Transport ’s Northern Transportation Adaptation Initiative (NTAI) 2011-2021

Edited by: Emma Stockton Christopher Burn Jen Humphries

Special thanks to: Astrid Schetselaar Trevor Andersen Pat Jardine

FROZEN GROUND 1 VOLUME 43, 2019 To cite this report: Stockton, E.J., Burn, C.R., and Humphries, J. (eds.) 2021. Transport Canada’s Northern Transportation Adaptation Initiative (NTAI) 2011-2021., Ottawa, ON. DOI: 10.52381/NTAI.2021.

FROZEN GROUND 2 VOLUME 43, 2019 transport canada’s Northern Transportation Adaptation Initiative (NTAI) By chris burn (carleton university)

rom 2011 to 2021, Transport maintenance practices. The NTAI FCanada’s Northern Transporta- also recognised the need for ca- CONTENTS tion Adaptation Initiative (NTAI) pacity development in permafrost has helped northern agencies to engineering and northern applied NTAI (2011-2021) p. 4 prepare for challenges anticipated science. Relatively few personnel Territory p. 6 from climate change for transporta- qualified in these areas entered the tion infrastructure built in the per- workforce between 1980 and 2005 Northwest Territories p. 9 mafrost environment. The program and by 2010 only two Canadian CSA Group & BGC Engineering p. 12 has linked northerners with aca- universities retained research inter- Carleton University p. 13 demic researchers and consulting est in permafrost engineering. Part p. 14 engineers in southern Canada to of the NTAI’s mandate has been to conduct a series of projects aimed train research students in perma- Université de Montréal p. 15 at providing innovative understand- frost issues relevant to transporta- Université Laval p. 16 ing and approaches to specific tion infrastructure and to provide Yukon University p. 17 problems. The ethos of the program short courses for professional de- issued from experience with the velopment in this area. Capacity Building p. 18 Alaska Highway test section near When the NTAI was conceived, Conclusion p. 23 Beaver Creek, Yukon, and work by the primary risk to the transporta- Other Publications p. 23 the Québec Ministry of Transport tion network was considered to be on airstrips in Nunavik. Both initia- from thawing and loss of embank- tives were stimulated by infrastruc- ment integrity. The research con- ab initio due to construction of the ture failing due to permafrost thaw ducted through the program iden- Inuvik-Tuktoyaktuk Highway. and both were partnerships be- tified a range of other geohazards, Maxine Bilodeau is the Direc- tween transportation agencies and especially derived from a more tor of Climate Change Adaptation the university sector. active hydrologic regime and from & Planning for Transport Canada. By 2010, the federal govern- thermokarst development close to She says that “the NTAI has played ment was aware that risks would infrastructure. These are perhaps a unique role in Transport Canada’s be posed by climate change to the more pressing and require immedi- climate change agenda, influencing transportation network in the North ate risk management. The program the way the department designs and and knew that partnerships would and its northern partners have also implements programs, and helping be needed to stimulate innovation benefitted from opportunities to to inform funding decisions. North- for infrastructure construction and study infrastructure performance ern jurisdictions own much of the transportation infrastructure in Arc- tic regions, and their active involve- ment in this program has helped target permafrost research to areas of most pressing need, ensuring the program’s continued relevance. Overall, the NTAI is a great example of how research/industry/govern- ment collaboration can drive policy change and action to enhance the climate resilience of transportation systems in Canada’s permafrost re- gions.” The reports that follow out- line some of the initiatives under- taken by the program. The projects have characteristically integrated The Dempster Highway, northern Yukon (August 2016). permafrost science and engineering.

FROZEN GROUND 3 VOLUME 43, 2019 NTAI (2011-2021) By Chris burn (carleton university)

uring the last 10 years, perma- Dfrost has become a focus of international scientific attention. Amplification of climate change in the polar regions, regular transits of the Northwest Passage, aware- ness of climate risks posed by po- tential release of the 1600 billion tonnes of carbon stored in perma- frost, and increased tourism in the Arctic have all raised public and sci- entific awareness of the North. The number of publications catalogued by the Web of Science with perma- Fig. 1. Aufeis from subpermafrost groundwater discharge into Blackstone River, Yukon (2014). frost in the title has increased- ex ponentially from approximately 10 ment of Transportation Infrastruc- aspects of its northern airports. Fi- per year in 1980, to 25 in 1990, 50 ture in Permafrost Regions (2010). nally, by 2011 the Inuvik-Tuktoyak- in 2000, 200 in 2010, 400 in 2015, Second, the Canadian Standards As- tuk Highway (ITH), the first major and 700 in 2020. The vast majori- sociation released CSA PLUS 4011- new infrastructure project in the ty of this published research con- 10 Infrastructure in permafrost: A North for 40 years was being de- cerns environmental aspects of the guideline for climate change adap- signed. Most of these initiatives changing permafrost environment. tation (2010), now revised as PLUS were primarily concerned with man- Relatively little has addressed the 4011-19, and began a program of aging the disturbance to permafrost challenges posed by climate change standards development for north- terrain brought about by construc- for northern infrastructure. ern infrastructure construction. tion and operation of infrastructure, The NTAI is the first organized Third, the Beaver Creek test section rather than anticipating and prepar- national program in Canada to ad- at km 1865 of the Alaska Highway ing for the effects of climate change. dress northern transportation infra- had been initiated as a full-scale The NTAI’s focus on climate change structure stability in anticipation of experiment to examine the efficacy was distinctive and forward looking climate change. Several Canadian of several design approaches to ad- at the time. Now it is recognised as initiatives complemented the NTAI dress deteoriation of highway- em integral to long-term management at its inception. First, the Transpor- bankments above permafrost. of transportation infrastructure. tation Association of Canada (TAC) Fourth, the Government of Qué- During 2011-21, the NTAI con- sponsored development of Guide- bec had begun geoscience and engi- tributed to several important de- lines for Development and Manage- neering programs to address similar velopments in our understanding

Fig. 2. Left: new culvert installed at YT km 32, Dempster Highway in the North Klondike River Valley after failure of the infrastructure due to ice blockage in 2014. Photo taken in 2017. Right: failure of the culvert due to icing development two years later (2019).

FROZEN GROUND 4 VOLUME 43, 2019 continued from page 16 of climate change impacts on infra- structure and potential strategies to manage these effects. First, the role of groundwater has been re- assessed because increasing late summer and fall rainfall and longer freeze-up of northern streams has led to culvert blockage and failure due to icing, as, for example at YT km 32 of the Dempster Highway and at several points on the ITH (Figs 1, 2). The sinkhole at YT km 82 that devel- ops perennially is also formed due to groundwater movement below the road (Fig. 3). Groundwater-in- duced thawing of permafrost led to Fig. 3. A recurring sinkhole in the Dempster Highway embankment due to ground water flow at YT km 82 (2017). closure of the east end of the run- way at Inuvik in 2013 for six weeks are constrained by the quality of Finally, although the TAC guidelines of repairs. information and do not, of course, promoted winter construction of Second, snow management tech- cover unanticipated events, such as new infrastructure, as employed on niques have been effective in arrest- icing development beneath bridges the ITH, the extent and rate of sub- ing permafrost degradation either on the ITH (see p. 9). sidence of the embankment is un- using snow sheds or by reducing Fourth, geohazards due to per- predictable if built with frozen and, embankment slopes. These tech- mafrost thaw outside the Right-of- perhaps, ice-rich fill. Progress has niques require capital investment; Way, such as the retrogressive thaw been made in characterizing the ex- other maintenance approaches to slump at NT km 28.5 of the Demp- tent of embankment deformation snow management on slide slopes ster Highway are now recognised as and deformation progress over time continue to be evaluated. Third, presenting risk of highway failure. to enable better assessment of the integrated tools for planning and Fifth, catastrophic effects, such as quantities of materials initially- re risk assessment are now developed the landslides and washouts in 2016 quired by projects. which take advantage of GIS plat- that closed the Dempster Highway The importance of all these as- forms and data analytics. These for 2 weeks, while infrequent, are pects will increase in the next de- allow hazard and risk assessments to be anticipated in sloping terrain, cade as climate warming and in- on a km-by-km basis or even over not just due to increases in pre- creases in precipitation continue. shorter spreads in advance of con- cipitation but also forest fires that New considerations will arise as the struction using available data. They destabilize the active layer (Fig. 4). reality of the extent of anticipat- ed climate change is incorporated in planning of new infrastructure, such as the Mackenzie Highway, and presents further challenges to maintenance crew and highway au- thorities. Hazard warning strategies operating at various time scales will be required and initiation of preven- tative maintenance works must be considered. This will require a sig- nificant adjustment in management strategies that are now characteris- tically reactive because of the high costs of a transportation network that serves part of Canada with a relatively low population density. Fig. 4. Landslide that blocked the Dempster Highway at YT km 243 following heavy rain (2018).

FROZEN GROUND 5 VOLUME 43, 2019 yukon territory Assessment and monitoring of a new retrogressive thaw slump, km 1456 Alaska Highway By muhammad idrees (transportation engineering branch, government of yukon), fabrice calmels, louis- philippe roy, cyrielle laurent, Fanny Amyot (Yukon University), and panya lipovsky (yukon geological survey)

could be used to trigger an alarm system. This information can be used to determine the relations between various measured param- eters and the timing/rate of RTS Contact: [email protected] failure. Ultimately, similar programs may be used to monitor other RTSs retrogressive thaw slump (RTS), impacting transportation systems, Ainitiated by riverbank erosion and alert highway operators to an- was found close to the Alaska High- ticipated road failure. way at km 1456 in April 2019 (Figs Fig. 5. Headwall of the Takhini RTS, Alaska 5, 6). Permafrost is discontinuous Highway km 1456, July 2019. and ice-rich in places throughout the area. Satellite and aerial imag- ery show the RTS to have been ac- tive since 2014, with the headwall approaching the highway at an av- erage rate of 8 m/yr. A field program is in progress to assess development of the RTS and risk of highway failure. This includes drilling boreholes, now instrument- ed with ground temperature cables, humidity sensors, and inclinometer arrays to monitor ground conditions and RTS failure in real-time; moni- toring of ground surface movement with differential GPS; aerial surveys by UAV; two- and tri-dimension- al electrical resistivity tomogra- phy and electromagnetic surveys to map permafrost properties and groundwater movement. Aerial surveys show the head- wall to be approximately 80 m away from the road in May 2019 but with ablation of 12 m in summer 2019 and 14 m in summer 2020, the headwall is now 55 m from the road. Geophysical surveys suggest ice-rich permafrost under the road, indicating the risk posed by the RTS to the highway. Real-time borehole monitoring through an array of sensors has shown initial stages of failure that Fig. 6. Geospatial monitoring of Takhini RTS using drone imagery and benchmark surveys.

FROZEN GROUND 6 VOLUME 43, 2019 yukon territory Thermosyphon installation at Dry Creek, km 1840, Alaska Highway By muhammad idrees (transportation engineering branch, government of Yukon) and christopher stevens (srk consulting (canada), inc.)

Contact: [email protected] he north Alaska Highway be- Ttween Burwash Landing and the international border has been Fig. 8. Typical cross-section showing sloped thermosyphon extending beneath the existing laid on top of ice-rich ground. The highway embankment. road was rebuilt from 1992-2005 to correct differential settlement neath a surficial layer of gravel 1.5- of the massive ice. The thermal de- of the driving surface and restore 5.0 m thick. Ground temperatures sign by SRK Consulting (Canada), the service condition of a rural -ar collected at the site indicate warm Inc., specified the installation of terial highway with a design speed permafrost, with a mean annual 58 sloped thermosyphons spaced of 90 km/h. During reconstruction, temperature between 0 °C and -1 °C. 7 m apart along the highway em- massive ground ice was exposed in Data from the nearby Beaver Creek bankment to maintain a maximum a deposit of glaciofluvial gravel, ex- test section (km 1865) demon- temperature of -2 °C or less at the cavated for fill beside the road at strate that ground water flow may midpoint between the units (Figs 7, Dry Creek (km 1840). Although this enhance heat flux beneath an em- 8). The installation was completed was covered with graded gravel, sig- bankment, and given the surface of in 2020. To the best of our knowl- nificant subsidence adjacent to the gravel at Dry Creek, infiltration and edge this is the first use in Canada of road has continued and affected movement of ground water will like- sloped thermosyphons to prevent embankment stability. Drilling, elec- ly enhance the heat flux at the site. permafrost degradation beneath a trical resistivity tomography, and The risk of embankment failure public road. A long-term monitor- gravimetric surveys have identified following thawing of the massive ing program has been developed irregular bodies of massive ice over ice, perhaps suddenly, has prompt- for the site to confirm the thermal 9 m thick and ice-rich sediments at ed Yukon Highways and Public design criteria is met at representa- the site. Works to employ cooling with pas- tive locations and provide informa- The top of the massive ice is be- sive thermosyphons to arrest thaw tion to support similar thermosy- phon-based designs in the future. The Dry Creek project contributes to the evaluation of techniques for the adaptation of highway infrastruc- ture to climate change in thaw-sen- sitive permafrost settings.

For more information see: Calmels, F., et al. (2016). Vulner- ability of the north Alaska Highway to permafrost thaw: Design options and climate change adaptation. Northern Climate ExChange, Yukon Fig. 7. Thermosyphons at Dry Creek, km 1840, Research Centre, Yukon , Alaska Highway (Government of Yukon, 2020). 130. p.

FROZEN GROUND 7 VOLUME 43, 2019 yukon territory The cost of thawing permafrost, Alaska Highway, southwest Yukon, Canada By sarah dominie (transportation planning branch, government of Yukon) and chris burn (carleton university)

Table 1. Per-kilometre expenditure of the Alaska Highway in permafrost and non-perma- frost regions. Permafrost Non-Permafrost Factor Difference Overall $1.44M $963K 1.49 Reconstruction $1.01M $882K 1.25 Contact: [email protected] Rehabilitation $337K $81K 4.17 he immediate financial conse- Annual Rehabilitation $20K $3.9K 4.96 Tquences of thawing permafrost stem from the deterioration of in- the terrain in the westernmost 223 The reconstruction was 25% costli- frastructure that must be rehabili- km of the highway, divided into 13 er on permafrost, requiring about tated or reconstructed to maintain spreads with (191.4 km) or without $120,000/km (constant 2017 CAD) its service life. These expenses will (31.7 km) permafrost (Fig. 8). Per- more in this terrain. Subsequently, increase with continuing climate mafrost is not sustainable within or rehabilitation of the highway above change and its effects on perma- beneath the highway embankment degrading permafrost has been re- frost, but there is little empirical due to the increase in ground tem- quired every 6–7 years. The annual basis to guide projections of such peratures beneath the BST surfaces per km cost of maintaining these costs. Relevant financial data from of ~1.5 °C and to regional near-sur- segments is $20,000, almost five Yukon are exceptional, particular- face permafrost warming of about times higher than for spreads built ly with respect to costs incurred in 0.4 °C in 1980-2017. on seasonally frozen ground. reconstructing, rehabilitating, and The highway was reconstructed These data provide the first as- maintaining the territory’s high- between 1992 and 2002 in south- sessment of the increased cost of ways. west Yukon to straighten sections, maintaining infrastructure built on The Alaska Highway traverses level the embankment, and seal the permafrost as thawing proceeds “warm” discontinuous permafrost surface at a design standard appro- (Fig. 9). An alternative to such costly along its route in southern Yukon. priate for traffic driving at 90 km/h. rehabilitation is to lower the service Permafrost underlies about 86% of Using Government of Yukon standard of infrastructure operation records, highway reconstruction and increase risks presented to driv- costs ($/km) were determined for ers, passing some of the cost due the seven spreads with permafrost to thawing onto users of the infra- and six spreads without (Table 1). structure.

Fig. 9. Deterioration of the north Alaska Highway at the Mirror Creek crossing, km 1883.

Fig 8. Thirteen spreads of the westernmost section of the Alaska Highway.

FROZEN GROUND 8 VOLUME 43, 2019 northwest territories Aufeis on the Inuvik-Tuktoyaktuk Highway (ITH) By tim ensom (wilfrId laurier university), steven kokelj (northwest territories geological survey), and philip marsh (wilfrId laurier university)

Contact: [email protected] he distribution, growth mecha- Tnisms, and effects on infrastruc- ture of aufeis (icings) along a trans- portation corridor in a permafrost environment are being investigated along the Inuvik-Tuktoyaktuk High- way (ITH), NT. The ITH traverses sparse taiga forest and tundra over continuous permafrost and crosses hundreds of small streams, some of which have winter baseflow supplied by lakes. Under natural conditions the Fig. 10. Streambed temperatures under and upstream of an ITH bridge. Under the bridge accumulation of snow in stream the streambed refreezes during winter, likely due to an absence of snow. channels may provide adequate in- sulation to maintain winter water adjacent riparian terrain well above winter runoff in permafrost catch- movement above the streambed or peak flood levels, potentially result- ments, catchment terrain parame- through a sub-channel talik. ing in hazardous road ice conditions ters, and antecedent weather con- The disturbance or elimination or embankment scouring by spring ditions. This work is intended to aid of snow in channels by infrastruc- runoff if rerouted by thick ice. The the planning and management of ture can promote channel refreez- high water pressure that leads to linear infrastructure in continuous ing (Fig. 10) and bed-fast ice, often icing during the refreezing of the permafrost. initiating the icing process whereby active layer can also heave stream- pressurized water is forced to the banks, lift culverts or other -struc For more information see: surface and freezes in layers. tures, and lead to streambank in- Ensom, T., et al. (2019). Thermal Aufeis may occur at several ITH jection ice and subsequent summer Regime of Stream Channels in stream crossings (Fig. 11) where subsidence and bank erosion. Continuous Permafrost, Western topography, minimal vegetation, or Aufeis surveys and inventories Canadian Arctic. In Cold Regions highway structures limit snow accu- have been conducted along the ITH Engineering 2019, ASCE. DOI: mulation. Ice can fill channels and to investigate relations between 10.1061/9780784482599.030.

Fig. 11. Large body of aufeis beneath the km 8 bridge on the ITH. Viewed from downstream, February 2017.

FROZEN GROUND 9 VOLUME 43, 2019 northwest territories Surveying permafrost-thaw-induced landslides along linear infrastructure using RPAS By Jurjen van der sluijs (Government of the northwest territories), steven kokelj, and ashley rudy (northwest territories geological survey)

Fig. 12. Debris tongue from RTS at NT km 28.5, Dempster Highway.

Contact: [email protected] constructions of thawing slopes at ermafrost thaw has increased scales that bridge the gap between Prisks to northern transportation conventional remote-sensing and corridors creating a growing need field observations. RPAS surveys for innovative monitoring tools. were implemented in order to mon- The RTS was monitored through This project demonstrated that itor permafrost landslides, focussing repeat surveys and field observa- Remotely Piloted Aircraft Systems on a rapidly evolving retrogressive tions, enabling processes of dis- (RPAS), or drones, can enable timely thaw slump (RTS) at km 28.5 on the turbance enlargement to be stud- and detailed three-dimensional re- Dempster Highway, NT (Figs 12, 13). ied, and resulting in detection of a major thaw-driven landsliding event, where about 20,000 m3 of slumped materials flowed up to 450 m downslope, coming within 230 m of the highway. The acceleration of thaw slumping has created a spec- tacular exposure of icy permafrost 15-20 m in height, which has in- creased thaw season production of saturated slurry. Monthly monitoring in summer 2019 indicated successive debris flow events reaching within about 300 m of the highway, indicating a sustained period of summer risk. Coupled with remote cameras, RPAS surveys have become an important tool to monitor growth of the dis- turbance and to inform the devel- opment of a real-time monitoring system that has been implemented by the Department of Infrastructure to minimize risk to the highway and 67.18 N, 135.73 W ensure public safety.

For more information see: Van der Sluijs, J., et al. (2018). Per- mafrost Terrain Dynamics and In- frastructure Impacts Revealed by Fig. 13. Top: Images showing the growth and topographic difference in 2011 and 2019 of UAV Photogrammetry and Ther- the RTS at NT km 28.5, Dempster Highway. Bottom: Looking west at the RTS (right) and new mal Imaging. Remote Sensing, 10, slumps (left) in September 2020, with arrow indicating the highway. 1734. DOI: 10.3390/rs10111734.

FROZEN GROUND 10 VOLUME 43, 2019 northwest territories Implementing an applied permafrost research program: The Dempster - ITH research corridor By ashley rudy, steven kokelj (northwest territories geological survey), Tim Ensom (Wildrid Laurier University), Jurjen van der sluijs (Government of the northwest territories), Alice Wilson (Aurora Research Institute), and Charles Klengenberg (Inuvialuit Land Administration)

Fig. 15. Miles Dillon (ILA, Environmental Monitor) and Tim Ensom down- loading ground tempera- ture data near the ITH.

Contact: [email protected] construct and maintain the ITH. he GNWT, in collaboration with Together this represents a tremen- Tfederal and academic partners, dous opportunity to support an ap- implemented a state of the art plied permafrost research hub that ground temperature monitoring fosters collaboration, builds north- With support from the NTAI, ca- network along the Dempster-ITH ern capacity, advances permafrost pacity at the Northwest Territories corridor (Fig. 14). This complements monitoring and research initiatives, Geological Survey was enhanced, a legacy of geotechnical and map- and mobilizes this knowledge to in- with a Geotechnical Data Scien- ping products developed to design, form adaptation. tist engaged in compiling, -manag ing, and initiating geotechnical and ground temperature data analysis. Enhancing GNWT’s ability to sup- port several applied research part- nerships, this NTAI project has also spearheaded the development of the NWT Permafrost Database that holds permafrost geotechnical and ground temperature data collected by the GNWT, industry and academ- ic partners. Data will be publicly ac- cessible to contribute to informed decision-making, climate change adaptation, and risk management. Database development is complete, and the creation of a web portal has been initiated. This project has fostered engage- ment with Inuvialuit Environmental Monitors and training in permafrost data collection methods along the ITH (Fig. 15). Northern organiza- tions are now the primary genera- tors and users of permafrost infor- mation, and key partners in applied permafrost monitoring, research, and decision-making. The resourc- es and vision to build northern per- mafrost capacity is a fundamental component of programs that aim to Fig. 14. Ground temperature monitoring sites established since 2013 along or near the ITH. address applied permafrost issues.

FROZEN GROUND 11 VOLUME 43, 2019 csa group & BGC Engineering Inc. Towards a guideline for assessing climate change vulnerabilities of northern airports By lukas arenson (bgc engineering inc.)

Fig. 16. Distribution of Canadian airports lo- cated within a perma- frost zone.

Contact: [email protected] climate-driven forces and to conomic and lifestyle factors establish clear expectations for Ein the North rely on the long-term operation of facilities. transportation network, which Recognizing the critical nature of reduces the costs of living, supports airport infrastructure, this project inter-community mobility, and recommended that a specific and maintenance activities and promotes effective resource standard on climate change risk not be limited to the physical development. For most northern and vulnerability assessments infrastructure. This broader, holistic communities, air travel is the only for northern airports should be view will ensure that the current year-round option for the transport developed that includes guidance and future demands of airports are of goods and people. There are on: the methodology to be used for met, their resilience is assessed, and 156 airports within the permafrost the analysis; risk and vulnerability adequate adaptation measures are zones of Canada, of which 67 assessment terminology; climate presented. In the North, planning are located in Yukon, Northwest parameters and their projected is essential as significant effort may Territories, and (Fig. 16). changes; consideration of be required to implement particular NTAI’s mandate is to assist uncertainties from the projections measures. northern jurisdictions to prepare and operations (e.g., traffic transportation infrastructure for volumes, aircraft types); and how For more information see: the anticipated consequences to apply the results in a decision- CSA Group (2020). Towards a Guide- of climate change. Standards making process as well as in line for Assessing Climate Change development is part of such operations and maintenance. Vulnerabilities of Northern - Air preparation, to reduce variability Any climate change vulnerability ports. Prepared by Heather from project to project in the assessment should address the Brooks and Lukas Arenson (BGC resilience of infrastructure to full spectrum of airport operations Engineering Inc.).

Looking southeast at Inuvik Mike Zubko Airport, NT, over the paved runway. Looking west over the gravel airstrip at Airport, NU.

FROZEN GROUND 12 VOLUME 43, 2019 carleton university Monitoring permafrost temperatures beneath the Dempster Highway By CHRIS BURN (carleton university)

Fig. 18. NTAI monitor- ing station in the Rich- ardson Mountains, NT km 8.5, Dempster Highway.

Contact: [email protected] humidity, and wind speed and he NTAI has established four direction. Ground temperatures are Tsites along the Dempster measured to 10 m depth beneath Highway in Yukon and the the road surface and at target Northwest Territories to describe depths of 8 m at the embankment of mean air temperature for ground thermal regimes near and toe and in undisturbed ground. September 2014 to August 2018 at beneath the road and to monitor Data are collected every 4 hours Inuvik (103 m asl) and Dawson (370 their response to climate change. and transmitted via the GOES m asl) were -5.6 °C and -2.6 °C. The Dempster Highway is underlain system. Monitoring has continued by permafrost for about 90% of since site installation in winter For more information see: its route between the Klondike 2013-14. Stockton, E.J., et al. (2019). Monitoring Highway near Dawson, YT, and Permafrost is cold beneath Ground Temperatures in Perma- Inuvik, NT. It crosses treeline in the road and warm at the toe of frost Along the Dempster Highway, Ogilvie Mountains in the south and the embankment at all sites due Yukon and NWT. In Cold Regions Richardson Mountains near the to clearing and redistribution of Engineering 2019, ASCE. DOI: territorial border. snow (Table 2). An unexpected 10.1061/9780784482599.011. One site, at Yukon km 124 was observation concerns thin established in the southern tundra permafrost detected at km 124, zone, others further north in probably due to heat conveyed Table 2. Mean temperatures at 2 Richardson Mountains at YT km 421 by groundwater. The effect of the m above the surface (A), at the top of and NT km 8.5 (Figs 17, 18), and in Arctic inversion on air temperature permafrost beneath the driving surface (D), embankment toe (T), and in adjacent Peel Plateau at NT km 51.5. At each is evident at the northern sites. undisturbed ground (U), September 2014 site an automatic weather station Some key data are summarized to August 2018. records air temperature, relative below. For reference, the values YT km 124 (946 m asl) Fig. X. NTAI monitoring station at the foot of the Richardson Mountains, YT km 421, Demp- A D T U ster Highway. -6.2 -1.8 N/A -1.6

YT km 421 (634 m asl) A D T U -4.8 -1.8 -0.3 -1.9

NT km 8.5 (666 m asl) A D T U -5.2 -3.2 -0.4 -0.7

NT km 51.5 (460 m asl) A D T U -5.0 -4.0 -0.3 -0.3

FROZEN GROUND 13 VOLUME 43, 2019 University of manitoba Structural stability of highway embankments along the Inuvik-Tuktoyaktuk Highway (ITH) By MAROLO ALFARO (university of manitoba)

Fig. 20. Lateral move- Contact: [email protected] ments at the mid- his project is aimed at slope of the embank- ment. Open symbols Tunderstanding the thermal = reinforced section; and mechanical performance of Solid symbols = unrein- highway embankments in the Arctic forced section. following winter construction. Two test sections were constructed in thawing. The other test section satellite connection. April 2015 as part of the Inuvik- is unreinforced and serves as the Field data show warming of the Tuktoyaktuk Highway (ITH), NT. One control section. Both test sections embankment fill and foundation section is reinforced with layers were instrumented with thermistor soil. The frozen core of the of wicking woven geotextiles at strings for temperature monitoring embankment has reduced in size its side slopes (Fig. 19) to provide and ShapeAccelArrays to measure since end-of-construction. Thaw both reinforcement against lateral lateral movements and settlements. depths at the embankment toes movements and drainage during the The geotextile reinforcement have increased. thawing season. The use of wicking has been instrumented with Figure 20 shows recorded geotextiles to reinforce fill slopes strain gauges to measure tensile lateral movements in the mid- is a climate change adaptation forces. The instrumentation has slope of the embankment over measure to reduce the impact of been monitored remotely using a four years since construction. The lateral movements in the Fig. 19. Wicking geotextiles laid during construction of a reinforced section of the ITH. reinforced section (open symbols) are consistently less than the those of the unreinforced section (solid symbols). Seasonal thaw depths at the slopes have increased and led to additional lateral movements. Mobilization of tensile forces in the geotextile reinforcement reduced lateral slope movements.

For more information see: De Guzman, E.M., et al. (2021). Per- formance of Highway Embank- ments in the Arctic Constructed under Winter Conditions. Cana- dian Geotechnical Journal. DOI: 10.1139/cgj-2019-0121.

FROZEN GROUND 14 VOLUME 43, 2019 Université de Montréal Air-convection-reflective sheds to reduce permafrost warming, Alaska Highway, Yukon By Samuel gagnon and daniel fortier (université de montréal)

Contact: [email protected] he 600 m long Beaver Creek Texperimental test site was (°C) Temperature established in 2008 at km 1865 on the Alaska Highway in Yukon to assess the performance of different mitigation techniques in reducing permafrost warming and subsidence of the highway embankment. Fig. 22. Monthly air temperature (MET-1) and monthly soil surface temperatures under the southern ACRS (YG6-2) and the unmitigated reference section (YG12-2). The shaded area The site is in the discontinuous shows the period before the ACRS were installed. permafrost zone and had an annual mean air temperature of -4.5 °C for corrugated sheet metal, which lower than at the reference section the 1990-2019 period. reflected incoming solar radiation (Fig. 22). Calculation of seasonal The mitigation techniques and shaded the ground. The ACRS heat exchanges shows that the ACRS were designed to enhance heat prevented rainwater infiltration in allowed 311% more heat extraction extraction from the embankment or summer and snow accumulation in winter and 38% less heat influx reduce absorption of solar radiation directly on the embankment sides in summer over the test period. at the ground surface. One of the in winter. Ground temperatures to The design of the ARCS promoted test sections included two air- 15.5 m depth were recorded hourly free air convection at the ground convection-reflective sheds (ACRS) with instrumentation installed surface, which enhanced heat installed on each side of the road in before the ARCS were erected extraction from the embankment fall 2009 to cover the shoulders and under one of the sheds and in an in winter when windspeeds in the slopes of the embankment (Fig. 21). unmitigated reference section. area are very low (<5 km/h). Small- The ACRS were wooden structures, From 2009 to 2016, mean annual scale implementation of ACRS along 30 m long by 15 m wide by 1 m soil surface temperatures under the vulnerable sections of highways high, with a roof made of white two ACRS were on average 8 °C or airstrips represent a viable approach for arresting permafrost thaw beneath side slopes of embankments.

For more information see: Malenfant-Lepage, J., et al. (2012). Thermal effectiveness of the mitigation techniques tested at Beaver Creek experimental road site based on a heat balance analysis: Yukon, Canada. In Cold Regions Fig. 21. ACRS on the embankment slope of the Engineering 2012, ASCE. DOI: Beaver Creek test site, Alaska Highway, Yukon. 10.1061/9780784412473.005.

FROZEN GROUND 15 VOLUME 43, 2019 université laval Permafrost science for improvement and adaptation to climate change, Iqaluit International Airport, Nunavut By michel allard (université Laval) and valérie Mathon-Dufour (Ministère de l’Environnement et de la Lutte contre les changements climatiques, MELCC)

Contact: [email protected] qaluit airport is a hub for air transportation in the eastern I Fig. 24. Thermal contraction cracks mapped at (green). Active cracks in the Canadian Arctic. It was built during runway inherited from the original terrain conditions are shown in red (2010). World War II and since then has undergone repeated repairs and interpretation, archival research, before airport construction still upgrades (Fig. 23). Repairs to the geophysics, drilling and coring, impact the stability and thermal pavement during the last 70 years ground temperature monitoring, and regime of the infrastructure. Ice-rich have been caused by structural numerical modelling were integrated near-surface permafrost and many failures from differential frost heave in a GIS application. ice wedges will continue to generate and thermal contraction cracking. Mapping of surficial geology thaw settlement and loss of bearing Partial melting of ice wedges has and terrain conditions indicative capacity should climate warming also caused linear settlements in the of the presence of ground ice was continue. runway surface. combined with analysis of 24 deep Temperature profiles under As with most infrastructure in boreholes (~ 8 m) and 7 shallow asphalt pavement show warmer the Canadian Arctic, permafrost boreholes (~ 3 m) drilled in natural ground and faster, deeper, and longer conditions were not investigated terrain, embankment shoulders, thaw penetration than the shoulders before construction. They were and through paved surfaces. and natural terrain, causing pooling characterized in detail between Ground Penetrating Radar was of water under paved surfaces. The 2010-18 in preparation for major used to delimit cryostratigraphic newly acquired geoscientific data on renovations and upgrading in 2018- units and locate features under the the airport’s permafrost has oriented 19 because the risks associated embankments, particularly cracks risk analyses and engineering design with thawing permafrost are now and ice wedges (Fig. 24). implemented during the recent recognized. Data from air photo Terrain conditions prevailing improvements in order to make a Fig. 23. Looking northwest over Iqaluit Airport, Nunavut (2012). modern infrastructure that is better adapted to the impacts of climate warming.

For more information see: Mathon-Dufour, V., et al. (2015). Assessment of permafrost conditions in support of the rehabilitation and adaptation to climate change of the Iqaluit airport, Nunavut, Canada. Proceedings, 68th CGC and 7th CPC, Québec City, QC, Canadian Geotechnical Society, Richmond, BC. Paper 146.

FROZEN GROUND 16 VOLUME 43, 2019 yukon university Sinkholes related to permafrost thaw, Dempster Highway, Yukon By Fabrice Calmels, Louis-philippe roy, cyrielle laurent (yukon university), and sandra macdougall (transportation engineering branch, yukon government)

layer thickness and opened new pathways through the soil for ground water flowing downslope. The repetitive sinkholes, first observed in 2011, indicate fine Contact: [email protected] sediment in the roadbed is being removed by the flow. The loss of he Permafrost and Geoscience fine material creates a cavity that TResearch Group at Yukon later collapses to form the sinkhole. University leads studies along Increasing precipitation in the area Fig. 26. Sinkhole forming due to thermal the Dempster Highway during the last two decades has erosion at km 123, Dempster Highway. investigating permafrost-related likely contributed to the situation. geohazards affecting the road Ground temperature records show increasing frequency of sinkhole and its surroundings. Sinkholes infiltrated waters significantly affect development, possibly as an impact pose particular challenges for the ground thermal regime at this of climate change. Groundwater maintenance and safety as they site (Fig. 25). movement is a relatively new may form almost instantly and be Sinkholes result from various consideration for management of expensive to repair. A recurring mechanisms. While intra- or supra- infrastructure above permafrost. sinkhole forms at km 82 on a west- permafrost groundwater flow may facing hillslope at least annually induce some of them, in other cases For more information see: and even several times per summer icings impair drainage and channel Calmels, F., et al. (2018). Summary (see p. 17). A field study at the water from the surface to the top of climate- and geohazard-relat- site including drilling, electrical of ice wedge troughs. Thermal ed vulnerabilities for the Demp- resistivity tomography, and erosion of ice wedges beneath ster Highway corridor. Northern installation of ground temperature the road leads to tunnels under Climate ExChange, Yukon Re- monitoring instruments started in the embankment, as at km 93 and search Centre, Yukon College, 2016. 123 (Fig. 26). In some instances, 204 p. Results show snow accumulation the process begins in the field on the embankment shoulder before reaching the road (km 123). may have increased active Maintenance staff have noticed an

Fig. 25. Ground temperature record at km 82 over two years showing the impact of seasonal groundwater flow on thermal regime and flow in a conduit between 6 and 12 m depth for two months beginning in early June (see p. 17).

FROZEN GROUND 17 VOLUME 43, 2019 its to the north Alaska Highway and capacity building ITH. These courses have provided over a hundred people with a formal NTAI-supported students foundation in permafrost engineer- By Chris burn (carleton university) ing and the scientific knowledge on which it is based. Profession- n early priority of the NTAI was opment has therefore been an em- al participants at the courses have Atraining of highly qualified per- phasis of the program for both ad- attended from engineering consul- sonnel to become designers and vanced students and professionals tants and territorial transportation managers of infrastructure in the in the private sector. agencies. There have also been a permafrost regions of Canada. The NTAI encouraged student few participants from Alaska, Scan- Given that research programs in participation in projects and - work dinavia, and China. permafrost engineering were only shops. Thesis projects by several The success of these courses is active at Université Laval and the students were supported by the not simply reflected in their -over University of Manitoba in 2011, NTAI either directly or through a subscription, as at Inuvik in 2019 there were few students graduating territorial agency. Below, we pro- when enrollment doubled the an- who might have been able to assist file six students supported by the ticipated numbers, but also in that with the challenges anticipated for NTAI who have graduated and now they have formed the basis for the infrastructure from climate change. assume positions in government joint Canada-Norway project Land- Ironically, just at this time, interna- and industry directly related to scape & infrastructure dynamics of tional interest in permafrost science their training or who are engaged frozen environments undergoing expanded, driven by biogeochem- in further study. A preponderance climate change in Canada, Norway ical considerations around the cli- of women in the group reflects the and Svalbard (NOK 6.57M) funded matic risks from permafrost carbon, current Master student population by the Research Council of Norway. with little comparable interest in in- in permafrost science and engineer- The courses stress to participants frastructure. ing and reflects the steps that are the importance of understanding In China, interest and experience being made to develop a represen- the formation, occurrence, and developed regarding construction tative workforce in this area. properties of ground ice as a solid on the Qinghai Tibet Plateau, but For professionals and students in close to its melting point, because language barriers precluded close related fields, the NTAI sponsored it may be thawed following a small cooperation, as with Russian en- a series of short courses in White- change in the ground thermal re- gineers, regardless of motivation horse and Inuvik that involved both gime. This is key background for similar to the NTAI. Capacity devel- classroom instruction and field vis- successful engineering design.

Eva Stephani PhD Candidate, University of Alaska Fairbanks My current NTAI-funded PhD project at the University of Alaska Fairbanks aims to ad- vance our understanding of retrogressive thaw slump (RTS) self-stabilization to support the development of effective adaptation strategies for infrastructure at risk. I am eval- uating the climate, terrain, subsurface, and infrastructure conditions at various sites in the Northwest Territories and northern Alaska in order to assess the vulnerability and resilience of terrain to RTS, and interactions with infrastructure in sensitive permafrost. NTAI fulfilled and further motivated my desire to integrate permafrost science and engineering, and bridge gaps between industry, academia, and govern- ment. This perspective, supported by my experience at NTAI workshops, was highly valued by prospective PROJECT: Retrogressive thaw slump self-stabilization employers. NTAI has built strong foundations for the sustainable development of our permafrost regions. Stephani, E., et al. (2020). Taliks, cryopegs, and permafrost dynamics related to channel migration, Colville River Delta, Alaska. Permafrost and Periglacial Processes, 31, 239-254. DOI: 10.1002/ppp.2046. Stephani, E., et al. (2014). A geosystems approach to permafrost investigations for engineering applications, an example from a road stabilization experiment, Beaver Creek, Yukon, Canada. Cold Regions Science and Technology, 100, 20- 35. DOI: 10.1016/j.coldregions.2013.12.006.

FROZEN GROUND 18 VOLUME 43, 2019 Heather Brooks PhD, Université Laval My PhD project at Université Laval developed a methodology and tool for the quantitative analysis of risk to embankment infrastructure due to the presence of permafrost. The meth- odology used Monte Carlo statistical analysis techniques which formed the basis of an Excel macro for calculating the risk associated with linear infrastructure on permafrost. As an early-career researcher, I really enjoyed the collaboration with other researchers working other aspects of transportation in northern regions. The NTAI program gave PROJECT: Quantitative Risk As- sessment of Embankment Infra- me the opportunity to connect with researchers in my field and broaden my profession- structure on Permafrost al connections. I now work at BGC Engineering Inc. as a practicing geotechnical engi- GRADUATED: 2019 neer with some northern projects. A similar initiative would be useful to students in the NOW: Geotechnical Engineer, future for developing collaborations that would not have been thought of or addressed BGC Engineering Inc. if researchers were working independently. Brooks, H., et al. (2020). Soil Bridging Effects within Permafrost-Supported Embankment Infrastructure. Cold Re- gions Engineering, 35. DOI: 10.1061/(ASCE)CR.1943-5495.0000232. Brooks, H., et al. (2019). Quantifying Hazard and Climate Change Fragility for the Airport Access Road in Salluit, Nunavik, Quebec. In Cold Regions Engineering 2019, ASCE. DOI: 10.1061/9780784482599.060.

Brendan O’Neill PhD, Carleton University My PhD project at Carleton University investigated the ground thermal regime of con- tinuous permafrost on Peel Plateau, NT. Extensive road maintenance has been neces- sary due to ground ice thaw near the Dempster Highway embankment. The research examined permafrost conditions in disturbed and undisturbed terrain near the road.

NTAI supported my project and workshop Snow accumulation and shrub growth, attendance in Fairbanks, AK. Instruments Dempster Highway, Peel Plateau, March from my PhD are still in operation and used 2014. by Government of the Northwest Territo- ries and other students. A similar initiative would be useful for students because it PROJECT: The ground thermal regime of Peel Plateau, North- provides 1) support for infrastructure-re- west Territories, Canada lated research projects; 2) experience in GRADUATED: 2016 formulating research questions relevant to applied infrastructure issues; 3) excellent NOW: Permafrost Research Sci- entist, Geological Survey of Can- networking opportunities that lead to connections with potential future employ- ada (GSC) ment; and 4) potential for collaborations with researchers outside immediate circles. O’Neill, H.B., et al. (2015). ‘Warm’ Tundra: Atmospheric and Near‐Surface Ground Temperature Inversions Across an Al- pine Treeline in Continuous Permafrost, Western Arctic, Canada. Permafrost and Periglacial Processes, 26, 103-118. DOI: 10.1002/ppp.1838. O’Neill, H.B., et al. (2016). Talik Formation at a Snow Fence in Continuous Permafrost, Western Arctic Canada. Perma- frost and Periglacial Processes, 28, 558-565. DOI: 10.1002/ppp.1905.

Peel Plateau, Dempster Highway

FROZEN GROUND 19 VOLUME 43, 2019 Inuvik-Tuktoyaktuk Highway (ITH)

Earl Marvin de Guzman PhD, University of Manitoba My PhD project at the University of Manitoba looked at the structural stability of high- way embankments in the Arctic. The research focused on field monitoring of tempera- ture and displacements of geotextile reinforced and unreinforced embankments, labo- ratory testing of thawing fill material, and numerical modelling for near- and long-term climate change conditions with the aim of improving existing design guidelines for Arc- tic highway embankments. NTAI also supported my participation in workshops. The program allows students to communicate Installing sensors at the ITH test their research progress to an audience with spe- section, 2015. cial interest in permafrost, learn about on-going research and develop connections. NTAI allowed PROJECT: Structural stability of students to be part of, and learn from, the larg- highway embankments in the Arctic corridor er network of experts in Canada’s north. I now GRADUATED: 2020 work as a geotechnical engineer in Oakville, ON, NOW: Geotechnical Engineer, while writing conference papers and journal ar- Peter Kiewit Sons ULC ticles to share the culmination of my research. De Guzman, E.M., et al. (2018). Large-scale direct shear testing of compacted frozen soil under freezing and thawing conditions. Cold Regions Science and Technology, 151, 138-147. DOI: 10.1016/j.coldregions.2018.03.011. De Guzman, E.M., et al. (2021). Performance of Highway Embankments in the Arctic Corridor Constructed under Winter Conditions. Canadian Geotechnical Journal, 58. DOI: 10.1139/cgj-2019-0121.

Loriane Périer MSc, Université Laval My masters project at Université Laval looked at the effects of water temperature and water flow on the thermal regime around culverts built on permafrost. Two cul- verts were monitored on the Alaska Highway near Beaver Creek, YT, to provide data used to develop and validate mathematical and thermal models. I attended a permafrost engineering course in , taught by professors Chris Burn and Guy Doré, which allowed me to learn about the challenges of build- ing transportation infrastructure on permafrost. NTAI supported my attendance to the Permafrost Network of Expertise workshops as a speaker (Fairbanks, 2013) and participant (Nunavik, 2015). Even though I decided to pursue my career in consulting PROJECT: Study of the influence of water flow and temperature engineering, research has allowed me to develop technical aspects such as reflection on the thermal regime around and writing that are valuable to my work. I now work as a civil engineer in the trans- culverts built on permafrost portation department at Stantec, Québec City. Most of all, I am proud to use the GRADUATED: 2015 NOW: Transport Engineer, Stan- skills I have acquired for the analysis of permafrost in other complex and challenging tec environments. Périer, L., et al. (2014). The effect of water flow and temperature on thermal regime around a culvert built on perma- frost. Science in Cold and Arid Regions, 6. DOI: 10.3724/SP.J.1226.2014.00415. Périer, L., et al. (2015). Influence of water temperature and flow on thermal regime around culverts built on permafrost. Proceedings, 68th CGC and 7th CPC, Québec City, QC, Canadian Geotechnical Society, Richmond, BC. Paper 089.

FROZEN GROUND 20 VOLUME 43, 2019 Julie Malenfant-Lepage PhD Candidate, Université Laval I am in the final writing stage of my PhD project on developing a methodology for the design of low-impact drainage systems along transporta- tion infrastructure in permafrost environments at Université Laval. Water flow along embank- ments increases permafrost thaw and soil ero- sion resulting in settlement, loss of functional capacity and potential failure. The project focusses on validating the design method implemented along the airport access road in Salluit (Nunavik, QC) where drainage system has been adapted to climate change. The research will promote and identify adaptation strategies to counteract en- vironmental changes caused by infrastructure in a changing climate. NTAI allowed me PROJECT: Development of a methodology for the design of to conduct fieldwork which is essential in understanding basic concepts and assimilat- low-impact drainage systems ing theories related to permafrost science and engineering. Organizing northern field- along transportation infrastruc- ture in permafrost environments work is also informative and useful for future employment.

capacity building Local field trip to a long-term monitoring Permafrost Engineering Courses site near Inuvik. Photo: Weronika Murray. By emma stockton and jen humphries (carleton university) ince 2011, professors Guy Doré are no longer practicing or are - ex S(Université Laval) and Chris Burn pecting to retire, and environmen- (Carleton University) have run a tal considerations are assuming an one-week course on “Permafrost increasing role in project develop- engineering applied to transporta- ment and design. Transport Cana- tion infrastructure” for researchers da recognized and addressed these and professionals. The course com- factors as part of the NTAI program. bines classroom lectures with field The course objectives were to: excursions and has been held six • Understand the context and times at two northern research in- challenges of building linear stitutions. Most recently at Aurora infrastructure in permafrost College in Inuvik (2019), and at Yu- environments kon University in Whitehorse (2011- • Provide the basic principles 2016). One-day summary versions for effective site investigation, were also developed for the 2015 design and management of and 2019 Canadian Permafrost Con- linear infrastructure Thermosyphons at Donjek River Bridge, ferences in Québec City. • Apply principles of risk analy- Alaska Highway. Photo: Chantal Lemieux. The course was created because sis to the development of lin- ture in , perma- many geotechnical engineers with ear infrastructure frost characteristics, heat transfer, experience in permafrost terrain • Analyze complex situations ground ice, climate change, and Classroom lecture at , Inuvik. and propose solutions to un- thermokarst terrain. Guy then dis- Photo: Weronika Murray. stable infrastructure cussed infrastructure design and • Develop transversal skills, and considerations, freezing and thaw- international and multidisci- ing soil mechanics, slope stability, plinary collaborations. drainage, site investigations, and Classroom lectures have been management strategies. Overall, the divided into two themes: the per- material applied theoretically based mafrost environment and perma- knowledge to practical situations. frost engineering. Chris introduced Participants have also completed topics on transportation infrastruc- a practical exercise using TEMP/W, a

FROZEN GROUND 21 VOLUME 43, 2019 continued from page 32 has also helped defray travel and tidisciplinary dialogue on potential accomodation costs for students environmental and socio-economic 2D thermal modelling software, to who attended the courses. The impacts of permafrost thaw. examine the sensitivity of perma- courses have provided researchers For more information on the frost terrain to changes in tempera- and professionals from a variety 2019 course visit sentinelnorth. ture over time caused by surface of backgrounds the opportunity to ulaval.ca/en/permafrostengineer- disturbances and climate change. network and collaborate, promote ing2019. Field excursions have typically in- mutual learning, and initiate a mul- cluded short local trips and day-long For more information see: trips along the Alaska Highway or Stockton, E.J., et al. (2020). En- ITH where participants visited exist- couraging collaborative permafrost ing research sites and observed per- research through multidisciplinary mafrost conditions and construction training programs [Conference pre- methods discussed in class. sentation], Arctic Change 2020,- Arc The six courses have been at- ticNet. tended by 111 participants includ- Kuznetsova, E. (2014). Permafrost ing, students (44%), professionals engineering applied to transporta- (28%), government employees tion infrastructure. NTNU Report. (15%), academics (7%), and others Rieksts, K. (2016). Permafrost en- (5%) (Fig. 27). Women account- Fig. 27. Number of participants to NTAI- gineering applied to transportation ed for a third of total participants, supported permafrost engineering courses infrastructure. NTNU Report. and almost 60% of students. NTAI from 2011-2019. capacity building Permafrost Workshops By emma stockton and jen humphries (carleton university) nnual permafrost workshops on Alaska and Canada in all three terri- ANTAI projects began in 2010 with tories and two provinces. The 2021 the inaugural ‘Workshop of the Net- meeting was held virtually, due to work of Expertise on Permafrost’ in the COVID-19 pandemic. Work- Haines Junction, YT. The workshop shops typically comprise technical outlined existing highway research and student presentations on pro- projects such as the Beaver Creek posed or existing projects, review of Test Section (Alaska Highway), Front the program’s objectives, and field Street (Dawson City), and Highway trips. In 2017, discussions focussed Fig. 28. Number of participants to NTAI- 3 (Yellowknife). Followed by a dis- on federal coordination, territori- supported permafrost workshops from cussion on how the program will al adaptation needs and priorities, 2011-2019. address knowledge gaps, capacity and capacity development. The in- issues, and the practical problems tention was to determine how to information to support a common of operating highways in the north. better coordinate and collaborate understanding of priority areas of Workshops have been held in with federal partners, disseminate action for northern partners, and build a community of practice. Over 300 participants have - at tended the meetings including, government employees (56%), aca- demics (18%), students (16%), and professionals (10%) (Fig. 28). Wom- en accounted for a quarter of total participants, and 28% of students. NTAI has helped defray travel and Participants at the NTAI Workshop for Canadian Highways Built on Permafrost, held in White- accomodation costs for students horse, YT, February 2019. Photo: Tim Ensom. who attended these workshops.

FROZEN GROUND 22 VOLUME 43, 2019 embankments (ACE), which relies agement may require planning over Conclusion on a significant differential between several years to prepare stockpiles By Chris burn (carleton university) air and ground temperatures in win- of ACE rock, for example. Re-rout- ter to cool the ground. In the short ing of highways in response to per- he projects presented in this re- term, however, we may expect re- mafrost thaw may be necessary in Tport indicate the first steps tak- habilitation and maintenance to places and require significant plan- en to develop resilience for north- continue as in the past with some ning and negotiation, such as Chap- ern transportation infrastructure adjustments to designs for new in- man Lake, Dempster Highway. Ne- in anticipation of the growing im- frastructure components. gotiation of new Rights-of-Way will pacts of climate change in Canada’s Maintenance activities may soon need to recognize that Land Claims North. Over the next few decades, have to include off Right-of-Way Agreements now affect most areas transportation agencies will need to conditions as part of their mandate, in the North. watch closely the emissions trajec- such as for control of icings to pro- Finally, ground ice and perma- tory of greenhouse gases to deter- tect embankments and culverts. frost thaw sensitivity must be con- mine the conditions at which the cli- Maintenance may also require sys- sidered in the design of new north- mate may settle and a new ground tems for predicting embankment ern infrastructure and the selection thermal environment will reach failure with sufficient time for- re of routes and sites, as well as the equilibrium. medial action, perhaps based upon associated increase in costs. Inno- Projected warming in fall and antecedent conditions (e.g., pre- vation in airborne geophysics for winter will be the principal driver of cipitation intensity and amount). detection of ground ice will be- re climate change and a critical long- Rehabilitation of highways will be quired, especially south of treeline term challenge for effective opera- required where permafrost thaw where on-ground access is difficult. tion of current technology, such as leads to instability or failure of infra- thermosyphons and air convection structure is anticipated. Cost man-

tions in snow cover on permafrost sta- Other Publications bility, including simulated snow manage- ment, Dempster Highway, Peel Plateau, Brooks, H., et al. (2018). Permafrost geo- Processes, 31, 383-395. DOI: 10.1002/ Northwest Territories. Arctic Science, 3, technical index property variation and ppp.2051. 150-178. DOI: 10.1139/as-2016-0036. its effect on thermal conductivity calcu- Flynn, D., et al. (2016). Forecasting ground O’Neill, H.B., et al. (2019). New ground ice lations. Cold Regions Science and Tech- temperatures under a highway embank- maps for Canada using a paleogeograph- nology, 148, 63-76. DOI: 10.1016/j.col- ment on degrading permafrost. Journal ic modelling approach. The Cryosphere, dregions.2018.01.004. of Cold Regions Engineering, 30(4). DOI: 13, 753-773. DOI: 10.5194/tc-13-753- Burn, C.R., et al. (2015). Permafrost charac- 10.1061/(ASCE)CR.1943-5495.0000106. 2019. terization of the Dempster Highway, Yu- Humphries, J., et al. (2019). Storm wind Short, N., et al. (2014). RADARSAT-2 D-INSAR kon and Northwest Territories. Proceed- frequency and direction, Dempster for ground displacement in permafrost ings, Proceedings, 68th CGC and 7th CPC, Highway, Richardson Mountains, Yu- terrain, validation from Iqaluit Airport, Québec City, QC, Canadian Geotechnical kon and Northwest Territories. In Cold Baffin Island, Canada.Remote Sensing of Society, Richmond, BC. Paper 705. Regions Engineering 2019, ASCE. DOI: Environment, 141, 40-51. DOI: 10.1016/j. Chen, L., et al. (2019). Impact of heat ad- 10.1061/9780784482599.016. rse.2013.10.016. vection on the thermal regime of roads Idrees, M., et al. (2015). Monitoring per- Stirling, J.L., et al. (2015). NWT Highway built on permafrost. Hydrological Pro- mafrost conditions along the Dempster 3 test sections near Yellowknife. Pro- cesses, 34, 1647-1664. DOI: 10.1002/ Highway. Proceedings, 68th CGC and 7th ceedings, 68th CGC and 7th CPC, Québec hyp.13688. CPC, Québec City, QC, Canadian Geo- City, QC, Canadian Geotechnical Society, Coulombe, S., et al. (2012). Using air convec- technical Society, Richmond, BC. Paper Richmond, BC. Paper 343. tion ducts to control permafrost degra- 703. Thiam, P.-M., et al. (2018). Mitigating pave- dation under road infrastructure: Beaver Kurz, D., et al. (2020). Seasonal deforma- ment shoulder cracking in northern, Creek Experimental Site, Yukon, Canada. tions under a road embankment on de- low volume highways by incorporating In Cold Regions Engineering 2012, ASCE. grading permafrost in Northern Canada. Tencate Mirafi® H2Ri wicking geotextile. DOI: 10.1061/9780784412473.003. Environmental Geotechnics, 7, 163-174. 71st CGC and 13th Joint CGS/IAH-CNC De Guzman, E.M., et al. (2019). Mon- DOI: 10.1680/jenge.17.00036. Groundwater Conference, Edmonton, itored thermal performance of Malenfant-Lepage, J., et al. (2018). Critical AB. Paper 329. varying embankment thickness on shear stress of frozen and thawing soils. Veuille, S., et al. (2015). Heat advection in permafrost foundations. In Cold Re- 5th European Conference on Permafrost, the active layer of permafrost: physi- gions Engineering 2019, ASCE. DOI: Chamonix, France, EUCOP5 Book of Ab- cal modelling to quantify the impact of 10.1061/9780784482599.015. stracts, 182. subsurface flow on soil thawing. Pro- Doré, G., et al. (2016). Adaptation methods O’Neill, H.B., et al. (2015). Field measure- ceedings, 68th CGC and 7th CPC, Québec for transportation infrastructure built on ments of permafrost conditions beside City, QC, Canadian Geotechnical Society, degrading permafrost. Permafrost and the Dempster Highway embankment, Richmond, BC. Paper 722. Periglacial Processes, 27, 352-264. DOI: Peel Plateau, NWT. Proceedings, 68th Wolfe, S.A., et al. (2015). Disequilibrium per- 10.1002/ppp.1919. CGC and 7th CPC, Québec City, QC, Ca- mafrost conditions on NWT Highway 3. Ensom, T., et al. (2020). The distribution nadian Geotechnical Society, Richmond, Proceedings, 68th CGC and 7th CPC, Qué- and dynamics of aufeis in permafrost BC. Paper 380. bec City, QC, Canadian Geotechnical So- regions. Permafrost and Periglacial O’Neill, H.B., et al. (2017). Impacts of varia- ciety, Richmond, BC. Paper 115.

FROZEN GROUND 23 VOLUME 43, 2019 The NTAI has only been possible due to the diligence and administrative abilities of its managers within the Policy Group of Transport Canada. The program was initiated under the admirable oversight, guidance, and organization of Janice Festa. Janice was assisted by John-Paul Handrigan for permafrost activities in the pro- gram, which has also had a marine component not reported in this document. Since 2017, Catherine Kim and Jenna Craig have carefully managed the activities and drawn a greater community of researchers and agencies into the work. Careful and supportive guidance from Maxine Bilodeau has enabled the program to flourish. The extent of tangible impact delivered by the program in terms of research results, capacity development, assistance to northern jurisdictions, and in standards development is due to the attention devoted to the program at the federal level. Similar support has been provided by Paul Murchison in Yukon, Greg Cousin- eau in NWT, and John Hawkins in Nunavut, who have generously blended the activities of program into the mandate of their transportation agencies and represent their engaged teams in the North. The research community would like to place on the record its gratitude and appreciation for all the efforts that have been made for the NTAI by these members of the Public Service.

Front cover photo: Peel Plateau NT km 62, Dempster Highway September 2020

Back cover photo: Beaver Creek test site YT km 1865, Alaska Highway June 2010

FROZEN GROUND 24 VOLUME 43, 2019