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Betrayal Characteristics and Self-Forgiveness: the Mediating BETRAYAL CHARACTERISTICS AND SELF-FORGIVENESS: THE MEDIATING AND MODERATING ROLES OF SOCIAL-COGNITIVE VARIABLES Thesis Submitted to The College of Arts and Sciences of the UNIVERSITY OF DAYTON In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for The Degree of Master of Arts in Clinical Psychology By Ashley A. Schantz UNIVERSITY OF DAYTON Dayton, Ohio May, 2013 BETRAYAL CHARACTERISTICS AND SELF-FORGIVENESS: THE MEDIATING AND MODERATING ROLES OF SOCIAL-COGNITIVE VARIABLES Name: Schantz, Ashley Ann APPROVED BY: Lee J. Dixon, Ph.D. Committee Chair Assistant Professor Catherine Lutz Zois, Ph.D. Committee Member Associate Professor Jackson Goodnight, Ph.D. Committee Member Assistant Professor Carolyn Roecker Phelps, Ph.D. Chair, Department of Psychology ii © Copyright by Ashley A. Schantz All rights reserved 2013 iii ABSTRACT BETRAYAL CHARACTERISTICS AND SELF-FORGIVENESS: THE MEDIATING AND MODERATING ROLES OF SOCIAL-COGNITIVE VARIABLES Name: Schantz, Ashley Ann University of Dayton Advisor: Lee J. Dixon, Ph.D. The intrapersonal and interpersonal benefits of forgiveness are well understood within the psychological community. The study of self-forgiveness, however, has just recently come to light. Research has shown that the ability to forgive oneself for a wrongdoing is related to improved mental health, such as decreases in anxiety and depression (Maltby, Macaskill, & Day, 2001). However, factors that enhance the likelihood of engaging in self-forgiveness are not yet well known. This study examined the direct relationship between betrayal characteristics (i.e. transgression severity and victim-offender closeness) and self-forgiveness. It analyzed the mediating and moderating role of social-cognitive variables, such as self-empathy, rumination, and attributions. Participants (n=124) were recruited from introductory psychology courses at a mid-size Midwestern Catholic university. They were asked to iv write a narrative describing an interpersonal transgression that they have committed. Participants then completed scales assessing the degree of self-forgiveness, relational closeness to the person they offended (Inclusion of Other in the Self), subjective severity of the transgression, self-empathy (modified version of Batson’s Eight Item Empathy Scale), rumination related to the offense (Intrusiveness Scale for Rumination Inspired by Impact Event Scale), and type of attributions (modified version of the Relationship Attribution Measure). Results indicated that the degree to which participants believed their transgression to have had a sever affect on the self was directly and negatively related to the process of self-forgiveness. This association is also mediated by ruminative thoughts and moderated by negative attributions. Although the victim-offender closeness prior to the transgression was not directly related to self-forgiveness, an association became apparent when moderated by participants’ ruminations and attributions. Self-empathy was unrelated to the process of self-forgiveness. v Dedicated to my parents vi ACKNOWLEDGMENTS My special thanks are in order to Dr. Lee J. Dixon, my thesis chair, for accompanying me on this journey. I could not have conquered my greatest achievement without your time, guidance, and support. I would also like to express my appreciation to everyone who has supported me through this process. To Dr. Katherine Zois and Dr. Jackson Goodnight, thank you for your time and thoughtfulness while serving on my thesis committee. I am grateful to God for giving me strength and opportunities to make my dreams a reality. I am thankful for my parents who have accompanied me on the journey of personal growth and patiently encouraged me to keep striving for my goals. To Ambus Hunter IV, thank you for being my biggest fan. Finally, a big thanks to Darrico Murray for being curious enough to figure out which “buttons to push” and challenging me to overcome my fears. vii TABLE OF CONTENTS ABSTRACT……………………………………………………………………………...iv DECICATION………………………………………………………...…………...……vi ACKNOWLEDGMENTS………………………………………………..…………….vii LIST OF FIGURES……………………………………………………..………………xi LIST OF TABLES…………………………………………………..…………...…….xiii INTRODUCTION………………………………………………………..…………...…1 Betrayal Characteristics and Interpersonal Forgiveness……………………………….3 Betrayal Characteristics and Self-Forgiveness…………………………………………6 Present Study…………………………………………………………………………...7 Social-Cognitive Variables………………………………………………………..8 Self Empathy………………………………………………………………………8 Rumination……………………………………………………………………….10 Attributions………………………………………………………………………13 viii METHOD…………...…………………………………………………………………..17 Participants……………………………………………………………………………17 Scales and Measurements……………………………………………………………..17 Self-Forgiveness…………………………………………………………………18 Relational Closeness……………………………………………………………..18 Perceived Transgression Severity………………………………………………..19 Self-Empathy…………………………………………………………………….19 Rumination……………………………………………………………………….20 Attributions………………………………………………………………………21 Procedure……………………………………………………………………………...22 RESULTS………………………………...……………………………………………..23 Analyses of Major Study Questions……………………………………………….....26 Correlational Models…………………………………………………………….26 Mediation Models…………………………………………………………….....26 Moderation Models………………………………………………………………28 DISCUSSION…………………………………………………………………………..36 REFERENCES……………..…………………………………………………………..44 ix APPENDICES………………………..………………………………………………...54 A. Demographics/Background Information………………………………………….54 B. Self-Forgiveness Scale……………………………………………………………..55 C. Relational Closeness Scale………………………………………………………..56 D. Perceived Transgression Severity Scale…………………………………………..58 E. Self-Empathy Scale………………………………………………………………..59 F. Rumination Scale…………………………………………………………………..61 G. Attributions Scale………………………………………………………………….63 H. Informed Consent to Participate in a Research Project……………………………65 I. Debriefing Form…………………………………………………………………….67 x LIST OF FIGURES 1. Figure 1a. Simple mediation model for transgression severity and self-forgiveness mediated by self-empathy: Hypothesis 4……………………………...…………………10 2. Figure 1b. Simple mediation model for relational closeness and self-forgiveness mediated by self-empathy: Hypothesis 5…...……………………………………………10 3. Figure 2a. Simple mediation model for transgression severity and self-forgiveness mediated by rumination: Hypothesis 6…..………………………………………………13 4. Figure 2b. Moderation model for relational closeness and self-forgiveness moderated by rumination: Hypothesis 7..……………………………………………………………13 5. Figure 3a. Moderation model for transgression severity and self-forgiveness moderated by attributions: Hypothesis 9.…………………………………………………...……….16 6. Figure 3b. Moderation model for relational closeness and self-forgiveness moderated by attributions: Hypothesis 10..............……………….…………………………...….…16 xi 7. Figure 4. Simple mediation model for transgression severity (TS1): path estimates for the direct effect of TS1 on rumination, the direct effect of rumination on self-forgiveness, and the indirect effect of transgression severity on self-forgiveness……………..……28 xii LIST OF TABLES 1. Summary of Means and Standard Deviations….………………………………...……24 2. Correlation..…………………………………………………………………………...25 3. Regression Analysis Using Interaction of Relational Closeness and Rumination to Predict Self-forgiveness………………………………………………………………….32 4. Regression Analysis Using Interaction of Relational Closeness and Attributions to Predict Self-forgiveness…………………………………………………………………32 5. Regression Analysis Using Interaction of the Transgression Severity and Attributions to Predict Self-forgiveness………………………………………………………………33 6. Regression Analysis Using Interactions of Transgression Severity and Attributions to Predict Self-forgiveness…………………………………………………………………34 7. Regression Analysis Using Interaction of Transgression Severity and Attributions to Predict Self-forgiveness………………………………………………………………....35 xiii INTRODUCTION In any interpersonal relationship, there is bound to be at least one time when an individual may feel betrayed or hurt by the other. If left unresolved, it is likely that these feelings can be particularly detrimental to that relationship (Allemand, Amberg, Zimprich, & Fincham, 2007). For years, people from varying professions (e.g., religious leaders) have relied on the act of forgiving as a means to release painful emotions generated by loved ones (Hargrave, 1994). However, the initial role of forgiveness in psychology was more ambiguous. In fact, one of the earliest writings of forgiveness argued that there was no place for forgiveness in therapy given that its primary concern is with the conscious relief of immoral wrongdoings, whereas therapy is focused on unconscious content (Hagmaier, 1964). Since this time, over 2,000 studies have been published affirming the positive outcomes of forgiveness both inside and outside of therapy (e.g., Fincham & Beach, 2002) Within this period, researchers have come to understand forgiveness as a process that entails substituting affects and behaviors that are detrimental for interpersonal relationships with those that are interpersonally constructive (McCullough, Worthington, & Rachal, 1997). The process of forgiveness has been associated with increases in positive emotions, such as hope, self-esteem, decreases in negative emotions, such as hostility, decreases in mental health symptoms, such as 1 depression, anxiety, aggression, paranoid ideation, and somatization (Shechtman, Wade, & Khoury, 2009; Webb, Robinson, & Brower, 2009), and a restoration of well-being (Freedman & Enright, 1996; Karremans,
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