Technical Paper 1 1

F TH E I N TE R I O R

B U R E A U O F M I N E S

J P . H L M ES DI R E C T O R OSE H A O .

THE USE OF MICE AND BIRDS FOR

DETEC TI N G C A R B O N M O N O XI

AFTER MINE FIRES AND EXPLOSIONS

GEO R GE A . B U R R EL L

J UN 2 O

W AS H IN GT ON GOV E R NM ENT P R I NTING O F F IC E 1 91 4 C O N TEN TS .

I n t ro ducti on O ccu r ren ce o f c a rbon mon o xide P r o perti es of c a rb o n m on oxide Phy si o l ogica l effect o f ca rbon mon o xide Ch emica l t est s for c a rb on mon oxide Th e u se o f m ice a n d bi r ds n m Experim e ts with ice" Experi men ts W ith bi rds Summ a ry R el a tiv e s u scepti bility of m en a n d bi rds n C o n clu s i o " Publica ti ons on mi n e a ccid en t s a n d test s explo s iv es

hir d iti o u l 1 T d e n , J y, 1 9 4 . r F irs t ed ition i ssu ed i n A p il, 1 9 1 2 . THEUSEOF MI CEANDBI RDS F OR DETECTI NG CARB ON

MONOXI DEAFTER MI NEFI RES ANDEXPLOSI ONS .

B U R R EL L . By GEO R GE A .

DU INTRO CT ION .

In connection with its investigation of the causes of mine fires and explosions the B ureau of M ines is making a careful study o f the methods that can be used with greatest efficiency for exploring mines containing smoke or suffocating o r poisonous gases . o f b e The presence that poisonous gas , car on monoxid "white a fi i d mp ), in the a fterdamp of explosions and res in m nes has caused f t f the death o a great many miners . An inspec ion o f th e reports o those explosions and mine fi res in which men have been killed shows that this gas is often the cause o f the maj ority of the fatalities . “ Haldane makes the statement tha t carbon - monoxide poisoning is e responsible for nearly all the fatalities . After a recent disast r at a mine in P ennsylvania in which 2 1 men were killed the bodies o f 1 7 men showed n o such marks of violence as would be produced by the concussion o f an explosion . Tests of blood from some o f these bodies clearly showed the bright pink hue caused by carbon m o n o x N o t l i e o f ide . on y have men present in m nes at the tim disasters m e t o u n for succu b d to this gas , but rescuers endeavoring save their t an ate comrades have perished also . O f the gases produced in mines , carbon monoxide is the most feared ’ f and the most diflicu lt t o detect . A miner s lamp gi ves warning o almost every dangerous condition of the atmosphere in a mine P except the presence of this gas . ercentages o f methane below those that form explosive mixtures can be detected by the appearance o f “ " o f fi o f t he cap the lamp flame , and a de ciency oxygen is shown by t he smothering o f the flame in time for a retreat t o be made before

. l o f o bodily harm can result A so , excessive proportions carb n dioxide cause panting . Carbon monoxide , however , may be present in deadly quantities in an a tmosphere without the sa fety lamp de

ectin a t o a t g it , because proportion much below that required give cap on a lamp flame is extremely poisonous .

F o st er C . L eN . a n d a a n e J . . T he n es a t o n o f min ai r 1 9 P 4 e . 05 . 1 4 , , H ld , S i v tig i . . 3 T T G R M N 4 DE EC IN CA BON O OXIDE .

a f u Other g ses occasionally found in mines in harm l quantity , such a hv dr o en s g sulphide , and oxide of nitrogen fumes can be detected

bv t m even in great dilution heir odor , so tha t fatalities fro the presence o f these gases i n mines are few . The author tested t he value o f a wick flame as a detector o f carbon w to monoxide in comparison ith its value as a detec r of methane . A W so t o f olfe sa fety lamp , constructed tha prepared mixtures air

a n d a t . carbon monoxide could be fed into it the base , was used The minimum percentage o f carbon monoxide "about 2 per cent)required t o produce a visible cap was found to be almost identical with the r required preportion of methane . Two obse vers could detect no difference in the color o r the heigh t o f the caps produced by this f N l h 3 percent a ge o either gas . either cou d t ey when per cent of either ga s was used . a e f In mine some obs rvers , especially a ter becoming accustomed to “ " s a the darkne s " getting eyesight , as it is termed ), may detect he e a 2 o f cap when t air contains l ss th n per cent methane , and it is possible to detect less than 2 per cent o f methane by the use o f ’ u special testing lamps . But the point brought o t by the author s experiments is that low percentages o f either methane o r carbon o n monoxide scarcely give caps that distinguish e gas from the other. ’ e M oreover , it has b en the author s experience that when a given per a o f a t o f a a cent ge c rbon monoxide is presen in the air coal mine , e o f as larger perc ntage methane is usually present , so that this g would interfere with the detection of carbon monoxide by a lamp even if carbon monoxide enough to give by itself a chara cteristic cap o f were present . It is also true that in the afterdamp mines carbon monoxide in quantity sufficient to produ ce a cap usually a ccompanies fi o f o f a de ciency oxygen and an excess nitrogen , so that the lamp is t o f extinguished before it can show a cap . One resul this last fact , a o f a o however, is that the indic tions lamp may s metimes prevent a man from going into an atmosphere containing carbon monoxide enough to be rapidly po isonous . The gases that come o u t o f the crevices in the coal bed immediately after shots o f explosives may contain much carbon monoxide and e c rev hydrogen , b sides methane , and when a lamp is held cl ose to the ices the carbon monoxide and hydrogen may cause the cap o f the lamp flame to differ somewhat from the cap produced by methane alone . In exploring mines , however , the great danger to a rescue party is from small preportions of carbon monoxide" proportions so f small that they have no visible ef ect upon the flame . The author is aware that some mining men are o f the opinion th a t a percentage of carbon monoxide below that which is immediately

o r dangerous perceptibly brightens lengthens the flame of a lamp , but he know s of n o characterist ic o f carbon m onoxide that would warrant such an opinion . A possible explanation o f the brightening E TE T G R D C IN CA BON MONOXIDE . 5

W . P au l i o n . f or le gthening , suggested by J min ng engineer this i n a i bureau , lies the fact that party exploring a m ne containing afterdamp sometim es enters a place in which the preportion o f oxygen the wa s in air is larger than it in the place previously explored , and as a consequence the wick flame burn s for a while with increased intensity . As the oxygen content of an atmosphere decreases , the il a 1 flame o f an o lamp burns more dimly until . t 7 o r per cent

u . of oxygen , the flame is exting ished

F A B X OCCU RRENCE O C R ON M ONO IDE .

Carbon monoxide has not been positively identified in the samples

. m of what may be ter ed normal mine air collected by this bureau , except in samples collected at the working faces where the air was r vitiated by powder smoke . S amples of mine air f om the ventilating n s current, from the mai returns , and from split have been examined , also samples from inclosed areas in which the air had been still "but although the apparatus used was accurate to per cent , the author can not state positively that carbon monoxide was present f t in any of the samples . A series o ests is now being conducted in which air from sealed bottles containing coal that was freshlv mined at the time o f bottling is being examined for minute quantities o f

. a combustible gases other than methane Although about 1 9. examin o f on e tions have been made samples taken week apart , the presence o f carbon monoxide has not been p ositively determined .

' It appears t h at c arbon monoxide is produced in mines in harmf ul quantity only through the agency of the heat and the incomplete o fi combustion of carb n that attend explosions , mine res , the use of

i et c . explos ves , The gas is produced by the imperfect combustion and o f by c dry distillation coal dust in explosions , the imperfe t com bu st ion o f r o a fi methane , by the bu ning of wo d and co l with insuf cient o f e supply of oxygen , and by the contact previously form d carbon

- o f a t o dioxide with red h ot carbon , as when the flame blas r a gas explosion is proj ec ted int o an atm osphere filled with the fin e coal s t dust . The last named cau e Operates oward the formation of car bon monoxide when those explosi es that contain w ithin themselves sufficient oxvgen for the complete oxidi "ation of their c ai bon aceou s components are used 1 1 1 breaking down coal . r The carbon monoxide fo med , with hydrogen and methane , collects a t in the Open spaces and crevices behind s anding shot , and the miner is ofte n burned by the flame that bursts forth when he carelessly puts his lamp close to a crevice or into an open space to examine the h effect of a blast . Besides t e danger that attends th e burn in g o f these crevice gases t i ou ble i s often experienced from the gases that result from the use of improperly handled explos ives 1 1 1 ill ventilate d A parts of a mine . series of exp eriments is being carried on by the R E 6 DETEC TIN G CA BON M ONOXID .

B ureau o f M ines t o determine t he gases that are produced by the

g o f firin of di fferent. explosives and the extent to which the use the

“ explosives vitiates t he. air o f the working places .

P R P R X D O E TIES O F CA RB ON MONO I E . Carbon monoxide is a colorless and inodorous gas with a specific ° 60 gravity o f A liter Of it weighs grams at 0 C . and 7 " s pre sure It will not support combustion , but burns with a pale or blue flame . The lambent flame above a grate in which anthracite m on o x coke is burning is due to the combust ion o f t his gas. Carbon e o f o f u ide is the main combustibl ingredient water gas , prod cer gas, o f c 1 5 40 and blast furnace gas , which ontain approximately to per e o f e c nt it , and is present, but in smaller pr portion , in illuminating gas made by the destr uctive distillation of coal . It has not been identified a s a. constituent Of the samples o f natural gas examined by B a s the ureau Of M ines , a fact that ccount for natural gas being less o o r i poisonous than water gas , pr ducer gas, ord nary illuminating gas . s r Carbon monoxide in mixture with air, according to dete minations o f o f n o f ex losi by chemists the Bureau M ines , has a wide ra ge p bilit 72 e y, from per cent gas , lower limit , to per c nt gas , higher li i mit . M ethane has explosive l mits that lie between about per

1 3 . cent gas , lower limit , and per cent gas , higher limit The lower limits cite d have reference to complete combustion and t o the igni

o f e . of tion the gas by an lectric spark Other modes ignition , e o f i f changes in temperature , the sha p the conta ning vessel , dif er

n c u e ce o r ma e es in press re , and the pres n of more less water vapor y f a change the range of explos ibility somewhat . The addition o a l rge quantity o f carbon monoxide to explosive mixtures of methane and air would have the tendency to widen the upper limit o f explosibility over that of metha ne alone .

P S L G A L F F O F A B M X D H " IO O IC E ECT C R ON ONO I E . The oxygen absorbed from the air in the lungs is n ormally taken up by the bloo d in the form of a loose chemical combin a tion with the a o f red coloring matter "h emoglobin ) the corpuscles , and in this form a it is carried to the tissues where it is used . H emoglobin n ot only combines with oxygen but also fo rms a far more stable comp ound with carbon monoxide a n d when saturated with the latter it can not

o . a take up xygen Hence , when the corpuscles in the blood of living animal are s a turated with carbon monoxide they can not carry oxygen un t o a n d from the l gs the tissues . death must result . According to n o f h Haldane ,c carbon monoxide has other ef ect than t at resulting

a a C a ren e a n d o we . P . Th e S e e t o n o f ex o s es s e in en ineer n an H ll , l c , H ll , S , l c i pl iv u d g i g d m n in o e ra o n s " 8 s B . 4 B u rea f n 1 1 0 1 4 o M e . 0 3 . P . 1 2 0 . i g p ti ull , u i p , , " R a I ’ r y e . o c . R o a S o c . L o n o n . V o l . 6 2 1 89 7 . 2 04 . l igh y l d , , p c r J o . P s o o . V o l. 1 8 1 805 . 2 0 0 4 3 0 4 6 3 . u hy i l gy , , pp , , E E G R B D T CTIN CA ON MONOXIDE . 7

o f a from its interference with the oxygen supply the tissues , and ap rt from its property o f combining with h aemoglobin it is physiologically indifferent , like nitrogen . The affin ity o f c arbon monoxide for h aemoglobin is about 2 50 “ fi times as gr eat as the af nity o f the latter fo r oxygen . However if oxygen is administe red t o a person not t oo far overcome it will completely repla ce the carbon monoxide in the h aemoglobin . In this respect pure oxygen acts about fi ve times as rapidly as normal F 2 1 o f . air , which contains approximately per cent oxygen rom air containing very small percentages Of carbon monoxide , less than ce o f n ot per nt , the blood a man does take up enough of the gas to cause distress unless the man breathes such air a long time . If the r air contains larger proportions , the blood sooner o later reaches that stage Of pa rtial saturation with carbon monoxide t hat produces help b lessness . Haldane makes the following observation "

Th f n m a n a t e bl oo d o a ma n will t a ke up about t wo pin t s of C O o r oxyge . A res rea es a o 1 0 or 1 2 n s of a ir er m n e an d e er men s o s t b th b ut pi t p i ut , xp i t h w th a t o f t h e c a rb on m on o xide i n ha l ed a b o ut 60 per cen t is a b so rb ed by t h e bl oo d . If a ma n wo uld b rea the a ir c on t a i n in g per cen t of ca rb on m on oxid e h e o o n n o en a e h im n ea r o r s w uld ab s rb pi t per mi ute. It w uld th t k ly h u t o a sor a o e n or ro e on e- a sa ra on of th e oo a t b b wh l pi t p duc h lf tu ti bl d , which s ta ge th e li mb s wo uld b ecom e so w ea k a s t o ca u se th em t o give way when a n

ef o r wa s ma e o a . ma n wh o i s a n . o e er rea es a o f t d t w lk A w lki g h w v , b th b ut ree mes a s m a ir a s m an wh o i s a t res en e h e m a so r a n th ti uch a t , h c ight b b pi t a r er n of r on m on o e t h e m o be on e e a , e withi n n ho u . With p c t c b xid ti w uld

- a a s on er en o n e r a s on et c . h lf l g , with p c t , thi d l g ,

If a m an who has breathed mine air containing c arbo n monoxide t s and has retired o fresh air to recuperate . again enters working con taining this gas before the carb on monoxide has entirely been dis f s t iI n e placed from his blood , he feels the effects o the gas in le s than when he entered the workings be fore . The experience Of those who have been partly poisoned by carbon monoxide seems to teach that usually much pain or distress does not fi o precede collapse . One of the rst symptoms is weakness f the limbs

o f . F o r c and dimness eyesight some time after resus itation , however, o r " there may be severe headache , even epileptic sei ures and other serious ailments . i P oisoning by carbon monox de can take place very suddenly .

a n . F or instance , a man in mi e may quickly pass from a place contain ing such a sm all quantity o f th e gas tha t he has experienced no dis a o f tress into a place containing a l rger quantity where , because the already partially saturated condition of the blood , he will quickly Al so o f su c cumb . , the action the poison may be accelerated by

o r f in creased exertion , such as climbing a steep incline ladder , o r li t ing heavy weights .

c a a n e J . S . C a s es o f ea in o er ex o s o n s a n d n er ro n fi res R e or H ld , , u d th c lli y pl i u d g u d . p t r r f a e f r h e ome De a r m en 1 8 0 t o t h e S ec eta y o St t o t H p t t . 6 . " I em 1 7 d , p . . E TE T G R E 8 D C IN CA BO N MONOXID .

H L F A B M X D C EM ICA T ES TS O R C R ON ONO I E .

The author has by the aid o f a port able gas - analysis apparatus made tests o f the a ir in mines a fter explosions and fires and has thus ascertained on the Spot. the composition of the atmosphere in the n c f worki gs . Be ause o the time required to make such tests and the need o f the services o f a person with some knowledge Of gas - analysis o f the appa ratus , chemical tests atmosphere in a mine immediately a o t t n fter a disaster are n made as of en as they should be . A other reason for omitting them is th a t quick chemical tests for sm all quantities Of carbo n monoxide are not made as successfully as are i ca s e chem l test for methan , carbon dioxide , and oxygen . P t h e erhaps best chemical test for carbon monoxide , in that other e gases do not int rfere and very simple apparatus is required , is by

h - t e o f ff . use blood diluted with water to a bu yellow tint This test , in ’ the author s experience , is capable of distinctly showing as little as

per cent Of carbon monoxide in the atmosphere . The method Of procedure is as follows One o r two drops of blood drawn from the finger are diluted with 1 0 w ater until equal portions o f the solution placed in 0 c . 0 . test tubes

- have a buff yellow color . One Of the tubes is t aken into the mine , 50 and a t the place where the air is to be tested about c . c . of the blood i e a r . solution is pour d out , the mine taking its place The tube is

n 1 0 . then corked , taken to the surface , and gently shake for minutes If the air contained carbon monoxide the pink color caused by the presence of carbon monoxide h aemoglobin is detected by comparing t h h u e solution wit the normal blood sol tion in the other t ube . o f A fresh active solution cuprous chloride may be used instead o f blood for examining air for carbon monoxide . According to the ’ f a author s experience , the use o such solution , i f the apparatus is precise and is properly manipulated , will show proportions o f carbon monoxide ha rmful to a rescue part y .

S E F M THE U O ICE A ND B I RDS .

P ER I N I E N TS W I T B I I E E X H C . In the author ’s opinion the use Of birds and mice is superior to l chemical tests for carbon monoxide in that the test is quick y made , fi requires no technical experience , and is suf ciently exact . Two o r three mi ce o r small birds can be placed in a cage and car ried into the mine with an exploring party . Because the rate at which chemical changes occur in them is enormously greater than it

i i o f . s n a man , they show symptoms poisoning far sooner Haldane stat es that a mouse weighing o n e - half an ounce consumes about 1 5 t imes as much oxygen as o n e- half oun c e o f the human body would

C o er G a r ia n v o l . 9 8 Dec . 1 7 1 909 . 1 2 5 1 . lli y u d , , , , p DE TE T G R I E C IN CA BON MONOX D . 9

consume in the same time . With per cent O f carbon monoxide in

e the air , Haldane found that about two hours elapsed b fore giddiness ,

. ea s etc , began to app r in a man at re t , and , according to an analysis for Of the blood , exposure another half hour would have sufficed to r produce p actical disablement . A mouse became giddy in 1 0 minutes . W o f ith per cent Of carbon monoxide in the air , all the animals tried became helpless in two minutes and rapidly became comatose o r died , whereas a person breathing the mixture was entirely u n a f ’ fect e 1 d even a fter 0 minutes . An examination of this person s blood

o n e - showed that it was fourth saturated . In experiments at the l aboratory Of the P ittsburgh station o f the Bureau o f M ines white mice were placed in air containing the follow in o f o " g percentages carb n monoxide per cent , per cent , e e per c nt , per cent , per c nt , and per cent . The mice were o f 1 0 placed under a tight glass bell j a r having a capacity liters , into which carbon monoxide had previously been introduced . The atmos phere inside the j ar was thoroughly mixed and sampled twice during

e difi er en the experiment , the samples being tak n from t points in order to make sure that the content of carbon monoxid e was uni

" o f formly distributed . The samples were analy ed by combustion the carbon monoxide in an apparatus with which duplicate analyses agreeing within per cent could be performed . An analysis o f the air in the j ar at the end Of one hour showed that 1 the oxygen content had been depleted per cent , due to the breathing n o i Of the mouse o r t enough to affect the a ir . In air conta ning per cent of carbon monoxide , a mouse showed signs of sluggishness in m ni about six inutes , but this sluggishness , j udged by outward ma fest ation s n ot , did increase to any great extent up to the time the ’ i O f mouse was taken from the j ar two hours later . The an mal s rate breathing had dropped from a normal of- 1 60 respirations to about 1 20 e o f respirations per minute . The mous did not evince such signs a distress as would serve , if the mouse were c rried into an atmosphere ’ o n e u i containing carbon monoxide , t o indicate in ho r s t me the pres

o f ence of per cent the gas . In a ir containing per cent of carbon monoxide a mouse suffered partial coll apse in 1 5 minutes and showed decided symptoms O f dis O f tress in eight minutes . At the end an hour it had not lost all muscular power . It died in two hours . In air containing per cent o f carbon monoxide a mouse suffered partial collapse in s even and one - half minutes and showed decided symptoms in about four minutes "but 3 5 min utes had elapsed before it lost all muscular power and ability to turn over when placed on its e back . After removal from the bell j ar , the mouse was se mingly in normal condition again in about two hours . In air containing per cent of carbon monoxide a mouse gave decided signs o f distress in two minutes " staggered around and E TE T G R M o N oxI DE 1 0 D C IN CA BON . showed partial collapse in four minutes "and in six minutes had lost a ll muscular power . In a ir conta ining per cent of carbon monoxide a mouse showed o f decided symptoms distress in one minute , partly collapsed in two n s c in 1 6 mi utes , lost all mu ular power seven minutes , and died in minutes . In air containing per cent o f ca rbon monoxide a mouse showed

. o f e o n e distinct signs distr ss in minute . It lost all muscular power

fi ve o n e- 29 in and half minutes and died in 1 5 minutes . The experiments showed that in air containing the smaller per centages o f ca rbon monoxide the mice displayed varying degrees o f t activity up to the time they exhibited pronounced dis ress . Of th e course , the value of tests in exploring mines depends upon the warning that the mice gi ve while they are being affected by the car bon monoxide , and it is especially desirable that their actions should indicate the presence Of extremely sm all proportions Of carbon mo n oxide e , so tha t men will have ampl time to retire from an atmos

her e I p that contains such proportions Of the gas . n the experiments o f it was found that in small quantities gas and under like conditions , o n e mouse might clearly exhibit signs of distress whereas another e so might b come comatose without sh owing distress distinctly . Con the be sequently , in using test , the mouse should closely watched , and a ma n not wearing breathing apparatus should retire at on ce from

o f any part a mine where the atmosphere distresses a mouse . It is

. t i advisable to carry at leas three mice at a time nto a mine , and to t o o t prod them slightly if they remain quiet , in order o observe them in action . m A man when he exerts hi self by carrying heavy Obj ects , climbing

o r i e ladders , running consumes in a given t me mor oxygen and also more carbon monoxide than when he rests . Consequently , a man at work might feel sympto ms of ca rbon - monoxide poisoning that would n ot be c lea rlv shown by a mouse confined in a cage in the same a atmosphere . In a n tmosphere containing the small quantities Of ca rbon monoxide usually found in mines after explos ions and mine fi m ay ce res , a person be able t o go a long distan without experiencing much inconvenience . On the return trip , however , the symptoms may become so aggravated that considerable difficulty may be expe r ien ced in getting to t he base of operations or to the surface .

M N \VI T R D E " P ER I E TS H B I S .

e t he Because mice may be slow in responding to the presenc , in mine air Of such small percentages of carbo n mon oxide as would cause distress to a man at work , experiments similar to those per fi formed with mice were tried with birds . Canaries were con ned in a bell j ar in atmos pheres containing the following percentages o f car E TE T R E 1 D C IN G CA BON MONOXID . 1

" bon monoxide per cent , per cent , per cent , per cent , and per cent . After an exposure O f o n e hour t o an atmosphere containing o f e n o t f t o an per cent carbon monoxid , a bird was af ected such ex r e tent that it would , if car i d into a mine , indicate by its actions the h p resence of t at proportion o f carbon monoxide . Only by close Observation could o n e detect that the bird at the end of an hour felt slightly distressed . W ith per cent of carbon monoxide in the atmosph ere of the f bell j ar , a bird did not show clearly symptoms Of being af ected . In about 1 5 m inutes it had lost its liveliness and t henceforth rem ained comparatively quiet . The bird did not fall from the perch , but close Observation showed that it was decidedly weaker at the end Of the hour than was the bird placed in air containing per cent of carbon monoxide .

a o f In air cont ining per cent carbon monoxide , a bird evinced

s . symptoms of slight distre s in three minutes It gasped , gradually 1 8 became weaker , swayed , and at the end of minutes fluttered from the perch . At the end Of an hour it had not lost all muscular power , a but showed symptoms of extreme we kness . In air containing per cent of carbon monoxide a bird showed pronounced signs o f distress in o n e and o n e- half minutes "it became

e fiv e very unsteady in three minut s , and fell from the perch in min utes . A fter it was taken from the j ar it regained its feet in two o fi ve minutes and appeared to be in normal c ndition in minutes . a In air containing per cent of carbon monoxide , bird fell from

- h en the perch in two and one half minutes . TV placed in fresh air aga in it had almost revived in fi v e minutes .

llrI DI R S U A " . The following table shows the relative susceptibilities of mice and c a naries to carbon m onoxide poisoning "

E o on mi a n an a ri s ff ec t f C O ce d c e .

r . M ice . C an a ies

e . Efi ect . Eff ct

'

V ery sligh t dist ress at en d of h our V ery sligh t distress a t en d o f h our. Distress in 8 m in u te s "p artia l collap se in 1 2 W eaker a t en d of ho ur than a fter exp o

r er en . 1 5 m in utes . su e t o p c t Distress in 4 min utes "collapse in 7% m in 1 5 Dist ress in 3 min utes "fell from p erch in utes "lost mus cu lar p ower in 35 min 1 8 m in utes . ut es . D s r in 2 m n t in 4 2 D s re in l m n u t es e rom er in i t ess i u es "collap se min . 0 i t ss i i "f ll f p ch

m in . utes . 5 utes

D r 29 F ell rom er in 2 mm utes . ist ess in 1 min ute"collapse in 2 m in . f p ch 5 utes "muscu lar p ower lost in 7 min utes " death in 1 6 min utes . Distress in 1 mi nute "muscular p ower lost in 6gmin u tes "d eath in 1 2i m inutes . E TE T G R N E 1 2 D C IN CA BO MONOXID .

These t ests show that canaries may be better than mice as indica s O f s e o f tor of the presence noxious gase in the a tmospher mines , since they more quickly show signs of distress in the presence Of small o f quantities of carbon monoxide . In addition the symptoms poi soning in birds a re much more clearly defined . A bird sways notice o u fall ably its perch before falling, and its is a better indication Of e danger than is the squatting, extend d posture that some mice assume i without much struggling, attempts to walk , or other prelim nary symptom O f poisoning . Consequently birds not only give more timely warning o f the presence o f small quantities of carbon m on ox

. s ide , but exhibit symptoms that are more ea ily noticed by exploring parties .

L A V S U S P B L " O F M E N A N D RE TI E CE TI I IT B I RDS .

In order to determine for him self the relative susceptibility o f O f men and birds to the action carbon monoxide, the author per formed the following experiment

- a O f 80 A gas tight chamber , having capacity cubic feet , was con fi structed . Into this chamber suf cient carbon monoxide was intro du c ed t o produce an atmosphere contain ing per cent Of the lat ter . The author entered this atmosphere , taking with him canary i o n e bir ds and pigeons . The canary birds ev nced distress in minute and fell from their perches in three minutes . The pigeons only f 1 1 showed slight signs o distress in minutes . The author remained e 2 0 in the atmosph re for minutes , and at the end of that time only

f . n suf ered a slight headache, although later he became ill The ill ess lasted several hours and was accompanied by nausea and headache . The experiment shows that small birds are much more susceptible the e to action of carbon monoxid than are men , and demonstrates

o f h the desirability using small birds , suc as canaries , rather than larger ones , such as pigeons . I n s company with other persons , the author has also witne sed practical demonstrations O f the u sefulness of canary birds in explo r ing mines after explosions ha d occurred therein . The following analysis sh ows the composition o f the air about 200 feet beyond the a point at which a canary bird collapse d . The bird was c rried by ’ a n exploring party with out breathing apparatus . A miner s lamp r would bu n in this atmosphere , which is typical Of those that have o f caused deaths in rescue parties , and would give no warning the presence of the deadly white damp . D T T G R B O M X D E EC IN CA N ONO I E . 1 3

a min e a t m os h ere r en der ed da n ero us hi t a m p g by w e d p .

a mo s ere. n a s s f eren s t a t e t ph A l y i dif tl y d . 1 4 . 0 O xygen 1 2 N 8 . 5 Ai it ro gen 60 C a rb on di oxid e

1 . N it rO geu B l ack da mp 20 {C a rb on di o xide 1 2 M n 7 8 . eth a e White "l a m p

1 00 ‘ 00 Hyd ro gen

1 00 . 00

A sample of the atmosphere was not obtained at t he exact place f where the bird collapsed , but was taken at the face o a heading 2 00 feet beyond and cl ose to what was supposed to have been the seat

’ o f x l the explosion . The e p o rin g p a r ty was cau tiously advancing along t he heading when the bird collapsed " the members o f the e party immediately retreated without thems lves feeling any distress .

‘ The bird quickly revived when placed in better air . About one ho ur later a helmete d party adva nced to the face o f the heading and collected the sample of air mentioned . The sample was obtained 1 8 hours after the explosion and before ventilation had been resto red in this part of the heading . The carbon monoxide content o f the at a air the place where the bird coll psed is problematical , but cer ai l t t n y was less han per cent , because the air was purer at places

i n n the . a s the headi g farther back from face As rough gue s , the t be c a t o ca rbo n monoxide con ent may pla ed r per cent . The following analysis shows the composition o f the atmosphere in an entry that had been more o r less traversed by exploring parties for several hours prior t o the taking of the sample "

it ion o a t m os h ere i n a n en t r t ra vers ed b ex lo rin a r t i s Com p os f p y y p g p e .

1 0 . 3

" 0 . 51 04

1 00. 00

One member complained o f not feeling well a t the time the sample had was collected , but in prior exploration work he probably breathed fo r several hours air contain ing small proportions of carbon mon oxide . Hence , his symptoms were to be attributed to the cumulative effect o f the air previously breathed rather t han to the imm ediate action o f the small proportion o f carbo n monoxide shown in the sample . ETE T G R B M X 1 4 D C IN CA ON ONO IDE .

Another feature o f the use o f birds in exploring mines rem ains A to be considered . mine atmosphere may be so deficient in oxygen as to extinguish a lamp flame and yet may not contain so little y o r ox gen , so much carbon monoxide , as to cause distress to birds .

I n exploring a. mine a fter an explosion a party including members B of the ureau of M ines encountered an atmosphere that , as shown by a y nal sis of a sample , contained the following gases

o m o s it i n " a c mn C p o of m ft r il p .

C H .

1 00. 00

The party was n ot equipped with breathing apparatus but carried

Wh i - t sa fetv lamps and birds . en t entered his atmosphere the lamps were extinguished "an o il lamp goes out in air containing less than

' 1 7 y per cent ox gen ), but neither the men nor the birds showed signs o f distress . e fi In regard to th oxygen de ciency required to cause distress in men , Haldane says "

When th e oxygen p ercen t age of a ir is gra du ally reduced by a b sor pti on o f t h e o en o r a is e a th e sa m n a on of n ro en er e xyg . "wh t x ctly e thi g ) by dditi it g , v y littl m a y be felt b efo re t h e o ccu rren ce o f im pa i rm en t of th e sen ses a nd lo ss of f e n a n m m a r o er o er th e m s. I r o is ra a d th e s o s be e p w v li b ducti g du l , y pt c fully

a e be n o e a t a t o 1 2 er en of o en . . a w tch d , it will tic d th ab ut p c t xyg , i e with

r e on o f 9 er en th e res ra on s ome s er e ee er . ducti p c t , pi ti bec "u t p c ptibly d p At 1 0 er en t th e res ra on s a re s n ee er a n d m o re re en a n d t h e p c pi ti di ti ctly d p f "u t , e s 8 er en th e a e e n s t o a ssu m a lea en lip s b c ome slightly blui h . A t p c t f c b gi e d

o or o t h e s ress i s s n ot rea . i 5 o r 6 er en ere is c l , th ugh di t till g t W th p c t th m a r e a n n and s i s a om a n e o n of th e sen ses a n d oss k d p ti g, thi cc p i d by cl udi g l

o f o er o er th e m s o ro a en d so on er o r a e in ea . p w v li b , which w uld p b bly l t r d th I t i s p rob a bl e th a t a n y sudd en exerti on m a de in air m a rkedly d efici en t in o en ma ea t o em o ra r oss of on sc o sn ess so a s en ef or s xyg y l d t p y l c i u , th t udd f t s o be a o e in all a ses e e ro a en or n ess a ma n h uld v id d c wh r , th ugh ccid t ec i ty, is in a n a mo s ere w n ot s o r a n d in s a os i on a h e t ph which ill upp t light , uch p it th t r i s n m en a ir n a n n might fa ll i n to w o rse a ir o r o th e w e i "u re hi self . Wh co t i i g ess a n 1 o r 2 er en of o en is rea e oss o f o n s o sn ess o t l th p c t xyg b th d , l c ci u , wi th u

a n s n a rn n s m o ms o rs n 4 0 o r 50 se on s . oss of y di ti ct w i g y pt , ccu withi c d L co n sci o u sn ess in a ir d ep ri ved o f oxygen i s more ra pid th a n in d ro wn i n g o r s ra n n s n e in t h e o rmer a se n ot on is t h e s o f res o en t gli g , i c f c ly upply f h xyg cut

o ff th e o en re o s in th e n s is a a s e ou t . o s s o f , but xyg p vi u ly lu g r pidly w h d L o n s o sn ess is s ee e o n s o n s a re o o e c ci u "uickly ucc d d by c vul i , which f ll w d by

es sa o n o f th e es r a o ns . Th e ea r s on n es t o ea in t h e a se o f c ti r pi ti h t till c ti u b t , c

a s a n d o s for rom t wo t o e m n es in m a n s er i o is ro a l c t d g , f ight i ut " thi p d p b b y

a r r n fi res a a n e J . S . Th e a us e o f ea s in o er ex os o n s a n d n e o . H ld , , c s d th c lli y pl i u d g u d ’

R e o r t o t h e e re a r of a e fo r t he o me De a r men 1 89 6 . 1 5 . p t S c t y St t H p t t , , p T T G R B O M o N oxI DE DE EC IN CA N . 1 5

o n er fo r seem s t o be t h e en era r e a t t h e a r er a n a ni m a i s th e l g , it g l ul th l g l '

o n er r es s a s a on . S o on a s th e ea r t is ea n o e er l g it will i t phyxi ti l g h b ti g, h w v ee a n m a on m a be res or a r a r s ra m a re r e e on . s e f bly , i ti y t d by tifici l pi ti Thi y "ui t o be on n e fo r a o n s era e er o a s th e a er ef e s of e r a on o f c ti u d c id bl p i d , ft f ct d p iv ti o en a re er ser o s a n d t h e res ra o r en er ma n ot re o er for som e xyg v y i u , pi t y c t y c v me t i . The above statement shows why the atmosphere previously men t io n ed o u t t he s n o t f put lamp , but did a fect the men , and seemingly

f a " had little ef ect upon the birds . Of course men not we ring breath ing apparatus should retrea t at once from an atmosphere that extin gu ish es an Oil - lamp flame and thus avoid the possibility of suddenly entering an atmosphere so deficient in oxygen t hat sa fe retreat would. F or be difficult . although birds would un doubtedly indicate in fi O f fic ca season a de ciency oxygen suf ient to use distress to men , if

m t " further advance were made , yet im ediate retrea from an atmos phere in which a lamp does not burn assures a larger margin of safety . O CO NCLU S I N .

In bringing these tests to the attentio n o f miners and mine Officials the author makes no claim to originality in the use o f birds o r mice for the purpose of detecting harmful quantities o f carbon monoxide

h Dr c m . in t e air o f a mine . . Haldane strongly re o mends their use u r In this country , however , small animals have been used for the p F or pose described in comparatively few cases . that reason and because the test is so simple and practical the author has added his h f Dr n o t o observations to t e work o . Haldane i rder urge the general

n a a n o o f adoption o f the test in this cou try . The f ct th t series tests Of the comparative merits o f birds and mice in atmospheres contain ing the entire range of small quantities o f carbon monoxide had been m a de is a sufficient reason- for the experiments described in the pre F ’ ceding pages . urther , the author s observations indicate tha t mice are hardly as sensitive to carbon monoxide poisoning as Dr . Hal ’ t dane s experiments would indicate , and that small birds are bet er indicators of poisono us atmospheres than are m ice . D C T G R B M O O XI D ETE IN CA ON N E .

P U B O O N M S M O O F M LICATI NS INE ACCIDENT AND ETH DS INING.

L imited editions o f the following B ureau o f M ines publications are R available for free distribution . equests for all public ations can not so be granted , applicants should select those publications that are o f c R espe ial interest . equests fo r publications should be addressed to

D B o f I Vashin to n D the irector , ureau M ines , g , . C .

B L 1 7 . r m er o n e o s es fo r o a m n es M n r U LETIN A p i xpl iv c l i . by C . E . u oe an d

a r n a 6 1 . 1 l e . 0 s . 1 2 fi s . e rin of U n e a es eo o a Cl e c H ll pp , p , g R p t it d St t G l gic l r B e n 4 2 Su v ey ull ti 3 .

B L E 20 . Th e e o s o f oa s e a ers U L TIN xpl ibility c l du t , by G . S . Ric , with ch pt by

J . . . ra "er e a r sen ra n a n " a s a d a r o . 2 04 . 1 4 ls . 2 8 C W F , Ax l L , F k H , C l Sch l pp , p ,

fi s . e r n o f U n e a es eo o a r 2 g R p i t it d St t G l gic l Su v ey B ulleti n 4 5 . B 4 a n a a a e for n n n ULLETIN 5 . S d v il bl filli g mi e wo rki gs in t h e No r thern A n h r i B s n f en n s n t a c t e o a a o a a . a r on . 1 9 1 3 . 33 . 8 ls . C l i P ylv i , by N H . D t pp , p )

5 figs .

B Th e e e o n f o e n n ULLETIN 4 8 . s l cti o expl siv s u sed in en gin ee r i n g a nd mi i g

o era on s b a ren e a a n d . . o e . 1 91 3 . 50 . 3 is. 7 fi s . p ti , y Cl c H ll S P H w ll p p , p , g B 52 n n f m n s s h men n a n n UL LETIN . Ig itio o i e ga e by t e fila t s o f i c desce t el ectr ic

a m s . . a r a n d . . s e . 1 91 3 . 31 . 6 ls . 2 fi s . l p , by H H Cl k L C Il l y pp , p , g M n n a n rea t men f e s a r n a o in h rn B ULLETIN 53 . i i g d t t o f ld p a d k li n t e so uthe

a a i a n r e on . . a s . 1 91 3 . 1 7 0 . 1 6 ls . 1 2 fi s. App l ch gi , by A S W tt p p , p , g

a n in m n e nn e in . . B r n on a n B 57 . a e n d e e d ULLETIN S f ty ffici cy i tu l g , by D W u t

J . . a s . 1 91 4 . 2 7 1 . 6 ls . 4 5 fi s . A D vi pp , p , g ra m n e n it s s in t h e enn s a n a a n ra e B ULLETIN 60 . Hyd ulic i filli g " u e P ylv i th cit

m n r a r n n 1 l . o a e s a re a re o r es " a . 1 9 3 . 7 7 . 3 s 1 2 fi s . c l fi ld " p li i y p t , by Ch l E i p p , p , g

B N 68 . e r s es for u se in a seo s m nes . . a r a n d ULLETI El ct ic witch g u i , by H H Cl k l 1 91 4 . s . ro er . 3 . 0 6 . R W . C ck pp , p

- m n n in h n a n re n n r e B 69 . oa e a e s t e U ed a es d o o s ULLETIN C l i ccid t it St t f i g c u t i ,

om e F . \V . or o n . 1 91 3 . 1 02 . 3 l s . 4 0 fi s. c pil d by H t pp , p , g 1 Th e s f m a n r s for e e n a r on mon TECHNICAL PAPER 1 . u e O ice d bi d d t cti g c b

2 . . m n r a n os o n s . B r re . 1 9 1 1 5 o e a er e es d e . xid ft i fi xpl i , by G A u ll pp

n m n res . A 1 3 . Ga s a n a s s a s a n a id in e . TECHNICAL P PER ly i fighti g i fi , by G A 2 B rr e a n d F . M . e er . 1 91 . 1 6 . 1 . u ll S ib t pp , fig n f n os o n s r o r a n d rec om 2 1 . re e o n o m e e e TECHNICAL PAPER The p v ti i xpl i , p t m en da t io n s V or Wa t t e n e a r M e ssn er a n d r r es o ro . 1 2 . , by ict y , C l i , A thu D b ugh pp

R ep r i n t O f U n ited Sta tes G eol ogica l Su r vey B ulleti n 369 .

r m o s for m n e m a s . . ar . A 2 2 . e a s TECHNICAL P PER El ct ic l y b l i p , by H H Cl k

1 fi s . 1 9 1 2 . 1 pp 8 g

M n e- a en re en on a t a e er or ro n m nes TECHNICAL P APER 30 . i ccid t p v ti L k Sup i i i ,

d r e. 1 9 1 3 . 8 . 9 fi s . . . oo 3 by D E W b idg pp , g

mm a e a ses in m n e a ir b G. . B rre a n d 39 . Th e n fl a TECHNICAL PAPER i bl g i , y A u ll

F M . e er . 1 9 1 3 . 24 . 2 fi s . . S ib t pp , g m n n n d rea men o f ea a n d " n o res in t h e TECHNICAL P A PER 4 1 . The i i g a t t t l d i c

1 4 3 . 5 fi s. . 1 9 3 . m n r r . r o n s r M o a r e a re o . g J pli di t ict , , p li i y p t , by C A W ight pp ,

P r m n e a m s . . a r . 1 91 3 . P A ER 4 7 . o r a e e e TECHNICAL P t bl l ct ic i l p , by H H Cl k

1 3 pp . o n f a m n e a er o n t h e n s a on O f e e r TECHNICAL PA PER 58 . Acti o cid i w t i ul ti l ct ic

n . s e . 1 91 3 . 2 6 . 1 . on o r s . . a r a d . c duct , by H H Cl k L C Il l y pp , fig