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Article Social Structure and Aristocratic Representation—Red Wax Seal Usage in in the 15th c

Ádám Novák and Balázs Antal Bacsa *

Institute of History, University of , 4032 Debrecen, Hungary; [email protected] * Correspondence: [email protected]

 Received: 17 September 2018; Accepted: 18 October 2018; Published: 22 October 2018 

Abstract: One might perceive the as an era of certain rights and privileges. Social stratification or the conformation of a group’s identity were all established around privileges in the . In the medieval period, as opposed to a modern state, the most important constructors of a group’s identity were privileges. When members of a social group bear identical prerogatives, that group can be recognized as an order or estate. The ecclesiastic order existed side-by-side with the noble estate. In possession of political power were strictly those who were at the top of the strongly hierarchical system. However, in the Kingdom of Hungary, the significance of the ecclesiastical order was dwarfed by the importance of landed . Some five percent of the population was of nobles, who also held political power. Until the end of the , the members of this stratum were equal in law. Only distinctions in financial situation can be noticed during the 14th and 15th centuries. The first law differentiating the rights within nobility was enacted by the national assembly, the diet of Wladislaus II (1490–1516), in 1498. Only from then on can we speak of and aristocracy. This almost two-century-long process can be observed by examining a representational tool, the usage of red wax in seals. Upon studying medieval Hungarian history, we must use all sources available due to their rapid destruction, hence examining seal usage to explain aristocratic representation. In this paper, we briefly summarize the social structure of medieval Hungary and its traditions in seal usage, and present several unique seals. Our goal is to highlight some connections that historiography would benefit from, to provide new data, and to arouse the interest of a broad spectrum of audiences in Hungarian social history.

Keywords: Kingdom of Hungary; social structure; nobility; red wax; aristocracy

1. Introduction Medieval societies were structured differently across , and each had undergone a process of development that differed from the others. In , vassalage was established, which placed the members of nobility below one another in a hierarchical order. This form of fiefdom did not develop in Hungary or in . According to the law, all those who were privileged owed service solely to the , and the landholding nobles possessed equal rights until the end of the 15th century. The 1222 , issued by Andrew II (1205–1235) (Zsoldos 2011), and its later empowerment in 1351 by Louis the Great (1342–1382) declares that nobles dispose of “one and the same liberty” (Schiller 1900, p. 19; See also (Engel 2001)). Only distinctions in financial situation can be noticed within the estate during the 14th and 15th centuries. Therefore, in modern literature, noble society is categorized primarily by land holdings. Historiography does not classify the landowner society as gentry, middling nobility, and peerage, but small, middle, and great landholders. The first law

Genealogy 2018, 2, 44; doi:10.3390/genealogy2040044 www.mdpi.com/journal/genealogy Genealogy 2018, 2, 44 2 of 10 differentiating between noble rights was passed by the diet of Wladislaus II in 1498 (Engel 1968, p. 340). This roughly one and a half to two centuries can be illustrated by the usage of red wax in sealing. It was the aforementioned Golden Bull of Andrew II that laid down the bases of Hungarian society of the . Its Article XI granted several fundamental rights to the royal servientes (members of the libertas, who owed military service to the king), such as tax exemption, royal judgement, and freedom to inherit land tenures. In return, the king obliged them for the defense of the country. Only royal officials and high dignitaries with nationwide authority differed from the emerging coherent nobility. Furthermore, they only had different rights during the terms of their offices. The value of the pledge of a baro in high royal office was worth ten times more than the oath of a nobleman. In the 15th century, land size and offices were the bases of power, not ancestry (Engel 1977).

2. The Baronial Estate High dignitaries with nationwide authority formed the royal council, namely the barones, together with the prelates. These can be divided into three groups. Possessors of executive power: the of , bans holding certain banatus districts (e.g., ), and most importantly the comites—or ispánok [Singular: ispán, comes, sheriff of a ],—for instance, the ispán/comes of Temes/Temesch/Timis, , Pozsony/Pressburg/, and Máramaros/Marmarosch/Maramures, . Secondly, judicial officials, such as the Lord Palatine and the ; and thirdly, another layer was composed of court officials, such as the Master of the Horse, Steward, and Cup-bearers (Engel 2001). The members of the council were the wealthiest landholders of the country, or at least they became wealthy due to their offices. Possession of one to three castles would count as a significant fortune. This could then be complemented with lands given from the royal lands as honor from the early 14th century, in the age of the Angevin (Engel 1982). Barons received castles in one or more counties as a form of payment for the duration of their office. Thus, all income from these lands was due to go to the holder during office. The king could, however, reclaim these at any time. In addition to their own properties, the honor lands granted military power to those in office. A so-called polysigillic diploma issued in 1358 can be seen below, validated by the most influential people of the royal council. These polysigillic diplomas can help us to define the composition of the council (see Figure1). Significant financial differences could not have been formed amongst noblemen; the honor land was de facto property of the king, who possessed more than two thirds of the castles at the time. For dignitaries in the 14th century, the title “magister” was given. However, it was not only the officials with nationwide authority who could bear this title, but lesser ones too, such as . Nonetheless, this title was not inheritable, and neither was the honor. Seal usage in the 14th century was not widespread. Seals were only used by officials, and that is why it is hard to detect differentiation within nobility (Kumorovitz 1993). Barons stood out solely because of their wealth and military power. In the first part of the 14th century, the determinative baronial family of the north-eastern part of the country was the Druget family. Philip Druget came to the Hungarian Kingdom from with Charles I of Anjou (1301–1342). He was a loyal follower of the king; thus, he became Palatine—the highest-ranking officer—and received most territories of the late oligarch, Amadeus Aba. He gained donations of perpetual , primarily in Northeastern Hungary—the counties of Szepes/Zipis/Spiš and Zemplén/Semplin/Zemplín. However, as royal honor, he fulfilled the role of the ispán in seven counties. He was the wealthiest nobleman at the time. He successfully devolved his power to his son William, who eventually also became Palatine until 1342 (Zsoldos 2017). Two thirds of the royal castles fell into private hands following the death of Louis the Great in 1382. This, for the most part, is the result of the donation of the first fifteen years of Sigismund of Luxemburg’s (1387–1437) rule. We can see how the land structure changed in the North Eastern part of the country between 1382 and 1439. Old and new baronial families received castles as perpetual tenure. The wealthiest ones (Garai, Ilsvai, Bebek, Kanizsai, Perényi) possessed between five and fifteen castles. Genealogy 2018, 2, 44 3 of 10

Genealogy 2018, 2, x FOR PEER REVIEW 3 of 10 The Bebeks gained significant influence in the region. Then, they were followed by three branches of thethree Per branchesényi, and of later the thePerényi, Rozgonyi and later family the (Engel Rozgonyi 1995). family This resulted (Engel 1995). in a sharp This increaseresulted in in financial a sharp differences.increase in Onefinancial single differences. great landholder One single could great have authoritylandholder over could several have thousand authority villein over families.several Inthousand the Sigismund villein families. era, barons In the received Sigismund the “era,magnificus barons ”received title, while the “ theirmagnificus sons” were title, titled while “ theiregregius sons”. Baronswere titled were „egregius able to hold”. Barons their were title perpetually,able to hold buttheir their title sons perpetually, could not but inherit their it.so Thus,ns could a process not inherit had begun,it. Thus, which a process drove had a wedge begun, between which drove noblemen a wedge (Fügedi between 1970 noblemen). (Fügedi 1970).

Figure 1.1.The The diploma diploma issued issued by Louis by theLouis Great the (1342–1382) Great (1342–1382) and certain and chief certain dignitaries, chief strengthening dignitaries, thestrengthening king’s authority the king’s over authority Raguza/ over Raguza/Dubrov and, togethernik and, with together the envoys with of the the envoys city, determining of the city, thedetermining city’s obligations the city’s andobligations privileges. and privileges. The king The gained king authority gained authority over Raguza, over Raguza, according according to the 18to Februarythe 18 February 1358 Treaty 1358 of Treaty . of Visegr Zadar.ád, 27Visegr Mayád, 1358. 27 DržavniMay 1358. arhiv Državni Dubrovnik, arhiv 7.Dubrovnik, 3. Diplomata 7. et3. actaDiplomata 14. st., et pp. acta 34. 14. (L˝oveiand st., pp. 34. Tak (Láőcsvei 2014 and, p.Takács 132). 2014, p. 132).

InIn 1408,1408, SigismundSigismund ofof Luxemburg,Luxemburg, togethertogether withwith hishis secondsecond queenqueen BorbBorbálaála ofof Cilli,Cilli, foundedfounded thethe Order of of the the Dragon. Dragon. Beyond Beyond its ecclesiastic its ecclesiastic afflatus afflatus and detailed and detailed “sacrosanct “sacrosanct goals”, goals”, the order, the which order, whichset its settarget its targetof protecting of protecting , Christianity, served served as a assupporter a supporter of Sigismund’s of Sigismund’s power power and and meant meant to toeliminate eliminate internal internal dissension dissension (Mályusz (Mályusz 1984). 1984 ).Traditionally, Traditionally, being being part part of of the the order order was was of greatgreat prestige.prestige. Forty-two secular lords can be found amongstamongst the founders of the order—theorder—the trustworthytrustworthy supporters ofof Sigismund, Sigismund, who who were were to upkeepto upkeep the internalthe internal peace peace and protect and protect the country the country from external from attacks.external Theattacks. symbol The of symbol the order, of the which order, depicts which a dragondepicts witha dragon its tail with coiled its aroundtail coiled its around neck, appears its neck, in severalappears baronialin several coats baronial of arms coats (Baranyai of arms 1925(Baranyai), especially 1925), especially seen in the seen case in ofthe two case crucial of two baronial crucial families,baronial thefamilies, Bátori the and Bátori Cilli and (Bár áCilliny 2013 (Bárány). 2013). The kingking extendedextended thisthis “monarchical“monarchical club”club” inin 1431.1431. Several foreign noblemen and eveneven kingskings became members.

The Perpetual IspIspánságánság [Comitatus,[Comitatus, Sheriffdom]Sheriffdom] Let us nownow surveysurvey the originorigin of thethe titletitle perpetualperpetual ispispánságánság.. The leaders of the counties, ispispánokánok,, comites,, receivedreceived their their assignments assignments from from the king the until king withdrawal until withdrawal or up to their or deaths.up to Consequently,their deaths. theConsequently, first perpetual the firstispáns perpetualág were grantedispánság towere institutions, granted to not institutions, persons. not Such persons. institutions Such wouldinstitutions be a would be a bishopric or an archbishopric. The comes of /Gran county was the Archbishop of Esztergom from 1270. (see Figure 2). Likewise, from the 15th century, the comes of Bihar/Bihor/ was the bishop of Várad/Wardien/ and the comes of Győr/Raab county was the Genealogy 2018, 2, 44 4 of 10 bishopric or an archbishopric. The comes of Esztergom/Gran county was the Archbishop of Esztergom from 1270. (see Figure2). Likewise, from the 15th century, the comes of Bihar/Bihor/Bihor county Genealogy 2018, 2, x FOR PEER REVIEW 4 of 10 was the bishop of Várad/Wardien/Oradea and the comes of Gy˝or/Raabcounty was the bishop of Gy˝or(bishopNorbert of Győ r2011 (Norbert). Perpetual 2011).isp Perpetualánságok [plural ispánságok of isp [pluralánság] were of ispánság connected] were to secularconnected institutions to secular as well.institutions It was theas well. task ofIt thewas the of task Macs ofó /Maˇcvatothe ban of organizeMacsó/Ma thečva protection to organize of the the southern protection borderline of the alongsouthern the borderline Lower . along the For Lower this purpose, Danube. the For ban this ofpurpose, Macsó thefulfilled ban of the Macs roleó offulfilled the comes the rolein the of Btheács/Batsch/Baˇc,Bodrog, comes in the Bács/Batsch/Ba /Branau,č, Bodrog, Szeré m/Syrmien/Srem,Baranya/Branau, andSzerém/Syrmien/Srem, Valkó/Wukowar/ and countiesValkó/Wukowar/Vukovar from the 14th century. counties With from this the customary 14th centur law,y. With the expenses this customary of the law, office the were expenses covered of (theHajnik office 1888 were). covered (Hajnik 1888).

Figure 2.2. TheThe seal of Cardinal DenisDenis SzSzécsi,écsi, ArchbishopArchbishop ofof Esztergom,Esztergom, 1447.1447. Haus-, Hof- und Staatsarchiv, Wien,Wien, AllgemeineAllgemeine UrkundenreiheUrkundenreihe 1447.1447. VIII.VIII. 1.1. ((MemoriaMemoria HungariaeHungariae 20152015,, 21097.).21097.).

3. Red Wax and the Development ofof OrdersOrders

3.1. The Usage of Red Wax At first, first, the the color color of ofthe the wax wax used used for forseals seals to authorize to authorize diplomas diplomas was natural, was natural, that is, thatbrown is, brown(Kumorovitz (Kumorovitz 1993). 1993Red ).wax Red first wax appeared first appeared in the in 13th the 13thcentury century in royal in royal seal sealusage usage (Takács (Tak á2012,cs 2012 p., p.150). 150). This, This, along along with with minting, minting, salt salt trade, trade, and and , mining, was was a a royal royal monopoly monopoly (Szentpétery (Szentpétery 1938).1938). Prelates had the right to use redred waxwax fromfrom thethe 14th14th centurycentury onwards.onwards. It was then that signet rings started to spread, which were now pressed into red wax. Charles I, Louis the Great, and Queen Mary of HungaryHungary (1382–1395)(1382–1395) consistently consistently pressed pressed their their signet signet rings rings into into red red wax wax (Kumorovitz (Kumorovitz 1993 1993).). A seal A madeseal made with with the signet the signet ring ring of King of King Louis Louis is given is given below below (see Figure(see Figure3). 3). The chivalric symbol of Louis, the ostrich holding a horseshoe in its beak, is in the fieldfield of the seal. This emblem was was the the symbol of of power and and stre strengthngth since, according according to to the the legend of the era, ostriches even ate . In the field field of the secret se sealal of Queen Mary, the of the Angevins is apparent: That is the fleur-de-lys,fleur-de-lys, andand thethe ÁÁrpádrpád stripesstripes ((KumorovitzKumorovitz 19371937).). Following the Anjou era, the seal of the national council became the symbolsymbol of governmental authority in the country for the time being, having no crowned . The wax of that was always red. Historical researchers know of three such periods. The first was in 1386, after the assassination of Charles II (1385–1386), although the country had a crowned ruler, namely Queen Mary. Another was in 1401, during a rebellion against King Sigismund, and the third one was between 1446–1452, under the regency of (Szentpétery 1902) (see Figure 4). Genealogy 2018, 2, 44 5 of 10 the time being, having no crowned monarch. The wax of that was always red. Historical researchers know of three such periods. The first was in 1386, after the assassination of Charles II (1385–1386), although the country had a crowned ruler, namely Queen Mary. Another was in 1401, during a rebellion against King Sigismund, and the third one was between 1446–1452, under the regency of John Hunyadi (Szentpétery 1902) (see Figure4). Genealogy 2018, 2, x FOR PEER REVIEW 5 of 10

Genealogy 2018, 2, x FOR PEER REVIEW 5 of 10

FigureFigure 3.3. SignetSignet ring ring seal seal of Louis of Louis the Great the Greatfrom 1360 from (left 1360 side (left). Archiv side). mesta Archiv Košice, mesta Archivum Košice, ArchivumSecretum,Figure Secretum,“T”3. Signet Jesznei, ring “T” Nr. seal Jesznei,26. of The Louis secret Nr. the 26. Greatseal The of from Queen secret 1360 Mary seal(left ofside Hungary Queen). Archiv Mary from mesta of1387 Košice, Hungary (right Archivum side from). Štátny 1387 (rightarchívSecretum, side v Prešove,). Št á“T”tny Jesznei,Archive archív Nr. v of Prešove, 26. the The Dr secretugeth Archive seal family of of Queen the of DrugethHomonna, Mary of familyHungary Nr. 14. of from Homonna, 1387 (right Nr. side 14. ). Štátny archív v Prešove, Archive of the Drugeth family of Homonna, Nr. 14. RedRed wax wax seals seals of foreignof foreign rulers rulers from aroundfrom around the country the country appear onappear the diplomas on the keptdiplomas in Hungarian kept in Red wax seals of foreign rulers from around the country appear on the diplomas kept in archives;Hungarian for archives; example, for the example, seal of the the Serbian seal ofdespot the SerbianĐura đdespotBrankovi´cis Đurađ Brankovi one of these.ć is one of these. Hungarian archives; for example, the seal of the Serbian Đurađ Branković is one of these.

FigureFigure 4. The 4.seal The of seal the of national the national council council from 1446from (left1446 side (left). side Archiv). Archiv mesta mesta Košice, Košice, Archivum Archivum Secretum Secretum ”B” Privilegium, Nr. 32. The seal of Đurađ Branković, Serbian despot from 1439 (right side) ”B”Figure Privilegium, 4. The seal Nr. 32.of the The national seal of Đ councilurađ Brankovi´c,Serbian from 1446 (left side despot). Archiv from 1439 mesta (right Košice, side) Archivum MNL OL MNL OL DL 2009, 39 290. DLSecretum 2009, 39 ”B” 290. Privilegium, Nr. 32. The seal of Đurađ Branković, Serbian despot from 1439 (right side) MNLThe OL red DL wax 2009, usage 39 290. of the Serbian despot is not an isolated example in Central Europe. The fact The red wax usage of the Serbian despot is not an isolated example in Central Europe. The fact that Polish rulers used red wax from the 14th century is well known. Furthermore, the Moldavian that PolishandThe Wallachian red rulers wax used usage Voivode red of wax thealso fromSerbian pressed the hisdespot 14th seal century inis rednot wax isan well isolated in order known. toexample differentiate Furthermore, in Central himself the Europe. Moldavianfrom other The and fact that .Polish rulers(Moldavian used see: red Archiwum wax from G thełówne 14th Akt ce Dawnychntury is well Zbior known. Doc. Perg. Furthermore, Nr. 5615.; Wallachian: the Moldavian and WallachianNr. 5329.) Voivode also pressed his seal in red wax in order to differentiate himself from other boyars. (Moldavian see: Archiwum Główne Akt Dawnych Zbior Doc. Perg. Nr. 5615.; Wallachian: Nr. 5329.)

Genealogy 2018, 2, 44 6 of 10

Wallachian Voivode also pressed his seal in red wax in order to differentiate himself from other boyars. (Moldavian see: Archiwum Główne Akt Dawnych Zbior Doc. Perg. Nr. 5615.; Wallachian: Nr. 5329.)

3.2. The Earliest Secular Nobles to Use Red Wax The first secular person to use red wax in the Hungarian Kingdom was Hermann, the count of Genealogy 2018, 2, x FOR PEER REVIEW 6 of 10 Cillei/Cilli/Celjski. He was only licensed to use it due to his title as imperial count (Norbert 2011). Later, following3.2. The Earliest his example, Secular Nobles families to Use with Red Wax special rights started to use red wax in the Croatian Banate. The Korbáviai/countsThe first secular of Krbava,person to theuse red Frangep wax iná thn/Frankopan,e Hungarian Kingdom and the was Zr Hermann,ínyi/Zrinski the count families of were perpetualCillei/Cilli/Celjski. comites. The KHeór wasógyi only family licensed was to the use first it due family to his of title Hungarian as imperial origins count (Norbert to use the 2011). count title. DuringLater, the Council following of his Constance, example, families Philip with Kór óspeciagyi concludedl rights started an inheritanceto use red wax contract in the Croatian with a distant relative,Banate. the count The Korbáviai/counts of Castell. From of thisKrbava, point, the theyFrange werepán/Frankopan, allowed to and use the each Zrínyi/Zrinski other’s titles, families and Philip frequentlywere referred perpetual to comites. himself The as Kórógyi the count family of was Castell. the first Then, family Sigismund of Hungarian granted origins to him use the count right to use title. During the , Philip Kórógyi concluded an inheritance contract with a red wax (Neumann 2014). distant relative, the count of Castell. From this point, they were allowed to use each other’s titles, and Thus,Philip by frequently the mid-15th referred century, to himself several as the noble count familiesof Castell. used Then, red Sigismund wax. The granted question him the arises right whether this entailedto use onlyred wax prestige, (Neumann or some2014). form of authority as well. To give an answer, we must examine a multisigillicThus, diploma by the from mid-15th 1440. century The,dignitaries several noblegathered families used in Budared wax. sent The emissaries question arises to Krakwhetherów, to the court ofthis Władysław entailed only III prestige, of . or some The form officials of authority present as placed well. To their give sealsan answer, on the we charter, must examine in descending a hierarchicalmultisigillic order, diploma from left from to 1440. right, The as dignitaries was customary gathered atin theBuda time. sent emissaries Firstly, we to Kraków, can see to the the red wax court of Władysław III of Poland. The officials present placed their seals on the charter, in descending seals ofhierarchical prelates. Ulrichorder, from of Cilli left to starts right, the as was line cu ofstomary the secular at the sealers,time. Firstly, and we the can greatest see the secularred wax official present,seals the Banof prelates. of Macs Ulrichó/Maˇcva,only of Cilli starts placesthe line hisof the seal secular after sealers, them. Thus,and the Ulrich greatest of secular Cillioutranked official the high dignitariespresent, the of Ban the of kingdom Macsó/Mač asva, an only imperial places his count. seal after We them. can onlyThus, seeUlrich the of seals Cilli outranked of the Kó therógyi and Korbáviaihigh at dignitaries the end of of thethe line,kingdom as they as an were imperial not co inunt. office. We can Red only wax see primarily the seals of served the Kórógyi representational and goals, andKorbáviai together at the with end theof the perpetual line, as theycomes weretitle, not in it office. meant Red a certain wax primarily rank. Still,served authority representational did not come goals, and together with the perpetual comes title, it meant a certain rank. Still, authority did not come automatically with it (Novák 2018) (see Figure5). automatically with it (Novák 2018) (see Figure 5).

Figure 5.FigureSeals 5. ofSeals Ulrich, of Ulrich, count count of Cillei/Cilli/Celjeof Cillei/Cilli/Celje (top-left (top-left corner corner), John), John Kórógyi, Kór ócountgyi, countof Castell of Castell (top-right corner), and Gregory Korbáviai, count of Korbávia (Krbava, bottom-left corner) from 1440. (top-right corner), and Gregory Korbáviai, count of Korbávia (Krbava, bottom-left corner) from 1440. Archiwum Główne Akt Dawnych Zbior Doc. Perg. Nr. 5574. (Memoria Hungariae 2015, 11342., Archiwum11344., Gł ó11345.).wne AktThe Dawnychseal of Stephen Zbior Frangepán/Fran Doc. Perg.kopan, Nr. 5574. count (ofMemoria Veglia/Krk, Hungariae Zengg/ 2015 and, 11342., 11344., 11345.).Modrus/Modruš The seal (bottom-right of Stephen corner Frangep) from á1451n/Frankopan, (MNL OL DL count2009, 33 of 986.). Veglia/Krk, Zengg/Senj and Modrus/Modruš (bottom-right corner) from 1451 (MNL OL DL 2009, 33 986.).

Genealogy 2018, 2, 44 7 of 10

Genealogy 2018, 2, x FOR PEER REVIEW 7 of 10 3.3. Changes during the Development of the Estate 3.3. ChangesHowever, during the numberthe Development of perpetual of the comesEstate and count titles increased continually from the . MatkHowever,ó/ the of number Tallóc/Tall of perpetualóci/Talovac comes and and his count family titles became increased the continually count of Cetinafrom the in 1440s. 1442 (Matkó/MatthiasMályusz 1980). of Following Tallóc/Tallóci/Talovac the death ofand Władislaus his family became I (1440–1444, the count Władysław of Cetina in III 1442 of (Mályusz Poland), John1980). HunyadiFollowing was the death elected of toWł ruleadislaus the I country (1440–1444, as a W governor;ładysław III he of used Poland), red John wax Hunyadi for his seals. was Afterelected Ladislaus to rule the Posthumouscountry as a (1440–1457) governor; he returned used red to the wax country for his in seals. 1453, HunyadiAfter Ladislaus was given the thePosthumous title Count (1440–1457) of Beszterce/Bistritz/Bistri returned to the countryt,a; thus, in he 1453, did notHunyadi suffer was any lossgiven in the prestige title Count after hisof governorshipBeszterce/Bistritz/Bistri ended (MNLța; thus, OL DL he 2009 did ,not 24 762.).suffer An any increasing loss in prestige number after of landowners his governorship rose in rankended to the(MNL level OL of DL barons. 2009, They24 762.). were An perpetual increasing comites/ numberisp áofnok landownersor counts androse were in rank privileged to the level to use of redbarons. wax (seeThey Figure were 6perpetual). comites/ispánok or counts and were privileged to use red wax (see Figure 6).

Figure 6. 6. TheThe seal seal of ofMatkó/Matthias Matkó/Matthias Tallóci/Talovac, Tallóci/Talovac, count count of Cetina of Cetina from 1442 from (left 1442 side (left). Haus-, side). Haus-,Hof- und Hof- Staatsarchiv, und Staatsarchiv, Allgemeine Allgemeine Urkundenreihe Urkundenreihe 1442. VIII. 1442. 16. VIII. The 16.seals The of sealsJohn ofHunyadi John Hunyadi and his andelder his son, elder Ladislaus son, Ladislaus count of count Beszterce/Bistritz/Bistri of Beszterce/Bistritz/Bistrița from 1456t,a from (middle 1456 (andmiddle right and side right). Archiv side). ArchivRepublike Republike Slovenije Slovenije SI AS Nr. SI AS4567. Nr. 4567.

This continual increase in the numbers of red wax users was particularlyparticularly accelerated under the rule of (1458–1490). This right waswas now granted to the free royal cities, having the privilege of being under the authority of the Lord Chief Treasurer only. was the firstfirst city to receive the right to use red red wax wax (Kubinyi (Kubinyi 1961).1961). Ko Košice,šice, Bardejov, Bardejov, Prešov, Prešov, Bratislava, Bratislava, , Trnava, , Sopron, and PestPest werewere also also given given this this right, right, after after Buda. Buda. The SzapolyaiThe Szapolyai and the and Bazini the andBazini Szentgyörgyi and Szentgyörgyi families, bothfamilies, being both of supportersbeing of supporters of Matthias, of Matthias, also rose also to baronial rose to rank.baronial Their rank. female Their relatives female relatives were licensed were tolicensed use red to waxuse asred well. wax Theas well. widow The of widow John Hunyadi,of John Hunyadi, mother ofmother the ruler, of the who ruler, was who also was a sister also of a governorsister of governor Michael SzilMichaelágyi, Szilágyi, was authorized was authorized to use red to wax use (seered wax Figure (see7). Figure 7). By 1490, a greater number of lords partook in thethe royal council than those who did not have such a title ((MályuszMályusz 19401940).). The representa representationaltional value of using red wax had grown, almost as if it was an expectation towards the members of the royal council.council. Above, we can see a diploma from the City Archive of Košice, dated after the death of KingKing Matthias.Matthias. The patent was validated by the seals of Queen Beatrice of Aragon and the most significant significant officials. officials. In addition addition to the the prelates, prelates, John , Corvinus, Stephen BBátoriátori of Ecsed, Peter, and Matthias GerGerééb of VingVingárdárd allall usedused redred wax.wax. Only Paul Kinizsi continued to use green wax (see(see FigureFigure8 8).). The lastlast stagestage ofof the the forming forming of of the the aristocracy aristocracy was was Article Article XXII XXII of 1498of 1498 (D˝oryet (Dőry al.et al.2010 2010,, pp. pp. 102–3). 102– The103). diet The madediet made a list a oflist those of those families families that that were were now now obliged obliged to to raise raise troops troopsand and enlistedenlisted 37 lords. lords. With this,this, theythey receivedreceived thethe ““magnatemagnate”” title.title. From then onwards, lords were legally differentiated from common nobles. nobles. Until Until the the Battle Battle of of Mohács Mohács (t (thehe end end of of the the Middle Middle Ages Ages in inHungary, Hungary, 1526), 1526), a agreater greater and and greater greater number number of of lords lords received received the the perpetualperpetual ispán ispán title,title, which which was was now now transmissible. transmissible. Furthermore, they were alsoalso licensedlicensed toto useuse redred wax.wax.

Genealogy 2018, 2, 44 8 of 10 Genealogy 2018, 2, x FOR PEER REVIEW 8 of 10 Genealogy 2018, 2, x FOR PEER REVIEW 8 of 10

FigureFigureFigure 7. 7.The The seal seal of Queenof QueenQueen Mother MotherMother Elizabeth ElizabethElizabeth Szilá gyi, SziláSzilá fromgyi,gyi, 1462.from from Archiv1462. 1462. Archiv mestaArchiv Košice, mesta mesta ArchivumKošice, Košice, Archivum Archivum Secretum, “F”Secretum,Secretum, Tellonium “F” Nr. Tellonium 63. Nr. 63.63.

Figure 8. Seals from the letter of the dignitaries dispatched to the city of Kassa/Kaschau/Košice after FigureFigure 8. 8.Seals Seals from from the the letter letter of of the the dignitaries dignitaries dispatched dispatched to to the the city city of of Kassa/Kaschau/Košice Kassa/Kaschau/Košice after after the death of King Matthias in 1490. Archiv mesta Košice, Archivum Secretum, “F” Tellonium Nr. 102. thethe death death of of King King Matthias Matthias in in 1490. 1490. Archiv Archiv mesta mesta Košice, Košice, Archivum Archivum Secretum, Secretum, “F” “F” Tellonium Tellonium Nr. Nr. 102. 102.

4.4.4. Conclusions ConclusionsConclusions Let us now summarize what red wax symbolizes. In the first half of the 15th century, counts did LetLet us us now now summarize summarize what what red red wax wax symbolizes. symbolizes. In In the the first first half half of of the the 15th 15th century, century, counts counts did did not yet have greater authority than the rest of the nobles; however, the title raised the prestige of its notnot yet yet havehave greatergreater authorityauthority than the rest of of the the no nobles;bles; however, however, the the title title raised raised the the prestige prestige of ofits owner. The right to use red wax came with the title, and it was an important representational tool in itsowner. owner. The The right right to use to usered redwax wax came came with with the title, the title,and it and was it an was important an important representational representational tool in a time of illiteracy. Thus, an even greater number of landholders endeavored to acquire it throughout toola time in aof time illiteracy. of illiteracy. Thus, an Thus, even angreater even number greater of number landholders of landholders endeavored endeavored to acquire toit throughout acquire it the century. A gap opened and broadened between nobles and, at the turn of the century, nobility throughoutthe century. the A century.gap opened A gap and opened broadened and broadened between nobles between and, nobles at the and, turn at theof the turn century, of the century, nobility became legally differentiated. The application of red wax is the measure of this process, which can nobilitybecame becamelegally differentiated. legally differentiated. The application The application of red wax of is red the wax measure is the of measure this process, of this which process, can be spotted by examining seal usage. Stephen Werbőcz encapsulated the results of this process in his whichbe spotted can be by spotted examining by examiningseal usage. sealStephen usage. Werb Stephenőcz encapsulated Werb˝oczencapsulated the results of the this results process of in this his Tripartitum at the beginning of the . From then onwards, this jurisdictional code stood as processTripartitum in his atTripartitum the beginningat the of beginningthe 16th century. of the16th From century. then onwards, From then this onwards, jurisdictional this jurisdictional code stood as a sample during the forthcoming centuries, up until the revolution in 1848. In our paper, we codea sample stood during as a sample the forthcoming during the forthcomingcenturies, up centuries, until the up revolution until the revolutionin 1848. In in our 1848. paper, In our we presented and supplemented a well-known process of social development by examining the usage paper,presented we presented and supplemented and supplemented a well-known a well-known process of process social development of social development by examining by examining the usage of red wax. Clearly, Hungarian aristocracy strived to represent its power, the tool of which became theof red usage wax. of redClearly, wax. Hungarian Clearly, Hungarian aristocracy aristocracy strived to strived represent to represent its power, its the power, tool the of which tool of became which the usage of red wax during the 15th century. We saw, through the example of Philip Kórógyi, that becamethe usage the of usage red wax of red during wax during the 15th the century. 15th century. We saw, We saw,through through the example the example of Philip of Philip Kórógyi, Kóró gyi,that members of the Hungarian royal entourage came into contact with European nobility and realized that members of the Hungarian royal entourage came into contact with European nobility and realized membersthe importance of the and Hungarian tools of representationroyal entourage during came their into Westerncontact withjourneys, European which nobility were in andconnection realized the importance and tools of representation during their Western journeys, which were in connection thewith importance the Council and of toolsConstance, of representation for the proliferatio during ntheir of armorial Western granting journeys, by which the king, were which in connection can be with the Council of Constance, for the proliferation of armorial granting by the king, which can be withlinked the to Councilthe synod of (Nyulásziné Constance, 1981).for the Alongside proliferatio then coofats armorial of arms, granting the usage by of the various king, titles which became can be linked to the synod (Nyulásziné Straub 1981). Alongside the coats of arms, the usage of various titles linkedimportant to the as synod well. (NyulászinéHowever, since 1981). these Alongside were no thet soco atsrefined of arms, and the widespread usage of various in the titlesHungarian became became important as well. However, since these were not so refined and widespread in the Hungarian importantKingdom asas they well. were However, in Western since Europe, these thosewere whnoot wereso refined allowed and tried widespread to compensate in the by Hungarianusing red Kingdom as they were in Western Europe, those who were allowed tried to compensate by using red Genealogy 2018, 2, 44 9 of 10

Kingdom as they were in Western Europe, those who were allowed tried to compensate by using red wax and the title perpetual comes. Thus, in addition to wealth generation, the usage of red wax became an important tool in representing authority.

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, Á.N. and B.A.B.; Resources, Á.N.; Writing-Original Draft Preparation, Á.N.; Writing-Review & Editing, B.A.B. Funding: This article is supported by the Hungarian Academy of Sciences—University of Debrecen ‘Lendület’ Research Group “Hungary in Medieval Europe”. Acknowledgments: The authors wish to thank the staff of certain archives, who helped a lot in research and kindly provided photos. Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

References

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