Church of St. Francis of Assisi, 257; in department stores, 220; in factories, 156, 94; in Frank Lloyd Wright’s works, 94; at Glasgow School of Art, 511; Hilversum Town Hall, 615; Hong Kong, 642; by internal light court, 745; Kimbell Art Museum, 732; light as raw material, 35; L’Innovation Department Store, 782; Louis Kahn’s relating with structure, 724; in museums, 917; neon, 229; Phoenix Central Library, 89–91; Sainsbury Wing, National Gallery, London, 378; by Steven Holl, 634; use by Yoshio Taniguchi, 688; Westin Times Square Hotel, 68 Lighting Center, 937 lightweight frames: aluminum, 37; by Frei Otto, 960 lightweight structures, Ove Arup’s use of, 79 Lilla Bommen, 412 Lille Grand Palais, 735 limestone blocks of coral, 709

Downloaded by [Central Uni Library Bucharest] at 03:22 26 September 2013 Lin, Maya, 776–78; Vietnam Veterans Memorial, 688–1414 Lincoln Center, 778–79; plaza, 779 Lincoln Memorial, 779–81; exterior, 780 linguistics and architecture, 92 Index 1120

L’Innovation Department Store, 781–82 Liperi Rehabilitation Centre for War Consumptives, 276 Lippo Centre, 642 Lisbon, Portugal, 782–84 Lisbon Ismaili Center, 282 Lisbon World Exhibition (1998), 783 Lisbon World Exposition (1998), 784–86 Lissitzky, El, 303, 361; relation with constructivism, 301; relation with De Stijl, 349 live-work units, 395 living memorials, 832, 833 Ljubljana, Jože Plecnik’s work in, 129 Lloyd’s of London, 595, 321; exterior, 321 load-bearing walls, 819 lobbies: AT&T Building, 85–86; Berlin Philharmonic Concert Hall, 142; Channel 4 Headquarters, London, 237; Chrysler Building, 253; Empire State Building, 404; Grand Central Terminal, 539–40; by Helmut Jahn, 706; hotel atrium, 655; Lyons Opera House, 943. See also atriums; waiting areas locally available materials use: Alliance Franco-Sénéfalaise, 36; by Alvaro Siza, 490; awards for, 26; Bank of London and South America, Buenos Aires, 110; by Fernando Tàvora, 696; Petronas Towers in Malaysia, 81; Ramses Wissa Wassef Arts Centre, 228; Spain, 540 Loews Philadelphia Hotel. See PSFS Building Loewy House, 474 London, England, 786–90; Sainsbury Wing, National Gallery, 376–1156; subway, 626;

Downloaded by [Central Uni Library Bucharest] at 03:22 26 September 2013 Survey of London, 81; urban development, 626; urban redevelopment, 626 London: The Unique City (Rasmussen), 233 London Zoo: Gorilla House and Penguin Pool, 78, 799; Penguin Pool, 611 Index 1121

Loos, Adolf, 790–93; impact on vernacular traditions, 233; impact on Viennese modernism, 92; influence on Czechoslovakia, 341, 342; modernism of, 861; Raumplan, 339; Steiner House, 790, 574–1248; use of timber framing, 733; view of ornament, 656 Lord’s Cricket Field, 649, 650, 709 Los Angeles, California, 793–96; Art Deco, 70; Banham’s ideal of, 108; freeways, 36, 307; transportation planning, 307 Los Angeles: The Architecture of Four Ecologies (Banham), 107 Los Angeles Country Courthouse and Hall of Administration, 307 Los Angeles International Airport, Theme Building, 3078iii Los Angeles Museum of Art, Shin’enKan Museum, 524 Los Angeles Museum of Contemporary Art, 490 Los Angeles Public Library, 532 Louvre pyramid, 391, 518, 894, 49 Lovell beach house, 796, 422 Lovell Health House, 795, 796–97, 918, 5ii; drawing, 797 low-cost housing: Adèle Naudé Santos’s model for, 393; by Balkrishna Doshi, 367; Charles Correa’s, 316; Le Corbusiersier’s plan, 311; exhibits at Expo 393, 422; India, 367, 674; by Irving John Gill, 504; Malagueira Housing Quarter, 813–14; Mexico, 844; Mexico City, 528; by Michel De Klerk, 346; Paris, 93; by Tony Garnier, 484; using pisé, 385; by William Wurster, 93.

Downloaded by [Central Uni Library Bucharest] at 03:22 26 September 2013 See also public housing; urban planning Lowell Mills, 13 low-tech architecture, 24 Loyola Law School campus, 490–91 Lubetkin, Berthold, 78 Lubetkin and Tecton, 799–801; Index 1122

Highpoint 1 Apartment Block, 78, 610–12 Lucas, Colin. See Connell, Ward, and Lucas Lucile Halsell Conservatory, main courtyard, 42 Luckenwalde Hat Factory, 138 Lume Media Center, 599 Luna Park, Coney Island, 52 Lunuganga, 124; garden at, 124 Lutyens, Edwin, 801–2; classicism in works of, 269; Cottage style, 748; Empire style buildings, 23; relationship with Herbert Baker, 110; relation with regionalism, 251; use of earthen materials, 384; work in London, 787; work in New Delhi, 919, 107 Luxor Casino and Hotel in Las Vegas, 391 Lu Xun Memorial Museum, 241 Lu Yanzhi, 797–99 Lyle, John M., 210, 107 Lynch, Kevin, 802–4, 107 Lyons, France: Garnier’s public buildings, 260; Tony Garnier’s work, 484 Lyon-Satolas Station for Lyon Airport, 226 Lyons Opera House, 943 Lyotard, Jean-François, 170

MacDonald, Frances, 509; Art nouveau poster, 73 MacDonald, Margaret, 509 machine aesthetic, 668; AEG Turbine Factory, 18; Art Deco, 69; Arts and Crafts Movement resistance to, 75; Banham’s writings about, 107; cities, 668; furniture by Charlotte Perriand, 72; in Kazuo Shonhara’s work, 476 Moisei Ginzberg’s design, 506; roadside attractions, 302;

Downloaded by [Central Uni Library Bucharest] at 03:22 26 September 2013 role of steel, 564; Villa Savoye, 564; in Walter Gropius’s work, 562. See also Futurism Mackintosh, Charles Rennie, 509, 805–7, 252; Glasgow School of Art (Scotland), 511–13; Hill House, 76–77, 5i Index 1123

Mackintosh Room at Glasgow School of Art, 512 Madison Square Presbyterian Church in New York City, 824 Madonna Inn, 888 Maeght Museum, 463–4 Maekawa, Kuno, Metropolitan Festival Hall, 842 magnesite, 746 Mahmoud Mokhtar Sculpture Museum, 464 Mahony, Marion, 310 maidans, 807–8. See also piazza theme; plazas Maillart, Robert, 808–10, 258; use of concrete, 292 Maison Cubist project, 332 Maison d’Artiste, 348, 349, 258 Maison de la Culture in Le Havre, 755 Maison de la Publicité, 935 Maison de Verre, 239, 240, 810–11 Maison du Peuple, 73, 651 Maison Particuliére, 348, 349, 258 Maisons Jaoul at Neuilly-sur-Seine, 172, 23 Majolikahaus, 74 Maki, Fumihiko, 811–13, 838, 839 Makovecz, Imre, 185, 664 Malagueira Quarter, Evora, Portugal, 813–14 Malaysian architecture, 528 Malevich, Kazimir, 362 Mali: Great Mosque of Djenne, 385; Great Mosque of Niono, 546 Mallet-Stevens, Robert, 814–15; project at International Exhibition of Decorative Arts (Paris 1925), 680 Managua Cathedral, 756, 4ii “Manhattan Modern,” 927 Manteola, Flora, 815 Manteola, Sánchez Gómez, Santos, Solsona, Viñoly, 815–17 manufacturing facilities. See industrial buildings Maravillas Gymnasium, 525 marble: undulating, 163, white, 9.

Downloaded by [Central Uni Library Bucharest] at 03:22 26 September 2013 See also terrazzo in Chicago, 243, 525 Marin County Civic Center, 9 Marinette, Fillipo Tomaso, 260 Marinetti, Filippo Tomaso, 478 Markelius, Sven, 817–18; Hälsingborg, Sweden Concert Hall, 289–90; Index 1124

Vällingby, 651 Market Square in Lake Forest, 469, 481 Marktown, 470 Marmon Hupmobile Auto showroom, 391 Marquette Building in Chicago, 241 Marrakesh Regional Military Hospital, 20 Marriot Marquis, 154 MARS (Modern Architectural Research) Group, 298, 299, 787, 799 Mary Cooper Jewett Arts Center, 353 Máscara de la Medusa, 600 Masonic Temples, 391 Masonite, 406 masonry: Bruno Taut’s opinion, 522; curtain wall system, 336 masonry bearing walls, 819–20; containing concrete, 601; limits of, 572. See also stone Massachusetts Institute of Technology: Baker Dormitory, 2, 159, 207; Kresge Auditorium, 295, 296; Kresge Chapel, 256 Massey, Geoffrey, 572 masted tension structures, 566 master plans, 206 materialism vs. high culture, 17, 53 Mathewson House, 823 Mätyniemi, 99 May, Cliff, 795 May, Ernst, 472–73, 820–21, 430 Maybeck, Bernard R., 821–24, 253; Church of Christ, Scientist, Berkeley, 322, 822, 823, 734; experiments with concrete, 290; use of timber framing, 733 Mayer, Albert, 234, 235; Fagus Werk, 435–36 Mayne, Thom, 877, 878 Mazloum, Djahanguir, 688 McClurg Building, 632 McCormick Place Convention Center, 706 McDonough, William, 642

Downloaded by [Central Uni Library Bucharest] at 03:22 26 September 2013 McGraw-Hill Building, 648 McKim, Mead and White, 824–25; acoustical design, 11; approach to American architecture, 642; Bank of Montreal, 867; Boston Public Library, 158; Boston Symphony Hall, 11; Index 1125

campus plans, 206; Court of the Universe, 415, 16; General Post Office in New York, 927; Hotel Nacional, 329; Pennsylvania Station, New York City, 269, 270; use of glass, 515 McKinnell, Michael, 156 McMath Solar Telescope at Kitt Peak, 497 McNair, James Herbert, 509 Mead, William Rutherford. See McKim, Mead and White mechanical innovations, introduction into architecture, 261 Mechanization Takes Command (Giedion), 501 Medgyaszay, István, 663, 825–26 medieval architecture aesthetic, 75, 76 Mediterranean style: in Israel, 695; in Los Angeles, 794; in Miami, Florida, 850 megastructures, 261, 497; and utopian planning, 497 Meier, Richard, 573, 827–29; Getty Center, 498–500, 827, 894; The Hague, 266; High Museum of Art, 608–10 Melbourne, Australia, 829–30 Melbourne School, 90, 830 Melnikhov House, The (Pallasmaa), 10 Melnikov, Konstantin, 830–32, 879, 6; project at International Exhibition of Decorative Arts (Paris 1925), 680 Melrose Community Center (Bronx, New York), 27, li Memorial da America Latina, 399 Memorial de la Déportation, 23 memorials, 832–34; Art Deco Anzac Memorial, 71; “disappearing” column, 833; by Edwin Lutyens, 802; Gateway Arch (St. Louis), 486–87; by Herbert Baker, 102, 103; Jefferson Memorial, 147; by Lu Yanzhi, 797, 798; by Maya Lin, 776; by Otto Wagner, 832;

Downloaded by [Central Uni Library Bucharest] at 03:22 26 September 2013 by , 326; by Ricardo Bofill, 152; Sun Yat-sen Memorial Hall, 797, 798; Victims of Japanese Massacre, 251; at visitor centers, 147; World Trade Center, 769 Memory Foundations, 769. Index 1126

See also monuments Memphis Group, Italy, 834–35 Mendelsohn, Erich, 516, 835–37, 676; Einstein Tower, 393–94; Expressionist work, 426; Luckenwalde Hat Factory, 138; Palace of the Soviets Competition entry, 4; photographs, 59; Universum Cinema, 4–1376; views of Rotterdam, 341; work in Israel, 695 Menil Collection, 659, 837–38 Mercadal, Fernando García, 540 Mesaggio, 385, 387 Messeturm, 708 Metabolists, 693, 699, 737, 838–40, 685; Fumihiko, Maki, 811- 13; influence in Tokyo, 740; In Japan, 739–40 metal curtain wall panels, 337 Metron, 66 Metropolis of Tomorrow, The (Ferriss), 456 Metropolitan Chapel, 163–64 Metropolitan Festival Hall, Tokyo, 842 Metropolitan Government Building in Tokyo, 740 Metropolitan Life Building, 775 Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York extension, 313 Metro Station, Paris, 423–24, 840–41, 625; entrance, 841 Mexican architects, 116, 213 Mexican architecture, 327, 528, 872, 937 Mexican School of Architecture, 843 Mexico, 842–46 Mexico City, 843, 846–48; architects, 116; Ciudad Universitaria Campus and Stadium, 266–67 Mexico House II, 878 Meyer, Hannes, 848–50 Meyerson , 48 MGM Grand Hotel, 750 Miami, Florida, 850–52

Downloaded by [Central Uni Library Bucharest] at 03:22 26 September 2013 Miami architects, 852 Miami Beach, Florida, 70; Art Deco District, 437; urban renewal, 744 MIAR (International Movement for Rational Architecture), 443 Middle School in Morbio Inferiore, 162 Midway Gardens, 437 Index 1127

Mies van der Rohe, Ludwig, 852–55; approach to architecture, 437; buildings at Weissenhofsiedlung (Stuttgart 1927), 437; Chicago Convention Hall, 437; church design, 256; furniture, 521; German Pavilion (Barcelona 1929), 415, 492–94; Glass Chain crystal, 138; Glass Skyscraper, 521–22; Illinois Institute of Technology, 207, 667–69; Illinois Institute of Technology, Chemistry Laboratory, 265; impact on Chicago, 242–43, 244, 245–46; International Style, 682–83; Lake Shore Drive Apartments, 245, 246; move to Bauhaus, 120; Neue Nationalgalerie, 138; Paimio Sanatorium, 265; plazas, 126; relation with De Stijl, 348; Seagram Building, 444–1188; skyscrapers, 504; Spiegelglashalle, 504; tectonics in works of, 706; Toronto-Dominion Centre, 706; Tugendhat House, 706–1349, 5iii; use of brick, 171; use of color, 279; use of glass, 516; Westmount Square, 867; work in Czechoslovakia, 342. See also Farnsworth House; Seagram Building Miho Museum, 49 Milan, Italy Torre Velasca, 49–1339 mill buildings, adaptive re-use, 13 Millennial Dome at Greenwich, 324, 607 Mills College: El Campanil, 875; library, 875 Art Museum 3i; expansion project, 204;

Downloaded by [Central Uni Library Bucharest] at 03:22 26 September 2013 Santiago Quadracci pavilion, 205 minimalist architecture: Brussels, 179; Germany, 496; Helsinki, 602; relation with ornament, 959 Minimalist style, Flemish architects, 132 Ministry of Education Building in Rio de Janeiro, 194 Index 1128

Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Riyadh, 747, 748, 855–57, 412; courtyard, 856 Ministry of Heavy Industry, 758 Ministry of Social Welfare and Employment in The Hague, 606 Minneapolis, Minnesota, twin cities regional planning council, 246 Minnesota State Capitol, 502 Minta, Lassiné, Great Mosque of Niono, 546 Mirage, 751 Miralles, Enric, 857–59 Miró Museum, 463–4 Miró studio, 112 Mission Revival, 196 Mission style architecture, 228; country clubs, 320 Mito Art Tower, The, 693 mobile architecture, 426 mobile homes, 859–60 Moda en Casa, 938 model city, 226 Model Factory for Werkbund Exhibition (Cologne 1914), 563 models: Antoni Gaudí's use of, 489; Bauhaus, 120; Broadacre City, 176; by Morphosis, 877 Modern Architecture: A Critical History (Frampton), 623 Modern Architecture (Tafuri), 623 modern art and architecture, 5–6; Cubism, 332–34 Modern Art Museum of Fort Worth, 54 “Modern Classicism,” 929 Modern Housing (Bauer), 196 modernism, 860–63. See also Futurism; and abstraction, 6–7; Ada Louise Huxtable’s writings, 665; apartment buildings, 56; Australia, 90; Austria, 93; Bangkok, 104, 105; Brazil, 194, 294;

Downloaded by [Central Uni Library Bucharest] at 03:22 26 September 2013 Brazilian, 165–68; Bucharest, 183; Buenos Aires, 186–87; Cairo, 201; Chile, 247; concept of space and order, 403; effect on country clubs, 321; Index 1129

Finland, 461; Finnish, 148; inner contradiction seen by Norberg-Schulz, 936; Iran, 688; Latin America, 40; Manhattan, 928; metaphor of health, 967, 519; Norway, 940; Ralph Adams Crams’s view of, 324; relation with avante-garde, 97; relation with roadside attractions, 302; relation with supermodernism, 639; relation with typology, 639; of Seagram Building, 444; Switzerland, 654; Thailand, 102; view of brick, 170–71 modernisme architects, 214; Barcelona, 111 modernismo, 223; 225 modernist nationalism: China, 249–50; United States, 600 modernity, difference from moderism, 861 Modern Movement: airport buildings, 32–33; Argentina, 65–66; Banham’s writings about, 107; Bruno Paul’s role, 41; Bruno Zevi’s writings, 41; Canada, 210; Caracas, 215–16; Cuba, 329; Heinrich Tessenow’s relation with, 725; and historic preservation, 618; historiography, 622–23; impact of Nikolaus Pevsner on, 82; impact on architectural drawing, 58–59; importance of CIAM to, 296; influence of Auguste Choisy, 251; Juhani Uolevi Pallasmaa’s writings, 11; ornament, 959;

Downloaded by [Central Uni Library Bucharest] at 03:22 26 September 2013 relation to avant-garde, 97; relation with Arts and Crafts Movement, 77; relation with historicism, 620; relation with rationalism, 238; Southern and Central Africa, 24; United Kingdom, 238; in United States, 36. Index 1130

See also Functionalism modern regionalism, 192, 326 modern vernacular: of Alvar Aalto, 326; of Fernando Tàvora, 695, 696; Kyoto, Japan, 739; Saudi Arabia, 407 modular systems: Blomstedt’s use of, 149; Habitat ‘67, Montreal, 579; Kisho Kurokawa’s interest in, 737; library, 772, 89; Molnár’s sliding walls, 863, 864; office, 605–6; precast construction, 186; at Renault Distribution Centre, 260; research centers, 266 Moduli 225, 11 Moerdyk, Gerhard, 23–24 Moholy-Nagy, Sibyl, 11 Mohrmann House, 419 Molchow House, 370 Molnar, Farkas, 863–64 Monadnock Building, 171, 391, 819 Mondrian, Piet, 348 Moneo Vallés, José Rafael, 325, 864–66, 227, 596; Museums of Modern Art and Architecture in Sweden, 651 monolithic earth construction, 383 Monte Carlo seaside project (Archigram), 58 Montreal, Canada, 866–68. See also Expo 651, Montreal monumental architecture: Exposition des Arts et Techniques (1937), 21; Grande Arche de la Défense, 540–42; Henning Larsen’s work, 748; Hungary, 662; Indonesia, 531; of Kenzo Tange, 684, 685; Louis Kahn’s view of, 723; Melbourne, 830; Mexico City, 847, 848;

Downloaded by [Central Uni Library Bucharest] at 03:22 26 September 2013 Moscow, 879; Philippines, 531; relationship with tents, 714; Romania, 331; Sigfried Giedion’s writings, 501; use of stone, 595; Willem Marinus Dudok’s view, 615; Index 1131

Wright’s understanding of, 595 monuments: Berlin Wall designation as, 145; at Brasilia, 164; by Raimund Abraham, 5; vernacular style, 595; Washington Monument, 543. See also memorials Monument to the Resistance, 337 Monument to the Third International, 868–70 Moore, Charles, 365, 621, 870–72, 337; relation with postmodernism, 168 Moorish style: at Panama-Pacific International Exposition in San Fancisco, 16; in Sarajevo, 16; synagogues, 673 Moral, Enrique del, 872–73 Moravian architecture, 341 Moretti, Luigi, 873–75; Stock Exchange Tower, 867 Morgan, Julia, 388, 875–77, 253 Morgan Library, 824 Morocco, urban development, 20 Morphosis, 877–79, 239; relation with Deconstructivism, 350 Morris, William, 75, 76, 77 mortar, 819 Moscow, Russia, 879–82; constructivism in, 301–3; Moisei Ginzburg’s model for, 507; Monument to the Third International, 868–70; style moderne, 358; subway, 627; subway escalators, 414–15 Moscow Art Theater, 472 Moscow Insurance Society on Old Square, 473 , 880–881, 880 Moser House, 628 Moses, Robert, 94, 985, 245 Mosque, Rome, 160 Mosque of the Grand National Assembly, 884–86;

Downloaded by [Central Uni Library Bucharest] at 03:22 26 September 2013 facade, 885; main entrance, 886 mosques, 882–84; in Dhaka, 360; Southern and Central Africa, 24 Moss, Eric Owen, 174 Mostorg Department Store, 174 Index 1132

motels, 95, 887–88; as roadside attractions, 304 Motherwell Studio, 240 Mound Stand at Lord’s Cricket Ground, 649, 650, 708 movie theaters, 888–90; Coop Himmelblau design, 307; influence of Universum Cinema on, 708; marquee, 889 moving walkways, 414 Mt. Hope, New Jersey Elementary School, 431 MTV Studios, 878 Müller, Karl-Heinrich, 379 multifunction complexes: Baiyoke Towers, 101; Beirut apartment buildings, 129; bus terminals, 199; Canada Place, 431; disjunctive, 431; Glass Palace, 276; by John C.Portman Jr., 154; parking garages in, 32; Rockefeller Center, 316; stadiums as, 550–78; Switzerland, 655; Unite d’Habitation, 655 Multiple-Prime Contracting system, 300 multiplex theaters, 890 Mumford, Lewis, 501, 518, 551, 686, 890–92; regional planning, 244 municipal codes. See ordinances Municipal Stadium in Lyon, 484 Municipal Stadium of Florence, 910 Municipal Theater General San Martin, 40 Murphy, C.F., 948 Musée des Travaux Publics, 68 Musée d’Orsay, 87, 88, 25 Museum for the Decorative Arts in Frankfurt, 827–28 Museum Insel Hombroich, 379 Museum of Antiquities, Cairo, 201 Museum of Contemporary Art, Barcelona, 828 Museum of Contemporary Art, Los Angeles, 893

Downloaded by [Central Uni Library Bucharest] at 03:22 26 September 2013 Museum of Contemporary Art in Helsinki, 634 Museum of Finnish Architecture, 464 Museum of Folk Art in New York, 25 Museum of Modern Art, Copenhagen, 355 Museum of Modern Art, Frankfurt, 636, 894–96; exterior, 895 Museum of Modern Art, New York, 893, 896–98; Index 1133

Ambasz’ influence, 41–42; “Deconstructivist Architecture” exhibition, 350, 351; 1959 exhibition, impact on Art Nouveau, 75; guest house, 520; International Style Exhibition, 685–87; Philip Johnson’s work at, 715–16, 716 Museum of Modern Art, San Francisco, 161 Museum of São Paulo, 150–51; exterior, 151 museums, 892–94; adaptive re-use of buildings for, 12, 13; Aulenti’s exhibition space designs, 87–88; design, 7; by Edward Larrabee Barnes, 115; by Frank Gehry, 490; lighting in, 917; in New York City, 928; open-air, 25; Paris, 25; Philadelphia, 87 Museums of Modern Art and Architecture in Sweden, 651 music and architecture, 149, 373; Hans Hollein, 7; Mies’ metaphor, 516; Paolo Portoghesi’s work, 160; Steven Holl, 634; Willem Marinus Dudok, 614 Muthesius, Hermann, 898–99, 160; exhibition buildings, 160; relation with Deutscher Werkbund, 357, 358 Muuratsalo Summer House, 2–3

Nagakin Capsule Tower, 737, 738 Nairobi, Kenya, 24 Najdi style, 297 Nakagin Capsule Building, 839 Narkomfin Building, 302–3 National Archives in Washington, D.C., 148 National Archives of Canada, 211 National Art Schools, Havana, 901–2; School of Visual Arts, 902

Downloaded by [Central Uni Library Bucharest] at 03:22 26 September 2013 National Assembly Building, Dhaka, 902–4; exterior, 903 National Assembly Building Kuwait City, 148 National Building Museum, 12 National Center for Atmospheric Research (NCAR), 48 National Commercial Bank Headquarters, 710 National Commercial Bank in Jeddah, 190 Index 1134

Nationale-Nederlanden Building, 490, 571 National Exhibition of 1939 in Zürich, 655 National Farmers’ Bank, 904–6, 631; interior, 905 National Gallery of Art, 146; East Building, 894, 906–7, 48; East Building interior, 907 National Gallery of Canada, 374 National Grand Theater of China, 251 National Library and Archives in Dhaka, 692 National Library of Argentina, 725 National Library of China, 725 National Library of France, 63, 65 National Mall in Washington, D.C., 781 National Museum of Anthropology, Mexico, 844 National Museum of Modern Art in Kyoto, 811 National Museum of Roman Art, 865 National Netherlands Building, 178 National Park Service, U.S., 34 National Pensions Institute in Helsinki, 2 National Queen Sirikit Convention Center, 106 National Romanticism, 81; Budapest, 185; city halls, 264; Finland, 459; Hungary, 662, 663; Norway, 939; Sweden, 650; use of timber framing, 733; Yugoslavia, 733 National Romantic movement, Finland, 600, 601 National School Theater in Mexico City, 938 national style: Budapest, 185; Cairo, 202; Canadian, 210; Cuba, 329; Thailand, 105; United States, 733 National Theater in Prague, 178 National Trust for Historic Preservation, 618

Downloaded by [Central Uni Library Bucharest] at 03:22 26 September 2013 National University in Mexico, National Library, 947 nature: in Ando’s architecture, 53; as architect, 6; balancing the forces of, 455; bringing into the city, 305; inspiration from, 72, 73–74 Index 1135

nature integrated with buildings, 42–43, 194, 258, 178; Adèle Naudé Santos’ work, 393; Alberto Kalach’s use of patios, 726; Alvar Aalto, 2; Antoine Predock’s work, 188; Atocha Station in Madrid, 226; Bruce Alonzo Goff’s work, 523; Chloethiel Woodard Smith’s works, 508; churches, 256; Ciudad Universitaria Stadium, Mexico City, 267; Cuba, 331; Frank Lloyd Wright’s works, 508; Getty Museum, 499; Glacier Museum, 509; Gürel Family Summer Residence, 575–76; House-on-Hill, 15; Itsuko Hasegawa’s work, 591; Kazuyo Sejima’s work, 458; Menil Collection, 838; Nicholas Grimshaw’s work, 559–60; Our Lady of Peace Basilica, 965; Palais Stoclet, 8; Reima and Raili Pietilä's work, 96–9; in Sverre Fehn’s work, 450; tree in facade, 66; use at Schröder-Schräder House, 433; use of glass to simulate, 231; Yoshio Taniguchi’s works, 688. See also Contextualism Naumann, Friedrich, 357 nautical forms, 239; The Ark in London, 412; church design with, 256; Coca-Cola Bottling Plant in Los Angeles, 795; in Expressionist work, 427; House of Maria Melero, 329; Kölnsiche Zeitung, 277; Lisbon World Expo, 783, 785–86; by Reima Pietilä, 602; Seamen’s Church Institute in New York, 134 Navarro Baldeweg, Juan, 907–8

Downloaded by [Central Uni Library Bucharest] at 03:22 26 September 2013 Navrongo Cathedral in Ghana, 385 Nazi effects on architecture, 443–44; Berlin, 139–40; book burning, 598; Cologne, Germany, 277–78; Germany, 496; Nazi use of , 269 Index 1136

Nebraska State Capitol, 531 necoclassical style, City Beautiful movement, 262 Negro House, 726 neighborhood conservation, 616–17 neo-avant-garde, 98 neobaroque style: Hungary, 663; London, 787; New Delhi, 672 neoclassical revival style, Moscow, 879 Neoclassicism: in Auguste Perret’s work, 68; Bangkok, 104; Barcelona architects, 112, 113; Boston, 158; Brazil, 165; Canada, 208; Chicago, 242; China, 249; Denmark, 353; effect of UER'42, 443; Hong Kong Shanghai Bank, 646; Hungary, 664; of John Russell Pope, 147; in Kay Fisker’s work, 464; Le Harve, France, 754; Northern Africa, 20; Norway, 939; Philadelphia, 87; in Plan of Chicago, 107; Russia, 359; Turkey, 359; use of stone, 595; in Washington, D.C., 595 neo-Colonial style: Argentina, 65; Brazil, 165; Mexico, 843; Mexico City, 846; Rio de Janeiro, 294 neo-Gothic style, Canada, 209 neon signs, 96

Downloaded by [Central Uni Library Bucharest] at 03:22 26 September 2013 Neoplasticism (New Forming), 294 neorationalism, 909, 170 neorealism, 334 neo-Russian style, 879, 473 neovernacular, London, 789 “neovernacular design,” 924 Nervi, Pier Luigi, 910–11; Index 1137

church design, 256; Exhibition Hall, Turin, Italy, 416–19; Gatti Wool Factory, 260; George Washington Bridge Bus Terminal, 199; influence on Harry Seidler, 454; Olympic Stadium in Rome, 333; pavilions by, 416; Stock Exchange Tower, 867; structural innovations, 145; use of concrete, 293; work in Paris, 23; work in Yugoslavia, 23 Netherlands, 912–15 Netherlands Exhibition Hall (1969), 963 Netherlands Pavilion at Expo 23, 422 Netherlands Pavilion for Venice Biennale, 287–8 Netsch, Walter, 243, 288 Neue Nationalgalerie, detail, 138 Neue Staatsgalerie, 916–17; compared with Museum Abteiberg, 9; exterior, 916 Neue Vahr Apartment building, 3 Neue Wache, 725 Neue Zolhof, Der, 375, 379 Neumann, Alfred, 696 Neurosciences Institute in La Jolla, 725 Neutra, Richard, 917–19; influence in Cuba, 330; influence on suburban housing, 231; Lovell Health House, 796, 5ii; relation with environmental issues, 410; relation with International Style, 682; work in Los Angeles, 795 Neviges Pilgrimage Church, 99–1016 New Austrian Cultural Institute in Manhattan, 5 New Brutalism. See Brutalism New Caledonia Cultural Centre Jean Marie Tjibaou, 334–35 New City, The: Principles of Planning (Hilberseimer), 612 New Courtyard House Complex, 99 New Delhi, India, 919–20; Raj Rewal’s work in, 280

Downloaded by [Central Uni Library Bucharest] at 03:22 26 September 2013 New Delhi Embassy, 401, 402 New England Merchants National Bank in Boston, 115 New Farm in Surrey, 298 New Gourna, 445 New National Gallery of Art in Stuttgart, 615–7 , 137, 43; “constructed organicist” version, 419; Index 1138

Hannes Meyer’s work, 848. See also Functionalism New Petersburg Apartment Building, 548 “new regionalism,” 940 New School for Social Research, 928 New Theatre in Oslo, 939 new town developments: Ankara, 548; Ardalan’s, 63; Chandigarh, India, 235–36; Coldspring, Maryland, 375; downside of, 375; Fascist, 443; Finland, 462; Heliopolis, 201; Iran, 689; near Glasgow, Scotland, 514; Northern Africa, 21; Stockholm, 595; Sweden, 651; Tapiola, 149; Tokyo, 740–3; Tyrone, New Mexico, 531; in the USSR, 820; Vällingby, 818. See also Arcosanti, Arizona; utopian planning New Towns Movement, 919–20 New Urbanism, 921–25, 170: Colin Rowe’s influence, 349; effect of ordinances on, 956; and historic preservation, 618; Jane Jacobs’s influence, 703; relation with Disney theme parks, 365; relation with Historicism, 621; Romania, 331; roots in Contextualism, 306; Seaside, Florida example, 450; second generation example, 226; United States, 450. See also greenbelts and greenbelt towns

Downloaded by [Central Uni Library Bucharest] at 03:22 26 September 2013 New York City, 925–29; Ada Louise Huxtable’s writings, 665; AT&T Building, 84–86, 621, 716, 506; Carrère and Hastings’ works in, 218; Empire State Building, 253, 403–4, 927, 504; Flatiron Building, 504–467; Guggenheim Museum (New York), 572–74, 746, 928, 504; Index 1139

Master Plan, 504; Regional Plan of 504, 244; Rem Koolhaas writings, 734; Rockefeller Center, 927, 126, 316–1126; Seagram Building, 444–1188; skyline, 926; skyscrapers, 504; subway, 627; TWA Airport Terminal, 627; United Nations Headquarters, 765, 818, 928, 627–1965; urban development, 627; Woolworth Building, 502, 501–1451; World Trade Center, 769, 506–1452 New York Daily News Building, 647 New Yorker magazine “Sky Line,” 891 New York Exposition of 506, 416 “New York Five,” 394, 542, 578, 827, 506 New York Museum of Natural History, Rose Center for Earth and Space, 136 New York New York (hotel), 751 New York Public Library, 217–18; exterior, 218 New York State Theater, 778 New York World’s Fair (1939), 929–31 New Zealand, 932–33 New Zealand architects, 932 Niagara City Performing Arts Center, 591 Niagara Falls Power Generating Station, 208 nickelodeons, 889 Niedecken, George, 308 Niemeyer, Oscar, 933–34; Capela de Pampulha, 166–67; Church of St. Francis of Assisi, 257–58; collaboration with Lúcio Costa, 318; Copan Building, 399; impact on Brazil, 166; Memorial da America Latina, 399; National Congress Complex, 8iii; Pampulha Buildings, 13–4; relation with Brasilia, 163, 164; work in Rio de Janeiro, 294 Nieuwe Bouwen. See Dutch Functionalism

Downloaded by [Central Uni Library Bucharest] at 03:22 26 September 2013 Nieuwe Kunst. See Art Nouveau (Jugendstil) Nigeria, Abuja, Federal Capital Territory, 9–10 night lighting, 775 Nihon Kosaku Bunka Renmei (Japanese Werkbund), 736–37 Nishizawa, Ryue, 460 Nitzschke, Oscar, 934–36 Noguchi, Isamu, 46 Index 1140

“nonspace,” 639 Norberg-Schulz, Christian, 936–37 Nordic architecture, 81, 508, 936 , 149 Nordic Romanticism, Hungary, 663 Nordiska Museum, 591 Norten, Enrique, 293, 937–38 North Christian Church, Columbus, Indiana, 281 Northern Africa, 19–21 Northern moderne, 545 North Korean architecture, 530 North Pole Mobile Ice Cream Store, 525 Norton, Enrique, use of concrete, 293 Norway, 938–41 Norwegian influence in Australia, 936 Norwegian Pavilion (Sverre Fehn), 420, 450, 940 Notre Dame, Le Raincy, 941–44, 68; exterior, 942 Nottingham, England, Boots Pure Drugs Factory, 155–56 Nottingham University, 649, 650 Nouvel, Jean, 942–44, 26 Novecento architecture in Hungary, 663 Novia Icària (Olympic Village, 1992), 114 Novocomum Apartment House in , 717 Nuestra Señora de Guadalupe shrine, 844 Nyrop, Martin, 353

Oakland Cathedral, 204 Oakland Museum, 314 observatories: Einstein Tower, 393–94, 426; McMath Solar Telescope at Kitt Peak, 497. See also shell designs Ocean Terminal, 641 office buildings, 945–46; skyscrapers; with basilica-based plan, 155; Chicago, 241; corporate office park, estate, and campus, 313–14; Louis Sullivan’s, 631; New York City building code, 253;

Downloaded by [Central Uni Library Bucharest] at 03:22 26 September 2013 plastic, 114; by Ralph Erskine, 412; sustainable design, 643 See also Johnson Wax Administration Building O’Gorman, Juan, 844, 946–48; University Library, UNAM, Mexico City, 267, 643 O’Hare International Airport, 948–50; Index 1141

United Airlines Terminal, 707, 949 Ohgimi Beach House, 393 Ohio State University, Wagner Center for the Visual Arts, 395 Olbrich, Josef Maria, 91–92, 343, 344, 377, 950–51; relation with Deutscher Werkbund, 357; relation with Vienna Secession, 393; Secession Building door detail, 393, 6iii Old Post Office Building in Washington, D.C., 12 Old Stone Town, Zanzibar, Tanzania, 23 Olgyay, Victor and Alada, 405 Olivetti Factory, 951–52 Olmsted, Frederick Law, 35 Olsen Line Passenger Terminal in London, 468 Olympic Games in Sydney, 663 Olympic Games Tent in Munich, 549, 550 Olympic Stadium, Australia, 660 Olympic Stadium, Caracas, 267–68 Olympic Stadium, Munich (1971), 960, 961 Olympic Stadium, Rome, 333 Olympic Stadium, Tokyo, 952–53 Olympic Velodrome and Swimming Pool, Berlin, 65, 3iii Olympic Village housing, Rome, 874–75 Ontario Place amusement park, 65 Onyx Center, 944 Open Air School, Amsterdam, 953–55; front entry, 954 Open City in Chile, 248 open-plan schools, 430–1 Opéra de la Bastille, 23 Oporto, Tennis Pavilion by Fernando Tàvora, 695 Orangery at Prague Castle, 713 ordinances, 955–57; affecting Getty Museum, 498; affecting Highpoint I Apartments, 610; alliterative to, 227; design, 955–57; in Glasgow, Scotland, 513; Hong Kong, 642; lack of, in Tokyo, 736; for roadside architecture, 305; Seaside, Florida, 450;

Downloaded by [Central Uni Library Bucharest] at 03:22 26 September 2013 suburban developments, 623; Washington, D.C., 623. See also zoning ordinances organic functionalists, 587 organicism: in Australia, 90, 91; of Bruno Zevi, 623; Index 1142

of Carlos Raúl Villanueva, 623; and environmental issues, 409; of Frank Lloyd Wright, 669; Gunnar Birkerts’s, 146; of Hugo Häring, 567, 586; in Hungary, 664; of Jørn Utzon, 623; of Juan O’Gorman, 946–47; Wright’s transmission to Europe, 244 oriented strand board (OSB), 406, 407 ornament, 958–60; Adolf Loos’s aphorism about, 623; Adolf Loos’s rejection of, 575; Alliance Franco-Sénéfalaise, 35; of Antoni Gaudí, 487, 488; Art Deco, 71; Art Nouveau (Jugendstil), 72; Berlage’s views on, 135; Casa Milà, 224; Chrysler Building, 253; Classicism, 269; Edward Durell Stone’s use of, 601; Egyptian architecture, 390; feminine and masculine, 454; Hassan II Mosque, 592; by Holabird and Root, 630; Hong Kong and Shanghai Bank, 646–47; Indian, 673; Josep Puig i Cadafalch’s use of, 216; Louis Sullivan’s views about, 631; by Minoru Yamasaki, 631; in mosques, 882; neo-Russian style, 473; Portland Public Services Building, 151; Stockholm Public Library, 589; terracotta, 716; in theaters, 890; used by Hans Poelzig, 131; used by Purcell and Elmslie, 220, 222; use in Art Deco, 222; Viennese, 414;

Downloaded by [Central Uni Library Bucharest] at 03:22 26 September 2013 Wanamaker Department Store, 414; when structure not expressive, 414 Ort, Carlos, Opéra de la Bastille, 23 orthographic projections, 58 OSA (Organization of Contemporary Architecture), 23 OSB (oriented strand board), 406, 407 Osborn House, 114 Index 1143

Östberg, Ragnar, 593 Otaka, Masato, 839, 842 Otaniemi Chapel, 259 Otis, Elisha Graves, 398 Otis Elevator Company, 414 Ottawa Civic Hospital, 653 Otto, Frei, 960–62; fabric structure experiments, 710; West German Pavilion, 422 , 697, 516 Oud, J.J.P., 334, 962–64, 342; relation with De Stijl, 348, 349; Weissenhof Row Houses, 617 Our Lady of Peace Basilica, Yamoussoukro, 964–65 Ove Arup, 260, 426, 663, 708; energy-efficient design, 405; Menil Collection, 659; relation with environmental issues, 410 Oxford Ice Rink, 559 oya (lava stone), 669

Pailais de la Découverte, 935 Paimio Sanatorium, 517, 1–969, 1; elevation, 4 Palace Hotel in Helsinki, 276 Palace of Culture in Moscow, 758 Palace of Electricity, 424 Palace of Fine Arts, 821, 16, 17 Palace of the Soviets Competition, 4–970 palaces, Bangkok, 105 Palacio Güell, 488–89 Palacios y Ramilo, Antonio, 540 Palais des Beaux-Arts, 652 Palais Stoclet, 656, 8–972; exterior, 9 Palau de la Música, 226 Palau Sant Jordi Sports Palace, 693, 694 Palazetto Dello Sport, Rome, 910 palazzo: Casa Girasole as, 874; impact on department stores, 356;

Downloaded by [Central Uni Library Bucharest] at 03:22 26 September 2013 influence on department stores, 9; influence on embassies, 402; model for libraries, 772; relation of Flatiron Building to, 468; Santiago, Chile, 391 Palazzo a Vela, 93 Palazzo Hotel and Restaurant Complex, Il, 339 Index 1144

Palladio, Andrea, 521 Pallasmaa, Juhani, 463, 11–2 Palmer and Turner, 645 Palmer House Hotel, 632–33 , 630 Palm Springs City Hall, 475 Palumbo, Lord Peter, 441–42 Pampulha Buildings, 13–4; Church of St. Francis of Assisi, 257- 58 Panama Pacific Exposition (San Francisco 1915), 415, 15–9; Bertram Grosvenor Goodhue’s buildings, 531; Court of the Universe, 415 Pan Am Building, 684, 928, 731 Pan American Union Building, 326 Pan-American Village, 331 Pani, Mario, 847, 872 Pantheon of Liberty and Democracy, 164 paper architecture, 635 parade grounds, 444; Baghdad, 808 Paradise Garden concept, 886 paradise garden theme, 63 Para-lam timber, 406 Parc de la Vilette, 350, 731 Parc Güell, 489 Paris, France, 20–980; Voisin Plan for Paris; buildings by Le Corbusier, 21; Le Corbusier’s plan for, 305; Metro Stations, 840–41; urban planning, 21; Voisin Plan for Paris, 21 Paris Exposition (1900), 415, 423–25, 19 Paris Exposition (1937), 416 Park, Robert, 19 Parker, Barry, 399 Park Hotel, 26–982; exterior, 28 parking garages, 94, 30–984; beneath plazas, 124;

Downloaded by [Central Uni Library Bucharest] at 03:22 26 September 2013 Miami example, 32; for row houses, 32 See also warehouse and storage facilities parkways, 34–986, 307; Benjamin Franklin, 263; New Delhi, 109–10; system of “green fingers,” 227 Index 1145

Parliamentary Complex in Kotte, 124 Parliament Building, Chandigarh, 36–988, 7ii Parliament Complex, Dhaka, 359, 361 Parliament House, Canberra, 212 Parliament House, Helsinki, 601, 602 Parliament Library in New Delhi, 280 participatory design, 168 particleboard, 406, 407 Pasadena City Hall, 620 Pasadena Freeway, 36 Pasatiempo houses, 36 Patel, Bimal, Entrepreneurship Development Institute, 407–8 paths of movement: Bawa’s work, 124; Channel 4 Headquarters, London, 237; Charles Correa’s shifting axis, 315; effects of escalators, 414, 415; Holocaust Memorial Museum, Washington, D.C., 637; Pennsylvania Station, 55; in Peter and Alison Smithson’s works, 512; Reichstag, 256; at Seaside, Florida, 452; Taliesin West, 681; Toyo Ito’s work, 700; Yoshio Taniguchi’s buildings, 681 See also parkways patio as transitional space, 844, 845 Patkau, Patricia and John, 211, 40–1 Patscenter, 267 Paul, Bruno, 357, 42–989 Pavilion de la Musique, 935 Pavilion de l’Espirit Nouveau, 681 Pavilion of Cosmic Rays, 267 Pavilion of Portugal, 783, 786 Pavilion of Tourism, 680 pavilion-plan hospitals, 652 pavilions:

Downloaded by [Central Uni Library Bucharest] at 03:22 26 September 2013 All India Handloom Board, 314–15; Barcelona (1929), 492–94; Chicago World’s Fair (1933), 229–31; concrete, 292–93; Disney theme parks, 364; by José Antonio Coderch y de Sentmenat, 273; Index 1146

Ludwig Mies van der Rohe’s clear-span, 854; New York World’s Fair (1939), 930, 931; by Peter Behrens, 126, 127; set into landscape, 124; Shrine of the Book, 483; by Stepahnovich Melnikov, 831; styles at Panama-Pacific International Exposition in San Francisco, 17; by Sverre Fehn, 450–51; Taut’s Glaspalast, 276; Venice Biennale (1895–1995), 17–1399; World’s Fair, Expo 17 See also exhibition building; tents Peabody Studio, 241 Peace Chapel for Juniata College, 776 Peace Memorial and Museum, Hiroshima, 44–990 Peachtree Center, 154 Peak Club, 641 Peak Tram Station Tower, 644 Pearl Harbor fallout shelter, 439 Pederson, William, 732 Pedestrian movement. See paths of movement Pedrera, La, 489 Pei, I.M., 28, 47–993; Bank of China Tower, 108–10, 455–56, 922, 501; Central Station project in Montreal, 867; Centrust Tower, 852; Fragrant Hill Hotel, 250, 49; Hancock Tower, 518; Hong Kong Bank, 455; influence in Washington, D.C., 49 Louvre pyramid, 391, 518, 894; National Gallery of Art, East Building, 894; National Gallery of Art, East Building (Washington, D.C.), 894; relation with International Style, 684; use of concrete shells, 296 Pelli, Cesar, 642, 775, 52–995, 5ii;

Downloaded by [Central Uni Library Bucharest] at 03:22 26 September 2013 Petronas Towers, 53, 77–1006 Pennsylvania Convention Center in Philadelphia, 13 Pennsylvania Station, 269, 270, 515, 927, 55–997; interior, 58 Pennsylvania style architecture, 430 Pension Building in Washington, D.C., 12 Penzoil Place Building, 659, 716 Index 1147

people of color, women in architecture, 453 people of color in architecture schools, 388 Peressutti, Enrico, 58 Periera, William, 207 Perkins, Lawrence Bradford, 59, 61 Perkins and Will, 949, 59–999, 410; Mt. Hope, New Jersey Elementary School, 431 Perls House, 853 Perrault, Dominique, 64–5, 3iii Perret, Auguste, 620, 754, 20, 68–1002; Notre Dame, Le Raincy, 941–42; project at International Exhibition of Decorative Arts (Paris 1925), 680; tectonics in works of, 706; use of concrete, 292 Perriand, Charlotte, 72–1004 Persico, Edoardo, 459 perspective drawings, 58 Peterlee New Town, 800 Peters House, 557 Petit Palais, 424 Petronas Towers, 53, 77–1006; exterior, 77 Peugeot Tower in Buenos Aires, 278 Pevsner, Nikolaus, 501, 82–1007, 82; views on historicism, 619, 620; writings relating to historiography, 623 phenomenological approach to architecture, 936; Structuralism’s rejection of, 609; supermodernism, 638 Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, 85–1009; architects, 431; Benjamin Franklin Parkway, 263; Wanamaker Store, 85–1432 Philadelphia City Hall, 81 Philadelphia Crosstown Community Plan, 437 Philadelphia Savings Fund Society (PSFS) Building, 85, 504 Philippines architecture, 528, 530 Philips pavilion, 419

Downloaded by [Central Uni Library Bucharest] at 03:22 26 September 2013 Phillips Exeter Academy, 323, 530 Phoenix Art Museum, 530 Phoenix Central Library, 89–1012; exterior, 91; interior, 90 Piano, Renzo, 92–1014; Cultural Centre Jean Marie Tjibaou, 334–35, 3ii; Index 1148

energy-efficient design, 405; Kansai International Airport Terminal, 34, 727–29; Menil Collection, 659, 837–38; Pompidou Center, 139–1036; relation with environmental issues, 410; solar architecture, 519; use of color, 279 Piazza d’Italia, 169 piazza theme: Aalto’s, 2. See also maidans pictorial projections, 58–59 pictorial zoning ordinances, 956 Pietilä, Reima and Raili, 462–63, 602, 97–1015 Pikionis, Dimitris, 549 pile footings, 230 Pilgrimage Church at Neviges, 99–1016; exterior, 101; interior, 100 Pink House, 67 Pinós, Carme, 857–59 Pinseau, Michel, Hassan II Mosque, 592–94 Pinto e Sotto Major Bank, 491 Pioneer Health Centre, 491 Pirelli Skyscraper, 145 pisé, 383 Pittsburgh University, 207 Plan Architects, Baiyoke Tower, 101–2 planetariums. See observatories Plan for Berlin, Speer’s, 140 Plan for Chicago, Illinois, 196–97 Plan for Copenhagen, 233 Plan for Magnitogorsk, 758 Plan for St. Petersburg (Leningrad), 546 Plan for Venice Biennale Pavilions, 546 Plan for Washington, D.C. 546 Plan of Canberra, 546, 101–1018 Plan of Chicago, 104–1019, 104 Plan of New Delhi, 107–1021 Plan of Riyadh, 297 Plan of Washington, D.C., 297

Downloaded by [Central Uni Library Bucharest] at 03:22 26 September 2013 plantations, American, 29 plants. See factories plaster finishes over brick, 171–72 plastic, 112–1023; roofs of, 260; space frames, 538; spray, 355 Index 1149

Plastic Integration movement, 844 plate glass, 516, 114–1025; hall (Spiegelglashalle), 114 Plater-Zyberk, Elizabeth. See Duany and Plater-Zyberk platform canopies, 199 Platform I and II, 460 Platt, Charles A., 121–1027 Plattenhaus Typ 107, 43 playgrounds, 597 Plaza and PPG Skyscraper, 117 plazas, 124–1029; around Boston City Hall, 158; in Cuba, 330; Peace Memorial and Museum, Hiroshima, 44; Salk Institute, 381; Seagram Building, 444. See also atriums Plecnik, Jože, 127–1030 plexiglas, 357 Plischke, Ernst, 932 Plug-In City, 57, 154 Plymouth Building in Chicago, 468 plywood, 406, 734; in Frank Gehry’s work, 490. See also wood pneumatic structures, 710 Poelzig, Hans, 396, 130–1032; work in Frankfurt, 473 Poggioli, Renato, 97, 98 Pohja Insurance Building, 460 Point West Place, 168 Polish wood synagogues, 676 politics, architecture disassociated from, 181 Polk, William, 516 Polshek, James Stewart, 134–1034 Pompéia Factory, 150 Pompidou Center, 279, 25, 93, 139–1036, 320; competition, 286; exterior, 141; link with Archigram, 141; use of steel, 566;

Downloaded by [Central Uni Library Bucharest] at 03:22 26 September 2013 use of trusses, 566 Ponti, Gio, 144–1038 Poole House, 14 pop-art-affiliated architects, 107; Denise Scott Brown, 437; John C. Portman Jr., 155; Peter and Alison Smithson, 512; Index 1150

Robert Arthur Morgan Stern, 575 Pope, John Russell, 147–1039 porches, 44 Porro, Ricado, 901 portable structures: amusement park, 50. See also lightweight frames Portcullis House, 649, 650 Porte de Concorde, 424 Portland, Oregon, regional planning, 246 Portland Building, 621 Portland Public Service Building, 542, 148–1040, 168; exterior, 163 Portman, John C., Jr., 163, 151–1043 Porto, Portugal, Eduardo Souto de Moura’s work, 534 Portoghesi, Paolo, 158–1045, 168, 335 Portuguese architecture, 534, 694 Posokhin, Mikhail, 881 post and beam system, 606 Postindustrial metropolitan development, 386 Postmodernism, 862, 166–1050, 381, 672; Ada Louise Huxtable’s writings, 665; Alan Colquhoun’s relation with, 280; Amsterdam, 48; Argentina, 66; Austria, 93; Bangkok, 106; Boston, 160; Brazil, 167–68; Canada, 209; Canberra, 213; Charles Willard Moore’s work, 870; Chicago, 243, 246; college campus design, 207; corporate headquarters buildings, 314; and Disney theme parks, 363; founders, 870; Hans Hollein’s work, 635; and historic preservation, 618; Hong Kong, 642; and house design, 656–57;

Downloaded by [Central Uni Library Bucharest] at 03:22 26 September 2013 Hungary, 664; influence of Stockholm Public Library on, 591; influence of Villa Mairea on, 591; influence on utopian planning, 591; Iran, 690; Japan, 692; John C. Portman Jr. works, 154–5; Index 1151

Juhani Uolevi Pallasmaa’s view of, 11; Kenneth Frampton’s critique, 470; Kohn Pederson Fox’s work, 733; London, 788–89; Melbourne, 830; Memphis Group influence on, 835; Miami, Florida, 851–52; Montreal, 868; of Museum of Modern Art, Frankfurt, 895; Norway, 940–40; ornament, 35, 959; Paolo Portoghesi’s role, 158; Philip Johnson’s work, 715- 158, 446; Portland Public Service Building, 148; relation with abstraction, 6–7; relation with classicism, 270; relation with Contextualism, 306; relation with historicism, 621; relation with primitivism, 198; relation with representation, 262; relation with Structuralism, 611; Ricardo Bofill, 152–54; Robert Stern, 575; Rome, 333; Santiago, Chile, 393; São Paulo, Brazil, 399; SITE group, 145; skyscrapers, 506; Spain, 506; tenements in Glasgow, 514; United Kingdom, 506; United States, 506; use of brick, 172; use of color, 279–80; use of stone, 597–9; Vancouver, 599;; Venturi and Scott Brown, 381; Vietnam Veterans Memorial, 381; West Berlin, 141; Yugoslavia, 381 Postmodernism (Portoghesi), 160

Downloaded by [Central Uni Library Bucharest] at 03:22 26 September 2013 Post Office and Telecommunications Building in Leon, Spain, 526 Post Office and Telecommunications Building in Rome, 767, 768 Post Office Savings Bank, Vienna, 515, 161–1047, 670; exterior, 163; use of aluminum in, 38 poststructuralism, 672; Bernard Tschumi’s interest in, 672 Index 1152

Poststructuralist architecture, 959, 611 postwar reconstruction: Athens Charter and, 87; Berlin, 140, 141; Cologne, Germany, 277, 278; Dom-ino Houses, 366; Finland, 149; Germany, 496; industrial town planning, 435; Italy, 611; Lebanon, 130; Rotterdam, 343; Tokyo, 740; Vienna, 92 Potsdamer Platz, 95 Poulsson, Magnus, 939 Power, Ethel, 241 Power in Buildings: An Artist’s View of Contemporary Architecture (Ferriss), 457 power plants, 261, 175–1052; by Graham, Anderson, Probst and White, 536; Niagra Falls Power Generating Station, 208 Prague, Czech Republic, 341, 178–1054; Cubism’s roots in, 332, 333; Jože Plecnik’s work in, 127 prairie houses, 127 Prairie School, 556, 181–1056; adherents, 180; National Farmers’ Bank influence on, 905; Purcell and Elmslie’s relation with, 219, 220; relation with Craftsman Style, 322 Pratt House, 552 Pravda Building, 527 precast construction, 185–1057; ferro-cement, 418–19; Phoenix Central Library, 89; prestressed concrete, 292–93; Sydney Opera House, 667; terazzo tiles, 723. See also concrete-shell structure Predock, Antoine, 621, 187–1059; Stanford University, Center for Integrated Systems, 227–29 prefabrication, 191–1061;

Downloaded by [Central Uni Library Bucharest] at 03:22 26 September 2013 agricultural buildings, 29; Aluminaire House, 37; aluminum, 38, 40; of Bertrand Goldberg, 524; building materials used for, 230; bungalow, 189; Canada, 209; Index 1153

Cuba, 331; Dom-ino Houses, 365; for factories, 434; fallout shelter, 439; and fortification of buildings, 22; houses, 657; housing exhibits at Expo 191, 422; mass-produced houses, 44; Module 335 system, 574; Oscar Nitzchke’s interest in, 935; Palais Stoclet, 8; for Pompidou Center, 141; protest against, 664; public dissatisfaction with, 185; Russia, 365; at Schlumbeger Cambridge Research Center, 426; in schools, 430; Vancouver Boxes, 430; World Trade Center, 430. See also postwar reconstruction; precast construction; space frames preservation. See historic preservation President’s House for Illustrious Guests, 383 prestressing process, 184 Pretoria Railway Station, 103 Pretoria Regionalism, 24 Pretoria Union Buildings, 102 Primitivism, 195–1063 Prince Narissaranuwattiwongs, 104, 105 Princeton University, 206; Ralph Adams Cram’s work at, 323; Whig Hall, 577 Princeton University, Department of Music extension, 908 Principia College, 822, 823 prisons, 200–1065 Pritzker Architecture Prize, 202. See also Aga Khan Award privacy in buildings, 113, 709; modules for, 810; Saudi culture, 407;

Downloaded by [Central Uni Library Bucharest] at 03:22 26 September 2013 and suburban planning, 619; wooden screens for balconies, 856 private buildings: adaptive re-use, 13; definition, 12 Probst, Ernest. See Graham, Anderson, Probst, and White Proctor and Gamble Headquarters, 314, 733 Index 1154

professional associations, 679 Project for a Villa (Tschumi), 657 project planning, 300 project scheduling, 300; software, 2 Proletarian Region Club, 619 promedades, 665 Prouvé, Jean, 39, 451, 24 Provincial Capitol Building, Toulouse, 24 Prudential Building, 40, 243, 684 Pruitt Igoe Public Housing, 352, 656, 202–1069, 202; exterior, 206 PSFS Building, 661; adaptive re-use, 13; exterior, 661 public buildings: Alvar Aalto’s, 3; Belgium, 131; Brussels, 178–79, 179; Bucharest, 183, 184; Canberra, 213; definition, 12; by Gottfried Böhm, 154–55; Itsuko Hasegawa’s view of, 591 public housing, 56, 209–1071; Behrens’ writings about, 127; Berlin, 138–39; by Chloethiel Woodard Smith, 509; failure of American, 509; Germany, 495–96; Gifu Kitagata Apartments, 460; Venezuela, 460. See also low-cost housing; Pruitt Igoe Public Housing; urban renewal public parks, 152 public transportation, 460 Puig i Cadafalch, Josep, 214–1073, 8ii punched metal, 591 Purcell and Elmslie, 219–1075

Downloaded by [Central Uni Library Bucharest] at 03:22 26 September 2013 Quarry Visitor Center, 219 Quebec Museum of Civilization, 374 Queens, New York, 621 Quonset hut, 29, 621; use for building shell, 240

Rabat, 20, 21 Index 1155

Rachel Raymond House, 240 racial exclusionism in suburban development, 621, 623 Radio House, 131 Radna Grupa Zabreb (RGZ), 131 Ragdale House, 469 railroad stations, 225–8; adaptive re-use of, 12–13; bus terminal relationship with, 198, 199; futurist example, 261; by Herzog and De Meuron, 607; influence of Grand Central Terminal, 538; Santiago, Cuba, 331. See also airports and aviation buildings railway hotels in Canada, 210 Raja Mahmadabad Library Project, 557 ramps: at Fiat Works (Turin), 459; High Museum of Art, 609, 610; at Neue Staatsgalerie, 916–17; parking garage, 31; of plastic, 112 Ramses Wissa Wassef Arts Centre, 385, 228–1080, 8ii ranch houses, 2, 231–1081; bungalows; row houses. See also American Foursquare Rasmussen, Steen Eiler, 233–1083 Rationalism, 236–1085; approach to design, 236 Argentina, 65; Barcelona architects, 112, 113; Belgium, 131; Berlage’s, 135; Bucharest, 184; Budapest, 185; Chile, 247; Cuba, 325; Czechoslovakia, 341; effect of Universal Expostion 1942, 443; Finland, 462; Frank Lloyd Wright’s works, 236;

Downloaded by [Central Uni Library Bucharest] at 03:22 26 September 2013 Gio Ponti’s contribution, 144; of Giuseppe Tarragni, 717; Greece, 548; Hannes Meyer’s work, 848; Hans Poelzig’s influence, 131; Italian, 767; Itsuko Hasegawa’s relation with, 591; Index 1156

Mario Roberto Alvarez’s, 40–41; and modernism, 148; Santiago, Chile, 391; Soviet Union, 301, 302. See also Functionalism Rautatalo Office Building, 3 Raymond, Eleanor, 240–1086 Reading Railroad station in Philadelphia, 12–13 rebars, 819 reconstruction projects, James Stewart Polshek’s work with landmarks, 134 rectilinear Art Nouveau (Jugendstil), 72, 74, 912; Glasgow School, 510 recycled architecture, 187, 522, 912 Red Blue Chair, 349, 288 redevelopment projects: Chicago, 242–43; Columbus, Indiana, 282–83; Düsseldorf, 378, 379; by Eduardo Souto de Moura, 534; E-Walk, 68; Harbor Point, Boston, 533; Kyoto, Japan, 740; Le Havre, 68; Miami Beach, Florida Art Deco District, 437; Paris, 26; in Rio de Janeiro, 294; Riyadh, 300; Sverdlovsk, 364. See also historic preservation; postwar reconstruction; urban renewal Red House, 76 Reed, Charles A., 539 Reed House, 15–16 reeds as building material, 364 Reeth, Bob van, 132 Regent Theater in New York City, 889 regionalism, 249–1092; abstract, 249; Art Deco, 71; Australia, 91;

Downloaded by [Central Uni Library Bucharest] at 03:22 26 September 2013 Barcelona, 113; Bardi’s, 151; Brazil, 167; Canada, 209; in city halls, 264; critical, 249; effect of ranch houses on, 231; Index 1157

in hotels, 888; Hungary, 664; Mexico, 845; Phoenix Central Library, 91; in resort hotels, 269–70; United States, 430; of William Wurster, 270;. See also International Style; vernacular architecture regional modernism, 861; Iran, 690; of Kenzo Tange, 684; Rifat Chadirji’s search for, 231; Sarasota School, 402–1167; Spain, 402 regional planning, 242–1089. See also transportation planning Reichstag, 255–1095; exterior, 256; interior, 256 reinforced concrete, 258–1096; Auguste Perret’s use of, 68; first church in Vienna, 127; first house in England with, 298; first use in Paris, 20; Frank Lloyd Wright’s use of, 20; Johannes Duiker’s use of, 20; Pier Luigi Nervi’s experiments, 145; popularity in Russia, 361; Robert Maillart’s use of, 808; safety against earthquakes, 819; steel-reinforced, 291–92; use at Notre Dame, Le Raincy, 941; use by E.Owen Williams, 361; use by Irving John Gill, 504; use by Johannes Duiker, 374; use for Dom-ino Houses, 365; use in Switzerland, 655; use in TWA Airport Terminal in New York, 655 , 195, 572 Reliance Controls Factory, 468, 321

Downloaded by [Central Uni Library Bucharest] at 03:22 26 September 2013 Renaissance Center, 154 Renault Distribution Centre, 469, 260–1097 Renault Factory in Durango, 756 renovation projects: Bank Austria Client Service Center in Vienna, 340; libraries, 773; by Lina Bò Bardi, 151; Index 1158

Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York extension, 313; Reichstag, 255–8; Ronacher Theater in Vienna, 307; by Williams and Tsien, 258; Renzo Piano Building Workshop, 92–4 representation, 262–1098; importance in design process, 286 research centers, 265–1100; use of terrazzo, 723; by Wu Liangyong, 723. See also Cambridge, England, Schlumberger Cambridge Research Center; Stanford University, Center for Integrated Systems resort hotels, 269–1101; Miami, Florida, 850, 851; Morris Lapidus’ work, 743; Southeast Asia, 532; Turkey, 532. See also Las Vegas resorts, 21; Disney theme parks; Arquitectonica, 67–68; Czechoslovakia, 341; Seaside, Florida, 450–1192. See also amusement parks restaurants, 272–1103; by Hermann Czech, 338; impact of automobiles on, 95; by Morphosis, 878; as roadside attractions, 302 Revell, Viljo, 461, 462, 275–8; Glass Palace, 462; Toronto City Hall, 745–1333 Revival architecture: Egyptian, 390; relation with historicism, 621; use of glass, 516 Rewal, Raj, 673–74, 280–1108 Riabushinskii buildings, 473 RIBA Headquarters Building, 351 Rice University, 658, 659 Richardson Romanesque style city halls, 264

Downloaded by [Central Uni Library Bucharest] at 03:22 26 September 2013 Ricola Storage Building, 284–1109 Riech, Lilly, 284 Rietveld, Thomas Gerrit, 287–1111; Dutch Pavilion, 287; Red Blue Chair, 349, 288; relation with De Stijl, 348, 349; Schröder-Schräder House, 6, 348, 349, 287, 431–3 Index 1159

Ring, 587–88 Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, 194, 291–1113; favelas, 446–47 Riphahn, Wilhelm, 277 Riverside Plaza, Chicago, 631 Riyadh, Saudi Arabia, 297–1115; Stadium, 709 roadside architecture, 300–1118; Art Deco, 69. See also gas stations; visitor centers roadway systems, 94, 96, 307–1120. See also parkways Roberts, Zeidler, 307 Robertson, Howard, 307 Robie House, 77, 322, 656, 310–1123, 310; exterior, 312; interior, 312 “robot architecture,” 532 Roche, Kevin, 313, 315 Roche, Martin. See Holabird, William, and Martin Roche Roche and Dinkeloo, 313–1124; work in Columbus, Indiana, 281- 82, 283; work on Dulles International Airport, 375 Rockefeller Center, 927, 126, 316–1126; plaza, 318 Rockefeller Chapel at University of Chicago, 531 Rock ‘n’ Roll Hall of Fame, 48 Rodchenko, Alexander, 301 Rogers, Ernesto N., 48 Rogers, Richard, 468, 341–1137, 341; Channel 4 Headquarters, London, 236–37; High-Tech style, 175; Pompidou Center, 139–1036; use of color, 279. See also Pompidou Center Romañach, Mario, 323–1128 Romania, 327–1131 Romanian architects, 182, 184 Romantic modernists, 860–61 Romantic Nationalism:

Downloaded by [Central Uni Library Bucharest] at 03:22 26 September 2013 Finland, 603; Southern and Central Africa, 24 Rome, Italy, 332–1133 Römerstadt, 820 Romney, Hervin A.R. See Arquitectonica Ronacher Theater, 307 roofs: Index 1160

advances at Chicago World’s Fair (1933), 230; by Amancio Williams, 332; automobile test track on, 459; Baiyoke Tower, 102; Berlin Philharmonic Concert Hall, 142; Boots Factory, 156; broken pediment of AT&T Building, 84; cable-suspended, 710; cantilevered overarching, 740; Chinese-style, 249, 250; city parks on, 591; contrasts and unity among, 134; copper-sheathed, 228; copper-trimmed, 604; covered sidewalk and plaza, Caracas, 268; curving sheet-metal, 573; Dulles International Airport, 375, 376; of Felix Candela, 213, 214; General Archives of Columbia, 383; George Washington Bridge Bus Terminal, 199; glass, 740, 58, 94; Gropius House, 561; Hong Kong International Airport, 644; Hungarian-style, 664; inverted, 14; Kansai International Airport Terminal, 727; by Kenzo Tange, 684; Le Corbusier’s exposed structure, 4; made of sticks, 4; Menil Collection, 837; Museum of Modern Art, Frankfurt, 895; Olympic Stadium, Tokyo, 953; by Otto Frei, 960; Pilgrimage Churche at Neviges, 99; pitched, 123–24; plastic, 112, 260; reflective, 584; shell designs, 260; split pediment, 260; steel, 570; suspended rubberized, 403;

Downloaded by [Central Uni Library Bucharest] at 03:22 26 September 2013 Teflon, 649; tensile, 426; trusses as expressive elements of, 426; Turin Exhibition Hall by Pier Luigi Nervi, 419; use of steel for, 564; water cascade over, 42 , 195 Index 1161

Root, John Wellborn. See Holabird, William, and Root, John Wellborn Rosa-Jochmann-School, 339–40 Rose Seidler House, 90 Rossi, Aldo, 336–1135; critique of modernism, 166; neo-Rationalism of, 909, 166; work at Celebration, Florida, 227 Rotterdam, Netherlands, 341–1138; J.J.P. Oud’s work in, 963; Van Nelle Factory, Rotterdam, 341–1396 Rotunda, La, 521 Rotundi, Michael, 877, 878, 879 Rovaniemi Airport Terminal, 599 Rovaniemi Art Museum, 10 Rowe, Colin, 349–1141; writings about cities, 306 row houses, 345–1140; Art Deco, 71; in Brussels, 179; International Style, 95; Kärjensivu Rowhouse, 277; suburban, 621. See also American Foursquare Royal College of Physicians, 753 Royal Danish Embassy in London, 704 Royal Institute of British Architects (RIBA), 679, 351–1142 Royal National Theater in London, 753 Royal Theatre of Copenhagen, 451 Rudnev, Lev, 881 Rudofsky, Bernard, 351 Rudolph, Paul, 256, 353–1145, 402, 533; Tuskegee Institute plan, 207; Yale University, Art and Architecture Building, 291 Rue de Meaux Apartments, 92 Russia and Soviet Union, 359–1148 Russian architects, 471 Russian architectural drawing, 59 Russian Monumental style in China, 250 Russian Suprematism, 6 Ruusuvuori, Aarno, 462 Ryerson Townhouse, 14

Downloaded by [Central Uni Library Bucharest] at 03:22 26 September 2013 Saarinen, Aline, 377 Saarinen, Eero, 367–1150; Bell Telephone Corporate Headquarters, 518; church design, 256; Columbia Broadcasting System Headquarters, 504; Dulles International Airport, 375–77, 644; Gateway Arch (St. Louis), 486–87, 570; Index 1162

Kresge Auditorium, 225, 296; TWA Airport Terminal, 570–1354, 5iii; use of concrete shells, 296; Vivian Beaumont Theater, 778; work in United States, 570; work with Charles Eames, 381 Saarinen, Eliel, 460, 601, 368–1153; Crow Island School, 243, 430; Drake University Science and Pharmacy buildings, 266; Finnish Pavilion at Paris Expo (1990), 424; First Christian Church, Columbus, Indiana, 281; General Motors Technical Center, 268; GM Technical Center, 314; Helsinki Railway Station, 460, 601, 603–5, 225, 370; Irwin Union Bank and Trust, Columbus, Indiana, 281–82; North Christian Church, Columbus, Indiana, 281; work at Cranbrook, Michigan, 324, 325; work in Columbus, Indiana, 282

Saarinen, Lily Swann, 486 Saavedra, Gustavo, University Library, UNAM, Mexico City, 370 Sabine, Wallace Clement, 11 Sack House, 823 Sadao, Shoji, 421 Safdie, Moshe, 696, 697, 375–6,376,; Habitat 376,, Montreal, 210, 422, 579–81 safety: in bus terminals, 199; against earthquakes, 819; Hong Kong International Airport, 645; inside buildings, 594; lighting for, 774; at Pruitt-Igoe Public Housing Project, 204; retrofitting historic properties, 618; usefulness of plastic, 114; Wright’s earthquake designs, 669. See also fallout shelters; terrorism Sagrada Familia, 540 Sahat al-Kindi Plaza, 3ii

Downloaded by [Central Uni Library Bucharest] at 03:22 26 September 2013 Saigon South, 498 Sainsbury Centre, 468–69, 566 Sainsbury Supermarket Development in Camden Town, 559 Sainsbury Wing, National Gallery, London, 376–1156, 378 Saishunkan Seiyaku Women’s Dormitory, 458 Salginatobel Bridge, 809 Salish community school at Agassiz, 987 Index 1163

Salk Institute, 293, 653, 724, 266, 381–1157, 1iii Salmona, Rogelio, 383–1158 Salto, Uruguay, 363 Samaritaine Department Store, 978 Sami Center in Karasjok, 941 Sami Museum and Northern Lapland Visitors Center, 972 Sanatorium Purkersdorf, 628 Sanderson’s Wallpaper Factory in Chiswick, 383 sandstone: piers, 437; Raj Rewal’s use of, 280; as veneer, 228 San Francisco, California: Museum of Modern Art, 767; Plan, 263. See also Panama Pacific Exposition (San Francisco 1915) Sangath, 367, 368, 674 San Martin Cultural Center, 40 San Nicola Sports Stadium, 94 San Simeon, 875, 876 Santacilia, Carlos Obregón, 843 Santa EfigQafenia Viaduct, 166 Sant’Elia, Antonio, 386–1160; Città Nuova drawings, 260. See also Futurism Sant’Elia Nursery School, 717 Santiago, Chile, 391–1162; downtown, 392 Santiago, Cuba train station, 331 Santiago Hotel in Cuba, 330 Santos, Adèle Naudé, 393–1164 Santos, Josefina, 815 São Paulo, Brazil, 398–1166; Bardi’s works, 150–51 São Paulo School, 167 Sarasota School, 402–1167 SAS Hotel in Denmark, 354 Saudia Arabian architecture, 709, 296 Saudi Arabia, 405–1171 Saudi Arabian architects, 298–300,407 Savannah, Georgia, heritage preservation, 125 Saxton Pope House, 125

Downloaded by [Central Uni Library Bucharest] at 03:22 26 September 2013 Sayin, Nevzat, 698, 699 Säynätsalo Town Hall, 2 Scandinavian architects, 81, 508, 125 Scandinavian architecture, 936 Scandinavian modern design, 471 Scarborough College, 125 Scarpa, Alfra and Tobia, Benetton Factory, Italy, 134–35 Index 1164

Scarpa, Carlo, 414–1174 Scharoun, Hans, 138, 140, 588, 418–1176. See also Berlin Philharmonie Scheerbart, Paul, 515 Scheu House, 790 Schindler, Rudolph M., 794, 422–1178, 422 Schindler-Chase House, 422 Schlumberger Cambridge Research Centre, 649, 650, 266, 426 Scholl House, 471 Schönbühl Apartments, 3 School of Oporto, 534 schools, 428–1181; Greece, 548; Hong Kong, 642; by Ralph Adams Cram, 323; use of plate glass for, 119; Walter Gropius’s designs for, 564–65. See also campus planning; educational institutions schools of architecture: North Africa, 19–20, 21; Southern and Central Africa, 25 Schreiner House, 451 Schröder-Schräder House, 6, 348, 349, 287, 431–1182 Schultze-Naumburg, Paul, 357 Schumacher, Fritz, 277 Scientific Data Systems in El Segundo, 399 Scott, Foresman, and Company Headquarters, 997 Scott Brown, Denise, 453, 621, 750, 306, 378, 434–9,1iii Scottish domestic architecture, 76–77 Scully, Vincent, 440–1187; opinion of Adolf Loos’s work, 575 sculptural approach to architecture, 154, 239 sculpture and architecture, 427 Seagram Building, 518, 854, 928, 444–1188; compared with AT&T Building, 84; exterior view, 443 Seamen’s Church Institute in New York, 134 Sea Palace Paradise Garden, 63 Sea Ranch Condominium I project, 870, 735 Sears Tower, 242, 684, 447–1189, 495–7,506;

Downloaded by [Central Uni Library Bucharest] at 03:22 26 September 2013 exterior, 450 Seaside, Florida, 369, 922, 450–1192; houses, 452; urban code for, 923 “Seaside Code” ordinances, 956 Seattle Exposition (1962), 416 Secession Building, 950, 951; Index 1165

door detail, 452 Secessionism: Cairo, 201; Germany, 495; relation with Glasgow School, 510; Robert Mallet-Stevens relation with, 814 Secondary School at Hunstanton, 180 Second Bangkok International Airport, 708 Second Nationalist movement in Turkey, 452 Second Sex, The (de Beauvoir), 453 Sedes Sapientiae Building, 767 Seidler, Harry, 90, 641, 643, 454–1194, 663,4iii Seinäjoki Civil Guard Building, 1 Sejima, Kazuyo, 458–1195 Semper, Gottfried, 357, 705 Sendai Mediatheque proposal by Ito, 700 Senegal Alliance Franco-Sénéfalaise, 36 Serbian Secession, 705 Sert, Josep Lluís, 112, 297, 462–1197 served vs. servant spaces, 724, 575 Seventeenth Church of Christ, Scientist, 243 Seville, Spain, 203; Expo ‘92, 416, 422–23 Sex of Architecture, The (Agrest), 454 Shalev-Gerz, Esther, 833 Shanghai, China: Park Hotel, 980–82; Zhi Chen projects, 240 Shanghai Grand Theater, 251 Shanghai World Financial Center, 733, 464–1198 shapes. See forms; geometric aspects of architecture Sharon, Eldan, 696 Shaw, Howard Van Doren, 14, 242, 468–9, 481 Shchusev, Aleksei, Commissariat of Agriculture in Moscow, 302 shear walls in skyscrapers, 606 , 534 Shekhtel, Fedor, 360, 471–1203 shell designs, 607, 666; roofs, 666. See also concrete-shell structure Shingle Style, The (Scully), 441 Shingle-style houses, remodeling by Robert Stern, 575

Downloaded by [Central Uni Library Bucharest] at 03:22 26 September 2013 Shinohara, Kazuo, 590, 477–1204, 743 Shin Takamatsu, 740 shipping container houses, 524–25 Shonandai Culture Center, 590 shop-house mosques, 884 shopping centers, 305–1206; Commercial Center of Fountivegge, 338–9; Index 1166

De Lijnbaan, 343; designed by Eladio Dieste, 363; first in United States, 469; impact of automobile, 96; suburban developments, 623; Turkey, 623; by Victor David Gruen, 565. See also department stores shopping malls, 96, 480; escalators, 414 Shopping Towns USA: The Planning of Shopping Centers (Gruen), 566 showroom design, 87; Bernard R.Maybeck, 823; Best Products, 145–46; Memphis Group, 835; shopping center windows, 480 Shreve, Lamb and Harmon, Empire State Building, 403–4, 927 Shrine of the Book, 483–1208; exterior, 485 Shun Tak Centre and Macau Ferry Terminal, 641 Shustar New Town, 689; street, 689 sick-building syndrome, 411 Sief Palace, 98 Siegel, Robert, 573, 576–78 signage, development of, 96; by Jean Nouvel, 944; Las Vegas, 751; by Oscar Nitzchke, 935; Robert Venturi’s writing, 98 Silicon Valley, California, 314, 386 Silk Mill, 80 silt as building material, 61 Silver Hut, 700, 459 Simpson, Vernon, 391 simulation. See virtual reality Singapore architecture, 528–30 Singer Sewing Machine Company Headquarters, 546 Sin Mao Tower, 494 Sirén, Heikki and Kaija, 462, 487–1209; Otaniemi Chapel, 259

Downloaded by [Central Uni Library Bucharest] at 03:22 26 September 2013 Siren, J.S., Helsinki Parliament House, 601, 602 SITE, 145; Best Products Showroom, 145–46; use of brick, 172 site location: country clubs, 320; ecological site planning, 643; Index 1167

of Heikki and Kaija Sirén’s works, 487; Holocaust Memorial Museum, Washington, D.C., 637; importance to Alberto Kalach, 726; importance to resort hotels, 269; Kimbell Art Museum, 732; Mies’ German Pavilion, 492; Petronas Towers in Malaysia, 81; visitor centers, 81; Wright’s Fallingwater, 437. See also Contextualism; nature integrated with buildings sites, compatibility with buildings, 161; Adler’s concern for, 14; Asplund’s concern for, 81. See also Contextualism Six Moon Hill development, 731 Sixth Street House, 878 Siza, Alvaro, 783, 490–1211 Skandia Cinema, 82 Skansen Restaurant in Oslo, 940 Skidmore Owings and Merrill, 789, 493–1214; Alcoa Building, 40, 590, 935, 494; Chicago School influence on, 246; church design, 256; Columbus, Indiana City Hall, 283; Haj Terminal, Jeddah Airport, 583–85, 710, 412, 497; Jin Mao Towers, 2iii; Hirshhorn Museum and Sculpture Garden, 190, 497; influence in Washington, D.C., 497; Inland Steel Building, 242–43, 494; Istanbul Hilton Hotel, 494; John Hancock Center, 242, 246, 683, 684, 48, 494; Lever House, 596, 759–560, 494, 505–6; plan for Canberra, 213; Sears Tower, 242, 447–1189, 495–7,506; U.S. Air Force Academy Chapel, 497–1383; work at Lincoln Center, 778; work in United States, 497 skybridges, 81 skycourts, 67, 571 Sky House, 839

Downloaded by [Central Uni Library Bucharest] at 03:22 26 September 2013 skyscrapers, 499–1218; aluminum in, 38; Alvar Aalto’s views on, 3; Art Deco, 70; Bangkok, 101–2, 106; Bank of China Tower, 108–10; Barnes’s, 115; Index 1168

Belgium, 131; Boston, 158; brick, 384; Buenos Aires, 41, 66, 188; by Cass Gilbert, 502–3; Cesar Pelli’s writings, 52; China, 251; Chrysler Building, 252–54; city halls, 264; Empire State Building, 403–4; first European, 341; Flatiron Building, 466–67; Frankfurt, 472, 473; Frank Lloyd Wright’s view of, 175, 176; Germany’s first, 377; glass, 518; by Harry Seidler, 454; by Helmut Jahn, 706; Holabird and Roche, 632; Holabird and Root, 630; hotels, 653, 28; by Kohn Pedersen Fox, 732; London, 788; by Ludwig Mies van der Rohe, 853; Melbourne, 830; Mexico City, 848; Montreal, 866; Moscow, 880, 363; opposition of cruciform tower to, 304; Paris, 25; by Philip Johnson, 716; postmodern, 84; by Rino Levi, 761; Rotterdam, 341; Santiago, Chile, 391; São Paulo, Brazil, 399; Saudi Arabia, 405; shear walls, 606; suspended, 606; tallest in world, 466; with terracota cladding, 716;

Downloaded by [Central Uni Library Bucharest] at 03:22 26 September 2013 Tokyo, 740; Toronto, 210; use of steel, 564; Vancouver, 564. See also Chicago School; elevators; office buildings Index 1169

skywalks, 740 slate, 508 slaughterhouses, 484 slip-slab construction, 186 Slovak architecture, 341 Slovenian architects, 128 Slovenian architecture, 128 slums. See favelas; tenement houses; urban renewal Smith, Chloethiel Woodard, 509–1220 Smith House, 827 Smithson, Peter and Alison, 180, 512–1222, 702 Socialist realism, 185, 5 social responsibility of architecture, 98, 244, 138; awards, 26; Berlage’s, 135–36; conflict with Structuralism, 609–11; Group R in Barcelona, 113 Social Security Complex in Istanbul, 397, 516–1223; exterior, 518 social stratification: in Brasilia plan, 164; brick and, 172; of City Beautiful Movement, 518; in Plan of New Delhi, 107, 110 Society of Tsarist Political Prisoners club, 110 software. See computer-aided design Sogn Benedegt Chapel, 110 Solana Village Center, 756 solar architecture, 272, 518–1224; Eleanor Raymond’s use of, 242; by Paolo Solari, 61; protection against sunlight, 24; Village Homes in Davis, California, 643. See also energy-efficient design; sustainability and sustainable architecture Soleri, Paolo, 521–1226; Arcosanti, Arizona, 61–62, 521; Cosanti, 521; experiments with concrete, 291

Downloaded by [Central Uni Library Bucharest] at 03:22 26 September 2013 Solomon R.Guggenheim Museum. See Guggenheim Museum Solsona, Justo, 815 Solvay House, 651 SOMISA Building, 40 Sonsbeck Pavilion in Arnhem, 288 Sony Center in Berlin, 708 Sony Corporation. See AT&T Building Index 1170

Sörenson, Erik Christian, 355 SOS Children’s Village International, 192 Sota, Alejandro de la, 523–1227 Sottsass, Ettore, Jr., 834 South African architecture, 102 South American architecture, 510 South Bronx Community Center, 28 Southdale Mall in Minnesota, 480 Southeast Asia, 323–1231; Paul Rudolfs work, 356 Southern and Central Africa, 22–25; Neoclassicism using local materials, 102 South in Architecture, The (Mumford), 891 South Korean architecture, 530 Southside Settlement Community Center, 626 Souto de Moura, Eduardo, 783, 534–1232 Soviet architecture, 526; Jean-Louis Cohen’s writings, 274. See also Constructivism Soviet Central Union of Consumer Cooperatives Headquarters, 312 Soviet influence, on Berlin, 140 Soviet realism, Romania, 330 Soviet Union. See Russia and Soviet Union space: African sense of, 25; Bawa’s visual effects using, 124; Bruno Zevi’s writings, 330; Coop Himmelblau’s, 93; designing for escalators, 415; effect on social interaction, 152; equality with form, 82; experiments with breaking up, 87; fluid, 700; fragmentation, 600; Frank Gehry’s unusual use of, 490; Frank Lloyd Wright’s concepts for, 330; importance of emptiness, 258; interlocking spaces of different heights, 366; Jean Nouvel’s illusory, 943, 944; Josep Lluis Sert’s use of, 462; Morphosis view of, 878;

Downloaded by [Central Uni Library Bucharest] at 03:22 26 September 2013 “nonspace,” 639; playful use of horizontal and vertical planes, 105; relationship with motion, 73; served vs. servant, 724, 575; simulation, 50, 52; Theo van Doesburg’s conception of, 575; unencumbered by structural elements, 150 Index 1171

Space, Time, and Architecture (Giedion), 501 space frames, 536–1233; aluminum domes, 39–40; in Kahn’s Yale Art Gallery, 595; Kisho Kurokawa’s modular metal, 737 Spa design, 536 Spain, 539–1236 Spangan, 341 Spanish architects, 864, 524 , 611; Coderch’s contribution to, 273 Spanish colonial revival style, 329 Spanish influence, in Southeast Asia, 529 Spanish Pavilion (1937), 462 spatial experience: Ando’s, 53; Berlin Philharmonic Concert Hall, 142; Church on the Water, 258; created by Bernard Tschumi, 462; Cuadra San Cristóbal surrealist, 328–29; in Enrique Norten’s work, 938; experiments with brick, 171; Fallingwater, 437; Getty Museum, 499; in Henning Larsen’s work, 748; importance in supermoderism, 637; Metropolitan Festival Hall in Tokyo, 842; of Mies’ German Pavilion, 494; of Universum Cinema, 637–1376 Spear, Laurinda. See Arquitectonica Spear House, 67, 851 Speer, Alfred, 140, 443–44 Spiegelglashalle, 637 Spiral Building, 811 spiritual nature in architecture, 54, 358 St. Augustine, Florida, 217 St. Batholomew’s Episcopal Church in New York City, 531 St. John’s Presbyterian Church in Berkeley, 876 St. Joseph’s Church at Le Harve, 68 St. Louis, Missouri Gateway Arch, 486–87 St. Maria Königin, 277, 278 St. Mary’s Cathedral in San Francisco, 256

Downloaded by [Central Uni Library Bucharest] at 03:22 26 September 2013 St. Mary’s Cathedral (Tokyo), 4iii St. Pancras Chambers, 173–74 St. Petersburg (Leningrad), Russia, 358, 544–1239, 546 St. Petri’s Church, 765 St. Thomas Episcopal Church in New York City, 323, 531 stadiums, 550–1241; airport likenesses, 32; Index 1172

Russia, 365; tensile structures, 708. See also concrete-shell structure Stafford, Jim, 877 stained glass, 965, 99 staircases: Ando’s embedded meaning, 53; at Bentota Beach Hotel, 124; Casa Malaparte, 221–22; enclosed by glass, 515; freestanding, 16; by Hannes Meyer, 849; Joseph Store in London, 713; Pilgrimage Church at Neviges, 99–1016 Stam, Mart, Van Nelle Factory, Rotterdam, 99–1396 standardization: advantages for architecture, 10; Dutch architecture, 912; of housing in Finland, 602; motels, 888; in Romania, 330; in Russia, 363–5; in suburban developments, 619. See also typology Standing Conference of Public Enterprises (SCOPE) office building, 280 Stanford University, 206; Center for Integrated Systems, 227–29 Stansted Airport Terminal, 469, 644, 645; exterior, 33 Starck, Philippe, 738 State Bank in Fribourg, 162 State Circus, 330 state growth management plans, 330 State Parliament in Düsseldorf, 378 state-sponsored projects. See government-sponsored projects; urban renewal State Theater complex in Zurich, 330 State University of New York, Albany, 603 State University of New York at Stony Brook, Health Sciences Center, 526 Stauffacher Bridge, 808 steam heating, 594

Downloaded by [Central Uni Library Bucharest] at 03:22 26 September 2013 steel, 563–1245; Australian structural experiments, 90; cast steel, 141; concrete reinforcement, 290, 291–92; trusses, 141. See also cast steel steel cables, 953, 566, 607; Index 1173

nets, 960 steel-frame construction, 570–3; in Chicago, 244, 245; Eames House, 381; Farnsworth House, 441; Lovell Health House, 796; of Ludwig Mies van der Rohe, 667 Steiglitz, Alfred, 59 Steiner, Rudolf, 427; Goetheanum, 655 Steiner House, 790, 574–1248, 734 Stem, Allen, 539 Stenhammar, Ernst, 648 stereotomics of the earthwork, 704 Stern, Robert Arthur Morgan, 365, 410, 621, 575–1250; relation with postmodernism, 168 Stevens Hotel, 654 Stickley, Gustav, 77, 581–1252; United States, 581 Stickley furniture, 581 Sticks and Stones (Mumford), 891 , 45 Stirling, James, 789, 171, 585–1254, 585; Leicester University, Engineering Building, 181; Neue Staatsgalerie, 9, 916–17; New National Gallery of Art in Stuttgart, 615–7 Stock Exchange Tower, 867 Stockholm, Sweden, 592–1258 Stockholm City Hall, 264, 265, 591–3 Stockholm Public Library, 82, 269, 589–1256, 7iii Stockholm University at Frescati, 412 Stockmann Department Store, 460; addition, 574 Stoclet House, 628–29 stone, 595–1261; Chassagne stone, 68; concrete as alternative to, 292; Diener and Diener’s use of, 361; Ethiopian, 403; Juan O’Gorman’s use of rocks, 947; oya (lava stone), 669;

Downloaded by [Central Uni Library Bucharest] at 03:22 26 September 2013 tepetate, 726; used in Mies German Pavilion, 493; used in Washington, D.C., 595; veneer panels, 337 Stone, Edward Durell, 896, 601–5; , 419; New Delhi Embassy, 401, 402 Index 1174

Stone Cloud House, 293 Stonehill House, 14 storefront mosques, 884 storefront theaters, 889 Stradelhofen Station in Zurich, 203 , 69, 929, 670; bus terminals, 199; in Los Angeles, 795. See also aeronautical forms Stretto House, 634. See also aeronautical forms strip architecture, 96, 145, 146, 272 stripped Classicism, 269; of Paul Philippe Cret, 326, 327 Struckus House, 795 Structuralism, 608–1266; Dutch School, 605; in Henning Larsen’s work, 747; Hungary, 664; Netherlands, 914; of Vesnin brothers, 608 structural systems, 606–1264; airport terminals, 32; analogies applied to, 620; of Antoni Gaudí, 489; of Arne Emil Jacobsen, 704; Bank of China Tower, 109; Bardi’s Taba Guaianases Building, 150; Bauhaus, Dessau, 121–22; Benetton Factory, 134; Casa Milà, 223, 224; cast iron, 192; ceiling at Phoenix Public Library, 89, 91; Eladio Dieste’s innovations, 362; exoskeletal, 427, 564; Frei Otto’s lightweight, 960; Hong Kong and Shanghai Bank, 646, 647; innovations in Melbourne, 829, 839; innovative use of masonry skins, 54; interlocking rooms on multiple levels, 92; Kazuyo Sejima’s innovations, 460;

Downloaded by [Central Uni Library Bucharest] at 03:22 26 September 2013 load-bearing brick, 171, 172; as masculine, 454; megastructures, 61–62; as ornament, 958–59; Pier Luigi Nervi’s writings about, 911; poetics of, 704; in research centers, 265; Index 1175

at Schlumbeger Cambridge Research Center, 426; steel, 566; straw bale, 643; towers, 68; Toyo Ito, 700; use of plastic, 114; Van Nelle Factory, 114; of Wallace K. Harrison, 590; without columns or load-bearing walls, 952, 953; in Woolworth Building, 114; Zonnestraal Sanatorium, 114. See also joinery; roofs stucco, 337 Studio Architetti BBPR, 114 studio design education, 389 Studio Per, 611–1268 Stuttgart, Germany, 616–1270 style moderne, 358 suburban developments, 658; Bangkok, 106; Chicago, 242; Denis Scott Brown’s interest in, 435–7; department stores, 357; Finland, 460, 462; impact of automobile on, 96; relation with roadway systems, 308; relation with urban renewal, 308 Riyadh, 297; row houses, 347; São Paulo, Brazil, 398; Six Moon Hill, 731; Stockholm, 595. See also edge cities; Levittown; ranch houses suburban houses, by Michel De Klerk, 346 suburban planning, 619–1273; shopping center, 619. See also transportation planning subways, 627–9;

Downloaded by [Central Uni Library Bucharest] at 03:22 26 September 2013 and suburban planning, 619 Sullivan, Louis, 629–37; belief in regionalism, 637;; Carson Pirie Scott Store, 219–21, 631; Guaranty Building, 634; importance to American architecture, 634; influence on Chicago School, 244; Index 1176

National Farmers’ Bank, 904–6, 631; relation with Prairie School, 181; relation with rationalism, 236; Wainwright Building, 171 Sumida Culture Factory, 743 Summer House in Ofir, 694–6 Summerlin, 751 Sunnyside Gardens, 622 Sun Yat-sen Mausoleum, 797, 798 Sun Yat-sen Memorial Hall, 797, 798 “superadjacency,” 622 superblocks, 612, 729, 762 Superleggera chair, 146 supermodernism, 65, 638–1280; Clorindo Testa’s relation with, 726 Supreme Court Building in Jerusalem, 697 Suspended Office Building, 726 sustainability and sustainable architecture, 641–1283; awards for, 25; and climate, 272; and energy-efficient design, 405; HVAC systems and, 596; Norway, 941; plastic and, 112; in Reichstag reconstruction, 256; Renzo Piano’s work, 94; Southern and Central Africa, 25; United Kingdom, 94; use of timber for, 735. See also solar architecture Suvikumpu Housing Project, 96 Sverdlovsk, Constructivism in, 303 Swales, Francis, 96 Sweden, 648–1286; functionalism in, 82; Hälsingborg Concert Hall, 289–90; Sigurd Lewerentz’s work, 764 Swedish architecture, 647 swimming pools: by Alvaro Siza, 490; by E. Owen Williams, 490;

Downloaded by [Central Uni Library Bucharest] at 03:22 26 September 2013 by Julia Morgan, 875, 876 Swiss architects, 160 Swiss architecture, 657 Swiss Pavilion at Cité Universitaire, 312 Swiss Pavilion at Hannover Expo (2000), 657 Switzerland, 654–1288 Sydney, Australia, 659–1292 Index 1177

Sydney Opera House, 90, 665–1294; competition, 285; exterior, 667; Ove Arup’s design work, 79 Sydney School, 90, 661 symbiosis in architecture, 737, 738 “symbolic romanticism” movement, 526 symbolism, 669–1296; Asian architecture, 123–24; bamboo, 109; building materials, 131, 657; in Carlo Scarpa’s work, 415; Chinese, 251; church, 254, 256; concrete in Wright’s Unity Temple, 415; of the elevator, 398; Ellis Island, 415; and Expressionism, 425; Finnish, 487; Frank Gehry’s whimsical, 490, 571; Glacier Museum, 509; Glasgow School, 510; glass, 515; of government buildings, 158; Grande Arche de la Défense, 540–42; Holocaust Memorial Museum, Washington, D.C., 637, 638; huts or “cases,” 334; Islamic, 63, 487; Islamic architecture, 80; Kenzo Tange’s work, 953, 683; male/female, 454; marine imagery, 69; mathematical, 53; Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Riyadh, 856; Monument to the Third International, 868, 869; mosques, 885; “over vast space,” 436; prairie, 524; pre-Islamic, 547; Seagram Building, 444; Sears Tower, 447;

Downloaded by [Central Uni Library Bucharest] at 03:22 26 September 2013 Shrine of the Book, 483, 486; skyscrapers, 29; steel, 563; synagogues, 675–6; tents, 714; TWA Airport Terminal in New York, 714 of United Nations Headquarters, 714 Index 1178

Velasca Tower, 714; Vidhan Bhavan (State Assembly), 714–1409; World Trade Tower, 714; of Zonnestraal Sanatorium, 714. See also nautical forms; ornament synagogues, 673–1298 synergy, 475

Taba Guaianases Building, 150 TAC (The Architects Collaborative). See The Architects Collaborative (T.A.C.) Tafuri, Manfredo, 97, 99, 623, 678, 678–1300 Taliesin, 678 Taliesin West, 681–1302; exterior, 681 Taller de Arquitectura, 621 Tally’s Electric Theatre in Los Angeles, 888 Tampere Main Library, 97 Tange, Kenzo, 299, 684–1304; Abuja, Federal Capital Territory of Nigeria, 9–10; “City for 10 Million People,” 839; first European building, 26; Olympic Stadium, Tokyo, 952–53; Peace Memorial and Museum, Hiroshima, 44–990; Tokyo City Hall, 266, 736; urban planning in Southeast Asia, 532; work in Tokyo, 740; work in Yugoslavia, 740 Taniguchi, Yoshio, 893, 897, 688–1305 Tapiola, 149, 462, 277 Tassel House, 73, 130, 651, 197; exterior, 651 Tatar houses, 506 Tate Gallery of Modern Art, 607; Core Gallery for the Turner Collection, 585; interior, 607 Tatlin, Vladimir, Monument to the Third International, 868–70 Taut, Bruno, 689–1307; Alpine Architecture, 426; Expressionist works, 426;

Downloaded by [Central Uni Library Bucharest] at 03:22 26 September 2013 Glaspalast, 276; Glass House, 689–92,692,; Glass Pavilion, 426; Istanbul residence, 699; observations of Japanese architecture, 736; relationship with Hans Scharoun, 418–9; use of glass, 515; Index 1179

use of Ottoman walling technique, 397; work in Turkey, 419;; writings about Japan, 736 Tavanasa Bridge, 809 Tàvora, Fernando, 695–1309 Taylor, Robert R., 698–1310 Teague, Harry, 250 teahouse design, 738 Team 10, 737, 404. See also Team X Team Disney Building, 694 Team X, 344, 605, 914, 702–1312 Team X Primer, 513, 702 Teatro del Mondo, 337 TÉBE Building, 826 Technical University at Otaniemi, Chapel, 487 Technion, 696 technoburb, 386 technology: architectural, 389; Berlin’s embrace of, 137–38; Centre for Alternative Technology, 520; and cultural values, 17; effect on country clubs, 321; effect on house design, 657, 658; glass production, 516; Gropius’s philosophy, 121; in Hodgetts and Fung projects, 626; impact on agricultural landscape, 29–30; impact on truth in architecture, 264; importance of welding, 566; inseparability from architecture, 301; Maya Lin’s use of, 776; and modernism, 861; for sustainable architecture, 641; transfer, 558, 79; urban impact of military technology, 276; Wanamaker’s pioneering use, 79 Tecton. See Lubetkin and Tecton Tectonics, 704–1314 Teflon, 584, 649, 267, 427;

Downloaded by [Central Uni Library Bucharest] at 03:22 26 September 2013 alternative, 708 Tehran Center for Celebration of Music, 63 Tehran Center for Management Studies, 63 Tejeda House, 872 Tek, Vedat, 698 TELEVISA Services Building, 938 Tempe a Pailla, 544, 545 Index 1180

temperature. See climate Temple Beth El (Louis Kahn), 676 temples in Bangkok, 105–6 Templeton Factory in Glasgow, 13 tenement houses, 55; Berlin, 137; Glasgow, 513–14. See also favelas Tennessee Valley Authority (TVA), 246 tensegrity structures, 710 tensile structures, 708–1315. See also tents tensioned membrane structures, 566, 710–1316 Tent City, 533 tents, 712–1317; tent structures, 608, 708. See also tensile structures tepetate (stone), 726 terminal buildings in airports, 32–33, 34 terracotta, 715–1318; bricks, 648; cladding, 135; use of, in Woolworth Building, 715 Terragni, Giuseppe, 767, 238, 717–1319 terrazzo, 604, 721–1321 Territorial Executive Committee Building, 361 terrorism: airport design, 34, 728; embassy design, 401, 402. See also fallout shelters Tessenow, Heinrich, 724–1322 Testa, Clorindo, 66; Bank of London and South America, Buenos Aires, 110–11, 187, 726 Texas Houses (John Hejduk), 600 tezontle sand, 529 Thai architects, 102, 104, 532 Thai architecture, 526, 530 The Architects Collaborative (TAC), 729–1326; American Institute of Architects Headquarters, 46 Theater Français, 568 Theater on the Water, 259

Downloaded by [Central Uni Library Bucharest] at 03:22 26 September 2013 theaters, 753; drive-in, 95–96; Egyptian revival style, 391; by István Medgyaszay, 826; by Mario Roberto Alvarez, 40 theater set design: Alexander Vesnin, 729; Fedor Shekhtel, 472; Index 1181

Gae Aulenti, 87–88 Théâtre des Champs-Elysées, 68 theme parks, 50; by Hodgetts and Fung, 626; Las Vegas, 751 Theory and Design in the First Machine Age (Banham), 107 Thermal Baths in Vals, 68 Thirtieth Street Station in Philadelphia, 534 Thompson Center, 707 Thorsen House, 552 Three Arms Zone (Abuja), 10 Three-Slab House, 378 throwaway architecture, 57 Thyssen Tower, 378 Tiananmen Square, 68 Ticino school, 161 Tietz Department Store, 377 tiles: Catalan vault, 225; terazzo, 721; use at University Library, UNAM, Mexico City, 721; use by Antoni Gaudí, 489; use in grain elevators, 538 tiles (azulejos), 14 Tilyou, George, 52 timber framing, 733–1328. See also engineered lumber Time-Life Building, 318 tinted glass, 518, 119 Tishler House, 423 titanium, 571 Tobacco Monopoly Offices and Warehouse Complex, 231, 232, 233 Tokyo, Japan, 736–1332; Metropolitan Festival Hall, 842 Tokyo architects, 740, 477 Tokyo Bay Plan, 685 Tokyo City Hall, 266, 736 Tokyo Dome, 607 Tokyo Forum Project, 320 Tomek House, 310 TOPO (1991), 776

Downloaded by [Central Uni Library Bucharest] at 03:22 26 September 2013 topographical architecture, 857 Toronto, Ontario, 748–1335 Toronto City Hall, 278, 745–1333; exterior, 745 Torre, Susana, 745–1337 Torre Velasca, 745–1339; exterior, 745; Index 1182

plan, 745 toughened glass, 518 tourism. See hotels; resorts Tournikiotis, Panayotis, 623, 624 tower forms, 427; clock tower, Hilversum Town Hall, 615; double-helix, 693; Great Mosque of Niono, 547; Helsinki Railway Station, 604; Holocaust Memorial Museum, Washington, D.C., 637; Mills College El Campanil, 875; Notre Dame, Le Raincy, 942; Rockefeller Center, 648; Saudi Arabia, 405; in Soviet Union, 869 Tower of Jewels, 17 Tower of Winds, 700 towers. See skyscrapers Townscape movement, 924 Toyota Museum of Art, 687 Traditional architecture. See Classicism; Vernacular architecture Traditional Design Build, 300 Train Shed in Chiasso, 808 transportation planning, 687–1342; Athens Charter position on, 86–87; Chicago, 104; escalators in, 414–15; Hong Kong, 641; multiuse terminals, 540; and new urbanism, 922; and precast construction, 186; saving historic roads, 617; streets, 677–78; underground project in Caracas, 217; in Voisin Plan for Paris (1925), 186 See also automobiles; parkways; suburban planning Transvaal Group, 24

Downloaded by [Central Uni Library Bucharest] at 03:22 26 September 2013 Travail (Zola), 483 travertine, 498 Trenton Jewish Community Center Bath House, 723 Tribune Review Publishing Company Building, 724 Tribune Tower, 186, 3iii Tribune Tower International Competition (Chicago 1922), 245, 285, 501–4,504,–1345 trigrams, 455 Index 1183

Tripoli, 20 Triton City, 374 tropical climate construction, 104, 106, 334–35; Bank of China Tower, 109; Miami, Florida, 851; skyscrapers, 761 Tropical Deco, 70, 850 Trucco, Giacomo Mattê, Fiat Works (Turin), 458–59 truss systems, 573, 606–7,607,–1346; at Taliesin West, 681; World Trade Center, 681 truth in architecture, 75, 392 Tschumi, Bernard, 681–1348; Project for a Villa, 657; relation with Deconstructivism, 350 Tsien, Billie, 325, 681–1445 Tugendhat House, 492, 854, 681–1349, 5iii; use of glass, 517 Tugwell, Rexford, 551 Turbine Hall at Moabit, 127 Turin, Italy: Exhibition Hall by Peir Luigi Nervi, 416–19; Fiat Works, 458–59 Turin Expositions, 416 Turkey, 681–1353; Bruno Taut’s work in, 692 Turkish architecture, 396–98; houses, 575 Turkish Historical Society, 692 “Turkish house” idea of Eldem, 396, 397 Turkish houses, 699, 516 Turrell, James, 775 Turtle Bay Exploration Center bridge, 203–4 Turtle Creek House, 188 Tuskegee Institute, Douglass Hall, 698 Tuskegee Institute plan, 207 Tusquets, Oscar, 613 TWA Airport Terminal, New York, 613–1354, 5iii Twaiq Palace, 407 Twitchell, Ralph, 402 typology, 402–1356; Amancio Williams’s development of, 402;

Downloaded by [Central Uni Library Bucharest] at 03:22 26 September 2013 relation with neorationalism, 909 Tzelepis, Panos, 549 Tzonis, Alexander, 550

Uehara House, 476 UFA Cinema Center in Dresden, 307 UFA Palast, 351 Index 1184

Ugljen, Zlatko, 476 Ukiyo-e Museum, 476 Une cité moderne, 814 UNESCO: Headquarters in Paris, 169, 978–79; teahouse, 74 UNESCO world heritage list, 122–23 Ungers, Oswald Mathias, 74–1358 Union Bank in Basel, 162 Union Building, 646 Union Industrial Argentina, 816 Union Internationale des Architectes (UIA), 679; guidelines for architecture competitions, 284 Union of South Africa, 23 Union Station in Chicago, 534 Union Station in St. Louis, 12 Union Station in Washington, D.C., 196 Unishelter, 524–25 Unitarian Church of All Souls, 556 Unitary urbanism, 98 Unite d’Habitation, 56, 312, 74–1359; kitchens, 74 Unite d’Habitation, exterior, 74 United Kingdom, 74–1363; New Urbanism, 924 United Nations Headquarters, 765, 818, 928, 74–1965 United States, 74–1371; Arts and Crafts Movement, 77; city halls, 264, 265; department store design, 356; Foreign Buildings Operations (FBO), 401; state capitol buildings, 824; state capitol cities, 263 United States Air Force Academy Chapel. See U.S. Air Force Academy Chapel United States architects, 172 United State Schools for Fine and Applied Arts, 41–61 United States Customs House in New York, 502 United States Embassy in Athens, 731 United States Embassy in Cuba, 330 United States Embassy in Lima, 68 United States Embassy in New Delhi, 601–3

Downloaded by [Central Uni Library Bucharest] at 03:22 26 September 2013 United States National Park Service, 617–18 United States Post Office in D.C., 534 United States Supreme Court Building, 503 Unity Temple, 746, 603603; exterior, 603; interior, 603 Universal Exposition of 1942, 443 Index 1185

Universidad Nacional Autónoma del Mexico (UNAM) master plan, 872 Université de Montreal, 210 universities. See campus planning University City, Mexico City, 844 University City of Venezuela, 603 University Library, UNAM, Mexico City, 603 exterior, 603 University of Bath, 512 University of British Columbia, C.K. Choi Building, 643–5 University of California at Berkeley, 206; Hearst Hall, 822; Hearst Memorial Gym and Pool, 875; Men’s Faculty Club, 822 University of California at Irvine plan, 207 University of California at Santa Cruz, 207; Kresge College, 870, 871 University of Chicago plan, 206 University of Cincinnati, Arnoff Center for Design and Art, 279 University of Ghent, Library Building, 131 University of Hong Kong, Kadoorie Biological Sciences Building, 642 University of Illinois, Chicago Circle campus, 207, 243 University of Imam Sadegh, 63 University of Iowa, Advanced Technology Laboratory, 645 University of London in Bloomsbury extensions, 754 University of Michigan, Law School, 147 University of Nebraska: Sheldon Memorial Art Gallery, 717; Wick Alumni Center, 577 University of Pennsylvania: Addams Hall and Fine Arts Building, 938; Richards Medical Research Building, 172, 723–24, 266; Wynn Commons, 1iii University of Texas at Austin, 206 University of Virginia, Darden Graduate School of Business, 578 University of Wyoming, American Heritage Center and Art Museum, 188 Universum Cinema, 188–1376 Unwin, Raymond, 399 urban development, 61; Bagdad, 232; Buenos Aires, 187–88; Lisbon, 783; role of stadiums, 562; Saudi Arabia, 405;

Downloaded by [Central Uni Library Bucharest] at 03:22 26 September 2013 Spain, 405. See also cities; suburban developments urban heat islands, 272 urban planning, 956, 405–1380; Abuja, Federal Capital Territory of Nigeria, 9–10; by Adalberto Libera, 768; Index 1186

Ada Louise Huxtable’s writings, 665; by Adèle Naudé Santos, 393; Aldo Rossi’s writings, 336; in the Arctic, 412; Beirut, 129, 130; Benevolo’s writings about, 133; Berlage’s idea, 135–36; Broadacre City, 175–78; Canberra, 102–1018; Caracas, 217; Chandigarh, 234, 235; Chicago, 104–1019; China, 104; CIAM approach to, 86; Contemporary City for Three Million Inhabitants, 304–5; by Coop Himmelblau, 307; critiques of, 104; by Daniel Hudson Burnham, 195–96; by Denise Scott Brown, 437; Dessau, 121; Disney’s superiority, 364; by Duany and Plater-Zyberk, 369; by , 820; by Heinrich Tessenow, 724; Hodgetts and Fung proposals, 625; Hugh Ferriss’s contribution, 456–57; Islamic principles, 410; by Joaquim Guedes, 569; Josep Lluis Sert’s writings, 461; Kevin Lynch’s writings, 802–3; Kuala Lumpur, 527; Lewis Mumford’s writings, 891; Ludwig Karl Hilberseimer’s writings, 612; by Mario Romañach, 326; by Morphosis, 878; neoclassical, 754; New Delhi, 107–1021; Otto Wagner’s writings, 107; parkways, 34; plan for Brasilia, 163; by Robert Venturi, 34;

Downloaded by [Central Uni Library Bucharest] at 03:22 26 September 2013 Saigon South, 498; Sigfried Giedion’s writing, 501; Steen Eiler Rasmussen’s writings, 233; by Sven Markelius, 818; Tony Garnier’s impact, 483; Une Cité Industrielle, 259–60; use at Getty Museum, 498; Index 1187

Vision Plan for Des Moines, Iowa, 28; Voisin Plan for Paris (1925), 233; Werner Hegemann’s involvement, 596, 597; Yugoslavia, 233. See also cities; City Beautiful Movement; Contextualism; Garden City Movement; industrial town planning; regional planning Urban Prospect, The (Mumford), 891 urban renewal, 233–1381; apartment building, 56; Barcelona School typology for, 113; Boston, 159–60; Cairo, 203; by Chloethiel Woodard Smith, 509; failure of, 207; Glasgow, 514; by I.M. Pei, 207 Jane Jacobs’s writings, 703; Montreal, 867; by Morris Lapidus, 744; of plazas, 124; Riyadh, 412; Rotterdam, 343–5; of row houses, 347; Spain, 347; St. Louis, 204; Sweden, 651; as utopian planning, 651; Victor Gruen’s interest in, 565; Vincent Scully Jr., writings, 441; West Berlin, 339. See also adaptive re-use; demolition; favelas; historic preservation; ordinances urban sprawl, 386; antidote, 233

Downloaded by [Central Uni Library Bucharest] at 03:22 26 September 2013 “urban villages,” 924 Urbino, Italy, 344, 345 Uruguay, 225, 363 U.S. Air Force Academy Chapel, 497–1383; exterior, 497; interior, 497 U.S. Army Supply Base in Brooklyn, 503 Index 1188

U.S. Military Academy at West Point, 323, 530 U.S. National Park Service, 34 U.S. Pavilion at Expo ‘67, 421, 422 U.S. Steel Headquarters, 590 Usonian houses, 232 utopian planning, 232–1384; Abraham’s technology-driven, 4; Arcosanti, 61; Brasilia, 163–65; Benevolo’s writings about, 133; Contemporary City for Three Million Inhabitants, 304–5; by Hans Scharoun, 418; by Ivan Ilich Leonidov, 758; Lewis Mumford’s writings, 891; of Ludwig Mies van der Rohe, 443; Molnar’s KOLVÁROS project, 863; Stepahnovich Melnikov, 831; Une Cité Industrielle, 260, 262; Zonnestraal Sanatorium, 443 See also Garnier, Tony; new town developments Utopia Pavilion, 783, 786 Utzon, Jørn, 663–1387; influence on Sverre Fehn, 450; Sydney Opera House, 79, 90, 285, 296, 663, 665–1294; tectonics in works of, 706; work in Denmark, 354

Vällingby, 818, 651 Valsamakis, Nikos, 550 Van Alen, William. See Chrysler Building Vancouver, Canada, 651–1390 van der Vlugt, L.C., 341; Van Nelle Factory, Rotterdam, 341–1396 van de Velde, Henri, 73, 341–1397; Bloemenwerf, 130; exhibition buildings, 341; influence in Belgium, 131; La Nouvelle Maison, 131; reaction to Deutscher Werkbund, 358; University of Ghent, Library Building, 131

Downloaded by [Central Uni Library Bucharest] at 03:22 26 September 2013 van Doesburg, Theo, 341–1392, 8i; abstract art and architecture, 6; Cafe Aubette, 349; J.J.P.Oud’s relation with, 962; L’Aubette dance hall, 6; relation with Bauhaus, 119; role in De Stijl, 348 Index 1189

van Eesteren, Cornelis, 48, 348 Van Eetvelde House, 651 van Eyck, Aldo, 428–30, 702; impact on Amsterdam, 48; writings about cities, 306 Vanna Venturi House, 279, 702–1394, 702; exterior, 702; interior, 702 Van Nelle Factory, Rotterdam, 341–1396; exterior, 341 Van Roosmalen House, 132 Vaughn, Henry, 341 vaults: AT&T Building, 84–85; of Felix Candela, 213; Gaussa, 362; Gothic rib, 254, 255; Lambert Airport in St. Louis, 341; self-supporting, 363; steel truss system, 607; undulating barrel, 644; Washington D.C. subway, 627. See also steel-frame construction Velasca Tower. See Torre Velasca Velasco, Juan Martínez, University Library, UNAM, Mexico City, 627–1375 Venetian (hotel), 751 Venezuelan architecture, 627 Venice Biennale Pavilions, 627–1399 Venice II, 878 Ventana Vista Elementary School, 189 ventilation. See heating, ventilation, and air conditioning (HVAC) Venturi, Rauch, and Scott Brown: Buildings and Projects (Von Moos), 189 Venturi, Robert, 306–1401; Complexity and Contradiction in Architecture, 166, 668–70,670,; Guild House in Philadelphia, 172, 670,; Las Vegas book, 750; “less is bore,” 959; partnership with Denise Scott Brown, 435; relation with environmental issues, 409–10; relation with historicism, 621; relation with International Style, 684;

Downloaded by [Central Uni Library Bucharest] at 03:22 26 September 2013 relation with Paul Rudolf, 356; Sainsbury Wing, National Gallery, London, 378; use of color, 279; Vanna Venturi House, 279, 378–1394, 378; work in Philadelphia, 87; writings about cities, 306 vernacular architecture, 87–1405; Index 1190

American, 87; awards, 26; Barcelona, 111; Bawa’s, 124–25; Cairo, 202; Canada, 208; desert, 64; India, 672; linked to new decorative program, 35; Maori, 932; Mexico, 755, 87; Miami, Florida, 851; pavilions at Expo 87, Seville, 422; postmodern interest in, 168; Ramses Wissa Wassef s passion for, 168; Robert Venturi’s appreciation of, 168; rural Catalan houses, 216; Scandinavian, 81; Switzerland, 655; Thailand, 106; timber framing, 733; United States, 45; use by Heinrich Tessenow, 723; use of stone, 599–601; use of wood, 601; See also modern vernacular; regionalism vernacular modernism: by Rogelio Salmona, 383; in Studio Per’s works, 613 Vesnin, Alexander, 613. See also Vesnin, Alexander, Leonid, and Viktor Vesnin, Alexander, Leonid, and Viktor, 970, 364–1408; relation with constructivism, 302, 303 Vesnin, Leonid, 364. See also Vesnin, Alexander, Leonid, and Viktor Vesnin, Viktor, 364. See also Vesnin, Alexander, Leonid, and Viktor Via Galilei, 767 Viceroy’s House, 920 Viceroy’s Palace in New Delhi, 110

Downloaded by [Central Uni Library Bucharest] at 03:22 26 September 2013 Victorian Gothic, Canada, 209 video game environments, 52, 625 Vidhan Bhavan (State Assembly), 110–1409; exterior, 110, 7iii Vieira, Alvaro Siza, Malagueira Housing Quarter, 813–14 Vienna, Austria: Hans Hollein’s work in, 635; Karl Marxhof, 729–31; Index 1191

Post Office Savings Bank, 515, 161–1047; Stadtbahn (subway), 626–7; Steiner House, 790, 574–1248 Vienna residential and office development, 335; by Josef Hoffmann, 629 Vienna Secession, 128–1412, 6iii; influence in Tokyo, 740; Josef Hoffman’s relation with, 628; members, 162; Olbrich’s exhibition hall, 950, 951; in Slovenia, 162 Viennese architects, 627 Viennese Moderne, 91 Vietnam Veterans’ Memorial, 776, 777, 834, 162–1414; drawing, 162; visitors at, 162 Viipuri Library, 2, 772; lecture hall, 2 Viipuri Railroad Station, 371 Viking Ship Museum, 355 Villa Amore, 28 Villa Beer, 471 Villa Busk, 451, 939 Villa Capra, 521 Village Matteotti, 345 Villa in the Forest, 458 Villa Mairea, 2, 438, 12–1416; living room, 12; main entrance, 12 Villa Noailles, 814 Villanueva, Carlos Raúl, 215, 216, 12–1419; Ciudad Universitaria, Caracas, 267–69 Villa Savoye, 12–1418; exterior, 12; influence on other buildings, 31 Villa Schwob, 310, 366 Ville Radieuse, 304, 12–1420 Vimanmek Palace, 104, 105 Viñoly, Rafael, 815 Violich, Francis, 215–16 Viollet-le-Duc, E.E., 72, 74, 236;

Downloaded by [Central Uni Library Bucharest] at 03:22 26 September 2013 influence on churches, 254–55 Virginia Polytechnic Institute, Carol M. Newman Library Addition, 436 virtual reality, 52, 862 Viscaya, 850 visitor centers, 436–1422. See also roadside architecture Vitra Firestation, 582 Index 1192

Vittorio Emanuele II monument, 331 Vivian Beaumont Theater, 778 Voisin Plan for Paris, 311, 331–1423 Voldparken estate, 464–65 von Haussmann, Baron, 331 Von Moos, Stanislaus, 331–1424 von Spreckelsen, Johann Otto, Grande Arche de la Défense, 540–42, 5ii Voss House, 331 Voysey, Charles F.A., 384, 252–1426

333 , 733 Wacoal Media Center, 811, 812 Wagner, Otto, 252–1430; impact on Austria, 91; influence in Vienna, 128; Majolikahaus, 74; memorials by, 832; Post Office Savings Bank, 38, 515, 161–1047; role in Vienna Secession, 161; use of glass, 515; Vienna Stadtbahn (subway), 626–7 Wagner Center for the Visual Arts, 395 Wagner School, 627 Wainwright Building, 171 waiting areas: bus terminal, 199; Union Station in Chicago, 534. See also lobbies Walden-7, 152 Waldorf Schools, 427 Walker Art Center, 115 Walking City, 57 Wall Houses, 600 Wallot, Paul, 255 Wallraf-Richartz Museum, 278, 255 walls: Ando’s primary, 52; buildings as, 463; clapboard siding for interior, 562; claustra walls, 35; Cuadra San Cristóbal, 328; curvilinear, 224, 225, 394, 577;

Downloaded by [Central Uni Library Bucharest] at 03:22 26 September 2013 curvilinear glass, 237; glass, 521, 720; importance to amusement parks, 52; of Kristian Gullichsen, 574; made of glass, 517; made of recycled materials, 523; made of sugar cane waste, 331; Index 1193

masonry-bearing, 819–20; Mies’ use in German Pavilion, 493; movable interior house, 355, 433; movable interior office, 135; Ottoman, 397; plate glass, 119; stone, 597; stone and concrete, 599; Taliesin West, 681; tilted, 572; timber rib, 334–35; undulating, 8; using as screens, 145; by Yoshio Taniguchi, 688. See also curtain wall system Walt Disney World in Florida, 363 Walter Dodge House, 504, 505 Wanamaker Store, 688–1432; exterior, 688; interior, 688 Ward, Basil. See Connell, Ward, and Lucas warehouse and storage facilities, 688–1433 Warren, Whitney, 539 Washington, D.C., 688–1435; adaptive-reuse in, 12; Chloethiel Woodard Smith works, 508; Embassy Row buildings, 402; Frank Lloyd Wright’s views about, 147; John Russell Pope’s work, 148; McMillan Plan, 781; parkway system, 34; Plan, 263; plan, 195; subway, 627; Vietnam Veterans Memorial, 627–1414 Washington National Cathedral, 627 Wassef, Ramses Wissa, 627–1437 watercolor renderings, 59 waterfront revitalization, 617 Watergate Complex in Washington, D.C., 873, 875 Waterloo Station:

Downloaded by [Central Uni Library Bucharest] at 03:22 26 September 2013 Continental Train Platform, 226; International Terminal addition, 559 wattle and daub construction, 383 Wayfarer’s Chapel in Los Angeles, 794 Wayne State University McGregor Memorial Conference Center, 226 Webb, Mike, 57 Webb, Philip, 76 Index 1194

Weese, Harry, 243, 281 Weimar Bauhaus, 118 Weisman, Leslie Kanes, 454 Weissenhof Row Houses, 617 Weissenhofsiedlung (Stuttgart 1927), 471, 597, 681–82, 420, 616–1439; House by Le Corbusier, 616; J.J.P.Oud’s Weissenhof Row Houses, 617 welding, importance of, 566 Welwyn Garden City Company, 482 Werdermühle, 131 Werkbund Exhibition (Cologne 1914), 127, 131–1440; Gropius’ Model Factory, 563 Werner, Eduard, 435 Wertheim Department Store, 494 West Africa: Bureaux d’Etudes Henri Chomette, 191–93; French cultural centers, 35; Yaama Mosque, 131–1462. See also Great Mosque of Niono; Northern Africa; Southern and Central Africa West Berlin architecture, 140–41 Westenstrasse 1/DG Bank Headquarters Building, 733 Western influence: China, 249–50; in China, 251; on Indian architecture, 30; Istanbul, 697; Kyoto, Japan, 739; Moscow, 881 West German Pavilion (Frei Otto), 422 Westin Peachtree Plaza Hotel, 154 Westin Times Hotel at Times Square, 68 Westmount Square, 867 Wetmore, William, 539 Wexner Center for the Visual Arts, 172, 777 White, Howard Judson. See Graham, Anderson, Probst, and White White, Stanford. See McKim, Mead and White white brick, 647 white cement, 911 white marble, 971 White Mosque, 154

Downloaded by [Central Uni Library Bucharest] at 03:22 26 September 2013 White U, 700, 459 Whitney Museum of American Art, 169, 599; extension, 543 Wichita House, 476 Wiebenga, Jan Gerko, 373 Wiedenhofer-Hof, 471 Wieizmann House, 836 Index 1195

Wilford, Michael, Neue Staatsgalerie, 916–17 Wilgus, William J., 539 Wilhelmine style, 22 Wilhelm Marx House, 377 Will, Philip, 59, 61–3 Williams, Amancio, 63–1441 Williams, E. Owen, 63–1442; Boots Pure Drugs Factory, 155–56, 63 Williams, Paul Revere, 638iii Williams, Tod and Billie Tsien, 325, 63–1445 Willis Faber Dumas Building, 336; 468 Wilson, Colin St. John, 173, 63–1446 Wilson, George Leopold: Hong Kong and Shanghai Bank Corporation Headquarters, 469, 640, 645–47, 946 Wilson House, 423 Winarsky-Hof, 471 Winckelmann, Johann Joachim, 623 windows: American Foursquare house, 44; bay, 709; bow, 423; Chicago, 220, 244, 632; by Erich Mendelsohn, 836; IDESTA system, 764; John Hancock Building, 48; with metal mesh screens, 236; periscope, 148; relation with curtain walls, 336; that must stay closed, 596; types of glass in, 516; use of asymmetrical, 511; vertical bands of, 436 wind pressure design, 734, 494, 572, 573, 605; computer-aided, 708; portal arch, 708; trusses in, 708; typhoons, 109; World Trade Center, 708 Winslow House, 16 Winton Guest House, 571 wire-mesh reinforcement, 259

Downloaded by [Central Uni Library Bucharest] at 03:22 26 September 2013 Wiseman House, 578 Wissa Wassef, Ramses, Ramses Wissa Wassef Arts Centre, 228–1080 Wolfe House, 423 women architects, 87; associations for, 679; Denise Scott Brown, 434–1185; Eleanor Raymond, 240; Index 1196

Eva Jiricna, 712–13; in Finland, 460; Glasgow School, 510; Goody, Joan, 532–34; Itsuko Hasegawa, 590–92; Joan Edelman Goody, 532; Kazuyo Seijima, 458; Lina Bò Bardi, 150–52; Susana Torres’s exhibition of, 458 women in architecture, 453 women in architecture schools, 388 Women’s Table, The, 776, 777 Woo, Kyu Sung, 293 wood, 458–1449; Dusan Jurkovic’s use of, 341; Heikki and Kaija Sirén’s use of, 488; Maybeck’s redwood houses, 822; Sverre Fehn’s use of, 450; synagogues, 676; teakwoods, 709; truss system, 682; use at Byker Wall, 413; use in Cultural Centre Jean-Marie Tjibaou, 334. See also engineered lumber Woodbury County Courthouse in Sioux City, 222 wooden screens (mashrabiyah), 406 Woodland Cemetery in Stockholm, 764 Woodland Chapel in Stockholm, 82, 593; interior, 83 Woodland Crematorium, 83 Woolworth Building, 502, 501–1451; drawing, 501; exterior, 501 Work, Robert, 14 workers’ clubs, 526–28, 501 Workers’ Neighborhood of Lyanóu, 325 Working Council for Art, 692 World Bank Building in New Delhi, 280 World Exhibition (Brussels 1958), 131 World’s Columbian Exposition (Chicago 1893), 195, 205, 262, 824

Downloaded by [Central Uni Library Bucharest] at 03:22 26 September 2013 World Trade Center, 506–1452, 506; exterior, 506; memorial, 769 Wright, Frank Lloyd, 506–1456; Beth Shalom Synagogue, 675; Broadacre City, 175–78, 675 designs for Chicago World’s Fair, 230; Index 1197

Fallingwater, 436–38, 675; First Unitarian Meeting House in Madison, 256; Florida Southern College plan, 207; on “folk buildings,” 675; Guggenheim Museum, 572–74, 746, 928, 675; Heurtley House, 182; House on the Mesa, 686; impact in Chicago, 242; Imperial Hotel, 669–182, 738; influence on Sedad Hakkí Eldem, 396; Johnson Wax Administrative Building, 313, 713–15; Johnson Wax Building, 258; Larkin Building, 715, 745–46; load-bearing brick structures, 171; Nakoma Country Club plan, 321; opinion of U.N. Headquarters, 258; opinion of U.S. Air Force Academy Chapel, 258; Prairie School work, 181; precast system, 192; relation with Arts and Crafts Movement, 77; relation with environmental issues, 409; relation with regionalism, 251; Robie House, 77, 322, 656, 310–1123, 310; skyscrapers, 506; Taliesin West, 681–1302; tectonics in works of, 706; Unity Temple, Oak Park, Illinois, 746, 706 Usonian houses, 232; views about Washington, D.C., 147; views about way wood was used, 147; work in Los Angeles, 794 , 534–35; exterior, 535 Wu Liangyong, 147–1457 Wurster, William, 147–1460 Wyldefel Gardens, 662 Wyntoon, 822, 876

Yaama Mosque, 662–1462 Yale University: Art and Architecture Building, 291, 353, 355, 356;

Downloaded by [Central Uni Library Bucharest] at 03:22 26 September 2013 Art Gallery, 595; campus additions, 207; Center for British Art, 724; Women’s Table, The, 776 Yamasaki, Minoru, 298–1464; Pruitt Igoe Housing, 204–1069, 204; World Trade Center, 769, 506–1452, 506 Index 1198

Yanbu Industrial City, 410 yellow brick, 567 Yerba Buena Gardens, 396; Zeum and Rooftop Complex, 396 Yeshivat Porat Joseph Rabbinical College, 375 Yugoslavia, 375–1466

Zabludovsky, Abraham, 528–30, 845 Zacherl House, 128 Zanuso, Marco, Olivetti Factory, 951–52 Zenetos, Takis, 550 Zeppelin Field, 444 Zevi, Bruno, 623, 874, 128–1468 Zimbabwe, 385 Zlin Architecture construction system, 341 Zola, Emile, 483 “Zoning Envelopes: First through Fourth Stages,” 955 zoning ordinances, 957–58; affecting Seagram Building, 444; Amsterdam, 47; apartment building, 56; Caracas, 217; by Duany and Plater-Zyberk, 369; effect on Lever House, 759; effect on New Urbanism in the United States, 924; Europe, 133; Hong Kong, 641; Hugh Ferriss’ four stages, 456; Israel, 695; lack of, in Houston, Texas, 658; New York City, 115, 253, 403. See also ordinances Zonnestraal Sanatorium, 444–1470 Zumthor, Peter, 658 Zurich Tower, 993 Downloaded by [Central Uni Library Bucharest] at 03:22 26 September 2013