5. For centuries, Native AmericansCHAPTER were hunter-gatherers. They primarily migrated in a southward direction and established thriving settlements in central Mexico and the Andes Mountains. A second1 wave crossed the western mountain ranges and moved into the Mississippi Valley and eastern woodland regions of North America. 6. Around 6000 B.C., many societies Colliding developed farming based on corn, potatoes, and squash. Agricultural surplus led to populous, urbanized, and wealthy Worlds societies in Mexico, Peru, and the Mississippi Valley. 1450–1600 B. American Empires 1. The Aztecs and Incas established highly populated and powerful empires in ANNOTATED CHAPTER Mesoamerica and the Andes. OUTLINE 2. Tenochtitlán, the metropolis of the Aztec state with an impressive population of The following annotated chapter outline will help 250,000 by 1500, served as the center of you review the major topics covered in this chapter. an expansive and well-regulated tribute, I. The Native American Experience agricultural, and trade network. European A. The First Americans explorers were impressed by the city’s 1. The first people to live in the Western wealth and abundance of food items, Hemisphere were small bands of tribal textiles, and precious metals. migrants from Asia. They followed animal 3. Aztec priests and warrior-nobles ruled herds over land and by sea over fifteen over this empire by subduing most of the thousand years ago, when the last Ice Age people of central Mexico and sacrificing created a 100-mile-wide land bridge over captured enemies to the gods who they the Bering Strait, connecting Siberia and believed influenced life and farming Alaska. cycles. 2. Glacial melting then submerged the land 4. The Incas established a vast, highly bridge beneath the Bering Strait, reducing urbanized, and well-organized empire in contact between peoples in North America the high altitudes of the Andes Mountains, and Asia for three hundred generations. with Cuzco as its capital. This empire 3. Anthropologists also agree that a second relied upon a divinely ordained king for wave of migrants, the ancestors of the leadership and thrived through a Navajos and the Apaches, crossed the bureaucratized system of trade and tribute. narrow Bering Strait in boats C. Chiefdoms and Confederacies approximately eight thousand years ago. 1. The Mississippi Valley 4. A third migration around five thousand a. Although Native American years ago brought the ancestors of the civilizations in North America did not Aleut and Inuit peoples, the “Eskimos,” to grow to the size of the Aztec and Inca North America. empires, adoption of agriculture based 2 CHAPTER 1 • COLLIDING WORLDS

on maize nevertheless contributed to d. The Lenni Lenape and Munsee Indians increased urbanization and more along the Delaware and Hudson rivers sophisticated social structures by A.D. maintained an independent and locally 1000. limited political leadership structure. b. In the Mississippi Valley, the city of e. Around 1500, one of the most Cahokia, with its impressive powerful Native American groups population of over 10,000, developed emerged in the region between Lake into the administrative and religious Erie and the Hudson River when the center of the region with nearly 30,000 Mohawks, Oneidas, Onandagas, inhabitants. Cayugas, and Senecas decided to end c. The 120 mounds in the area functioned years of warfare with each other and as burial grounds, bases for ceremonial formed the Iroquois Confederacy. buildings, or rulers’ homes. f. Instead of chiefs, councils of sachems, d. By 1350 overpopulation, or leaders, held political power and environmental factors, and warfare led made decisions. Although men were to the decline of this Mississippian the leaders, diplomats, and warriors, in civilization. Still, Mississippian this matriarchal society, women could institutions and practices endured for also influence council decisions. centuries along the river, and their g. Along the southern coast of the region influence reached as far east as the that would come to be called New Carolinas and Florida. England, the Narragansetts, 2. Eastern Woodlands Wampanoags, Mohegans, and Pequots a. In the eastern woodlands lived several were part of a dense network of distinct societies, including the powerful chiefdoms that competed for Algonquian and Iroquoian speakers to dominance and resources. the north, who shared several language h. In the northern, more cold and and lifestyle traits. They lived in semi- forbidding regions, including northern permanent villages where women New England and present-day Canada, farmed fields of maize, beans, and Native Americans established complex squash, gathered additional food items, yet smaller political units that and participated in community affairs, supported their lives as hunters and while men warred, hunted, and fished. gatherers. b. The seasonal practice of burning cleared forests of underbrush, enhanced agriculture, and improved hunting of big game. c. The political system among the peoples of the eastern woodlands varied widely. Some were chiefdoms in which a single ruler held absolute power. Others, such as the Powhatans in the Chesapeake region, had adopted a paramount chiefdom in which one chief emerged as the ruler over several subordinate chiefs and their respective communities. 3. The Great Lakes travel on foot or by horseback to hunt, a. To the west, the Algonquian speakers fish, and gather provisions. of the Great Lakes region, including 5. The Arid Southwest the Ottawas, Ojibwas, and a. The Pueblo peoples, including the Potawatomis tribal groups, were Anasazis, Hohokams, and Mogollons, collectively known as the Anishinaabe developed agricultural settlements by people. In this region, core clan A.D. 600. They used irrigation to grow identities crossed tribal boundaries. crops by A.D. 1000 and lived in b. Their highly mobile life based on architecturally distinct, multi-room hunting, fishing, and traveling stone structures, or pueblos, built into influenced trade relationships, shaped steep cliffs. The Anasazi built several military alliances, and contributed to a small and large villages in and around multitude of social and political Chaco Canyon and connected them affiliations. through a vast network of roads. 4. The Great Plains and Rockies b. Drought brought on soil exhaustion a. In the Great Plains and Rocky and the collapse of Chaco Canyon and Mountain regions, the arrival of the other large settlements after 1150. horse—an escaped European import— People dispersed to smaller forever changed the cultures and settlements, and the descendants of geopolitics of the indigenous people these peoples—including the Acomas, even before they personally Zuñis, Tewas, and Hopis—populated encountered Europeans. present-day New Mexico, Arizona, and b. The Comanches became impressive western Texas when Europeans hunters, skilled raiders, and fierce arrived. warriors, and they greatly expanded 6. The Pacific Coast their territory. a. A multitude of distinct hunter-gatherer c. The peoples of the Sioux nation groups lived along the Pacific coast in expanded their domain westward into independent and socially stratified the Black Hills. The Crow Indians communities hunting game, gathering became successful bison hunters, seeds and nuts, and catching what the expert horse breeders, and adept sea and rivers had to offer. traders after their move to the eastern b. The Chinooks, Coast Salishes, Haidas, slope of the Rockies. and Tlingits, easily distinguished d. Despite this increased mobility of through their colorful totem poles and hunter-gatherers, several native use of large longhouses, emerged as peoples maintained agricultural the most powerful nations of the settlements, including the Hidatsa and Pacific Northwest owing to their Mandan Indians along the Missouri warrior culture, use of 60-feet-long River and the Caddo Indians in the dugout canoes, and superior fishing southern plains. capabilities. e. The Numic-speaking peoples of the D. Patterns of Trade Great Basin between the Rockies and 1. A complex network of trade routes the Sierra Mountains adopted several connected this vast Native American traits to survive in an area of sparse world and brought foods, tools, natural resources, including long-distance resources, and luxury goods to all regions. 4 CHAPTER 1 • COLLIDING WORLDS

2. The hunters and farmers of the Great II. Western Europe: The Edge of the Old World Plains often met in annual trade fairs, A. Hierarchy and Authority bartering their respective products. 1. In the traditional European social order, Regional trade practices included the authority came from above; kings and exchange of war captives as slaves or princes owned vast tracts of land, diplomatic gifts. conscripted men for military service, and 3. Long-distance trade usually centered on lived in splendor off the labor of the acquiring precious objects, such as copper peasantry. from the Great Lakes, seashells from 2. Noblemen who possessed large landed distant shores, or other highly prized estates had the power to challenge royal luxury items like grizzly bear claws and authority through control of the local eagle feathers. military and legislative institutions. 4. Chiefs, successful hunters, and formidable 3. In these male-dominated societies, or rulers usually controlled the majority of patriarchies, men governed families and locally produced items and traded goods, passed property and social status to their but the tradition of sharing and the desire male heirs. Male power was codified in to solidify authority required that these laws, sanctioned by social customs, and wealthy leaders redistribute most of their justified by the teachings of the Christian belongings to community and family Church. members. 4. When an Englishwoman married, she E. Sacred Power assumed her husband’s surname, 1. Most Native Americans were animists committed herself to obeying his orders, who believed that every living thing and and surrendered the legal rights to all her inanimate object had a spirit. Although property. When he died, she received a specific practices varied, most sought to dower, usually one-third of the family’s understand the world by interpreting property for her use during her lifetime. dreams and visions, and they conducted 5. The inheritance practice of primogeniture, ceremonies to positively influence which bestowed all land on the eldest son, guardian spirits and ensure successful forced many younger children to join the hunts and good fortune. ranks of the roaming poor; few men—and 2. Many believed that soil productivity was even fewer women—had much personal closely related to women’s life-giving freedom or individual identity. Fathers abilities, and that continued fertility often demanded that children work for required annual cleansing and renewal them until their middle or late twenties. rites, such as the Green Corn Ceremony. B. Peasant Society 3. Ceremonies performed by men before, 1. In 1450, most Europeans were peasants, during, and after a hunt appealed to the farm workers who lived in small rural spiritual world for protection and communities of compact agricultural requested the peaceful passage of the villages surrounded by the fields they animal’s spirit from earth. cooperatively farmed. Serfdom, or the 4. Warfare included many rituals as well, obligatory service to a lord’s estate, such as young men proving their manhood gradually gave way to paying rent or land through raids, victors adopting captives ownership. into their community, or villages 2. As with the Native Americans, many conducting mourning wars to avenge the aspects of European life followed seasonal death of warriors lost in previous battle. patterns, including farming tasks, lumber, furs, wheat, rye, honey, wax, and household chores, and merrymaking. amber on the Baltic and North seas. 3. Infant mortality rates among the peasants 5. Although increased trade seemed to were high, primarily from malnourishment empower merchants and artisans, in much and disease. Constant labor and poverty of Europe the rise of commerce also made were part of daily life. Although most kings more powerful. Monarchs forged peasants accepted their difficult alliances with merchants and artisans to circumstances, others hoped for a better challenge the power of the landed nobility life. The rural classes of Britain, Spain, by creating royal law courts and and Germany would supply the majority bureaucracies. Kings allowed merchants of white migrants to the Western to trade throughout their realms, granted Hemisphere during the colonial period. privileges to the artisan organizations C. Expanding Trade Networks called guilds, and protected trade, thereby 1. For centuries, Arab scholars had encouraging domestic manufacturing and safeguarded ancient knowledge about exports. In return, towns paid taxes and medicine, philosophy, mathematics, merchants loaned money to kings and astronomy, and geography. Arab princes to finance their armies and merchants, who dominated trade in the officials. Mediterranean, Africa, and the Near East, D. Myths, Religions, and Holy Warriors had access to highly desired spices, silks, 1. The Rise of Christianity and luxury goods such as mechanical a. Like the Indians of North America, clocks from China. European peasants originally were 2. During the twelfth century, merchants pagans and animists. They believed from Italian city-states, especially Venice, that unpredictable spiritual forces took over the trade routes in the governed the natural world and that Mediterranean and in the process those spirits had to be paid ritual established an enormously profitable honor. The spread of Christianity commercial empire of wealthy merchants, changed these practices. bankers, and textile manufacturers. b. Christianity, once an underground sect, 3. These moneyed elites became the new became the state religion of the Roman ruling class as they established republics Empire after Emperor Constantine’s ruled by merchant coalitions instead of conversion in A.D. 312. The Roman kings or princes. They also created the Catholic Church served as one of the concept of civic humanism, an ideology great unifying forces in Western that celebrated public virtue and service to European society; the Church provided the state, which in time would profoundly a pervasive authority and discipline influence European and American through Christian dogma, a church concepts of government. They also staffed by priests in every village, and sponsored artists such as Michelangelo the unifying language of Latin. and da Vinci, whose artistic genius c. Christian doctrine penetrated the lives reflected the cultural and educational of peasant. To eliminate paganism, transformation known as the Renaissance. Christian priests taught that a 4. In Northern Europe, the Hanseatic supernatural God had sent his divine League, an alliance of merchant son, Jesus Christ, to save humanity, communities, controlled the trade of which lived in a flawed and fallen natural world, from its sins. The 6 CHAPTER 1 • COLLIDING WORLDS

Christian Church devised a religious religious authority. Luther also calendar that transformed pagan translated the Bible into German to agricultural festivals into Christian make it accessible to literate Germans. holy days. b. The French theologian John Calvin d. The Church also defined people who launched a Protestant faith based on spread doctrine conflicting with the the belief in an all-powerful God who teaching of the Church as tools of predestines a number of people for Satan, a wicked supernatural being salvation before they are born and who constantly tempted people to sin. condemns all others to eternal Christian rulers dedicated their lives to damnation (the doctrine of suppressing false doctrine, or heresies. predestination). Calvin, who also 2. The Crusades believed that mankind was naturally a. One of the perceived false doctrines corrupt, established model that Christian rulers aimed to crush communities in Geneva, Switzerland, was Islam. After the death of in which ministers strictly enforced Muhammad in A.D. 632, Muslims regulations against idleness and spread Islam into Africa, India, and extravagance. Calvin quickly gained Indonesia, as well as into Spain and the converts throughout Europe, including Balkans in Europe. Between A.D. 1096 the Puritans in England and Scotland. and 1291, Christian monarchs raised c. The Protestant Reformation, initiated armies and, alongside the newly by such radicals as Luther and Calvin, established Knights Templar and the generated a Counter-Reformation in Teutonic Knights, fought the Crusades, the Catholic Church that resulted in a series of wars that aimed to reverse internal reform and the creation of new Muslim advances in Europe and win monastic and missionary orders, back the holy lands. including the formation of the Jesuits b. The Crusades, despite their limited in 1540. Competition between these military success, were significant in two religions also shaped colonial that they strengthened Christianity in history in the Americas. Catholics from Europe and contributed to the Spain, Portugal, and France sought to persecution of Jews. These wars also convert souls in America for the resulted in access to new trade routes Church, while Protestants from that led to China and India, thus England and the Netherlands sought to exposing Europeans to a much wider establish godly communities that world. The discovery of sugar derived reflected the true gospel of from cane during these religious wars Christianity. would also profoundly impact III. West and Central Africa: Origins of the European commerce and the lives of Atlantic Slave Trade Africans by the fifteenth century. A. Empires, Kingdoms, and Ministates 3. The Reformation 1. Vast and diverse, West Africa stretches a. In 1517, Martin Luther initiated the along the coast from just south of the Reformation through his Ninety-five Sahara, through the semiarid Sahel, the Theses, which denounced the Church grasslands of the savanna, and into a for its corrupt practices, diminished the tropical rain forest. Several great rivers— role of the clergy, and asserted that the the Senegal, Gambia, Volta, and Niger— Bible, not the Church, was the ultimate provide access to the interior. 2. Sudanic civilization took root at the sailors encountered a variety of political eastern end of West Africa around 9000 groups; Mande-speaking states dominated B.C. and traveled westward. For centuries, trade with the interior along the Senegal Sudanic peoples lived in this area in and Gambia river estuaries. Akan states hierarchical societies ruled by divine kings trading heavily in gold acquired the and princes. They farmed specialized European name Gold Coast. Further east, crops(including sorghum, millet, and the Bight of Benin came to be called the cotton), domesticated cattle, created a Slave Coast because it was the early distinct style of pottery, and maintained a center of the slave trade. Southward along unique monotheistic faith. the western coast of Africa existed the 3. Three successive great empires—the Kingdom of Kongo, the largest state on Ghana, Mali, and Songhai—arose in the the Atlantic seaboard. Throughout this northern Savanna between the ninth and vast region, European tradesmen had to fifteenth centuries. Each was a collection negotiate contracts on local terms. of smaller vassal kingdoms that gained C. The Spirit World wealth through access to the Saharan trade 1. Spiritual beliefs varied greatly, with most routes and protected their assets with West Africans recognizing a variety of military might. deities. West Africans who lived 4. Abundant quantities of gold were the immediately south of the Sahara—the primary source of power and wealth for Fulanis in Senegal, Mande-speakers in these empires, and through trade gold Mali, and the Hausas in northern became the basis for much of European, Nigeria—also learned about Islam from North African, and Asian currencies by Arab merchants and missionaries. 1450. 2. Rituals varied as well and included the 5. In the lower savanna and tropical rain worship of ancestors and the manipulation forest of West Africa existed several of spirits for good or ill purpose, as well smaller kingdoms or ministates, as celebrations of male virility and female comparable in size to modern-day fertility to ensure large families. American counties, which traded with the IV. Exploration and Conquest northern empires, often fought wars with A. Portuguese Expansion each other over access to resources and 1. Seeking a maritime route to the riches of power, and pioneered the cultivation of the trans-Saharan trade routes, Prince yams. Henry of Portugal (1394–1460) B. Trans-Saharan and Coastal Trade established a naval academy. Portuguese 1. The Ghana, Mali, and Songhai empires sailors developed a new ship, the caravel, monopolized the trans-Saharan trade rigged with a lateen or triangular sail. This caravans, which carried gold, copper, salt, innovation, which allowed for better and and slaves across the Sahara to North longer-distance sailing in the treacherous Africa and brought back textiles and other waters off the northwest African coast, led foreign goods. For ministates along the to the discovery and colonization of the west coast of Africa, products originating Madeira and Azore islands. From there, beyond the Sahara were scarce and they sailed in 1435 to sub-Saharan Sierra expensive, while markets for their own Leone, where they traded salt, wine, and products were limited. fish for African gold and ivory. 2. The arrival of Europeans created new 2. Italian Genoese traders, cut off from opportunities for coastal trade. European eastern Mediterranean trade routes by the 8 CHAPTER 1 • COLLIDING WORLDS

powerful Ottoman Empire, gained access agricultural workers, concubines, or to Atlantic routes by financing Portuguese military recruits. and Castilian trading voyages. These 2. Historians have estimated that between voyages resulted in the discoveries of the A.D. 700 and 1900, 9 million Africans Canaries, the Cape Verde Islands, and São were sold in the trans-Saharan slave trade. Tomé. 3. Although Portuguese merchants were 3. European planters turned these Atlantic initially more interested in gold and islands into laboratories for cash crops, commodities than in human beings, they including sugar cane, wheat, wine grapes, eventually exploited this trade as well and and woad, a blue dye plant. In the Canary established forts at small port cities—first Islands, Castilian adventurers used at Elmina in 1482—where they bought Guanches, the natives of the islands, as gold and slaves from African princes and their enslaved labor force. By 1500, warlords. Madeira sugar became available in small, 4. Initially the Portuguese carried a few expensive quantities in London, Paris, thousand African slaves each year to work Rome, and Constantinople. on sugar plantations in the Cape Verde 4. Initially, Europeans established only Islands, the Azores, and the Madeira small, fortified trading posts along the Islands; they also sold slaves in Lisbon, coast because local kingdoms were well which soon had an African population of defended and diseases such as malaria and 9,000. yellow fever were lethal. 5. After 1550, the Atlantic slave trade 5. Portuguese sailors continued their search expanded enormously as other Europeans for an Atlantic route to Asia. In 1497, joined West Africa’s long-established Vasco da Gama reached India and trade in humans and forcefully shipped returned with a highly profitable cargo of hundreds of thousands of slaves to new cinnamon and pepper. Upon his return to American sugar plantations in Brazil and India in 1502, da Gama’s ships outgunned the West Indies. Arab fleets; the Portuguese government C. Sixteenth-Century Incursions soon built fortified trading posts on 1. Columbus and the Caribbean several coasts along the Indian Ocean and a. Explorers financed by the Spanish opened trade routes from Africa to monarchs Ferdinand II of Aragon and Indonesia and up the coast of Asia to Isabella I of Castile, discovered the China. The Portuguese, and subsequently Western Hemisphere for Europeans. the Dutch, had supplanted the Arabs as the Married in an arranged match to leaders in Asian commerce. combine their Christian kingdoms, the B. The African Slave Trade young rulers completed the centuries- 1. Portuguese traders also surpassed Arab long reconquista (the campaign by merchants as the primary sellers in the Spanish Catholics to drive Muslim slave trade. Bonded labor—through Arabs from the European mainland) in slavery, serfdom, indentured servitude— 1492 when their armies captured was the norm in most premodern societies. Granada, the last Islamic state in It also existed in Africa, where a person Western Europe. could be held as security for a debt or sold b. Ferdinand and Isabella also sought to into servitude in exchange for food during expand trade and their empire, and they famine. Most slaves were war captives enlisted the services of Christopher sold from one kingdom to another as Columbus, a Christian mariner from believed that the land was not part of Genoa. Asia and called it a nuevo mundo, a c. Columbus believed that the Atlantic “new world.” Ocean, long feared by Arab merchants 2. The Spanish Invasion as a 10,000-mile-wide “green sea of a. After brutally subduing the Arawaks darkness,” was a much narrower and Tainos on Hispaniola, the Spanish channel of water separating Europe probed the mainland for gold and from Asia. Although dubious about slaves. Rumors of rich Indian Columbus’s theory, Ferdinand and kingdoms in the interior encouraged Isabella arranged financial backing other Spaniards, including hardened from Spanish merchants and charged veterans of the reconquista, to launch Columbus with finding a western route an invasion. to Asia and carrying Christianity to its b. In 1519, Hernán Cortés, a member of peoples. the Spanish gentry class, and his fellow d. Christopher Columbus set sail in three Spanish conquistadors landed on the small ships in August 1492. After a Mexican coast and began a conquest of perilous voyage of 3,000 miles, he the Aztec empire. Luck, Indian allies, disembarked six weeks later on an and a siege strategy enabled the island in the present-day Bahamas, Spanish to emerge victorious. believing he had reached Asia—“the Moctezuma, the Aztec ruler, believed Indies,” in fifteenth-century parlance. that Cortés might be a returning god He called the native inhabitants (the and allowed him to enter the empire Taino, Arawak, and Carib peoples) without challenge. Indians and the islands the West c. Disease also contributed to Spanish Indies. Although he was surprised by victory. A massive smallpox outbreak the crude living conditions, he also decimated the population of believed natives could be easily Tenochtitlán, enabling Cortés and his converted to Christianity. Upon crew to infiltrate the city. Subsequent hearing stories of rivers of gold, outbreaks of measles, influenza, and Columbus assigned forty men to the smallpox facilitated the Aztec collapse. island of Hispaniola (present-day Haiti d. In the 1520s, the Spanish conquest and Dominican Republic) before entered a new phase when Francisco returning to Spain as a hero. Pizarro overthrew the Inca empire in e. Although Columbus found no gold, the Peru; the Incas were also easy prey monarchs sent three more expeditions because of internal fighting over the over the next twelve years. During throne and disease brought by the those expeditions, Columbus began the Spanish. colonization of the West Indies, e. The Spanish invasion changed life transporting more than a thousand forever in the Americas. Disease and Spanish settlers—all men—and warfare wiped out virtually all of the hundreds of domestic animals. Indians of Hispaniola—at least f. A German geographer soon labeled the 300,000 people. Peru’s population of 9 newly found continents America in million in 1530 plunged to fewer than honor of a Florentine explorer, 500,000 a century later. The decline of Amerigo Vespucci. Vespucci, who had Mesoamerica’s population from 20 explored the region around 1500, million in 1500 to just 3 million in 10 CHAPTER 1 • COLLIDING WORLDS

1650 represented one of the great demographic disasters in world history. 3. Cabral and Brazil a. In 1500, one of the Portuguese excursions to find a sailing route around the southern tip of Africa encountered new land in the West. Commander Pedro Alvares Cabral named it the Island of the True Cross; subsequent sailors renamed it Brazil after the indigenous tree that yielded valuable red dye. Serious settlement began in the 1530s. Colonists established sugar plantations in the coastal lowlands using Native Americans as their initial labor force but gradually replaced them with slaves from Africa. Brazil became the world’s leading producer of sugar at a high cost of African lives. b. By 1600, the most important aspects of European colonization of the Americas were already becoming visible. The Spanish demonstrated that the native civilizations were vulnerable to conquest and yielded precious sources of wealth. The Portuguese confirmed the feasibility of sugar plantations and established the transatlantic slave trade to operate them. Contact between Europeans and Native Americans also contributed to the phenomenon of the Columbian Exchange.