Incunabula indexes

Hans H. Wellisch

Examination of nearly a thousand books printed before 1500 has revealed indexes, some printed, some manuscript, in 83 of them, enabling some conclusions to be made on late medieval indexing policy and practice. The likelihood of indexing in particular subject areas; whether the index {or registrum or tabula) is explained; and the structure of the indexes, are among topics covered. The vagaries of primitive alphabetization are outlined, and an attempt is made to assess quality. Some of the indexers of these indexes are known by name. There is much worthy of study in medieval indexes, which are not merely of antiquarian interest. A list of the examined items is given.

The limitation of the incunabula period tothe first 1973; Rabnett 1982) or on a special subject (Wellisch fifty years or so of printing with an arbitrary cutoff 1978). date at 1500 is in many respects unfortunate, as has The present study is based on the personal inspec been stated by a noted historian of printing: This date tion of four fairly large and variegated collections of cuts right across the most fertile period of the new art, incunabula, namely 330 in the Folger Shakespeare halving the lives of some of its greatest practitioners'. Library, 17 in the Georgetown University Library, 340 (Steinberg 1955, p 19). This is also true regarding the in the Dibner Library of the Smithsonian Institution indexes of incunabula. As this survey will show, these Libraries (all in Washington, D.C.) and 258 in the indexes varied widely in quality and sophistication, but National Library of Medicine in Bethesda, Maryland: a trend towards steady improvement is clearly dis a total of953 books. Inaddition, a dozen items were cernible toward the end of the period, and indexes inspected in the , and some data in achieved higher quality just after the turn of the 16th the publications listed above were also used. All books century. In the 1550s, editorial and typographical were checked for the presence of name and subject features, including the compilation of multilingual indexes in addition to and separate from tables of con indexes, reached a level seldom seen in our modern tents (both of which are in most cases labelled indexes. Still, a study of any aspect of incunabula "Tabula" which makes their description in bibliogra must necessarily adhere to accepted scholarly norms, phies ambiguous, the more so since some genuine and this survey is therefore limited to the indexes of indexes are sometimes printed rightafter the table of books printed until the end of the year 1500. contents in the beginning of books). Data were veri Manuscript indexes are also covered, inasmuch as they fied or completed (in cases when parts of. an index are relevant to those printed indexes that were were missing) from those in the standard incunabula modelled on them. bibliographies: Hain-Copinger's Repertorium and the The sample and its characteristics Gesamtkatalog der Wiegendrucke and Polain's Catalogue des livres imprimis au XVe siecle des biblio- The provision of finding aids in late medieval manu theques de Belgique. scripts and in the earliest printed books has been the The total of 970 books inspected represents roughly subject of much uninformed speculation, such as that 2.8-3.6 percent of the total quantity of incunabula manuscripts could notbeindexed because they were which has been variously estimated as 36,000 (a figure not paginated and notwo of them were exactly he cited in the Encyclopedia Britannica) or as low as same, or that printed indexes could only be compiled 27,000 (Dachs & Schmidt 1974). 83 books, or 8.6 per after pagination had been invented. Only a few serious cent of all books examined had either name or subject inquiries have been published, but even those based indexes or both. The difference between the 83 items their findings on a small number of items that seen and the 63 listed in the Appendix is caused by happened to be available; (Pollard 1908; Witty 1965, reprinted indexes seen. This article first appeared in Mercurius in trivia, a feslschrift Almost all indexes were printed, but four books for the Italian librarian and bibliographer Alfredo Serrai, [2, 28, 40, 50] had handwritten indexes, evidently com edited by Maria Cochetti; Bulzoni Editore, 1992. It is repro piled by their owners who were frustrated by duced here by kind permission of the author. The reference the absence ofan index: in one instance, a reader system adopted by the author in the original version is compiled his own index in addition to a fairly large retained here. The numbers in square brackets refer to the list of indexed printed one [40] which was apparently not sufficient incunabula in Appendix I. for his exacting needs.

The Indexer Vol. 19 No. 1 April 1994 INCUNABULA INDEXES The subjects of indexed books Twenty indexes were found in books printed in the decade from 1470-9, 19 in those of the decade 1480-9, The earliest printed index, compiled for St. and 38 in the last eleven years of the incunabula peri Augustine's De arte praedicandi [8] was probably mod od. This seems to indicate that, as readers increasingly elled on earlier manuscript indexes of the work; the came to appreciate the value of indexes, more finding anonymous editor and indexer says in his preface that aids were provided by printers who quickly realized he had collated the text of several manuscripts which what Schoeffer had already understood in 1470, name he had found in different places, though he may have ly, that the provision of indexes helped to sell books. improved on his models because he also claims that it Indexes also became generally more elaborate and had taken him a long time to compile the index. The voluminous towards the end of the 15th century, a fact that this quite elaborate and sophisticated index trend which continued well into the 16th century and (which had double entries, cross-references and even beyond. diagrammatic displays) was compiled for a book on the preaching of sermons was no accident. Collections TABLE I. Indexes by subject of books of sermons and books on preaching were by far the most numerous among the indexed incunabula seen. Rank Subject Printed Manuscript Total % At that time sermons were in great demand by local 1 Sermons 24 - 24 29 clerics and preachers who searched these indexes for 2 Theology 12 - 12 15 suitable themes, especially those appropriate for cer 3 Philosophy 10 - 10 12 tain holidays and fast days. Next in popularity were 4 History 7 - 7 8 indexes to theological treatises and philosophical 4 commentaries 5 2 7 8 works which were indexed by the problems that had 4 Medicine 7 - 7 8 5 Lives of saints 6 - 6 7 been discussed by philosophers since Aristotle. 6 Biography 4 - 4 5 Historical works, which enjoyed great popularity 6 Natural science 2 2 4 5 toward the end of the 15th century, were indexed by 7 Literature 1 - II the names of biblical personalities, saints, emperors, 7 Law 1 - II kings and heroes as well as by the events in their lives. Total 79 83 99 Contrary to expectations, very few works dealing with medicine and the natural sciences were indexed: only 16 out of the 258 incunabula held by the National Position of indexes Library of Medicine and six items out of 340 in the While tables of contents, most often entitled Dibner Library (which holds only works on science 'Tabula', were always found at the beginning of and technology) had indexes. A notable exception is books, indexes were either printed immediately follow the Gart der Gesundtheit [34], one of the earliest print ing them or at the end of the text, followed by the ed herbals which has both a classified subject index of colophon. The position of an index varied even in diseases and ailments that could be cured by herbs cases where the same .index was reprinted in successive (the first index in German) and a bilingual (German- editions of the text, e.g. in [44]. Altogether 56 indexes ) name index of plants. A French herbal, the could be inspected for their position, 29 of which were Arbolaire [4], also had such indexes, modelled on those printed in the front matter of the book, while 27 were of the Gart, as was the case for its translations into printed in the back, a position which became more Dutch, Italian and English in the 16th century: common in the 16th century and has been the normal (Wellisch 1978, pp. 84-88). Table 1 provides a detailed one since the 17th century. breakdown by subject. Terms Chronological distribution of indexes The term 'index', found in classical Latin, though with somewhat different meanings (a person pointing The earliest incunabulum index [8] was probably out something; a list of titles; a title slip; etc.), was sel printed in 1464 or no later than in February 1485 and dom if ever used in incunabula and became the com not, as has been thought previously, in 1467. monly used term only in the 17th century. The pre (Householder 1943). Since my description of this index ferred term was Tabula'; 34 of 56 indexes, or 61%, (Wellisch 1986), a dedication found in a copy of this had that title. Next in popularity was 'Registrum', work held by the library of the University of Freiburg another ambiguous term, because it was also used for im Breisgau indicates that it had been given to its a list of gatherings at the end of books. In its English Faculty of Arts on 14 February 1465 by a certain form, that term occurs already in Chaucer's 'Knightes Johann Graff who died in 1469 (Sack 1985). The index tale' in the sense of a listing: is specifically noted in Peter Schoeffer's sales catalogue of 1470. The first dated index is the one to Speculum 1 am no divynistre: vitae [53], printed in 1468. "Of soules" find I nought in this registre

The Indexer Vol. 19 No. 1 April 1994 INCUNABULA INDEXES The term is still in use in German-speaking coun In this table, every word is preceded by two num tries although lately the term 'index' has also gained bers, the first of which indicates the book, the sec acceptance there. The terms 'Repertorium' or ond the chapter [10]. 'Repertorium sive tabula', 'Annotatio', 'Tabula remis- In one of the many collections of sermons by the soria' (i.e. Table of references) and 'Directorium' were famous preacher Caracciolus [24] the index concludes occasionally also used. Four indexes had no title at all with or were only preceded by an introductory note. End of the index of the sermons and of the sub Prefaces and introductory notes jects of this book which have been collected in brief from those sermons, so that everyone who About a third of the indexes seen had either pref intends to read about them can easily find a spe aces, some of which were fairly extensive or they had cific sentence wherever it may be, whether in a at least a brief introductory note about the manner in sermon to the people or in one to the clerics... which the index had been constructed and how it Therefore, he who would like to find anything in should be used. Since there was little uniformity in the these sermons may look in the index in alphabeti structure of indexes, the nature of items to which loca cal order... And thus it has been provided for tors referred, or the style of locators, it was indeed everything for all sentences, references, authorities necessary to tell readers how to use each and every and titles which have been indicated in this refer index, even though at least towards the end of the ence index. Finished successfully. period readers must have become more familiar with While such instructions may have been needed in indexes. 1473 when only few books had indexes, twenty years The anonymous indexer of the first printed index [8] later it was apparently still necessary to state: wrote a long preface in which he pointed out that Therefore you need to understand that in the fol The index and figures of this book are indeed lowing index the number described represents the alone worth its whole price, because they make it number of the chapter [46]. much easier to use... and that Everybody should also know that the alphabetic letters... set out in Four indexes to German books were found, the ear the inner margins serve the said index of the book liest of which is in the Gart der Gesundtheit [34]; which refers to the very same letters... so that Here follows the fifth and last part of this book, everybody who wants to find quickly something and it is an index, to find quickly all diseases of that is contained in this little book can find it, human beings... In this index are also listed the and not least also by means of various and many masters... Avi, that is Avicenna, Ga or Gali, cross-references it will be revealed what is some that is Galienus... Pau, Paulus, etc. and always a times contained in the diverse passages of this number next to it, namely, i, ii, iii, iv, v, vi, etc. little book at those points, which will prove to be most fruitful for those who wish to study the Other German indexes were found in [23], [45] and book. [55].

The compiler of two early indexes, Thomas Types and structure of indexes Dorniberg, gave a lengthy example for the use and usefulness of his index to [62]: Subject indexes were the most common type; 42 of these were devoted only to subjects, while 13 were If we take the subject of any chapter ... from its mixed subject and name indexes; 12 books had name title, a beautiful example is immediately found ... indexes, listing only persons and sometimes places; 3 For instance, from the letter A we take the entry 'Acceptation of gifts leads to four bad effects', the books had separate name and subject indexes. first of which is that justice is traded for a petty price. This is treated in Tract ii, chapter 5, section Alphabetization vii. Although virtually all indexes emphasized the fact that they were 'alphabetically arranged' or 'in the The index to Burleigh's De vita et moribus order of the alphabet', 12 of those that could be philosophorum [22] has an introductory note: checked for the manner of their arrangement did not The present little work's very useful table, carry alphabetization beyond the first letter of a head arranged alphabetically and containing the ing; 26 indexes carried alphabetization only to the first philosopher's names and their most effective say syllable of a heading, that is, to its first two or three ings, begins. letters, and in only two indexes an effort was made to To make sure that no reader would miss the point, file entries also by the letter following the first syllable. the very same text is repeated after the last index entry This does not seem to have bothered users too much, but concluding with the word 'ends'. Typical for perhaps because in most indexes only a few dozen explanations of the structure of entries are the follow entries or less were printed on a page, generally in the ing: same type size as the text, so that the scanning of

The Indexer Vol. 19 No. 1 April 1994 INCUNABULA INDEXES entries was not too difficult. In five indexes, however, As shown by the example above, most early indexes filing was by the first significant keyword, including its used only chapter and paragraph numbers as locators, grammatical variants, for example: often augmented by a series of letters printed at fixed Honor soli deo debetur intervals in the margins in order to pinpoint the place Propter honorem suum ... of a reference on the page, or by adding a verbal Contra honorem suum ... instruction (as above), or both, e.g., Honor dei includit... Abstinentia est multiplex xlv D et infra Honor laus et gloria ... Pagination was first used in 1470 by G. Lauer in In one instance, subheadings were used in keyword Rome, but was only seldom used thereafter by other arrangement [21]: printers; only 7 indexes used page numbers as locators, Charitas describitur. .. while most other indexes employed Roman-numbered _ et laus eius ponitur . .. foliation numbers. This forced them to resort to cum De hac charitate ... bersome means in order to indicate the recto or verso of a leaf. Marginal letters starting on the recto and Locators continuing on the verso were one way to locate a Foliation and even pagination, with both Roman word or phrase, e.g., xii B meant the second para and Arabic numerals, was known and used in some graph on the recto, while xii M was somewhere on the manuscripts of the late (Rouse 1976), but verso. it was not widely used by the early printers who relied Another method consisted of putting periods either before or after a folio number, e.g., in [54] which has rather on signatures to indicate the correct sequence of Arabic foliation: gatherings for the binders. Indexers continued there fore to use chapters, paragraphs and sections as well Abacus propheta minor .15 as marginal letters and a bewildering array of other Abbacus martyr 32. means to show at least approximately where a reader Abdias propheta .11 12. should look for a name or subject. Only towards the indicating that Abacus (i.e. Habakkuk) is mentioned end of the 15th century did foliation and pagination on folio 15 recto, Abbacus on folio 32 verso and become more commonly used in books and in their Abdias on folio 11 recto and 12 verso. One is left to indexes. The earlier methods had, however, the advan wonder why the simple step from folio to page num tage that an index could be compiled before the text bering was not taken as late as 1480, but ingrained was printed, and it also made indexes 'portable1, that habits are slow to change. is, they could easily be reprinted by the same as well Arabic pagination was sometimes added to printed as by other printers, independent of the way in which Roman foliation by users in handwriting which seems the text had been set. This possibility was indeed wide to indicate that at least some readers were more prac ly exploited, beginning with the first printed index, tically minded than the printers and indexers. produced by Schoeffer, which was copied by Mentelin Other locators consisted of column numbers, the in Strassburg, though in mutilated form (Wellisch numbers of sermons or philosophical problems in col 1986). But reprinting of indexes also had disadvan lections, books and verses of the Bible, and variously tages other than deliberate changes or abbreviations named combinations of sections, e.g., made by subsequent printers, such as the perpetuation of printer's errors. Thus, the first printing of an index Abscondit se deus a multis. ser. 72, conside. 3, conclu. 5 to Albertus Magnus's work on theology [2] had as its first entry. which refers respectively to numbered sermons, con Absolvere quis possit libro vi. ca. xxv ultra medium siderations and conclusions.

The printer of two subsequent editions decided to Cross-references number the 'books' and chapters by Arabic numbers Only a dozen indexes had more or less sophisticated and printed the same entry as cross-references, but among these was [53], the earliest Absolvere quis possit libro 9. cap. 25 ultra medium dated index, printed in 1468, which has, for example:

Evidently, the typesetter by mistake inverted the Artes mechanicae, infra in verbo mechanica Ludi quae sint liciti aut illiciti, vide infra in verbo numeral 6 so that the number for the book became 9, theatrica while the chapter number and the indication of the reference on the page ('beyond the middle') were cor In [24] the phrase 'ubi supra' is used when two adja rectly copied. cent entries refer to the same sermon. The index to Appendix I shows to which extent indexes were Boethius' De consolatione philosophiae [19] offers terse reprinted. 'see' references, e.g..

The Indexer Vol. 19 No. 1 April 1994 INCUNABULA INDEXES

Lumen, require tenebrae of the period have an average of 15 and a mode of 20 Mundus, require deus pages. The largest index encountered (or rather a con Scire, require finis cordance) was one of the handwritten ones with approximately 5500 items, accompanying a printed The last cross-reference refers to the idea that no index in [50]. The most extensive among the printed one can know his end, and is a good example for the indexes seen was [32] with more than 2800 entries on fact that index users at that time were expected to know the text of a book almost by heart, especially if 20 leaves for a text comprising only 180 leaves, or 7.8 entries per page; each entry occupies from two to five it was a classic. lines. One of the earliest indexes, namely that of [27], Double entries were also used, e.g. in the index to also had more than 2000 entries on 24 large leaves for [8], St. Augustine's popular tract De arte praedicandi. In this, the first printed index, the following entries a text on 266 leaves, or almost four entries per page, each of which was on two to three lines and some occur: times more. It was not possible to check a manuscript Dicendi modus accendit of that work (originally written in the first half of the Dicendi modus delectat 14th century) for the presence of an earlier index, but Dicendi modus flectit the elaborate nature and the sheer size of the printed Modus dicendi accendit, delectat, flectit... et index of medicinal plants with references to their treat supra, dicendi modus ment in the works of ancient authorities (Dioscorides, Since many of St. Augustine's sermons and tracts Galen, Avicenna and others) by chapter and section were indexed in late 14th century manuscripts, it make it seem likely that it was either copied together stands to reason that this index (which had also other with the text of a manuscript or was modelled on an sophisticated finding aids, including a graphic display earlier handwritten index. The copy seen in the of entries and their relationships) was inspired by if National Library of Medicine, a huge volume measur not copied from earlier manuscript indexes. ing 396 x 278 mm, has little index tabs made of parch In the index of another work by St. Augustine, De ment pasted onto the margins of the first leaves of trinitate [13], double entries are also frequently used, each chapter, another quick finding device ordered e.g., from the binder by one of the early owners of the Deus non est conversus in hominem, etc. libro i, book. cap, vii Taking into account only those indexes that had Homo non est mutatus in deum, etc. libro, i, cap, more than a thousand entries, the number of entries vii per page of text varied from a low of 1.2 to a high of 17, with an average of 5.7, a number comparing favor While this feature made the index easier to use, its ably with modern indexes, although the quality of alphabetization was rather crude, by first letter of the those entries is quite a different matter. entry only, and even the same entry word was not always arranged in a single sequence! Quality of indexes Extent of indexes It has been pointed out by Witty (1965) and Only 55 indexes could be inspected for full size, Rabnett (1982) that some incunabula indexes were lit partly because some indexes lacked one or more of tle more than listings of proper names and nouns, their first or last pages (probably because they had compiled by simple underlining of words on proof been heavily used) and partly because the indication of sheets which were then alphabetized only by first letter indexes in bibliographic sources did not always make or at best by first syllable. But these critics examined it possible to ascertain the total number of leaves or only a very small number of indexes, while the sample pages, much less the number of entries per page or investigated here shows rather that, then as now, there lines per entry. were good and bad indexes and some that were The size of indexes varied, of course, according to mediocre. First of all, it goes without saying that mod several factors, all of which are still valid today, such ern standards of indexing quality cannot be applied to as the number of indexable items, the skill of the indexes compiled in the 15th century (a bias from indexer, the style of indexing, the size of pages, and which Rabnett is not entirely free). Secondly, although the number of pages allotted to an index by a printer. at least some of the early indexers may have modelled Although the number of pages is therefore only a very their work on examples of manuscript indexes, they rough and ready measure of the extent and compre had to invent and to improvise as they went along. hensiveness of an index, yet a general trend towards But they worked in relative isolation from each other longer and therefore more comprehensive indexes is and became only slowly aware of newer and better discernible. The average number of pages for indexes techniques invented in places that were often far dis compiled between 1465 and 1479 is 14.5, for those of tant from their own. Thirdly, what strikes us as flaws 1480-9 it is 18 and those compiled in the last decade and mistakes, such as only partial or haphazard alpha-

The Indexer Vol. 19 No. 1 April 1994 INCUNABULA INDEXES betization or in the arbitrary omission of names and the indexer seems to have been convinced that he had topics may not have been perceived as such by the managed to compile the perfect index to Vincent of readers of that time. As Pollard (1908) has pointed Beauvais's Speculum historiale [62]; in his preface he out, indexes were intended to be read and remembered stated: almost to the same extent as the text indexes. Thus, to May the reader not think that anything is missing cite just one example, the entry 'Adam et eva quot in this Speculum which has not been listed in the annis vixerunt' in Schedel's Liber chronicarum [58] has indexes. no corresponding entry under Eva; but the indexer may have thought that Eva would always be sought On the other hand, the indexer of a German trans under Adam since the phrase 'Adam et eva' was then lation of Rolewink's Fasciculus temporum [55] was as now a cliche. Double entries do not occur in the apparently not quite sure whether he had listed all same work, which shows that the indexer did not locators correctly: always choose just the first word of an entry as index When you look in the index according to the term. The criticism of its other faults, pointed out by order of the ABC, you will find under each num Witty, such as foliation as locators without indication ber of a leaf where a subject appears. If, however, of recto or verso, the lack of cross-references and the it should not appear on that leaf and you are in doubt, you will find it on another leaf, either absence of entries for the many illustrations is, how before or after that leaf. ever, justified. But this index to one of the most famous incunabula is not really typical, and its short On the whole, it is possible to discern a trend comings may have been caused in part by its hasty towards more and better indexes as the 15th century is compilation; it had to be linked, similar to modern nearing its end, thus preparing the way'for indexes of indexes, to folio numbers and could therefore not be high quality that were compiled in the 16th century. prepared in advance, as was the case when chapters and paragraphs were still used as locators. The printer The indexers of this technically complex work was eager to get it Who were the compilers of indexes to the sermons, published so as to recoup the considerable amount lives of saints, biographies of lesser mortals, histories invested in the venture, and the indexer may therefore of the world, and books on natural history, medicine, have worked under heavy pressure, not producing an astronomy and many other topics which the early buy exemplary index (Wilson 1976). ers of printed books wanted to find quickly and easily Be that as it may, the previous sections have among the closely printed pages of often huge and shown that there were wide variations in the quality of heavy volumes? Some early printers were probably indexes. Many had only single term entries followed often also their own indexers, but most of them by chapter or folio numbers, e.g., in [16]: employed scholars as editors and correctors whose tasks included the compilation of indexes. While the abissus c. printers had to have, first of all, some considerable ableston cxxv abies cxxxvi technical knowledge and mechanical skills, most of them were by no means mere artisans. Many were Some indexes, especially those of historical works, learned men and a few even held academic degrees. elaborated somewhat, e.g., in [33] (note that Arabic Thus, Peter Schoeffer, Gutenberg's assistant and one numerals were used for foliation): of his successors, is known to have been at the Sorbonne in where he may have earned a law Aadias sextus lydorum rex 50 Aaron primus pontifex 16 degree because he became a judge in and was Abraam pater 8 also known as a 'clericus'. One of his competitors in Abraam propheta 45 Strassburg, Heinrich Eggestein, had the title 'magister', and it is known that several other early printers had About half of all indexes seen had entries in more bachelor's and master's degrees. or less elaborate narrative form, sometimes occupying In the first two or three decades of printing, the several lines, e.g., in [46] and [47]: printers had to make judicious choices among existing Absolvere non possunt fratres mendicantes in and well-known works previously available only as casibus pro episcopos reservatos ca. iiij, iii manuscripts, and they tried to anticipate which of these would find a ready market among the learned Misericordiae beatitudo: differt a liberalitate et readers. They as well as their typesetters also had to magnificentia atque respondet donum consilii: have a thorough knowledge of Latin, and later on also et pellit avaritiam xxix F Greek, in addition to the various vernaculars which The compilers of indexes were in most instances rapidly became the language of popular (and therefore eager to point out in a preface that their work was of profitable) books for a wider audience (Hirsch 1967). high quality, 'very useful' or easy to use. In one case, They were assisted in this and other tasks, particularly

The Indexer Vol. 19 No. 1 April 1994 INCUNABULA INDEXES editing, proofreading and correcting by men of the its locators refer to folio numbers which have also highest erudition who were either called upon to per been added by the hand of the owner-indexer. form the task of editing a particular work or were in the permanent employ of a printer. Named indexers An example is Bernardo Machiavelli (the father of Then as now, the compilers of indexes were seldom Niccolo), a prosperous Florentine lawyer, who in 1475 named. In some cases it is obvious from the nature of was asked to index Livy's Decades (The history of the work that the author himself was also the indexer, Rome) for Nicolaus Laurentii, a printer in his city, as especially when the prefatory material to the index is a spare time job (Eisenberg 1970, p. 100). It took written in the first person singular. The indexers whose Machiavelli nine months to index the names of the names have come down to us either cite their monastic cities, provinces, islands, mountains and rivers men order or indicate that they are learned men. An index tioned in Livy's work, which seems to indicate that he to St. Augustine's De civitate dei [9] by the Dominican either had only little spare time or was a slow indexer. friar Nicolaus Triveth was published as early as 1468. One must remember, however, that an indexer in those A monk by the name of Astesanus (or Astaxanus) times had not only to do the intellectual job but had compiled an extensive index to his own Summa de also to make his own indexing slips from scrap paper casibus conscientiae [7] and stated in the preface to it: as well as sorting boards or wooden boxes (shoeboxes I, friar Astaxanus, the compiler of this Summa... not having been invented yet). These arduous mental wish to provide this index ... so that whatever as well as physical tasks involved in indexing were may be required can be found in it with great described in minute detail some seventy years later by ease. Conrad Gessner in his instructions for indexers This index was reprinted unchanged eight times by (Wellisch 1981; Serrai 1989, pp. 48-58). various printers until 1482. Another Dominican, The early indexers continued a long tradition of Thomas Dorniberg of Memmingen, a doctor of canon indexing during the last two centuries of the manu law, compiled a 'Tabula remissoria' (reference index) script era, performed by scholars who compiled indexes to De quattuor virtutibus by Henricus Ariminensis [37] for their own use. Sometimes such indexes were added in 1472 and in the following year, moved 'by the to those texts that were in great demand and were prayers of many studious clerks' he produced the produced by scribes in multiple copies. Even a cursory index to Albertus Magnus' Compendium theologicae search in several bibliographies of manuscripts such as veritatis [2] which earned him even a mention on the the U.S. and Canadian census (Ricci 1935-40) and the title page of the book. Also in 1473, Friar Nicolaus catalogs of Yale (Shailor 1984) and WolfenbQttel Cerseth of the Dominican Preachers made an index to (Helmsttidter Handschriften 1963) revealed a fairly Schoeffer's edition of De civitate dei [10]. The indexes large number of indexes in manuscripts that were sub to Schedel's Liber chronicarum and its German edition, sequently published by the early printers, particularly already mentioned earlier, do not reveal the name of for works by St. Augustine, Boethius, Jacobus de their compiler, but it is possible that either Georg Alt, Voragine and others. the city scribe of , or Peter Danhauser, a As briefly noted earlier, the sample of indexes con lawyer who is named in the contract between the tained four handwritten ones. The earliest is in one of printers and investors in this massive project, was the the Folger Shakespeare Library's copies of indexer of both editions (Wilson 1976, pp. 69-70, 243). Marchesini's Mammotrectus [50], a dictionary of diffi Finally, the index to [53] was compiled by a certain cult words in the Bible, explained for the benefit of Egidius Daurigni of Beauvais. Thus, in only a few of clerics and parish priests whose knowledge of Latin the indexes seen were the names of their compilers was rudimentary. The book, originally named revealed, but that is not different from modern prac Mammothreptus (Suckling baby) and first printed by tices. Schoeffer in 1470, became a bestseller and was reprinted several times until 1500 and even long thereafter. An early owner of the Folger copy added an index of the Advertisements difficult words, written in a fine gothic hand on eleven The importance of tables of contents and indexes pages inserted after the table of contents; each page for readers of books was soon recognized by the early has some 250 entries in three columns, a total of about printers. Their advertisements and sale catalogs show 2700 entries. Another manuscript index is in the that they were vying with each other in making their Folger's copy of Holkot's Postilla super librum books more attractive to prospective buyers by empha Sapientiae Salomonis of 1479 [40], which is even larger: sizing the editorial and typographical qualities as well it lists names and topics on 24 large pages, each of as the presence of Finding aids—tables of contents and which has about 150 entries, a total of some 3600 indexes. entries—this in addition to a printed index of about The earliest advertisement for a printed book that 2200 entries! The manuscript index is dated 1480, and has come down to us is a sheet printed by Heinrich

The Indexer Vol. 19 No. 1 April 1994 INCUNABULA INDEXES Eggestein in Strassburg who in 1466 announced a researchers will make it possible to search for details Bible (including indexes) that are now either not or only ... not produced by the art of the pen but by the insufficiently recorded, buried deep in the printed marvellous invention of casting letters and print bibliographies, and thus not readily retrievable. ing. It has been truly collated with the best texts The picture that emerges from this admittedly by the most excellent men steeped in the human imperfect study of index production during the last istic arts... and is in every respect compiled in three and a half decades of the incunabula period the best manner. shows that, on the whole, rather remarkable progress While Eggestein advertised the qualities of only one was being made in the provision of finding aids. From book, Schoeffer produced a few years later the first relatively modest beginnings, struggling to invent both known advertisement of his entire stock of 19 books. intellectual and technical methods for the compilation One of these, St. Augustine's De arte praedicandi [8] of indexes and their printing, gradually abandoning chapters and paragraphs as-locators as well as Roman was specially singled out as being 'with a notable table, very useful for preachers'. He did that because foliation with its cumbersome numerals and lack of page indication for the two sides of a leaf, and finally Johann Mentelin, a competitor in Strassburg, had also printed the same work, but without such a 'very use adopting pagination, the indexers and printers pro ful' finding aid. duced increasingly better and more sophisticated Schoeffer clearly perceived the value of a good index retrieval tools for their readers. What was lost almost when trying to attract customers for his books. As entirely in this process is the early technique of pin indicated above, Dorniberg's index [2] was promi pointing references on a page by marginal letters nently advertised on the title page, so as to distinguish which was used by many printers until the ; it that edition from others that were produced by various was largely abandoned with the gradual adoption of printers of this popular work, and to attract buyers pagination and the use of smaller paper formats which who would appreciate the additional value of an made it easier for readers to find references on densely index. Many modern indexers would wish that their printed pages. The handwritten indexes compiled by work be acknowledged in such a manner! owners of books are testimony to the probably widely felt need for indexes, and the advertisements of Summary indexes by printers shown to what extent these were This study is based on a relatively substantial but recognized as important and valuable enhancements of biased sample. The bias stems from the fact that about texts. The early printers were in this, as in so many 60% of the sample consisted of medical works and other respects, the trailblazers for the splendid books on natural science which were deliberately books—and their indexes—that were produced by the printing presses of their heirs in the 16th century and chosen because my previous study of herbals had beyond. shown that several of the incunabula among them had indexes (Wellisch 1978). The assumption was that A cknowledgements othef incunabula on those subjects would also have I wish to thank the librarians of the Folger Shakespeare indexes since they dealt with large numbers of topics Library, the Dibner Library of the Smithsonian Institution and details such as the names of plants, animals, Libraries, the National Library of Medicine, the Rare Book minerals, diseases, stars, and techniques which would Department of the Library of Congress and the Georgetown be difficult to remember and which would therefore University Library who made their incunabula collections need finding aids. This, however, turned out not to be available to me, and enabled me to conduct my study in the case: only a small number—6.2% of medical books many ways. and 1.8% of works on natural science—had indexes. If only the theological, historical and other nonscienlific book are taken into consideration, the percentage of Appendix 1 indexed incunabula rises to 17%, a not insignificant amount, given the fact that a large part of the INDEXED INCUNABULA seen or described in bibliographic sources incunabula such as , prayer books, indulgences, romances, proclamations and edicts of the many war Note: C = Copinger; H = Hain; HC = Hain-Copinger; ring temporal and spiritual rulers, and other ephemera GW- Gesamtkatalog der Wiegendrucke. did not need any indexes. But quantitative measures alone would in any case 1. Abano, Pietro D\ Expositio problemata Aristotelis. Mantua: Paulus de Butzbach, 1475. H 16. be insufficient to judge the state of the art of early 2. Albertus Magnus, Compendium theologicae veritatis printed indexes. More reliable quantitative and quali cum tabula Thomae Dorniberg. Speyer: Printer of Gesta tative data may perhaps in the future become available Christi, 1473. GW 597. when the computerized database of incunabula cur Index reprinted Ulm: Johann Zainer, 1478, 1481; rently being assembled by British and German Strassburg: Martin Schott, 1483; Johann PrOss, 1489.

10 The Indexer Vol. 19 No. 1 April 1994 INCUNABULA INDEXES

3. Albertus Magnus, De animalibus. Venice: Gregorius de 24. Caracciolus, Robertus. Quadragesimale de poenitentia. Gregoriis, 1495. GW 589. Strassburg: Printer of Henricus Ariminensis, ca. 1473. 4. Arbolaire. Besancon: Peter Mettlinger, 1487 or 1488. GW GW 6066. 2312. Index reprinted : Bernhard Richel, 1475; Basel: 5. Aristoteles. Reperlorium dictorum Aristotelis, Averoys, , 1479; Strassburg: Georg Husner, aliorumque philosophorum. Bologna: Bazalerius de 1479; Strassburg: Martin Schott, 1485; Strassburg: Bazaleriis, 1491. GW 2838. Johann Grilninger, 1497. 6. Arnaldus, Stephanus. Commenlum super Nicolaum. 25. Cassiodorus, Magnus Aurelius. Historia ecclesiastica Barcelona: Petro Rosa, 1490. HC 645. tripartita. Paris: Georg Wolf, 1492. GW 6166. 7. Astesanus. Summa de casibus conscienliae. Strassburg: 26. Dioscorides. [De materia medica]. (Greek). Venice: Johann Mentelin, not after 1469. GW 2751. Aldus Manutius, 1499. GW 8436. Index reprinted by Mentelin 1473 (twice); Strassburg: 27. Dondi, Jacopo de'. Aggregator, sive De medicinis simpli- Printer of Henricus Ariminensis, 1474; Basel: Bernhard cibus. Strassburg: Adolf Rusch, ca. 1470. GW 9042. Richel, 1477; Venice: Johann of , 1478; 28. Eusebius Caesariensjs. Chronkon. Venice: Erhard Cologne: Henrich Quentell, 1479; Venice: Leonhard Ratdolt, 1483. GW 9433. Wild, 1480; Nuremberg: , 1482. 29. Eyb, Albertus de. Margarita poetica. Nuremberg: 8. Augustinus, Aurelius. De arte praedicandi. Mainz: Johann Sensenschmidt. ca. 1472. GW 9529. Fust & Schoefler, not after 1465 (1467?). GW 2872. Index reprinted Rome: Ulrich Han. 1475; Strassburg: Index reprinted, Strassburg: Johann Mentelin, not Georg Husner, 1479; Rome: Stephan Plannck, 1480; after 1467. Strassburg: Printer of Vitae Patrum, 1483/84, 1485; 9. Augustinus, Aurelius. De civiiate del Strassburg: Venice: Theodoras de Ragazonibus?, 1487; Venice: Johann Mentelin, ca. 1468. GW 2883. Johannes Rubeus, 1493; Basel: Johann Amerbach, 10. Augustinus, Aurelius. De civiiale dei. Mainz: Peter 1495. Schoefler, 1473. GW 2884. 30. Ficinus, Marsilius. De triplici vita. Basel: Johann 11. Augustinus, Aurelius. De civitate dei. Basel: Johann Amerbach, 1497. GW 9885. Amerbach, 1490. GW 2888. Index reprinted Venice: Bartholomeus Pelusius, 1498. 12. Augustinus, Aurelius. De sermo domini in monte 31. Folz, Hans. Von den heissen Bttdem. Nuremberg: Hans habito. Paris: & Bertold Remboldt, 1494, Mair, 1495. GW 10115. GW 2919. Index reprinted Brno: Clement von Gracz, 1495. 13. Augustinus, Aurelius. De trinitate. Venice: Paganinus 32. Foresti, Jacobus Philippus Bergomensis. Supple- de Paganinis, 1489. GW 2927. mentuni chronicarum. Brescia: Boninus de Boninis, 1485. 14. Aurifaber, Aegidius. Speculum exemplorum. HC 2806. Strassburg: Georg Husner, 1487. HC 14917. 33. Foresti, Jacobus Philippus Bergomensis. Supple- Index reprinted by Husner, 1490. mentum chronicarum. Venice: Bernardinus Rizus, 1483. 15. AviCENNA. Canon medicinae. Padua: Johann Herbort, HC 2809. Reprinted by Rizus 1492/93. 1476 GW 3116. 34. Gart der Gesundtheit. Mainz: Peter Schoeffer, 1485. H Index reprinted by Herbort, 1479; Venice: Peter 8948. Maufer, 1483, 1486; Octavianus Scotus 1490, Simon 35. Gesta romanorum. Louvain: Johannes de Westfalia, ca. Bevilacqua 1500. 1484. C 2716. 16. Bartholomaeus Anglicus. De proprietatibus rerum. 36. Guilelmus Arvernus. De fide et legibus. Augsburg: Basel: Berthold Ruppel, 1470. GW 3402. Gunther Zainer, 1475. H 8317. 17. Boethius. Opera. Joannes & Gregorius de Gregoriis, 37. Henricus Ariminensis. De quattuor virtutibus cardinal- 1497/98. GW 4512. ibus. Strassburg: Printer of Henricus Ariminensis, 1472. 18. Boethius. De consolatione philosophiae. Nuremberg: H 1649. Anton Koberger, 1483. GW 4533. Index reprinted Speyer: Printer of Gesta Christi, 1472. 19. Boethius. De consolatione philosophiae. Cologne: 38. Herpf, Henricus de. Speculum aureum decem praecepto- Heinrich Quentell, 1497. GW 4563. nan dei. Mainz: Peter Schoeffer, 1474. HC 8523. 20. Breitenbach, Johannes de. Repetitio capituli: sententiam 39. Hieronymus. De viris illustribus. Strassburg: s.n., 1483, sanguinis Ne clerici vet monachi. Leipzig: Melchior Lotter, 1485. HC 8600. 1499. GW 5093. 40. Holkot, Robertus. Super sapientiam Salomonis. 21. Brulefer, Stephanus. Opuscula theologica. Paris: Andr6 Cologne: Conrad Winters, 1479. HC 8755. Brocart, 1500. GW 5587. 41. Hortus sanitatis. Mainz: Jacobus Meydenbach, 1491. HC 22. Burlaeus, Gualtherius. (Walter Burleigh). De vita et 8944. moribus philosophonim. Cologne: , 1470. GW 42. Iacobus de Voragine. Dominicales per totum annum. 5781. [], s.n., 1484. C 6534. Index reprinted Nuremberg: Anton Koberger, 1473, 43. Jacobus de Voragine. Legenda aurea sanctorum. 1477; Friedrich Creussner, 1479; Louvain: Johann v. Cologne: Conrad Winters, 1476. C 6410. Paderborn, 1479/82; Toulouse: Johann Parix, ca. 1480; 44. Jacobus de Voragine. Legenda aurea sanctorum. Speyer: Johann & Conrad Hist, 1483. Cologne: Johann Strassburg: Georg Husner, 1492. C 6458. Koelhoff senior, ca. I486. 45. Jacobus de Voragine. Leben der Heiligen. Nuremberg: 23. Burlaeus, Gualtherius. Das buch von dem lehen und Anton Koberger, 1488. HC 9981. sitten der heydnischen maister. Augsburg: Anton Sorg, 46. Lochmaier, Michael. Parochiale curatorum. 1490. GW 5793. Nuremberg: Friedrich Creussner, 1493. HC 10167.

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47. Ludovicus Pruthenus. Trilogium animae. Nuremberg: 1475 Mantua Butzbach 1 Pietro d'Abano Anton Koberger, 1498. HC 10315. Basel Richel 24 Caracciolus 48. Maoninus Mediolanensis. Regimen sanitatis. Basel; 1476 Padua Herbort 15 Avicenna Nicolaus Kesler, 1493. H 10486. Cologne Winters 43 Jacobus de Voragine 49. Maioranis, Franciscus de. Sermones ab adventu cum quadragesimalis. Venice: Bernadinus Rizus, 1491/92. HC References 10530. Dachs, Karl and Schmidt, Wieland. Wieviele 50. Marchesinus, Johannes. Mammotrectus super Bibliam. Inkunabelausgaben gibt es wirklich? Bibliotheksforum Strassburg: Printer of Henricus Ariminensis, ca. 1472. Bayern 2 (1974): 83-95. HC. 10552. Eisenberg, Elisabeth. The printing press as an agent of change. Index reprinted Venice: Franciscus Renner, 1478. Cambridge: Cambridge University Presss, 1979, 100. 51. MOsch, Johannes. Tractatus de horis canonich dicendis. Die Helmst&dter Handschriften. Frankfurt a. M.: Augsburg: Anton Sorg, 1489. HC 11534. Klostermann, 1963-. (Kataloge der Herzog-August- 52. Repetitiones totius iuris canonici capitulorum. Paris: Bibliothek Wolfenbiittel... Neue Reihe) Poncetus le Preux, ca. 1500. HC 13876. Hirsch, Rudolf. Printing, selling and reading 1450-1550. 53. Rodericus (Sancius) Zamorensis. Speculum vitae Wiesbaden, Harrassowitz, 1967. humanae. Rome: Sweynheym & Pannartz, 1468. HC 13939. Householder, Fred W. The first printer, The Library, 4th Index reprinted Augsburg: Gunther Zainer, 1471; series, 24 (1943): 30-46. Paris: Ulrich Gering, 1472. Pollard, Alfred W. Indexes. Cornhill Magazine 97 (1908): 54. Rolewinck, Werner. Fasciculus temporum. Venice, 232-242. , 1480. HC 6926. Rabnett, Mark. The first printed indexes: a study of indexing Index reprinted by same printer 1485. techniques in some incunabula. Cataloging & 55. Rolewinck, Werner. Ein burdlin [sic] der zeyt. Classification Quarterly 2 (3/4) (1982): 87-102. Strassburg: Johann Priiss, 1492. HC 6940. Ricci, Seymour de. Census of medieval and renaissance manu 56. Rudimentum novitiorum. Liibeck: Lucas Brandis, 1475. H scripts in the United States and Canada. New York: H. W. 4996. Wilson, 1935^0. 57. Sabundus. Raymundus de. Theologia naturalis. Rouse, Richard H. Cistercian aids to study in the thirteenth Strassburg: Martinus Flach, 1496. HC 14069. century. (In: Studies in medieval Cistercian history II. 58. SCHEDEL, Hartmann. Liber chronicarum. Nuremberg: Kalamazoo, MI: Cistercian Publications, 1976, pp. Anton Koberger, 1493. HC 14508. 123-134). 59. Schedel, Hartmann. Das Buck der Chroniken und Sack, Vera. Die Inkunabeln der UniversMtsbibliothek in Geschichten. Nuremberg: Anton Koberger, 1493. H Freiburg im Breisgau... Wiesbaden, Harrassowitz, 1985. 14510. Serrai, Alfredo. Le enciclopedie rinascimentali. 8. Bibliografi 60. Sylvaticus, Matthaeus. Liber pandectarum medicinae. universali. Conrad Gesner. Pandectae. // bibliotecario Strassburg: Adolf Rusch, ca. 1480. HC 15192. (20-21) (1989): 1-105, pp. 48-58. 61. Vincentius Bellovacensis. Opera. Venice: H. Shailor, Barbara A. Catalogue of medieval and renaissance Liechtenstein, 1494. C 6241 manuscripts in the Beinecke rare book and manuscript 62. Vincentius Bellovacensis. Speculum historiale. library, Yale University. Binghampton, NY: Renaissance Strassburg: Adolf Rusch, ca. 1473. C 6245. Texts and Studies, 1984. Index reprinted Strassburg: Johann Mentelin, 1473. Steinberg, S. Hr Five hundred years of printing. 63. Vincentius Bellovacensis. Speculum morale. Harmondsworth (): Penguin Books, 1955, 19. Strassburg: Johann Mentelin, 1476. C 6252. Wellisch, Hans H. Early multilingual and multiscript indexes in herbals. The Indexer 11 (Oct 1978): 81-102. Wellisch, Hans H. How to make an index—16th century Appendix II style: Conrad Gessner on indexes and catalogs. International Classification 8 (1981): 10-15. Printing places of incunabula indexes Wellisch, Hans H. The oldest printed indexes. The Indexer printed during the first twelve years after the first one (Oct 1986): 73-82. Wilson, Adrian. The making of the . Year Place Printer Work by number in Amsterdam: N. Israel, 1976. Appendix I and author Witty, Francis J. Early indexing techniques: a study of several 1465? Mainz SchoefTer 8 Augustine book indexes of the fourteenth, fifteenth and early six 1467 Strassburg Mentelin 8 Augustine teenth centuries. Library Quarterly 35 (1965): 141-148. 1468 Rome Sweynheym & 53 Rodericus Witty, Francis J. The beginnings of indexing and abstracting: Pannartz Zamorensis some notes towards a history of indexing and abstracting 1470 Cologne Zell 22 Burlaeus in Antiquity and the Middle Ages. The Indexer 8 (Oct Strassburg Rusch 27 Dondi 1973): 193-198. Basel Ruppel 16 Bartholomaeus Anglicus 1472 Nuremberg Sensenschmidt 29Eyb Hans H. Wellisch is Professor Emeritus at the College 1473 Nuremberg Koberger 23 Burlaeus of Library and Information Services of the University of Strassburg Printer of Henricus 24 Caracciolus Maryland, and author of Indexing from A to Z, the Ariminensis recently published guide and style manual for indexing, 1474 Mainz Schoeffer 38 Henricus Herpf among several other books and articles.

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