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Rashed, Warda Ali Salem (2018) The impact of vocabulary learning strategy instruction on Libyan EFL teachers and learners. Doctoral thesis (PhD), Manchester Metropolitan University.

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THE IMPACT OF VOCABULARY LEARNING STRATEGY INSTRUCTION ON LIBYAN EFL TEACHERS AND LEARNERS

WARDA ALI SALEM RASHED

A thesis submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements of the Manchester Metropolitan University for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy

Department of Languages, Information and Communications Manchester Metropolitan University

2018

Table of Contents

LIST OF TABLES ...... 7 LIST OF FIGURES ...... 9 LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS ...... 12 ABSTRACT ...... 13 ACKNOWLEDGMENT ...... 15 DEDICATION ...... 16 1.0 Introduction ...... 17 1.1 General background ...... 18

1.2 General compendium of Libyan education ...... 19

1.3 Prosperity of education and achieving literacy for all ...... 20

1.4 Schooling system in Libya ...... 21

1.5 Development of university schooling system ...... 22

1.5.1 Al-jabal Al-gharbi University ...... 23

1.6 Learning and teaching English in Libya ...... 24

1.7 Teacher training in Libya ...... 25

1.8 Goals of the present research ...... 27

1.9 Research questions, design, and hypothesis ...... 27

1.10 Organisation of the thesis ...... 29

2.0: Literature Review ...... 31 2.1 Defining terms ...... 31

2.2 Vocabulary importance ...... 33

2.3 Language learning strategies (LLSs) ...... 35

2.3.1 Language learning strategies classification ...... 37

2.4 Vocabulary learning strategies (VLSs) ...... 39

2.4.1 Classifications of vocabulary learning strategies...... 41

2.4.2 Factors influencing the choice of VLSs ...... 49

2.4.3 Research on vocabulary learning strategies within an EFL context ...... 51

2.5 Teaching language learning strategies ...... 55

2.5.1 Vocabulary instruction ...... 56

2.5.2 Vocabulary teaching strategies (VTSs) ...... 59

2.6 Vocabulary learning strategy training (VLST) ...... 62

2.6.1 Previous research in the field of strategy training ...... 63

2.6.2 Vocabulary learning strategy training frameworks ...... 66

3.0: STUDY 1: Overview of the current situation ...... 72 3.1 Vocabulary learning strategy research methods ...... 73

3.1.1 Vocabulary learning strategies questionnaire (VLSQ) ...... 74

3.1.2 Classroom observation ...... 76

3.1.3 Semi-structured interview ...... 78

3.1.4 Diaries ...... 79

3.1.5 Think-aloud protocols ...... 80

3.2 Study 1 population and location ...... 80

3.3 Ethical considerations ...... 82

3.4 Study 1 instrumentation ...... 83

3.4.1 Vocabulary learning strategies questionnaire (VLSQ) ...... 83

3.4.2 Classroom observation ...... 86

3.4.3 Semi-structured interview ...... 87

3.5 Pilot study...... 87

3.5.1 The procedures for piloting instruments ...... 88

3.5.2 Piloting the questionnaire ...... 89

3.5.3 Piloting the interview ...... 90

3.5.4 Piloting the observation ...... 91

3.5.5 Pilot study results ...... 92

3.5.6 Drawbacks of the piloting ...... 94

3.6 Study 1 analysis ...... 94

3.6.1 Study 1: quantitative data analysis, results and discussion ...... 95

3.6.1.1 Teachers’ VLSs questionnaire (TVLSQ) ...... 100 3.6.1.2 Students’ VLSs questionnaire (SVLSQ) ...... 112 3.6.2 Study 1: qualitative data analysis, results and discussion ...... 124

3.6.2.1 Open-ended questionnaire items ...... 124 3.6.2.2 Interview procedures and analysis ...... 132 3.6.2.3 Observation analysis ...... 146 4.0: STUDY 2: The VLST programme ...... 150 4.1 Strategy training ...... 151

4.2 Language choice ...... 154

4.3 Selection of strategies ...... 154

4.4 Design ...... 156

4.4.1 Teachers’ training phase ...... 159

4.4.2 Students’ training phase ...... 162

5.0: STUDY 3: trial and evaluate the training programme ...... 164 5.1 Study 3 population ...... 164

5.2 Study 3: quantitative data analysis, results and discussion ...... 166

5.2.1 Results of questionnaire 1 (VLSQ1) ...... 167

5.2.1.1 VLSQ1: strategy use by experimental groups’ participants 169 5.2.1.2 VLSQ1: perceived usefulness by experimental groups’ participants ...... 175 5.2.1.3 VLSQ1: strategy use by control groups’ participants ...... 185 5.2.1.4 VLSQ1: perceived usefulness by control groups’ participants 189 5.3 Strategy training programme ...... 196

5.3.1 Results of questionnaire 2 (VLSQ2) ...... 200

5.3.1.1 Effects on frequency of promotion/use of VLSs ...... 200

5.3.1.2 Effects on perceived usefulness of VLSs ...... 212 5.4 Comparison of VLSQ1, VLSQ2, and VLSQ3 results ...... 222

5.5 Study 3: qualitative data analysis, results and discussion ...... 233

5.5.1 The evaluation form ...... 233

5.5.2 Study 3: Observation and semi-structured interview analysis . 237

6.0 Summary of major findings...... 244 6.1 Study 1 results: an overview of the current situation ...... 244

6.2 Study 3 results: trial and evaluation of the VLST programme ..... 247

6.2.1 Effect on teachers’ promotion and perceived usefulness of VLSs 248

6.2.2 Effects on students’ use and perceived usefulness on VLSs .. 249

7.0 Conclusion ...... 251 7.1 Research limitation ...... 254

7.2 Research contribution and implications ...... 255

8.0 APPENDICES ...... 257 8.1 Appendix 1: S1 teachers’ questionnaire (TVLSQ) ...... 257

8.2 Appendix 2: S1 students’ questionnaire (SVLSQ) ...... 261

8.3 Appendix 3: S1 students’ questionnaire (Arabic version) ...... 265

8.4 Appendix 4: Schmitt’s original questionnaire (SOQ) ...... 269

8.5 Appendix 5: Schmitt’s original questionnaire (SOQ) (Arabic version) 272

8.6 Appendix 6: Observation sheet ...... 276

8.7 Appendix 7: Teachers’ interview questions ...... 280

8.8 Appendix 8: Students’ interview questions ...... 281

8.9 Appendix 9: Students’ interview questions (Arabic version) ...... 283

8.10 Appendix 10: A letter of permission ...... 284

8.11 Appendix 11: A letter of permission (Arabic version) ...... 286

8.12 Appendix 12: Information sheet...... 287

8.13 Appendix 13: Consent form for participants ...... 288

8.14 Appendix 14: Consent form for participants (Arabic version) ...... 289

8.15 Appendix 15: End of course evaluation form ...... 290

8.16 Appendix 16: VLSs most and least promoted by teachers (S1) .. 291

8.17 Appendix 17: VLSs most and least used by students (S1) ...... 292

8.18 Appendix 18: Study 3’s VLSs questionnaire ...... 293

8.19 Appendix 19: A sample of handouts distributed in S3 ...... 297

8.20 Appendix 20: A sample of training sessions conducted in S3 ..... 298

8.21 Appendix 21: Experimental groups’ results to VLSQ1 in frequency of use/promotion of VLSs ...... 300

8.22 Appendix 22: Experimental groups’ results to VLSQ1 in perceived usefulness of VLSs ...... 302

8.23 Appendix 23: Students’ results in frequency of use [VLSQ1, VLSQ2, and VLSQ3] ...... 304

8.24 Appendix 24: Students’ results in perceived usefulness [VLSQ1, VLSQ2, and VLSQ3] ...... 305

8.25 Appendix 25: A sample of lesson plan ...... 306

8.26 Appendix 26: A sample of checklist ...... 308

8.27 Appendix 27: A sample of checklist (Arabic version) ...... 309

8.28 Appendix 28: VLSs most promoted/perceived usefulness by EG teachers (Study 3) ...... 310

8.29 Appendix 29: VLSs most used/perceived useful by EG students 311

REFERENCES ...... 312

Word count 76,225

LIST OF TABLES

Table 1: Type of study and data collection methods employed to answer research questions ...... 29 Table 2: Features of language learning strategies ...... 36 Table 3: Schmitt’s (1997) classification of VLSs ...... 45 Table 4: Number, gender, and distribution of S1 participants ...... 81 Table 5: Reliability of the VLS questionnaire ...... 85 Table 6: Sample of the data gathered in the pilot study ...... 92 Table 7: Categories of vocabulary learning strategies included in the VLSQ ...... 96 Table 8: Study 1: Mean (M) and standard deviation (SD) values of five VLSs categories ...... 98 Table 9: Study 1: teachers’ age and years of EFL teaching ...... 102 Table 10: Study 1: teachers’ results with regard to determination strategies ...... 103 Table 11: Study 1: teachers’ results with regard to social strategies ...... 105 Table 12: Study 1: teachers’ results with regard to memory strategies ...... 107 Table 13: Study 1: teachers’ results with regard to cognitive strategies ..... 110 Table 14: Study 1: teachers’ results with regard to metacognitive strategies ...... 111 Table 15: Study 1: students’ general demographic information ...... 113 Table 16: Study 1: students’ results with regard to determination strategies ...... 114 Table 17: Study 1: students’ results with regard to social strategies ...... 116 Table 18: Study 1: students’ results with regard to memory strategies ...... 118 Table 19: Study 1: students’ results with regard to cognitive strategies ..... 121 Table 20: Study 1: students’ results with regard to metacognitive strategies ...... 123 Table 21: Teachers' responses regarding the teachability of VLSs ...... 125 Table 22: Teacher interviewees’ information ...... 135 Table 23: A sample of the observation sheet used ...... 146 Table 24: Training applications in the study ...... 157

Table 25: A sample of Study 3 questionnaire format ...... 158 Table 26: Research timetable of teachers’ training phase ...... 160 Table 27: Number and distribution of Study 3 participants...... 165 Table 28: Overall averages in use and perceived usefulness in VLSQ1. ... 167 Table 29: VLSQ1: VLSs promoted/used by EG participants ...... 170 Table 30: VLSQ1: perceived usefulness of VLSs by EG participants ...... 176 Table 31: VLSQ1: VLSs promoted/used by CG participants ...... 185 Table 32: VLSQ1: perceived usefulness by CG participants ...... 189 Table 33: Results of a Pearson correlation coefficient calculation between teachers’ and students’ responses ...... 195 Table 34: VLSQ1 and VLSQ2 results in frequency of use/promotion of VLSs: Experimental Groups ...... 201 Table 35: VLSQ1 and VLSQ2 results in frequency of use/promotion of VLSs: Control Groups ...... 207 Table 36: VLSQ1 and VLSQ2 results in perceived usefulness of VLSs: Experimental Groups ...... 212 Table 37: VLSQ1 and VLSQ2 results in perceived usefulness of VLSs: Control Groups ...... 219 Table 38: Comparison of teachers’ VLSQ1, VLSQ2 and VLSQ3 results in frequency of promoting the use of VLSs ...... 224 Table 39: Comparison of teachers’ VLSQ1, VLSQ2 and VLSQ3 results in perceived usefulness of VLSs ...... 227 Table 40: Overall comparison of students’ prior, post and delayed- questionnaires ...... 231 Table 41: Examples of students’ VLSQ1, VLSQ2, and VLSQ3 results in frequency of use...... 232 Table 42: Examples of students’ VLSQ1, VLSQ2, and VLSQ3 results in perceived usefulness...... 232 Table 43: EG participants’ responses to question 3 on the evaluation form ...... 234

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1: Kudo’s (1999) taxonomy of VLSs ...... 47 Figure 2: Ellis’s (1994) factors that affect the choice of VLSs ...... 49 Figure 3: VLST framework for strategy instruction ...... 159 Figure 4: Initial DIS strategies use by EG participants ...... 172 Figure 5: Initial CON strategies use by EG participants ...... 174 Figure 6: Initial DIS strategies promotion and perceptions of usefulness by EG teachers...... 177 Figure 7: Initial CON strategies’ use and perceived usefulness by EG students ...... 179 Figure 8: Initial DIS strategies perceived usefulness by EG participants ... 180 Figure 9: Initial CON strategies’ promotion and perceptions of usefulness by EG teachers...... 181 Figure 10: Initial CON strategies’ use and perceived usefulness by EG students ...... 183 Figure 11: Initial CON strategies’ perceived usefulness by EG participants ...... 184 Figure 12: Initial DIS strategies’ results by CG participants ...... 187 Figure 13: Initial CON strategies use by CG participants ...... 188 Figure 14: Initial DIS strategies’ use and perceived usefulness by CG teachers...... 191 Figure 15: Initial DIS strategies’ use and perceived usefulness by CG students...... 192 Figure 16: Initial CON strategies’ promotion and perceptions of usefulness by CG teachers...... 193 Figure 17: Initial CON strategies’ use and perceived usefulness by CG students...... 194 Figure 18: A sample of flash cards presented in the lesson ...... 197 Figure 19: A sample of slides used in the VLST programme...... 198 Figure 20: EG teachers’ prior and post results in frequency of use of CON strategies ...... 204

Figure 21: EG teachers’ prior and post results in frequency of use of DIS strategies ...... 204 Figure 22: EG students’ prior and post results in frequency of use of DIS strategies ...... 206 Figure 23: EG students’ prior and post results in frequency of use of CON strategies ...... 206 Figure 24: CG teachers’ prior and post results in frequency of promoting the use of DIS strategies ...... 209 Figure 25: CG teachers’ prior and post results in frequency of promoting use of CON strategies ...... 209 Figure 26: CG students’ prior and post results in frequency of use of DIS strategies ...... 211 Figure 27: CG students’ prior and post results in frequency of use of CON strategies ...... 211 Figure 28: EG teachers’ prior and post results in usefulness of DIS strategies ...... 215 Figure 29: EG teachers’ prior and post results in usefulness of CON strategies ...... 215 Figure 30: EG students’ prior and post results in usefulness of DIS strategies ...... 217 Figure 31: EG students’ prior and post results in usefulness of CON strategies ...... 217 Figure 32: CG teachers’ prior and post results in usefulness of DIS strategies ...... 220 Figure 33: CG teachers’ prior and post results in usefulness of CON strategies ...... 220 Figure 34: CG students’ prior and post results in usefulness of DIS strategies ...... 221 Figure 35: CG students’ prior and post results in usefulness of CON strategies ...... 221 Figure 36: Overall mean scores for frequency of use of DIS strategies achieved by EG and CG teachers prior, post and after the training 223

Figure 37: Overall mean scores for frequency of use of CON strategies by EG and CG teachers prior, post and after the training ...... 223 Figure 39: Overall mean scores for perceived usefulness of DIS strategies achieved by EG and CG teachers prior, post and after the training. 230 Figure 38: Overall mean scores for perceived usefulness of CON strategies achieved by EG and CG teachers prior, post and after the training. 230 Figure 40: Participants’ awareness of VLSs before and after the VLST programme ...... 235

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

EFL English as a Foreign Language CALLA Cognitive Academic Language Learning Approach LLSs Language Learning Strategies VLSs Vocabulary Learning Strategies VLST Vocabulary Learning Strategy Training VLSQ Vocabulary Learning Strategies Questionnaire TVLSQ Teachers’ Vocabulary Learning Strategies Questionnaire SVLSQ Students’ Vocabulary Learning Strategies Questionnaire FL Foreign Language L1 The first language/the native language L2 The second language/the foreign language VTSs Vocabulary Teaching Strategies CG Control Group EG Experimental Group ESL English as a Second Language SOQ Schmitt’s Original Questionnaire SILL Strategy Inventory Language Learning CIT Completely Informed Training SSBI Styles and Strategies-Based Instruction GTM Grammar Translation Method VLSQ1,2,3 Vocabulary Learning Strategies Questionnaire 1,2,3 S1,2,3 Study,1,2,3 DIS Discovery strategies CON Consolidation strategies

ABSTRACT

This study examines the impact of the teachability of vocabulary learning strategies (VLSs) on Libyan EFL teachers and students at university level. It investigates the extent to which instructing language teachers in how to integrate strategic intervention into regular classes impacts upon teachers’ and students’ use, promotion of the use, and perceptions of usefulness of vocabulary learning strategies. The empirical research in this area has been very limited, and the vast majority of studies have centred around examining the influence of strategy instruction on language learners’ achievements. Bearing this in mind, the present study provides an exciting opportunity to advance knowledge of the impact of direct teaching of VLSs on EFL teachers and students alike. The findings make an important contribution to literature in the field of vocabulary learning and teaching.

The study recruited 109 participants, including 13 EFL teachers from two different university levels (Year 1 and 2) and two English language faculties at the Al-jabal Al-gharbi University in the cities of Tiji and Badr. The aims were 1) to identify the current situation in terms of VLSs known, promoted or used, 2) to design a strategy training programme for teachers and students, and 3) to trial and evaluate the effectiveness of the training programme on students’ and teachers’ use, promotion, and adoption of learning strategies. To achieve the research aims, three studies were carried out and two phases of training arranged. Teachers were targeted in the first phase, which was administered by the researcher and ran for a 2-week period, with students targeted in the second phase, which was carried out by trainee teachers, with the researcher’s guidance, for 10 weeks.

Data for this research were collected using a multi-method approach in the form of VLS questionnaires, semi-structured interviews, observations, and an evaluation form. The quantitative and qualitative data obtained from the instruments were triangulated to allow for a more comprehensive

13 understanding, as well as to render reliable conclusions. Microsoft Office Excel programmes, SPSS (Statistical Package for the Social Science), and a qualitative content analysis were used to analyse the data gathered. The results of the study reveal that the training had a positive impact on both the teachers’ and students’ attitudes, perceptions and adoption of VLSs. What is more, teachers and students showed an increased awareness of using/promoting the use of learning strategies even when the training had finished, which in turn indicates that the impact of VLS training has been durable.

ACKNOWLEDGMENT

I would like to express my most sincere gratitude to my supervisors, Dr Rob Drummond and Dr Huw Bell, whose knowledge and advice throughout this study has been invaluable.

I also owe much gratitude to all the participants, who, without exception, welcomed the opportunity to take part in this study and were generous with their time and willingness to help.

Thanks to Manchester Metropolitan University and the School of Languages, Information and Communications for providing the resources that allowed me to complete my Ph.D. thesis.

Lastly, and most importantly, I would like to thank my family and friends, whose prayers were the source of my encouragement and inspiration. Thank you.

DEDICATION

This thesis is dedicated with sincere love and gratitude to the soul of my husband ‘Mohamed’, who has always looked forward to this moment May Allah forgive him and grant him his highest paradise.

To my children ‘Nabeela’, and ‘Abdullah’, who have supported me throughout with a great deal of patience and have made me better and stronger than I ever could have imagined

1.0 Introduction

Vocabulary has been acknowledged as crucial in learning language. It is the element that connects the four skills of speaking, listening, reading and writing together and without which ‘one cannot speak, understand, read or write a foreign language’ (Rubin and Thompson, 1994: 79). Therefore, building up a rich store of vocabulary is of vital importance for language learners, while improving word power at a feasible pace demands the identification of effective methods or techniques. Recent developments in the field of English language teaching and learning have yielded numerous techniques that can facilitate vocabulary learning, known as Vocabulary Learning Strategies (VLSs). Research into VLSs has a long history (see e.g., Chamot & O’Malley, 1987; Ahmed, 1988; Cohen, 1990; Brown & Payne 1994; and Schmitt, 1997). Different taxonomies have been suggested and several strategies have theoretically or empirically been mentioned as positive in enriching lexis (Oxford, 2013). Despite this, many language learners seem to restrict themselves to limited strategies for one reason or another. However, one of the greatest challenges for language learners, especially those who are from non-English speaking environments (e.g. Libya) where exposure to language is very limited, is the lack of vocabulary that in turn negatively affects their comprehension of both receptive and productive language use (Nation, 1990). Here lies the importance of teaching and learning some useful strategies to help such students in reducing their burden and gaining more autonomy in their language learning. One might say that finding powerful methods to make vocabulary learning easier and quicker is the students’ responsibility, but teachers should also be aware of such strategies in order to ‘shift the responsibility onto the students (to) become more self-reliant and learn how to manage their own learning’ (Trendak, 2015: 173). So, teaching ‘learners how to learn’ (Brown, 1994: 124) by raising their awareness of different strategies available seems to be a crucial matter, not just for language students but also for their teachers, since it may be overwhelming for teachers to teach all the needed lexis due to time constraints.

Data on the impact of the teachability of VLSs on language teachers’ awareness and perceptions are limited. So far, very little attention has been paid to investigating the efficacy of instructing teachers in how to integrate strategy training into regular classrooms. Bearing this in mind, this research argues that if Libyan EFL teachers and learners are taught VLSs, their awareness of VLSs increases and thus their use/adoption of such powerful strategies will be promoted. The study mainly focuses on the VLST (Vocabulary Learning Strategy Training) programme introduced to teachers, who in turn explicitly delivered sessions, with guidance, to their students. The remainder of this introduction provides a brief history of the context of Libya. The discussion in the following sections begins with a geographical and historical review, moving towards the educational system, which has received a considerable amount of attention in terms of status, teaching/learning English, and general development. The rationale is to present a comprehensive background to the context of the current study, and to give an overall picture of past and recent changes and challenges that the educational system in Libya has faced. The introductory chapter concludes by presenting the research goals, design, and organisation of the study.

1.1 General background

Geographically, Libya is located on the continent of Africa, specifically in central North Africa, with Tripoli as its capital (Elmbruk, 1998). The republics of both Chad and Niger adjoin it from the south, with Tunisia and Algeria to the west. From the east, it borders Egypt and Sudan. Demographically, Libya’s population is quite small, about 6.6 million (Najeeb, 2013), compared to its size. The census of the Libyan population initially began after the country gained its independence, and in 1954 the total population was 1,088,873 (Bureau of Statistics and Census Libya, 1954 to 2006). Before this period, there was no official census. Later, the census was conducted every 10 years, and was characterised by better conditions in terms of human and material potential, due to the discovery of oil. Economically, Libya mainly depends upon oil sector revenues, which account for about 90% of the country’s annual income (Najeeb, 2013).

Successive civilizations in Libya, such as the Phoenicians, Greeks and Romans, played a major role in Libyan history, and that of North Africa in general. The modern history of Libya begins with Ottoman rule in 1551, which lasted for about four centuries. After this came colonisation by the Italians, who entered Libya in 1911 and ousted the Turks in 1918. The country was in conflict and struggled to gain its freedom. The Italians continued to rule the country until the end of World War II in 1945, following the victory over the Axis powers by the Allies, which put Libya under British tutelage until its independence in 1951 (Country Profile, 2005). The United Nations awarded the Libyan state the right to sovereignty over the whole territory of Libya, and Idris became king of Libya by national consensus, a reign that was to continue until 1969. Subsequently, a group of officers led by Colonel Muammar Gaddafi overthrew the monarchy, and promoting a Libyan Arab Republic, became the Libyan Arab Jamahiriya in 1977 (Elmabruk, 2008). During the reign of Muammar Gaddafi, which lasted more than four decades, Libya witnessed many conflicts with foreign countries, resulting in them imposing economic sanctions and a blockade that lasted for a decade. On the 17th of February 2011, a revolution began, which succeeded in overthrowing Colonel Gaddafi in October of that year.

1.2 General compendium of Libyan education

After independence, the value of education in general rose significantly (Najeeb, 2013). In light of this, educational attainment became a target for the vast majority of Libyan families. This is clearly reflected in a field study conducted by a team interested in the educational situation in Libya in 1997 (The United Nations Report, 1998). That study focused on Libyan youth trends and attitudes about the importance of higher education, and found that 94% of the sample aspired to receiving a modern education. The study also demonstrated the participants’ desire to access professions that enjoy high social value in the community, such as doctors, engineers and professors of foreign languages. Indeed, the study showed that more than 90% of applicants in the academic year 1998 preferred to specialise in medicine, engineering and foreign languages. In the family domain, various social studies and local

19 polls over the last five decades have indicated that Libyan parents aspire for their offspring to receive higher education. Additionally, ensuring their children obtain a higher education is in itself a source of pride for those parents.

Traditionally, the value and importance placed on education differed between rural and urban areas, and between males and females. The results of one field study, which analysed the lifestyles of some farming villages in Libya in 1979 (Ali et al., cited in Elmbruk, 1998), reported that the majority of parents who were farmers, 78%, opted to provide their male children with a university education, compared to only 41% who did so for their female children. Nowadays, and after almost three decades, there is no doubt that the ratio has changed. By comparison, the outcome of another study (Al-Tabib, 1997) conducted in Tripoli, pointed out that parental opinion in urban areas seemed to vary greatly, as the results presented high rates of parental emphasis on the importance of providing university learning for males and females alike (94% males, 86% females).

1.3 Prosperity of education and achieving literacy for all

During the Italian colonisation of Libya, the literacy rate did not exceed 1% of Libyans according to figures in 1940 (Elmabruk, 1998), which was due to decades of settlement where formal schools were only open to bureaucratic and Italian settlers. In those days, Libyans missed out on the opportunity to acquire cultural knowledge, and in order to overcome such a problem they continued sending their children to Quranic schools to learn the Holy Quran, basic maths and writing. Through attaining independence, Libya became more powerful. Investment in education began gradually and improved greatly after the discovery of oil, making it possible for the government to allocate money from its general budget to basic education, which would later become free for all citizens. Under the monarchy, many schools were established and all Bedouins and female children had the right to education. Literacy rates rose rapidly, with 37% of students being in various educational levels in the late 1990s (Bureau of Statistics and Census Libya, 2008: 142). That proportion

20 remained similar until the end of the first decade of this century, where the proportion of students engaged in education accounted for about 35% by the end of 2008 (ibid). By tracking the generations that were born after independence and who were attending schools during that time, and comparing them to those who were born prior to the Italians’ departure, or a few years later (1940-1944), we can clearly see how much has changed in the educational structure of Libya. With the old regime for example, and according to the Human Development Report in Libya (1999), there was a sharp decline in the level of education: nearly three-quarters were unable to enter the basic educational system, or dropped out before reaching the primary stage. Of the remaining quarter of that generation on the other hand, about 7.5% finished the primary stage, compared to 8.3% who continued their studies until completing the preparatory phase. With regard to those who managed to complete their secondary grade or above, the number did not exceed 10.5%. In contrast, with new generations the number of educated people who continued their studies until the higher stages formed approximately 65%. 17.7% only satisfactorily completed their primary education, whereas 17% left study before finishing the primary phase.

Another area that is testament to the growth of education in recent decades, is the rising rates of school enrolment among 6 - 24-year olds. These rates rose from 64% in 1973 to 75% in 1995 (Country Profile, 2005), and increased further during the first ten years of the current century. In 2007, the UNESCO Institute for Statistics (UIS) reported that Libya had one of the highest rates of literacy in Africa. According to the Human Development Report (1999), this can be attributed to two major factors - one being the big improvements that have taken place at all levels (primary, secondary and higher education), and the other being the sharp increase in acceptance rates of female applicants to schools, so that their enrolment rates equal those of males.

1.4 Schooling system in Libya

As a rule, education in Libya takes two routes: public and private, comprising all age groups and levels. Both systems follow the same learning stages,

21 beginning with kindergarten, which is for children aged four to five and lasts for two years. This stage is not compulsory, and is available at private and public schools alike. Following that are nine years of basic education, for which all Libyan children have to enrol. Here, students are introduced to applied science subjects like mathematics and physics. Humanities subjects, such as history and languages are also introduced in this stage.

Prior to university, three years of secondary education (intermediate level) for students aged 16 are required, which is for students who have successfully finished their basic education. The secondary stage is divided into two main specialties: arts and sciences. During the first year of this stage, students are taught very general subjects, and later, in the second year, they specialise in the aforementioned routes. On completion of this stage and by gaining their secondary education certificate, then they may join higher education institutions such as colleges and universities. This stage lasts for four years, and may be extended further depending on the subject and the department. Those who want to pursue their advanced studies may enrol in their Masters or PhD (Doctorate). It is worth mentioning that, unlike other phases of education, higher education has received a great deal of attention from the Libyan government, which has and still does support many students in the completion of their higher studies by sending them abroad at the public expense.

1.5 Development of university schooling system

As this study is mainly concerned with teaching and learning at university level, I will no longer talk in detail regarding the above-mentioned stages, but will limit my discussion to the university system in Libya.

The first university in Libya was established in 1955, and was founded in Benghazi, under the name ‘The University of Libya’. It began with only one faculty, which was Arts and Education, a small number of male students (31), and no females.

However, higher education has been changing since 1973, when greater interest was first paid to establishing more universities with different campuses. This is clearly demonstrated by the increase in the number of universities over the years. In 1985, there were 11 universities, and this had jumped to 22 by 2001. This figure has shrunk back to 14 universities between 2005 and the present day, due to the annexation of some universities by others. According to The Bureau Statistics book (2008), the number of students enrolled in Libyan universities reached 300,966 in various specialities, whereas the number of graduates was 25,178. If we try to estimate the current number of enrolled students, and compare this to the number at the beginning of the 1960s, we would find a massive difference in enrolment rates in universities, which confirms the improvement in educational performance. With respect to staff, there was also a significant increase, and the number reached 10,355 in 2008.

1.5.1 Al-jabal Al-gharbi University

Al-jabal Al-gharbi University is one of the official public universities in Libya, and is located in Gharyan city, about 80 km from Tripoli. This university administratively oversees many colleges and higher education institutions in different towns and villages situated up in the western mountain chains, as well as those at the foot of the mountains. The Faculty of Accounting in Gharyan was the first one founded, and was adopted as an independent university in 1991 in the city of Zintan, to later be annexed to Zawiya University in 1997. Subsequently, it was adopted as a supervisory university for all departments of the mountain areas in 2004. On 1st January 2005, it became a stand-alone university followed by 11 faculties distributed throughout the western mountains.

The University offers BSc and BA qualifications, with the duration of study being from four to six years according to specialisation. Furthermore, it grants Master's degrees in some specialities, such as economics, accounting, Arabic/Islamic studies and electrical engineering.

1.6 Learning and teaching English in Libya

Although Arabic is the dominant language in Libya, English has been able to command a prominent place in Libyan schools’ curricula over the years. One of the primary factors for such an increasing interest in the English language is the country’s eagerness, like other nations, to keep pace with globalisation, which in turn necessitates ‘a need to have a common language in the globe that can help in communication’ (Youssef, 2012: 367). The British Council (1995: 2) reports that ‘One out of five of the world’s population speak English to some level of competence. Demand from the other fifth is increasing’. Another important factor that needs to be addressed is the urgent need for using English as the principal ingredient in teaching and learning in higher education in Libya. In addition to this, academic conferences, books and international business also utilise English.

Improving the quality of English language learning and teaching was and still is the ultimate goal for the Libyan authorities. By reviewing the literature, it can be seen that English in Libya went through many stages, which are characterised to some extent by volatility and instability. In the 1970s for example, English witnessed a strong beginning as it was a compulsory subject. Later, when Colonel Gaddafi was running the country, and due to government decisions at that time, teaching and learning foreign languages was banned at all levels of education. The suspension began in 1986 and lasted for six years before English was brought back in both private and public schools and universities in 1993. The decision to cancel English language teaching and learning not only negatively affected students during this period but also affected the English teachers themselves, who became jobless. Later, another negative consequence emerged in the extreme shortage of qualified language teachers, a situation the government attempted to remedy through the recruitment of non-Libyan teachers from other countries.

In returning English to the Libyan curricula, considerable effort has been devoted to filling the gap that arose from its cancellation, for instance the introduction (in 2000) of a new curriculum for English at basic levels, and

24 moreover, opening training centres to assist English teachers in improving their teaching proficiency and coping with the newly introduced syllabus. Many scholarships for outstanding students to study abroad and to qualify in their speciality were also granted. Students were able to learn English in the fifth grade of their primary level upwards. In private schools, students became exposed to English at an earlier age. Students at basic education were exposed to a series of course books entitled English for Libya by Mustafa Gusbi, in which units were organised into several sections, and each section was dedicated to a specific area, such as grammar, vocabulary, listening, or speaking. It is a highly demanding syllabus based on Communicative Language Teaching, which comprises activities that ‘promote meaningful and purposeful language use, receptive and productive, in oral and written contexts’ (Orafi and Borg, 2009: 245). Preceding this series had been an older book of five parts, Modern Readers, in which vocabulary acquisition was the major focus. This had implemented the Grammar Translation Method (GTM), by using repetition and ‘stereotypical lesson plans’ (Najeeb, 2013: 1248).

With respect to integrating technology in teaching English, the Ministry of General Education in Libya highly recommended its use. This can be shown by the outcomes of Emhamed and Krishnan’s (2011) study of existing positive attitudes of Libyan teachers towards integrating technology in their lessons. Despite the developments mentioned above, we cannot ignore the fact that many challenges still hinder English language teaching in Libya. The GTM is still adopted by some instructors, which results in the deterioration of learners’ proficiency (Saaid, 2010). Poor technological equipment in Libyan schools is also a principle obstacle for both teachers, especially untrained ones, and learners who get bored by the same routine in their lessons.

1.7 Teacher training in Libya

Gaddafi’s decision to ban the teaching of foreign languages (section 1.6) badly affected the educational system in Libya. When Libyan EFL teachers resumed teaching in 1993-1994, many problems were encountered. According to Mohsen (2014), the ban resulted in a lack of qualified teachers, teaching

25 aids, language laboratories, and teacher training. To fill this gap, Libyan universities recruited expatriates of different nationalities, from Arab, European, and Asian countries, and Libyan EFL teachers were sent abroad to complete their higher studies. Many of them went back home with specialist skills, and a significant growth in staff at Libyan universities was noticed. However, concerns were raised with regards to placing them in higher educational positions (The Libyan National Commission for Education, Culture and Science, 2004). The Commission (2004) pointed out the lack of sufficient teacher training and called for the design of professional arrangements in this regard. Studies such as those conducted by Orafi (2008), Orafi and Borg (2009), and Ali (2016), found that Libyan EFL graduates are generally lacking in speaking skills, which undoubtedly influences the nature of the teaching approaches favoured (Orafi, 2008; Ali, 2016). Therefore, the need for conducting intensive training programmes for new, as well as past graduates, is crucial so that they can refresh their knowledge and practise more up-to- date techniques for teaching English (Mohsen, 2014).

The Ministry of Education, in collaboration with other organisations, such as the British Council, American Peace Corps, and UNESCO (United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organisation), provided many in-service courses for preparatory teachers in the period between 1960 to 1970. At that time, less emphasis seemed to be placed on training university staff, which may be because most of them were foreigners and had been chosen according to certain standards. In the mid-2000s, some summer programmes were organised for English teachers, but ‘The teachers were not very aware of the benefits of training [and generally] they were not so active that they shared in those courses’ (Mohsen, 2014: 61). This was perhaps because the timing of the courses coincided with the teachers’ summer-vacation (ibid), or because the teachers themselves were not convinced of the importance of such programmes.

In 2008, more attention was paid to improving Libyan teachers’ skills and knowledge in order to keep pace with methodological and pedagogical developments, and as a result a specialised centre (The Central Centre for Teacher Training) was established for this purpose (Mohsen, 2014). However, this centre did not organise specific training for English teachers and thus did not attract them to participate. Many university teachers still teach grammar, and students are still weak and poor in language (ibid). In order to develop learners’ productive and receptive skills, we should consider raising teachers’ teaching competence, which is at the core of the present thesis.

1.8 Goals of the present research

The research aims to explore whether instructing teachers in the use and teaching of VLSs has any effect on improving teachers’ and students’ awareness and use of vocabulary learning strategies by:

a. Describing the current situation and identifying issues with regard to the use of VLSs, teaching methods and attitudes.

b. Designing a VLST programme for teachers, who will be instructed (by the researcher) in how to deliver its sessions to their students.

c. Evaluating the effectiveness of integrating a VLST programme on increasing participants’ awareness and enhancing their use/promotion of VLSs in real classroom settings.

1.9 Research questions, design, and hypothesis

The present research was designed to address the following questions - one main question and three preliminary questions:

❖ Preliminary questions 1. What VLSs do Libyan EFL teachers at a university level know/promote to their students? 2. What VLSs do Libyan EFL learners at a university level use / know?

3. To what extent do Libyan EFL teachers believe that VLSs can be taught?

❖ Main question 4. Does training Libyan EFL teachers in how to teach the VLSs play any significant role in vocabulary learning strategy use and perceptions by either teachers or students?

In this research, I hypothesise that instructing EFL teachers and students in the different VLSs will have some effect on vocabulary strategy use/integration, either on learners or their teachers.

H0: Training Libyan EFL teachers in how to teach the VLSs does not play any significant role in vocabulary strategy use, adoption or perceptions (by either teachers or students).

Whereas the alternative hypotheses states that H1: Training Libyan EFL teachers in how to teach the VLSs plays a significant role in vocabulary strategy use, adoption and perceptions (by both teachers and students).

To answer the research questions, three studies (chapters 3, 4 & 5) were conducted in a predetermined order. Both qualitative and quantitative methods were used in the investigations. Table 1 (next page) illustrates the type of study – i.e. S1, S2, and S3, and instruments of data collection that were used to answer each research question.

Table 1: Type of study and data collection methods employed to answer research questions

Research Question Study employed Instrument/s

RQ1: What VLSs do Libyan EFL teachers at a university level know/promote to their Study1: overview of VLS questionnaire, students? the current situation semi-structured RQ2: What VLSs do (chapter 3) interview, and Libyan EFL learners at a classroom university level use/know? observation RQ3: To what extent do Libyan EFL teachers believe that VLSs can be taught?

RQ4: Does training Libyan Study2: VLST Pre, post, and teachers on how to teach programme (chapter delayed- the VLSs play any 4) questionnaires, semi- significant role in structured interview, vocabulary strategy use classroom and perceptions by either Study3: VLST trial observation, teachers or students? and evaluation checklists, and end (chapter 5) of evaluation form.

It should be borne in mind that, based on S1 results, S2 (the VLST programme) was designed. Study 3 in the second part of the table involved two stages, which were teachers’ training and students’ training, both of which were thoroughly elaborated on in the above-mentioned chapter, that is, Chapter 5.

1.10 Organisation of the thesis

In addition to the introductory chapter (i.e. chapter 1), this thesis includes six chapters arranged as follows; literature review, overview of the current situation (study 1), the VLST programme (study 2), trial and evaluation of the VLST programme (study 3), summary of major findings, and finally, the conclusion. The literature review covers the various areas of vocabulary, its

29 importance, taxonomies, learnability and teachability. This is followed by study 1 which centres around identifying the current situation in the context of study (i.e. Libya) in terms of VLSs known, used or promoted and teaching methods adopted. This study is used as a basis for designing study 2. Study 2 (chapter 4) describes the training programme, purposes, phases, and procedures. This is followed by the trial and evaluation of the VLST programme study (chapter 5). Similarly to study 1, a multi-method approach is used to explore the effect of the strategic intervention on teachers’ and students’ use, adoption, and perceptions of usefulness. Each of the three studies is complete on its own, i.e. contains its own results and discussion, and was devoted to answering certain question/s, as indicated earlier in Table 1. Later, a summary of the major findings gathered from the studies is presented, and these are compared and contrasted with relevant literature. Lastly, the conclusion completes the thesis by examining the extent to which the research questions have been answered. Some implications, recommendations for further research, and limitations are also identified in this chapter.

2.0: Literature Review

Over the years, there has been a large volume of published studies describing the role of vocabulary and its learning strategies in second or foreign language acquisition. The first serious discussions and analyses of vocabulary learning strategies emerged during the late 1980s (Chamot & O’Malley, 1987; Ahmed, 1988; Nation, 1997; Cook, 2008). Studies like Cohen, 1990; Brown & Payne, 1994; and Schmitt, 1997 were the initial attempts that tried to classify the VLSs. Traditionally, vocabulary was ignored not only in second or foreign language research but also in language teaching (Hashemi & Aziznezhad, 2011). However, such neglect did not last long, as the aforementioned studies and a plethora of linguists, theorists and psychologists have provided us with useful information about vocabulary and vocabulary learning strategies in particular, which have since been acknowledged as a subclass of general language learning strategies (Oxford 1990: Schmitt, 1997; Gu, 2003). Recently, there has been abundant research addressing the idea that vocabulary is considered by learners to be a central and intrinsic element among other parts of language learning and teaching. Meanwhile, limited lexical knowledge has been considered as leading to receptive and productive language difficulties. According to Shen (2003), it is crucial for both FL (foreign language) learners and teachers to realise the role of having a sufficient amount of vocabulary and its effect on the process of language acquisition.

2.1 Defining terms

Before reviewing literature concerning LLSs and VLSs, some terms require clarification, showing how different researchers perceive them, and starting with the term ‘vocabulary’.

Vocabulary is not simply a list of individual words; it is more complicated than that. Knowing a word ‘means learning much more than just its meaning, with the word’s form, associations, collocations, and grammatical patterns among other things also needing to be acquired’ (Brown, 2010: 254). In the review of the literature that has been conducted in the field of language teaching and

31 learning, it can be seen that various definitions of the concepts of ‘vocabulary’ and ‘word’ are revealed; depending on the particular approach. However, finding a universal definition for the aforementioned terms seems to be difficult, since to date there is no consensus about one specific clarification. In this regard, Pavič ić Takač attributed such a lack to the fact that:

…vocabulary of any language consists of a wide range of lexical forms. Thus, many linguists and theorists of L2 acquisition agree that vocabulary is made up of a variety of forms, such as morphemes, both free and bound (e.g. laugh, or the prefix un-), their combinations, i.e. derivatives (e.g. laughter, unbelievable), compounds (e.g. bus conductor), idioms, i.e. units that cannot be reduced or changed, and whose meaning cannot be retrieved from individual meanings of their components (e.g. to bite the dust), and other fixed expressions, such as binomials and trinomials (e.g. sick and tired; ready, willing and able), catchphrases (e.g. they don’t make them like that anymore), prefabricated routines or prefabs (e.g. if I were you), greetings (e.g. How do you do?) and proverbs (e.g. It never rains but it pours). This list of formal categories indicates a tremendous heterogeneity and a wide range of lexical items, but is by no means complete and absolute, nor are the categories strictly demarcated: their overlap is inevitable. It is this aspect that places vocabulary on the boundaries between morphology, syntax and semantics. (2008: 6)

Perhaps for such reasons and others, Harley (1996: 3) described vocabulary knowledge as ‘a disarmingly simple term for a complex multidimensional phenomenon’. Nevertheless, it is generally accepted that vocabulary is the building blocks in a language, and that ‘One cannot speak, understand, read or write a foreign language without knowing a lot of words. Therefore, vocabulary learning is at the heart of mastering a foreign language’ (Rubin and Thompson, 1994: 79). This shows indirectly that the more vocabulary that is stored, the easier it is to express our notions and access background knowledge.

The word ‘Strategy’, on the other hand, describes the particular ‘attacks’ that people make on a given problem; they are the moment-by-moment methods that people utilise to resolve issues posed by second / foreign language input and output (Brown, 2001). The word ‘strategy’ in itself is a military term (Oxford, 1990) that came to be used to refer to plans for military operations. This term dates back to the ancient Greeks and ‘strategia’, which means a high-level plan to achieve one or more objectives under uncertain conditions (Zare-ee and Salami, 2014: 120(. In time, the word strategy became very common in various fields of life such as politics, games, business and education, where it has been switched into language learning strategies (Trendak, 2015) and vocabulary learning strategies. Throughout this chapter, the terms language learning strategies and vocabulary learning strategies will be defined and discussed in depth.

2.2 Vocabulary importance

Traditionally, it has been emphasised that ‘Lexical problems frequently interfere with communication (which in turn) breaks down when people do not use the right words’ (Allen, 1983: 5). Put differently, a limited range of lexis impedes language use and production, since the more vocabulary people are able to use correctly, the better their ability to express themselves with self- confidence, and the better their understanding of the world they live in (Nandy 1994: 1). Mastering vocabulary on the other hand, is an essential component of language learning, as ‘If language structures make up the skeleton of language, then it is vocabulary that provides the vital organ and flesh’ (Harmer, 1997: 153). Similarly, Taylor (1992: 30) asserts that, ‘Vocabulary permeates everything language learners or language teachers do in an English language class, whichever skill or language point is being practised’. Thus, people need to have adequate vocabulary to use in their conversations, as well as to facilitate their understanding of what they hear and read. Perhaps Wilkins best summed up the importance of vocabulary by saying, ‘There is not much value in being able to produce grammatical sentences if one has not got the vocabulary that is needed to convey what one wishes to say … without

33 grammar very little can be conveyed, without vocabulary nothing can be conveyed’ (1972: 11). Undoubtedly, grammar is essential in a language learning classroom, but when compared to vocabulary, it becomes less important (Flower, 2000). In fact, weak storage of vocabulary affects learners’ comprehension of both receptive and productive language use (Nation, 1990). Thus, the necessity of building up a much larger lexical repertoire is crucial, and to overcome such a problem, learners need to adopt some assisting strategies. Richards and Renandya (2002: 255) point out that:

…without extensive vocabulary and strategies for acquiring new vocabulary, learners often achieve less than their potential and may be discouraged from making use of language learning opportunities around them such as listening to the radio, listening to native speakers, using language in different contexts, reading, or watching television.

Consequently, achieving language learning success requires obtaining an extensive vocabulary, but this not to say that we should neglect grammar completely. Language learners usually report a lack of vocabulary as the major obstacle impeding their successful communication. This may explain why most of them usually carry their dictionaries with them, not their grammar books.

To sum up, we can see how valuable vocabulary is, since having a good lexical repertoire seems to be an essential and fundamental element for language learners. Without a substantial lexicon, mastering any of the four skills of language is difficult to achieve. Linguists and educators now generally recognise the importance of vocabulary, and what we see today in the field of language teaching and learning is good proof of this. On the basis that the present study focuses on vocabulary learning strategies, particularly on VLST (Vocabulary Learning Strategy Training), some literature concerning VLSs will be reviewed. As vocabulary learning strategies are considered a subgroup of language learning strategies, which in turn are considered a part of general

34 language learning strategies (Oxford, 1990; Schmitt, 1997; Nation 2013), it will be worth briefly mentioning LLSs before discussing VLSs in detail.

2.3 Language learning strategies (LLSs)

As mentioned in the previous section, in order to establish a clear idea of what VLSs are, some issues concerning LLSs need to be identified, such as their definition and classification. For this reason, this section will look at the different definitions and taxonomies that have been created in this domain.

With regard to a definition of LLSs, there is a degree of uncertainty around such terminology in the literature, and finding a universal definition for the term is rather difficult. Different scholars define LLSs differently, and thus a number of definitions for LLSs have been used within the field of second / foreign language learning. Two of the first people who approached the idea of successful language learners and brought the concept of LLSs to a wider audience were Rubin (1975) and Stern (1975). Rubin viewed learning strategies, as ‘The techniques or devices which a learner may use to acquire knowledge’ (1975: 43). Later, she defined them as ‘Strategies which contribute to the development of the language system which learners construct and affect learning directly’ (1987: 22-23). According to O’Malley and Chamot’s terminology, language learning strategies are defined as ‘Special thoughts or behaviours that individuals use to comprehend, learn, or retain new information’ (1990: 1). Similarly, Oxford (1994: 1) considers them as ‘Actions, behaviours, steps, or techniques students use, often unconsciously, to improve their progress in apprehending, internalising, and using the L2’. Later, Chamot (2004: 14) described them as ‘The thoughts and actions that individuals use to accomplish a learning goal’.

In terms of strategy training, Oxford (1990: 8) supposed that language learners make use of LLSs in order ‘to make (their) learning more enjoyable, more self-directed, more effective and more transferable to new situations’. Such a view upholds the idea that language learners can benefit from strategy training since it enhances their self-direction and ability during the learning

35 process. Interestingly, Oxford (1990: 9), in her presentation of the twelve features of language learning strategies, particularly the tenth argument (see Table 2 below), clearly confirmed the notion of strategy training/instruction by frankly saying that LLSs can be taught.

It is my intention to shed some more light on the teachability of LLSs, particularly VLSs, and their impact on teachers’ and students’ adoption and perceptions of usefulness of such strategies. The features of LLSs in general, suggested by Oxford (1990), are worth considering since they share some common aspects with vocabulary learning strategies.

Table 2: Features of language learning strategies

Language Learning Strategies

• Contribute the main goal, communicative competence. • Language learning strategies allow learners to become more self- directed. • Expand the role of language teachers. • Are problem-oriented. • Are specific actions taken by the learner. • Involve many aspects of the learner, not just the cognitive. • Support learning both directly and indirectly. • Are not always observable. • Are often conscious. • Can be taught. • Are flexible. • Are influenced by a variety of factors.

Source: Language Learning Strategies (Oxford, 1990: 9)

With regard to the above, it seems obvious that there is diversity in defining LLSs, but generally, all definitions appear to some extent to share the same notions in terms of aiding language learners to become more effective, flexible and independent in their learning, and this could happen via finding different ways to empower those learners. In this research though, my own working definition will be that LLSs are any actions, behaviours and thoughts intentionally operated by language learners to facilitate their language learning.

2.3.1 Language learning strategies classification

The literature on LLSs has classified several taxonomies. In this section however, a historical perspective will be adopted while presenting the taxonomies so as to show how their systems developed and were modified over time. It should be borne in mind that the present thesis is mainly focused on the teachability of vocabulary learning strategies, which are a subgroup of LLSs, and due to wording restrictions only brief examples of LLS typologies will be mentioned. I will start with one of the earliest taxonomies developed in this regard, which was proposed by O’Malley et al. (1985). In their typology, LLSs are divided into metacognitive strategies, cognitive strategies and social/affective strategies. The first includes advance organizers, directed attention, selective attention and self-management, while cognitive strategies comprise repetition, translation, grouping, imagery and transfer. Social/affective, which is the last group of this taxonomy, involves co-operation and questioning for clarification. With respect to the training, O’Malley et al.’s study demonstrated that combining strategic intervention with integrative language skills does indeed have a positive impact on target language learning.

Rubin’s (1987) classification of LLSs on the other hand, helped to distinguish strategies that can contribute directly to learning from those that indirectly contribute to learning. According to Rubin (1987), there are three types of strategies that assist directly or indirectly in language learning. These are learning strategies, communication strategies and social strategies. Rubin’s typology however, has been/is often criticised for its overlap. That is to say that the strategies listed in her taxonomy ‘did not exclude each other and frequently turned up in more than a single grouping’ (Trendak, 2015: 68).

In 1990, another noteworthy taxonomy was offered by Oxford. In this taxonomy, Oxford identified six sub-categories which were divided into two main groups, direct and indirect strategies. The former category comprises memory strategies, cognitive strategies and compensation strategies, while

37 the second one includes metacognitive strategies, affective strategies and social strategies. Oxford’s classification is deemed to be one of the more comprehensive taxonomies since it is based on typology dating back to 1985 and it was later amended and improved (Trendak, 2015). However, Oxford’s taxonomy has been criticised by a number of researchers. Ellis (1994), for example, pointed out that in this taxonomy L2 learning strategies and L2 using strategies were not clearly distinguished. Moreover, compensation strategies were gathered under learning strategies, which established a debatable issue for some linguists. According to Oxford (1996: 142), compensation strategies allow learners ‘to communicate in the target language despite limitations in their knowledge (and they) can be used for any of the four basic language skills’. Indeed, some certain compensatory strategies (e.g. using miming and gestures) are more applicable in speaking, while other compensation strategies such as coining words and using synonyms can be used for both productive and receptive skills (ibid).

In 1992, Stern identified five types of LLS. These were management and planning strategies, cognitive strategies, communicative-experimental strategies, interpersonal strategies and affective strategies. With management and planning strategies, the learner has to set a goal that will be within his/her reach and assess their achievement in the light of that goal. Cognitive strategies, according to Stern (1992), are the techniques that learners use when they engage in their study and practice of the target language. The third type of Stern’s taxonomy, communicative-experimental strategies, aim mainly to avoid message breakdown and to convey it adequately by, for example, using gesturing and paraphrasing. The fourth type is interpersonal strategies, which language learners can use to overcome the social problems they encounter when they learn the target language. Lastly, there are affective strategies, which involve creating favourable conditions and defeating the inevitable issues of negative affect (Stern, 1992).

Drawing upon the above, it seems obvious that the classification system of LLSs has witnessed considerable progress, moving from a simple system

38 towards a more thorough one (Trendak, 2015). In general, problems regarding finding an inclusive categorisation remain unresolved, and thus it is advisable to continue investigations in this area. Too many terms and classification systems are offered in this field, and researchers are still puzzled as to which taxonomy to follow when carrying out strategy research (Hsiao & Oxford, 2002). However, as the current study is based on the idea of training/instruction in the different types of VLSs in a real classroom environment, the following section is dedicated to reviewing studies concerning vocabulary learning strategies before handling VLS taxonomies in detail.

2.4 Vocabulary learning strategies (VLSs)

Learning vocabulary at a feasible pace demands finding effective ways to improve word power. Spending a lot of time teaching words that fulfil all learners’ needs, on the other hand, is fruitless since no one can teach learners all the words they need, especially if their proficiency levels vary. Therefore, finding powerful methods to make vocabulary learning easier and quicker is the students’ responsibility, and because most language learners are generally unaware of VLSs (Asgari & Mustapha, 2011), teachers should also be aware of such strategies and should present sets of VLSs (Oxford, 2003) so that students can pick and apply the ones that suit their learning style. Although the validity of learning styles is still causing a certain amount of disagreement amongst researchers as they are not accepted by everyone (Coffield et al., 2004), Oxford (2003) asserts that the fruitfulness of strategies should require, amongst others, fitting the student’s particular learning style to one degree or another. However, Coffield et al., in their study, identified 71 different learning styles, 13 of them categorised as major models, but generally found no evidence to support their validity.

In terms of EFL language learning and teaching in non-English speaking environments (e.g. Libya), where exposure to language is very limited, the necessity of the aforementioned strategies becomes urgent. Having this in mind, the prime concern of this study is the VLST that will be introduced to teachers, who in turn, will explicitly deliver the VLST sessions to their learners

39 and guide them in choosing and using the appropriate strategies that would assist them in acquiring vocabulary on their own. Before discussing this, it is better to look at the VLS definitions and classifications.

By definition, VLSs are specific techniques, actions and devices adopted by learners to ease and boost their vocabulary learning. This definition is close to that of Asgari and Mustapha (2011: 85) who describe VLSs as ‘steps taken by the language learners to acquire new English words’. For Schmitt (1997: 203), vocabulary learning strategies ‘could be any action which affects this rather broadly-defined process’. Meanwhile, Pavič ić Takač states that by the means of VLSs learners can ‘discover lexical items (both their meaning and form), and internalise, store, retrieve and actively use these in language production’ (2008: 106). Lately, Saengpakdeejit has defined VLSs as ‘an attempt or attempts made by language learners while encountering vocabulary problems to discover the meanings of unknown words, to retain the newly learned words in long-term memory and to recall them at will’ (2014: 1102). Catalan, on the other hand, provides a more detailed definition for VLSs. According to her (2003: 56), vocabulary learning strategies are:

Knowledge about the mechanisms (processes, strategies) used in order to learn vocabulary as well as steps or actions taken by students to a) find out the meaning of unknown words, b) retain them in long-term memory, c) recall them at will, and d) use them in oral or written model.

In the present research, the definition suggested by Catalan (2003) will be adopted due to the following: Firstly, Catalan’s definition seems more thorough as it summarises previous scholars’ thoughts such as those of Rubin (1987), Oxford (1990), and Schmitt (1997), and thus it comprises the various goals proposed in the VLS definitions provided by previous scholars. Secondly, Catalan’s definition involves the desired purpose of conducting strategy training instruction, which is expanding knowledge of VLSs - one of the current research aims.

As noted earlier, having an adequate store of vocabulary appears essential for EFL/ESL learners since it has been considered as key in building up the different skills, i.e. reading, writing, speaking and listening. Finding appropriate and effective ways that assist in comprehending, retaining and recalling the learned words is of utmost importance to language learners, and due to its significance, it was suggested that ‘Presenting vocabulary learning strategies should be the prime concern [not only for language learners, but also] for course book writers, materials developers, syllabus designers, decision- makers and finally, teachers’ (Bastanfar, 2010: 159). By looking at previous definitions, it can be understood that VLSs are largely used to facilitate the learning of lexis via discovering the meaning of obscure words, retaining them and remembering them when needed. This suggests that the definition of VLSs seems to stem from that of LLSs (See section 2.3 for more information). In response to the growth of research on vocabulary learning strategies, many taxonomies have been suggested in order to classify them. The next section will be devoted to discussing the classification systems of VLSs, and in doing so a historical perspective will be adopted.

2.4.1 Classifications of vocabulary learning strategies

On the whole, VLSs are a subset of language learning strategies, which in turn come under the umbrella of general learning strategies (Nation, 2001). Thus far, research has tended to concentrate on VLSs rather than LLSs, and what we see now from proposing different taxonomies for VLSs is proof of this, despite the fact that studies in the field of vocabulary learning strategies are still characterised by the lack of any comprehensive list or taxonomy (Schmitt, 1997). According to Schmitt (1997: 199), the reason for this is the fact that:

The research which has been done on vocabulary learning strategies has tended to deal with individual or small numbers of strategies, with very few studies looking at the group as a whole. (Therefore) the current state of the area is typified by the lack of a comprehensive list or taxonomy of lexically-focused strategies.

However, similarly to language learning strategies, several classifications for VLSs have been offered by a number of scholars. Examples of these taxonomies will be outlined chronologically in this section to highlight the improvements in the VLSs field, beginning with Stoffer’s (1995) taxonomy, and with specific attention given to Schmitt’s (1997) classification of VLSs in line with the present study.

Stoffer (1995) was one of the earliest people to develop a taxonomy in this regard and is therefore worth noting. In her study, a questionnaire comprising 53 items on the vocabulary learning strategy inventory was designed to assess VLSs specifically via factor analysis to cluster the 53 items into nine categories as follows: ▪ Strategies involving authentic language use. ▪ Strategies used for self-motivation. ▪ Strategies used to organize words. ▪ Strategies used to create mental linkages. ▪ Memory strategies. ▪ Strategies involving creative activities. ▪ Strategies involving physical action. ▪ Strategies used to overcome anxiety. ▪ Auditory strategies.

Stoffer (1995) administrated her questionnaire to 707 students at the University of Alabama, enrolled in Spanish, German, Russian, French, and Japanese as foreign languages. Her study revealed that strategies for creating mental linkages were the most frequently utilised ones, with the strategy of connecting an L2 with an L1 coming top. According to Kudo (1999), individual vocabulary learning strategies have been progressively investigated but only Stoffer (1995) and Schmitt (1997) have researched them as a whole group. However, Stoffer’s taxonomy does not seem complete since it has been criticised for the absence of detailed statistical data to support the categories (Kudo, 1999). This may explain why Stoffer’s (1995) classification was not accepted by other scholars, and why a subsequent generation of empirical studies do not employ it.

A year later, Gu and Johnson (1996) developed another taxonomy for vocabulary learning strategies. In their system, they identified the following types of VLSs: a) beliefs about vocabulary learning, b) metacognitive regulation, c) guessing strategies, d) dictionary strategies, e) note-taking strategies, f) rehearsal strategies (memory), g) memory encoding strategies, and h) activation strategies. The rationale behind their study was to compare the frequency of VLS use with learners’ beliefs about vocabulary learning, level of improvement of learners’ vocabulary, and learning success. Section 2.4.3 provides more information about this study.

However, to date the most prominent typology of vocabulary learning strategies is that offered by Schmitt (1997), in an attempt to overcome the drawbacks of previous research that had lacked large-scale studies based on comprehensive classifications. Although Schmitt’s taxonomy, according to Pavič ić Takač (2008: 71),

Includes only major vocabulary learning strategies based on the author’s subjective estimation, [and occasionally it is] difficult to decide whether a procedure qualifies as an individual and independent strategy or is merely one of its variations whose number would be too huge for a classification to be manageable,

It is currently considered the most comprehensive classification of this subgroup of learning strategies and therefore needs to be investigated in more detail (Pavič ić Takač , 2008).

For the purpose of the current study, this particular taxonomy is deemed to be the most comprehensible and standardized for the assessment goals. By utilising it, the participants’ answers can be gathered easily. It is based on the theory of learning strategies as well as on theories of memory. This taxonomy is technologically simple and can be applied to learners of different educational backgrounds and target languages. Finally, it is rich and sensitive to the other

43 relevant learning strategies, and allows comparisons with other studies (Catalan, 2003).

Although Schmitt (1997) believed that Oxford’s (1990) taxonomy of LLSs was unsatisfactory in categorizing vocabulary-specific strategies, he developed his system based on it. This may mean that Oxford’s taxonomy was fundamentally on the right track but incomplete. Therefore, Schmitt (1997) adopts only four out of six strategy groups of Oxford’s taxonomy, which are: cognitive, metacognitive, social and memory, and he does not involve affective strategies in his classification of VLSs. Furthermore, he notes that in Oxford’s system there is no category ‘which adequately describes the kind of strategies used by an individual when faced with discovering a new word's meaning without recourse to another person's expertise’ (p. 205). As a result, a new category, which is called determination strategies, was added. In Schmitt’s classification, the strategies are grouped into two main dimensions as discovery strategies and consolidation strategies (see Table 3). In this case, he distinguished the strategies that are ‘useful for the initial discovery of a word's meaning’ from those that are ‘useful for remembering that word once it has been introduced’ (Schmitt, 2000: 135). Discovery strategies include nine determination strategies and five social strategies, whereas consolidation strategies encompass three social strategies, 27 memory strategies, nine cognitive strategies and five metacognitive strategies. In total, Schmitt’s taxonomy comprises 58 VLSs that were obtained from a survey of 600 Japanese EFL students. Table 3 on the next page illustrates Schmitt’s classification of vocabulary learning strategies.

Table 3: Schmitt’s (1997) classification of VLSs

Strategies for the discovery of new word’s meaning Strategies for consolidating a word once it has been DET Analyse part of speech encountered DET Analyse affixes and roots DET Check for L1 cognate MEM Study the spelling of a word DET Analyse any available pictures or gestures MEM Study the sound of a word DET Guess from textual context MEM Say new word aloud when studying DET Bilingual dictionary MEM Image word form DET Monolingual dictionary MEM Underline initial letter of the word DET Word lists MEM Configuration DET Flash cards MEM Use the Keyword Method SOC Ask teacher for an L1 translation MEM Affixes and Roots (remembering) SOC Ask teacher for paraphrase or synonym of new word MEM Part of Speech (remembering) SOC Ask teacher for a sentence including the new word MEM Paraphrase the words meaning SOC Ask classmates for meaning MEM Use cognates in study SOC Discover new meaning through group work activity MEM Learn the words of an idiom together MEM Use Physical action when learning a word MEM Use semantic feature grids Strategies for consolidating a word once it has been encountered COG Verbal repetition COG Written Repetition SOC Study and practice meaning in a group COG Word Lists SOC Teacher checks students’ word lists for accuracy COG Flash Cards SOC Interact with native speakers COG Take notes in class MEM Study word with a pictorial representation of its meaning COG Use the vocabulary section in your textbook MEM Image word's meaning COG Listen to tape of word lists MEM Connect word to a personal experience COG Put English labels on physical objects MEM Associate the word with its coordinates COG Keep a vocabulary notebook MEM Connect the word to its synonyms and antonyms MET Use English-language media (songs, movies, newscasts, MEM Use Semantic maps etc.) MEM Use 'scales' for gradable adjectives MET Testing oneself with word tests MEM Peg Method MET Use spaced word practice MEM Loci Method MET Skip or pass new word MEM Group words together to study them MET Continue to study word over time MEM Group words together spatially on a page MEM Use new word in sentences MEM Group words together within a storyline Note: SOC= Social strategies, DET= Determination strategies, MEM= Memory strategies, COG= Cognitive strategies, MET= Metacognitive strategies.

Although the typology offered by Schmitt was a pioneering one, it attracted some criticism. For example, it was argued that the distinction between cognitive and memory strategies is difficult to achieve since both groups of strategies are employed in remembering words through some form of language manipulation (Pavič ić Takač , 2008). To overcome such shortcomings, Schmitt decided to classify all the strategies that are not clearly related to mental manipulation, such as repetition, as cognitive strategies, whereas those strategies that are similar to traditional mnemonic techniques, like associations, as memory strategies. Nevertheless, there are some researchers who are still not fully satisfied with the aforementioned solution (ibid).

As a starting point, Kudo (1999) utilised Schmitt’s (1997) categorisation in designing his study that later resulted in offering another noteworthy classification scheme of vocabulary learning strategies. In his taxonomy, memory and cognitive strategies are combined into psycholinguistic strategy, whereas metacognitive and social strategies are merged into metacognitive strategy as a result of exploratory factor analyses. Determination strategies are also removed as a result of factor analysis. Kudo (1999), in his study, aimed mainly to explore the frequency of individual strategy use and to put together a typology of VLSs (Pavič ić Takač , 2008). His results however, showed that Japanese learners do not prefer using the strategies that require deep cognitive processing and usually opt for employing the traditional strategies of mechanical rote learning. Kudo’s (1999) classification is widely used in research studies due to its standardisation for assessment goals, technological simplicity, its ease of use in gathering responses from language learners, and its richness and sensitivity to the other relevant learning strategies (Kalajahi, 2012). Figure 1 illustrates Kudo’s (1999) taxonomy of VLSs.

Figure 1: Kudo’s (1999) taxonomy of VLSs

Two years later, another VLS taxonomy was proposed by Nation (2001). In this typology, vocabulary learning strategies are divided into three general classes: planning, sources and processes, each of which entails a subset of different strategies. Planning involves choosing words, choosing the aspects of word knowledge, choosing strategies, and planning repetition. The sources category on the other hand, contains analysing the word, using context, consulting a reference in L1 or L2, and using parallels in L1 and L2. Finally, the processes category includes noticing, retrieving, and generating. Compared to other VLS classifications, Nation’s (2001) taxonomy is purely theoretical and does not stem from empirical research (Bastanfar, 2010). In terms of strategy training, Nation, in his recent publications, suggests it be a part of a vocabulary development programme (Kalajahi, 2012).

The successive research on finding an exclusive classification for vocabulary learning strategies is still ongoing. After Nation’s (2001) study, Fan (2003), Marin (2006), Winke & Abbuhl (2007), and Zhang & Li (2011) made their attempts in the field of strategy classification. Fan, for example, conducted a large scale project in which vocabulary tests and strategy questionnaires were completed by 1,067 university students. In the study, Fan distinguished nine categories of vocabulary learning strategies, which are: management (contains metacognitive and social/affective strategies),

47 sources, guessing, dictionary, repetition, association, grouping, analysis, and known words.

Marin (2006) on the other hand, developed her taxonomy of VLSs from a questionnaire that was distributed to 150 students at the University of Quintana, Mexico. In her classification, VLSs were grouped into three main classes: (1) dealing with unknown vocabulary items (includes guessing, dictionary use, and asking others), (2) note-taking (involves places where notes are kept, like word cards; kind of information noted down, like synonyms; and organization of notes, like alphabetical order), and (3) memorising / retaining vocabulary (comprises repetition, association, and further practice). After Marin (2006), Winke and Abbuhl (2007) classified vocabulary learning strategies into three categories: Input-based strategies (i.e. extensive reading and asking for L1 translation), output-based strategies (i.e. taking notes and speaking with native speakers), and cognition-based strategies (i.e. mnemonics and contextual guessing). Finally, in a more recent attempt, Zhang and Li (2011) proposed their taxonomy of vocabulary learning strategies basing on the exploratory and confirmatory factor analysis of strategies, and identified a six-part classification of vocabulary strategies, four of which are related to the cognitive process in lexical acquisition and the other two of which are metacognitive and affective factors.

To conclude, in this section I aimed to outline as many taxonomies as possible so as to show that within the area of vocabulary learning strategies new classifications have emerged. Roughly speaking, despite the slight differences among the different taxonomies cited above in terms of the categorisation that they follow, they all present a list of extensively applicable vocabulary learning strategies to aid language learners in their learning of lexis. By addressing the mentioned taxonomies, it was found that Schmitt’s (1997) classification best serves the purposes of the present study, as mentioned previously, since the principal pursuit of this study is strategy training and this particular taxonomy includes almost all the different types of VLSs that students may need. It would be fruitful to concisely provide background information about the factors that may affect strategy choice

48 before addressing some of the research works that are concerned with VLSs in an EFL context.

2.4.2 Factors influencing the choice of VLSs

The variation of strategy choice and use among language learners seems to be affected by several factors. Oxford (1990) for instance, pointed out some variables that could be associated with strategy use. To her, such factors are motivation, gender, age, cultural background, brain hemisphere dominance, career orientation, academic major, beliefs, and the nature of the L2 task. Later, Ellis (1994) grouped the affecting factors under three broad categories: a) individual learner differences, b) social and situational factors, and c) learners’ learning outcomes. The next figure explains the aforementioned variables:

Figure 2: Ellis’s (1994) factors that affect the choice of VLSs

For Pavič ić Takač (2008), the role of L1 or other languages, the complexity of the learning context, memory, the source of vocabulary, individual learners’ differences, the role of the teachers, and vocabulary teaching strategies are the prime variables that influence the choice of vocabulary learning strategies, whereas Schmitt (2000: 133) sees that the effectiveness with which learning

49 strategies can be taught and used depends on proficiency level, L1 and culture, motivation and purposes for learning a language, the task and text being used, and the nature of the language itself. Indeed Arabic (the participants’ L1) markedly differs from English and the debate on the role of L1 in L2 classroom has been an ongoing. The strategy instruction (in this study) will be more effective when the participants’ mother tongue is used (Bastanfar and Hashemi, 2010). From a cognitive prospective, researchers such as Storch and Wigglesworth (2003) asserted that the use of L1 provides cognitive support for ESL/EFL learners during language analysis as well as in the completion of tasks that demand cognitive processing. It also serves a number of functions, involving recruiting and maintaining interest in the mission as well as evolving techniques to facilitate the task and make it more manageable (ibid). Therefore, in this study, L1 will be used as a mediator for the communication. The actual strategy instruction will be in English, simplified as much as possible, and supported in Arabic.

Since there are a great number of variables that could interact with learning strategies, I will exemplify some of them to show how they affect the choice of strategies. Learners’ age, for instance, is regarded as a variable playing an important role in the selection of learning strategies (Trendak, 2015). Ellis (1994: 541) notes that ‘age emerges as a clear factor affecting the way strategies are used’. He claims that older learners tend to use more advanced strategies than young learners, who in turn preferred to employ simple ones. Perhaps this could be attributed to the fact that adults are better and faster at learning vocabulary and grammar rules than young learners. Of course, this is not always the case, but it is likely to happen. Another example of key factors that determine strategy selection and use is ethnicity.

Trendak (2015) reviewed several studies that dealt with nationality and ethnicity variables and their influence in the process of language learning, and concluded that the role of such factors in choosing and using strategies cannot be downplayed. According to her, memorisation strategies are typical for Arab cultures, and I mostly agree with her opinion in this regard. Based on my

50 experience in the teaching field, I can say that in Libya (the context of the present study) more emphasis was and is still put on rote memorisation, L1 translation and grammar recognition. This confirms Oxford’s (1989: 242) view that ‘Oriental students seem to prefer strategies involving rote memorisation and language rules as opposed to more communicative strategies’. Sutter (1987, cited in Oxford, 1989), in this vein, goes further by saying that if the strategies being taught did not suit the learner’s national origin or cultural background, disaster happened. Therefore, camouflaging the newly trained strategies under the guise of familiar ones is essential (ibid).

Depending on the above discussion however, it can be understood that language learners differ greatly from each other in their way of learning and choosing the appropriate strategies that suit their learning style. Having summarised what the variables that affect strategy choice are, I will now move on to outline some previous works on VLSs within an EFL context which are targeted by this study.

2.4.3 Research on vocabulary learning strategies within an EFL context

One of the best-known and most frequently cited studies in this regard is Schmitt’s (1997), in which 600 Japanese EFL learners were divided into four groups: junior high school students, high school students, university students, and adult learners. In his survey, he used a questionnaire of 40 discovery and consolidation strategies to investigate strategy use and participants’ perceptions of the helpfulness of each strategy. As reported by Schmitt, the target of the study was ‘to assess which vocabulary learning strategies learners actually use and how helpful they believe them to be’ (1997: 199). The study’s findings revealed that in discovery strategies the ‘bilingual dictionary’ was the most used (85%) and most helpful (95%). For consolidation strategies, ‘verbal and written repetitions’ came top in use (76%) and helpfulness (91%), which is not surprising given the fact that in Asian educational institutions, like those in the Arab world, more emphasis is placed

51 on rote learning strategies (Politzer & McGroarty, 1985). Conversely, ‘asking the teacher to check students’ flash cards or word lists’ was the least frequently used (3%) and the least helpful (39%) in consolidation strategies, while for discovery strategies, ‘checking for L1 cognate’ was the most infrequently utilised (11%) and least helpful (40%). Such an outcome is expected bearing in mind the complete difference between the two languages, i.e. English and Japanese, as cognates in Japanese are almost non-existent.

Prior to Schmitt, Ahmed (1989), and Gu and Johnson (1996) undertook other prominent and large-scale surveys within an EFL context. Ahmed (1989) for instance, examined the use of VLSs among 300 undergraduate Sudanese students. In achieving that, he used think-aloud, observation and semi- structured interviews. Results showed that good learners and poor learners differ in strategy use since the former use strategies more than the latter. Successful learners, according to him, were aware of the learning process, recognised the importance of learning vocabulary in context, and were conscious of the semantic correlation between new and previously learned items. In contrast, unsuccessful learners made use of fewer strategies, showed little awareness, and avoided active practice (Ahmed, 1989). Furthermore, he found that note taking and dictionary strategies were the most frequently used among the participants.

Gu and Johnson (1996), on the other hand, investigated the relationship between the use of vocabulary learning strategies and its outcomes in learning English. A vocabulary learning strategies questionnaire of 91 items was distributed to 850 Chinese sophomores at Beijing University. The findings of the study revealed that the participants in general ‘did not dwell on memorisation, and reported using more meaning-oriented strategies than rote strategies in learning vocabulary’ (p. 668). On the basis of their study’s results, they grouped learners into five types based on their approach (readers, active strategy users, non-coders, coders, and passive strategy users). In their research, only the questionnaire was used in their data collection, which led some researchers to criticise the study in terms of data triangulation (Tassana-

52 ngam, 2004). In this regard, Nation (2001) also remarked about the data gathered from the use of a self-report questionnaire in Gu and Johnson’s study. He said, ‘…what learners say they do does not always represent what they actually do’ (2001: 226).

At more or less the same time, Lawson and Hogben (1996) explored the kinds of VLSs used by 15 Australian students when learning 12 Italian words. They employed interviews and think-aloud methods in their investigation. Based on the aforementioned methods, they classified 15 VLSs under four categories: a) repetition, b) word feature analysis, c) simple elaboration, and d) complex elaboration. In their study, they came to the conclusion that learners who used more strategies more often recalled more of the learned words than those who used less strategies. Additionally, they found that repetition strategies were the most frequently utilised, as well as elaboration strategies and deliberate mnemonic strategies, which were superior to repetition in helping to recall words, and word feature analysis strategies. In comparison, large scale studies, as noted earlier, were not the only way to explore the domain of strategy utilisation, and mini-studies were also used, with Gu’s (2003) being a good example of this. In this study, only two successful Chinese EFL learners, who were not English majors, participated. Instruments such as think-aloud, reading tasks and interviews were used to investigate the use of VLSs. Gu’s results showed that the two participants were indeed aware of the importance of the vocabulary that should be integrated with language use, and they demonstrated high levels of self-initiation, and employed a wide range of VLSs. The value of conducting interviews in such studies was also revealed. In this regard, the present study will also use interviews as a method of collecting data. Indeed, while the sample size in Gu’s study was small by any standard, the research came up with a valuable taxonomy of VLSs, in which they were classified as cognitive, metacognitive, memory and activation strategies.

Research on vocabulary learning strategies within an EFL context is still ongoing. Recently, Arjomand and Sharififar (2011) aimed to explore the

53 correlation between gender and vocabulary learning strategy use among 80 Iranian EFL freshmen students. Their findings showed that social strategies were the least frequently used by both genders, and that there was no significant difference in the performance of males and females. In general, they found that female students were more eager to use cognitive and determination strategies, whereas male students favoured using metacognitive and cognitive strategies. In a more recent attempt, Saengpakdeejit (2014) examined the types of VLSs used by 63 undergraduate Thai EFL students at Khon Kaen University. A semi-structured interview was employed in collecting data. Findings of the study showed that learners displayed awareness of vocabulary learning strategies. By contrast, also within an EFL context, Guduru’s (2014) study revealed that Saudi EFL learners are unaware of most VLSs, thus they do not use them in their vocabulary learning. It may be true that being aware of the different strategies is part of the commonly accepted definition of VLSs, but this does not mean that people can only use things that they are aware of, which is an issue that should be borne in mind.

As discussed above, it can be seen that over the past few years, the field of language learning strategies, particularly vocabulary learning strategies, has attracted the attention of strategy researchers, and as a result numerous studies have been conducted and are still taking place. Scholars’ successive investigations have yielded numerous techniques. Many of those strategies were theoretically or empirically examined and reported as positive, such as using vocabulary clusters, the total physical response technique, the use of real objects, dictionary look-up, the keyword method, self-initiated use of new words, note taking, and synonyms (Oxford, 2013). However, many language teachers and learners are unaware of such strategies and they seem to restrict themselves to a limited selection for one reason or another. In such a case, strategy training would be beneficial in equipping those teachers and learners with a set of strategies so that they can deal with their language teaching and learning on their own. This is what the current study aims to do. To put it differently, if teachers are to be in a position to make their students aware of

54 various strategies that can aid their process of language learning, they should first be familiar with the techniques that are available. Thus, the present study hypothesises that if university teachers and students are instructed in vocabulary learning strategy use, their awareness of VLSs’ importance will increase and thus their use and adoption of such strategies will be promoted. However, before delving more into this hypothesis, it is worth reviewing some studies that involve training / instruction in VLSs and looking at their findings. Furthermore, issues relating to teaching language learning strategies and vocabulary instruction will be discussed in the upcoming section.

2.5 Teaching language learning strategies

Research into strategy training in second and foreign language contexts has flourished recently, with its ultimate goal of answering whether training in strategies would result in improvement in languages learners’ performance. Although almost all the conducted studies, as we will see next, have investigated the positive effects of direct strategy training in language learners’ achievement, it is rare to see works investigating the influence of direct strategy instruction on the teachers’ side.

In relation to studies concerned strategy training, O’Malley (1987) carried out one in this area, in which he focused on the impact of training in the use of learning strategies. In his study, 75 high school students from different nationalities participated. Those participants were placed into three groups: a control group and two experimental groups. The control group did not receive any strategy training, and were required to learn the words using their normal methods, whereas the treatment groups were directly trained in implementing learning strategies. Interestingly, the results of the study showed that the effect of strategy training on Asian students is dissimilar to that on Hispanic learners, since the former performed poorly in their post-tests, whereas the latter showed a positive response to the training. Still, this experiment supported the idea that LLSs could be teachable. Other studies on language learning strategy instruction were performed (Cohen et al., 1996; Dadour & Robbins, 1996) which were a threshold for successive research either in the field of language learning strategies or in vocabulary learning strategies.

Turning to strategy training, Oxford was one of the many researchers who recognised that LLSs are teachable and trainable. In proclaiming this, she said that literature has proven that the more exposure language learners have to strategy training courses, the faster they learn the target language (1990). Oxford also claimed that learning strategies are easy to teach and modify through using strategy training. Nonetheless, although the success of strategy training is consistently shown, studies still do not frequently affirm this claim (Oxford, 2002). According to Oxford, this may be due to: a) the period of strategy training being too short, b) the training task being difficult or disproportionately easy, c) a lack of integration of the training into normal classroom settings, and finally d) insufficient assessment of students’ initial strategy use and needs (2002). In the current study, such problems will be taken into account in order to ensure the study’s findings are reliable. As long as the teachability and trainability of learning strategies have been proven theoretically and practically (Al-Ghamdi, 2012), all that is needed now is to determine a suitable approach to introduce the instruction programme for learning strategies, which will be elaborated on in the next section.

2.5.1 Vocabulary instruction

Finding the best method that can be applied for vocabulary instruction is hard to achieve (National Reading Panel, 2000), but previous research seems to agree on two ways of teaching vocabulary, which are explicit instruction and implicit instruction. The former type refers to teaching specific words directly, such as by providing word roots or affixes analysis, whereas the latter means teaching vocabulary incidentally via exposing language learners to extensive reading (Sedita, 2005). Although many scholars such as O’Malley and Chamot (1990) favoured using the explicit approach, this does not mean the role of the implicit approach should be ignored, since teaching students all the required words is difficult to achieve. According to Tseng and Schmitt, the implicit approach is fruitful ‘at enhancing knowledge of words that have already been introduced because it fills in the contextual knowledge that cannot be easily taught explicitly’ (2008: 4). This interpretation seems to contrast with

56 that of Oxford (2002: 126) who argued that ‘Blind training, in which students are led to use certain strategies without realizing it, is less successful, particularly in the transfer of strategies to new tasks’. She adds that the best way to make training successful is for it to be woven into normal class activities. Language teachers, according to Pavič ić Takač (2008), indeed intuitively allude to vocabulary learning strategies in their teaching of the target language, but such an implicit approach to strategy training does not seem to be useful enough in terms of its influence on students’ choices and application of VLSs. To overcome this issue, Pavič ić Takač believes that the solution lies in the type of approach chosen, and in this case, he opts for the explicit one. By means of this approach, according to him, we could raise learners’ awareness of their own strategies, introduce them to new ones, and give them any opportunity to apply, analyse and adopt new VLSs (p. 149).

In the late twentieth century, the attention seems to be drawn away from the learners to the teachers, resulting in the proposal of new approaches for vocabulary teaching and learning. Oxford and Scarcella (1994) for example, offered a new ‘research-based approach to L2 vocabulary instruction’, in which the emphasis is placed on vocabulary learning strategy training while bearing in mind learners’ different needs, goals and styles in terms of vocabulary instruction. In this approach teachers guide students to use strategies effectively and give them opportunities to practise the skills inside their class. According to the authors (1994: 235), the research-based approach centres on five points:

a) Teachers are recommended to carefully consider the words that students need to know. b) Vocabulary instruction should be tailored to suit individual students, such as in learning styles, needs and goals. c) Learners should be taught how to continue independently to improve their vocabulary learning. d) Vocabulary learning strategies should be emphasised.

e) Finally, more emphasis should be given to implementing a variety of fully contextualized (e.g. reading, writing, and listening to authentic material) and partially contextualized activities (e.g. semantic mapping and word association). In contrast, decontextualized activities (e.g. flashcards and word lists) should be limited.

Taking the above points into consideration, it seems apparent that more attention has been given to VLSs due to their role in enhancing learners’ independent learning, which in turn may be linked to the extensive literature on learner self-determination. All in all, many scholars (Sedita, 2005; Pavič ić Takač , 2008; Tseng & Schmitt, 2008) recommend using both methods of instruction. Such an argument was recently supported by Yang and Lui, who claimed that via ‘the combination of strategy instruction and language teaching, learners not only acquire the learning strategies they need but also learn when to use what strategy to deal with a particular task’ (2014: 189). Since the present study focuses on strategy training instruction, the explicit approach, in which strategies are directly taught, will be adopted in the training programme. The rationales behind selecting this particular approach are: firstly, the participants will be intentionally informed about the value of the training programme in terms of purposes and advantages from the beginning, to increase their awareness of the vocabulary learning strategies; this cannot be done implicitly. Secondly, advanced learners will not be targeted in this study, as only beginners will be dealt with, therefore explicit instruction will be more effective, especially when the learners’ L1 (Arabic) is used (Bastanfar and Hashemi, 2010). In my experience, students at lower levels usually demand more opportunities to learn vocabulary and VLSs directly, compared to those at higher levels.

In accordance with the pilot study outcomes, both teachers and students were interested in the idea of conducting a strategy training programme in the classroom. Moreover, it was found that like any other language learners, the participants had to recall many English words daily, which causes a problem,

58 especially for those who do not know or use techniques to facilitate their lexis learning. Therefore, this study intends to deal with instructing teachers in a mixed set of VLSs, which they will then in turn teach to their learners in order to assist their vocabulary mastery via different sets of strategies, allowing learners to pick the ones that suit their learning style. It also aims to explore the effect of the strategy training on the teachers’ and students’ adoption, utilisation and perceptions of vocabulary learning strategies.

2.5.2 Vocabulary teaching strategies (VTSs)

Unlike native speakers of a language, foreign language learners start their study of English with very few known English words, and have very limited time and opportunities to learn from input and to produce output. Therefore direct vocabulary study is a way to speed up the learning process (Nation, 2013). Previously, vocabulary teaching strategies were classified as planned and unplanned activities in classrooms (Seal, 1991). The unplanned teaching strategies refer to incidental or accidental learning of vocabulary in classes, when learners request the particular meaning of the word, or when the teachers want to draw attention to any relevant words (Shen, 2003). In such a situation, teachers may use various strategies to clarify the meaning of the target words. For example, they may use synonyms, body language, or antonyms. Additionally, this type of teaching strategy relates to ‘teachers’ spontaneous reactions with the aim of helping learners when the need arises, in which case teachers improvise’ (Pavičić Takač , 2008: 19). Planned vocabulary teaching strategies on the other hand, refer to ‘deliberate, explicit, clearly defined and directed vocabulary teaching’ (ibid). For this strategy, instructors choose certain words and work out a way of teaching them in advance.

Based on the learners’ learning styles and goals, numerous activities have been suggested, which will be divided into three categories: decontextualized activities, partially contextualized activities, and fully contextualized activities (Oxford & Scarcella, 1994). In the former category, words are removed as completely as possible from the context and learned separately, e.g. dictionary use and word lists. In the partially contextualized type, teachers use a number

59 of partially contextualized activities for vocabulary instruction, such as semantic mapping and word grouping. Fully contextualized activities occur when learners practise reading, writing, listening and speaking, while engaged in meaningful authentic communication activities, for instance reading books and interacting with native speakers.

Turning to vocabulary teaching strategies, by definition, they are everything teachers do or should do to assist learners in learning the words of the target language (Hatch & Brown, 2000). For instance, teachers would introduce and present the meaning and form of a word, and then stimulate their learners to revise, practise and consolidate it (Pavič ić Takač , 2008). In a good attempt, Pavič ić Takač (2008) conducted a study on the relationship between VLSs and VTSs, assuming that the implementation of a specific vocabulary teaching strategy would bring about the employment of a corresponding vocabulary learning strategy. In his study, nine teachers and 17 primary school classes were involved. In the investigations, Pavič ić Takač (2008) used a questionnaire as the main instrument. The findings of the study revealed that vocabulary learning strategies used by the participating learners are independent of vocabulary teaching strategies employed by their teachers. To Pavič ić Takač (2008), there are two likely causes for the weak relationship between VLSs and VTSs. The first reason is the lack of teachers’ understanding of factors affecting vocabulary acquisition and being unaware of the VLSs utilized by their students, which means they cannot adapt their teaching strategies to cater to their students’ needs. Secondly, teachers might be using a small number of VTSs that may limit their ability to provide a variety of models of vocabulary learning strategies for students to imitate and internalise. However, although the results in this study did not show any significant correlation between VTSs and VLSs, it is a research-inspiring issue. The context of the present thesis, i.e. EFL adults, is not similar to that of Pavič ić Takač ’s (2008) study, and hopefully this will provide more insight into the little- researched area of the teachability of VLSs.

To sum up, it is easy to find those who argue that vocabulary can take care of itself (Bastafar, 2010), but there is some convincing evidence supporting the

60 theory that mastering vocabulary is one of the most challenging missions that a learner faces during language acquisition (elaborated in 2.1). Such a situation is typical for Libyan EFL teachers and learners, whose exposure to English in their daily life is extremely limited. Here lies the importance of adopting some useful strategies to somehow help such teachers and students in reducing their burden and making them more independent and confident in their language teaching and learning. Being an EFL learner and an English teacher at Al-jabal Al-gharbi University has allowed me to observe some common patterns that university teachers follow in their teaching of vocabulary. In general, they prefer to use some classic methods which result in learners not putting any effort into gaining the meaning of learnt words. For instance, they pick up some basic words from the target lesson and give their Arabic meaning directly, or read a whole word list with its translation and ask their students to read after them (Orafi, 2008). As a consequence, students rely totally on their tutors in eliciting the meaning of the unknown words, which in turn leads those learners to become predominantly receptive (ibid). Language teachers and learners, in general, are not always aware of the power of using VLSs to ease their lexical acquisition and make it more effective. Presumably, if students are left on their own they typically use simple VLSs, which may not be sufficient to satisfy their needs. Therefore, the necessity of instructing language learners in new kinds of learning strategies becomes urgent. Oxford and Nyikos (1989: 291), in this regard, argued that the appropriate use of learning strategies ‘enables students to take responsibility for their own learning by enhancing learner autonomy, independence and self-direction’. Hence, instead of spoon-feeding learners most of the time with vocabulary that they need, teachers may teach them how to monitor their lexis learning independently by teaching them new VLSs. Teaching learners how to learn is an important issue that should be kept in teachers’ minds, but in my view, teaching teachers how to teach vocabulary learning strategies is also a crucial means by which we can assist both teachers and learners in making the learning process interesting and not overwhelming.

Having considered what is meant by vocabulary teaching strategies, I will now move on to discuss the issue of vocabulary learning strategy training.

2.6 Vocabulary learning strategy training (VLST)

Data about the efficacy of introducing strategy training to language teachers are limited. The majority of strategy training studies have concentrated mainly on providing students with VLSs training. Up to now, far too little attention has been paid to introducing teachers to strategy training. Apart from Avila and Sadoski (1996), Aktekin and Guven (2007), and Tanyer and Ozturk (2014), who also mainly focused on learners’ training but to some extent partially referred to teachers’ training, there is a general lack of research in the area. Perhaps most of us, not only language scholars, when we think of teachers, assume that they are fully qualified (especially those holding Master’s and doctoral degrees) and that further training may be effortless, which is not always true.

With language learners, the fruitfulness of introducing them to specific training in how to use learning strategies more efficiently, as we will see next, is evident. According to Nation (2001), strategy training plays an advantageous role in developing lexis. The benefit of training in strategies extends to include language teachers as well, since it was noted that when teachers use strategy training they ‘often become enthusiastic about their roles as facilitators of classroom learning. Strategy training makes them more learner orientated and more aware of their students’ needs’ (Oxford et al., 1990: 120). Moreover, some researchers go further by suggesting that before instructing students how to employ strategies efficiently, their teachers should be trained in strategy instruction and assessment in their classes (Rasekh & Ranjbary, 2003). Despite all of the aforementioned advantages, learners’ training ‘remains a secondary concern in many language classrooms’ (Wenden & Rubin, 1987:159). This, according to O’Malley and Chamot (1990), can be attributed to the complexity of the process of strategy training, which requires informed and qualified instructors who spend a long period of time working with learners. However, before going further, it might be useful to clarify exactly what is meant by learner training in learning strategies:

For Ángel (2008) for instance, learner training in learning strategies refers to an exercise that permits students to display their knowledge about themselves and the way they learn, which is based on the exploration of what they ‘do to achieve the same tasks and goals and the trying out of strategies that they are not very familiar with’ (p. 504). Although abundant research upholds the positive effects of strategy training in students’ learning performance, as we will see in the coming section, some other studies, by contrast, are still uncertain about the effectiveness of strategy training on language performance. O’Malley et al. (1985), for example, carried out a study to explore whether training EFL learners to use a combination of different strategies, such as cognitive, metacognitive and social strategies, would result in improving students’ vocabulary learning. The outcomes of the study revealed that there was no significant difference between treatment groups, which may due to the fact that ‘the proficiency distance between the groups was not big enough’ (Trendak, 2015: 49). Similarly, Rossiter (2003), in a more recent attempt, conducted a study on the impact of affective strategy instruction on measures of L2 proficiency and of self-efficacy, and concluded on the negative effect of instruction in language performance. However, despite the uncertainty of some scholars, the vast majority of strategy researchers still upheld the usefulness of strategy training in participants’ learning performance. The forthcoming reviewed surveys will address this.

2.6.1 Previous research in the field of strategy training

With the expansion of vocabulary learning strategy training research, numerous attempts have been made to work out the relationship between strategy use and success, in both second and foreign language learning. Cohen and Aphek (1981), for example, were some of the earliest researchers to probe this area. They trained 26 Hebrew adult students to remember vocabulary items by mnemonic association, and tested the strategy use of their participants after three weeks of training, finding that students who made associations succeeded in recalling vocabulary better than those who did not. However, this may not demonstrate a causal link, as perhaps those who made

63 successful associations had some other factors going for them, such as proficiency and aptitude (ibid). Four years later, Crow and Quigley (1985) utilised semantic field strategy training to promote lexis learning. In the early nineties, Brown and Perry (1991) compared the effectiveness of training in three VLSs: keyword, semantic, and keyword-semantic (combination of both) among 60 Arabic learners, and assumed that the deeper the processing the strategy involves, the better the result in retention will be.

Another attempt was conducted by Alseweed (2000), to discover the relationship between VLS use and success in vocabulary acquisition. His study centred on training 19 Arabic undergraduate students in using word- solving strategies like skipping, using dictionaries and cognate guessing. His results also showed that training students in how to utilise such strategies in fact raised high proficiency students’ strategy use more than it did that of students with low proficiency. This, however, does not mean that advanced learners are more motivated and open to learning English and using new learning strategies than beginners. Researchers such as El aouri and Zerhouni (2017) demonstrated that Moroccan EFL freshmen students use learning strategies at ‘a medium level and exhibit a high level of motivation and that their motivation to learn English and use of LLSs are strongly and positively correlated’ (p. 53).

Rasekh and Ranjbari (2003), on the other hand, assessed the impact of metacognitive strategy training on strengthening EFL students’ lexical knowledge. Ten weeks of training Iranian EFL learners revealed a positive effect on vocabulary knowledge. In addition, a year later, Tassana-ngam (2004) tested the influence of instructing Thai EFL students at university level in how to use five VLSs, which were dictionary use, grouping, the keyword method, context, and semantic mapping. By the end of the study, it was found that training in the aforementioned strategies indeed promoted the awareness of how to learn lexis. Likewise, Zhao (2009) investigated the correlation between metacognitive strategy training and vocabulary learning among 134 Chinese college students. A five-week training programme evidenced the positive effect of metacognitive strategy training, with the experimental group

64 surpassing the control group in a post-training vocabulary test. The procedures of the strategy training were based on the three components of metacognitive strategies, which were planning, monitoring and evaluating.

Al-Nammoura (2011) looked into students’ attitudes towards using training- based VLSs. In the study, 63 EFL Palestinian learners were trained in using five VLSs - two determination-discovery strategies (guessing meaning from context and dictionary work), two memory-consolidation strategies (keyword method and memorisation) and one social-discovery strategy (asking for meaning). The findings of Al-Nammoura’s study showed that using VLSs in fact enhanced the participants’ achievement in vocabulary learning. Furthermore, the students who received the training were more positive than those who did not.

More recently, attention has focused on comparing the different effects of vocabulary strategy training and the traditional mode of presenting vocabulary. The findings of this study showed that the group that received vocabulary strategy training outperformed the group that studied vocabulary via traditional activities prescribed by textbooks, whilst Rezaei et al.’s (2013) study found that training autonomous and non-autonomous Iranian EFL learners to use VLSs actually improved their vocabulary retention. However, it is not likely to ‘dis-improve’ it, though it might be an ‘attention effect’ rather than the result of instruction. Al-Khasawneh and Huwari (2014) tested the impact of teaching metacognitive strategies on vocabulary learning among Jordanian university students via the use of the CALLA (Cognitive Academic Language Learning Approach) model. Their results revealed that the post-test scores of the experimental group significantly outclassed those of the control group. In this regard, it is worth mentioning that the idea of CALLA will be adopted for the present study, and will be discussed thoroughly in sections 2.6.2 and 4.4.1. Rahimi (2014) noted the positive effect of VLSs instruction on the depth of vocabulary knowledge among a group of low intermediate Iranian EFL students.

Thus, going through the prior literature it seems obvious that acquiring and remembering vocabulary will be more effective and feasible via strategy

65 employment and training. Although training language learners in how to utilise particular vocabulary learning strategies has generally proved successful, there are still findings that may suggest some studies ‘have been less convincing in demonstrating the effectiveness of strategy training’ (Ellis, 1997: 88-89). Relying on the aforementioned premise, conducting further empirical research in order to measure the usefulness of strategy training is recommended. Furthermore, despite the fact that research has consistently supported the significance of the direct instruction and use of strategies, many students and teachers are not yet conscious of the effective power of such knowledge (Oxford et al, 1990; Fan, 2003; Naeimi & Yaqupi, 2013). This may be attributed to time constraints, where students, especially EFL students, are exposed to English lessons in fixed and limited time periods. As a consequence, teachers in such situations seem to rely on covering the materials that are stated in their curriculum, and thus, more emphasis is being allotted to teaching writing, reading, listening and speaking rather than vocabulary and its learning strategies. In EFL contexts, there are too many words to teach and it has long been maintained that ‘large amounts of vocabulary cannot be acquired in a short time through language skills only’ (Pavič ić Takač , 2008: 76). In such a case, it will be rather time consuming to meet the aforesaid goal. Vocabulary learning strategies, if strategy training is effective, allow learners to take the control of their learning away from their teachers, letting teachers concentrate on other things (Nation, 2013). Such an argument therefore gives a justification for carrying out this study and for why teachers and students should embark on strategy training. Having reviewed some of the previous research in the field of strategy training, I will now move on to discuss several frameworks that have been designed in this regard.

2.6.2 Vocabulary learning strategy training frameworks

There has been an expansion in VLS research devoted to questioning the effectiveness of receiving strategy instruction, however only a few scholars have succeeded in developing well-recognised models for strategy training (Oxford, 1990; O’Malley & Chamot, 1990; Chamot & Rubin, 1994; Cohen,

1998; Grenfell & Harris, 1999). Despite the variation between one training model and another, their desired goals seem to be shared. They all aim to: a) raise the students’ awareness about learning strategies and model them overtly along with the task, b) encourage strategy use and explain its rationale, c) provide learners with varied options of relevant strategies to choose from, d) offer controlled practice in the use of some strategies, and finally e) provide some sort of a post-task analysis to allow learners to reflect on their strategy use (Dörnyei, 2005).

The first models for teaching learning strategies were Oxford’s (1990) CIT (Completely Informed Training) model, O’Malley and Chamot’s (1990) CALLA (Cognitive Academic Language Learning Approach), Cohen’s (1998) SSBI (Styles and Strategies-Based Instruction) model, and Grenfell and Harris’s (1999) model. The CIT model, for example (sometimes called Strategy-Plus- Control Training), focuses on eight steps, which teachers should consider during the implementation of strategy training. This model usually works better with long-term strategy training, but can be adapted for one-time training through choosing specific units (Mei, 2013), whereas the teachers’ work in the SSBI model that was introduced by Cohen (1998) takes different roles in order to assist students to learn how to use the strategies which suit their learning style. The Grenfell and Harris (1999) model on the other hand, suggests a cycle of six stages, which students can work through before starting a new one.

In a different study, O’Malley and Chamot launched the next instructional model, which was CALLA, in 1990. This framework was based on cognitive theory and was established for second and foreign language learners alike. The Cognitive Academic Language Learning Approach has been successfully employed in various contexts (Al-Khasawneh and Huwari, 2014), and with my context, I believe that this approach in particular will be effective in raising participants’ awareness of vocabulary learning strategies, which in turn reflects on their language teaching/learning. The CALLA model is a recursive cycle so that there is always an opportunity to revise former instructional phases when needed. Therefore, the instructional method for my study will

67 partly depend upon this model to train the participants in VLSs. That is to say, apart from revising the strategies introduced in the previous session, each session begins by activating background knowledge and explaining the strategies selected. Then, in the presentation phase, the strategies are explicitly modelled and explained with thorough illustrations and exemplification. Later in the practice phase, the opportunity to employ the strategies discussed within authentic learning tasks is provided and guided either by me (in the teachers’ training phase) or by the trainee teachers (in the students’ training phase). The opportunity to evaluate the success of the training sessions is provided at the end of the training programme in the form of a post survey involving questionnaires, observations, interviews, etc. In the final phase, which is the expansion phase, another survey, similar to the aforementioned one, is conducted three months after the VLST programme in order to examine the impact of the strategy instruction on participants’ use/promotion of use of VLSs in the long run. Chapter 4 (section 4.4.1), however, will discuss this in-depth and provide reasons why this particular framework has been chosen in the current study.

Turning to the model, it has been organised into five recursive phases: preparation, presentation, practice, evaluation, and expansion, and in terms of the validity, this model has been employed in various contexts (Al-Khasawneh and Huwari, 2014). It was declared on the website of the CALLA framework that ‘it is being implemented in approximately 30 school districts in the United States as well as in several other countries’ (Coskun, 2010: 42). Studies such as Coskun (2010), Erkan and Saban (2011), Sardroud (2013), and Al- Khasawneh and Huwari (2014) have recently utilised the theoretical framework as an instruction method in strategy training in their EFL contexts. Although the mentioned model was developed as a metacognitive strategy training pattern, it could be used to investigate other strategy learning categories. Bornay (2011) for instance, explored the advantages of explicit memory strategy training via the application of the CALLA model. According to her, exposing first-year university Spanish students to explicit instruction in two memory strategies (grouping and mind-mapping) for six-week periods

68 contributed to developing the participants’ stock of VLSs, raising their metacognitive awareness and enhancing their learning skills. She also described the model as being flexible and simple for learners to follow, due to the fact that ‘the order in which the stages take place can be altered in accordance with students’ prior knowledge’ (Bornay, 2011: 21).

However, it is necessary to bear in mind that recommending a fixed framework that could be applied for strategy training is hard to achieve (Ghazal, 2007), since a number of variables, i.e. proficiency level, task, text, and so on, have an impact on the effectiveness of strategies that can be taught and used. Subsequently, several issues were highlighted prior to carrying out any strategy training that may assist teachers in adopting a suitable framework for strategy training for their students (Ghazal, 2007). According to Ghazal, discovering what strategies or combination of strategies need to be addressed and taught by teachers is a priority, followed by identifying and taking into account the strategies that are known and preferred by learners. Thirdly, some learners may need to be convinced that strategy training is for their own benefit. Fourthly, after picking up the strategies that learners should pay attention to, teachers should determine the time allotted for strategy use training, as well as a syllabus for each strategy that covers the required knowledge and provides enough independent practice. Fifthly, when the recommended VLSs are considered, teachers should bear in mind that effectiveness depends on the context in which strategies are used, and they are not inherently good. The effectiveness of teaching and using learning strategies depends on several variables such as task, proficiency level and the context of learning. Lastly, teachers should keep in mind that students need to realize the target of each strategy and the conditions under which it works best, and furthermore, they need sufficient practice to feel confident and proficient in utilising strategies, so teachers should provide adequate time for strategy training.

By and large, being aware of the utility of VLSs without providing training in how to use them in advance is not sufficient, either for teachers or learners. As a result, this steers us to consider the significance of strategy training, via

69 explorations around the influence of VLS teachability. Additionally, numerous scholars consider teaching VLSs to be crucial, and many studies have been conducted within EFL contexts such as Turkey, Jordan, China, Japan, and Taiwan, although so far there has been no empirical study on strategy training for Libyan EFL teachers and students. To the best of my knowledge, almost all the conducted studies deal with providing language learners with strategy training, while neglecting the teachers’ side. The view of teaching students more language and letting strategies look after themselves (Kellerman, 1991), although not completely agreed with, seems still to dominate the current situation in my context, resulting in teachers and learners undervaluing these techniques. Teaching the target language alone is not sufficient; learners’ attention should also be drawn to strategies that could be helpful when promoting successful learning (Trendak, 2015). Based on my experience as a teacher, the current situation in vocabulary teaching and learning in Libya can be summarised as follows.

There is a passive way of teaching and learning vocabulary that puts the responsibility mainly on teachers. In the course of time, the myths concerning vocabulary teaching and learning have not changed much, and rote memorisation still dominates the process of language teaching and learning, and should be replaced by more effective techniques. Added to that is the absence of systematic research that in turn would guarantee success in the process of language teaching and learning. Lots of teachers and learners underestimate vocabulary learning strategies, something that should be changed by increasing their awareness of such strategies. Bearing the above in mind, research into vocabulary learning strategies is needed and would have significant practical value in enriching the literature in this area. Therefore, under the assumption that Libyan EFL teachers and students have very little exposure to vocabulary learning strategies, this study’s target is first to discover the VLSs known / used by Libyan EFL teachers and learners, and then to trial and evaluate the developed VLS training programme, showing the impact of strategy training on teachers’ and learners’ performance and perceptions. The strategies that will be introduced in the treatment process will

70 be chosen from Schmitt’s (1997) taxonomy, whilst the strategy instruction model will be the Cognitive Academic Language Learning Approach, originated by Chamot and O’Malley (1994).

Having considered the issues related to LLSs / VLSs, their taxonomies, teachability and learnability, we will now move on to present and discuss the three studies that the current thesis centres around, starting with study 1 – i.e. overview of the current situation.

3.0: STUDY 1: Overview of the current situation

The previous chapter was devoted to discussing issues relating to LLSs, VLSs, and their classifications, with more emphasis allocated to the notion of ‘strategy training’ and its various frameworks. The following chapters however, will be dedicated to the main study of the current thesis, which in turn comprises three studies (S1, S2, and S3), one study in each chapter. During these studies I played different roles. In S1, for example, my role was researcher and observer, identifying the current situation in terms of strategy use and the nature of teaching approaches followed. Later, in S2, my role transitioned into that of a designer, who designed the training programme and all the materials used. In S3, I was the trainer, facilitator and assessor, who guided and supported the participants throughout the strategy instruction programme.

In this chapter, the principal goals for Study 1 will focus on finding out what is being done by Libyan EFL teachers and learners in terms of VLSs promoted/used and the nature of the teaching methods adopted. Attitudes and perceptions towards the teachability of VLSs will also be investigated in this chapter. S1 however, answers the first three preliminary questions of the present research which are:

• What vocabulary learning strategies do Libyan EFL teachers at a university level know / promote to their students?

• What vocabulary learning strategies do Libyan EFL learners at a university level use / know?

• To what extent do Libyan EFL teachers believe that VLSs can be taught?

In answering these questions, a multi-method approach in the form of a VLS questionnaire, a semi-structured interview, and classroom observation was used. This chapter will present the overall findings and results derived from

72 the initial survey, beginning with a descriptive analysis of the VLS questionnaire. Before proceeding with S1 analysis, it will be necessary to overview the most frequently used methods for investigating language learning strategies, explaining why particular instruments have been adopted in the present research.

3.1 Vocabulary learning strategy research methods

Researchers have made use of different instruments for investigating language learners’ learning strategies, including diaries (Trendak, 2015), think-aloud protocols (Gu, 2003), observations (Rubin, 1975; Ahmed, 1989), written questionnaires (Oxford, 1990; Schmitt, 1997) and oral interviews (Gu, 2003; Saengpakdeejit, 2014). Each of these methods has its strengths and weaknesses as not all of the methods undertaken proved to be completely successful (Trendak, 2015). Despite the limitations that each method has, and which will be discussed later in this section, all have provided us with valuable insights into unobservable mental learning strategies (Chamot, 2004). Before proceeding further in discussing the advantages and drawbacks of the aforementioned research approaches, it should be borne in mind that finding the correct, effective measure to identify language learning strategies appears to be a great challenge (Cohen, 2014; Pavič ić Takač , 2008). This may be due to the fact that while some language learning strategies are observable (e.g. asking for questions and using dictionaries), most of them are internal or mental processes (like guessing and making associations) and hence cannot be easily observed. Consequently, to quote Cohen (2014: 66-67), ‘designing a study that assesses strategy use with some accuracy is a challenge’, or as it was seen by Trendak (2015: 113) ‘a daunting task’. To solve such a dilemma, it was suggested that multiple approaches be used while investigating learning strategies to complement data (ibid). Bearing in mind the issues mentioned above, and in order to increase the validity and credibility of the present research results, I intend to use triangulation, i.e. using a combination of qualitative and quantitative data. Triangulation has already been employed in numerous studies (Pavič ić Takač , 2008; Trendak, 2015), and itself divides into

73 four techniques - source triangulation, investigator triangulation, methodological triangulation, and finally location triangulation (Pavič ić Takač , 2008). In my study, triangulation in methods is used, that is, questionnaires, interviews and observations. Triangulation in source of information, i.e. investigator, teachers and students, and triangulation in data-gathering location, i.e. different sites, are also applied.

The following sections will firstly present the advantages and disadvantages of the most frequently used instruments for investigating LLSs, for instance written questionnaires, oral interviews, classroom observations, diaries and think-aloud procedures. More emphasis will be placed on the former three methods as the current study utilised them in collecting data concerning strategy use/adoption and strategy training effectiveness. Justifications for why certain instruments have been chosen in my study will also be outlined. The detailed information about participants, data collection procedures and data analysis will be provided later in this chapter.

3.1.1 Vocabulary learning strategies questionnaire (VLSQ)

A written questionnaire is a research tool that is widely used in identifying and assessing the use of vocabulary learning strategies. Studies such as those conducted by Oxford (1990), Stoffer (1995), Sanaoui (1995), Gu and Johnson (1996), Schmitt (1997), Fan, (2003) and many more have made use of vocabulary learning strategy questionnaires for data collection due to their efficiency and comprehensibility in assessing the frequency of strategy use (Chamot, 2004; Pavič ić Takač , 2008; Oxford, 2013) in a short time with less cost and effort (Trendak, 2015). Compared to diaries, thinking-aloud and observations, questionnaire responses can be delimited to relevant information (O’Malley & Chamot, 1990). Moreover, data gathered by means of this method is easy to administer and score, it serves as the basis of standardisation, allows comparability, and can be analysed in relation to different variables, e.g. age, gender and level of proficiency (Oxford, 2013). Furthermore, questionnaires can be anonymous and thus it is expected that participants will be more relaxed and honest (Pavič ić Takač , 2008). For such

74 reasons, the present study uses questionnaires in order to create a broad picture of strategy utilisation and attitudes among a large group of participants. This, in turn, will serve in generating and testing the hypotheses (Cohen, 2014).

In VLS studies, one of the most frequently and widely used questionnaires is one that was developed by Gu and Johnson (1996). This lengthy questionnaire, containing 91 items altogether, was devised to specify which strategies Year-2 Chinese learners at Beijing University use to learn English vocabulary, and their beliefs about vocabulary learning. One of the biggest advantages of Gu and Johnson’s questionnaire is the comprehensibility. The items in this questionnaire were divided into three groups: beliefs about vocabulary learning, metacognitive strategies, and cognitive strategies. The respondents’ task was to rate their use of each strategy on a 7-point Likert scale, ranging from extremely untrue of the learner (1) to extremely true of the learner (7). The researchers in this study grouped learners into five types based on their learning approach (readers, active strategy users, non-coders, coders, and passive strategy users), which supports the view that different approaches can be efficient (Pavič ić Takač , 2008).

Oxford’s (1990) SILL (Strategy Inventory for Language Learning) questionnaire is another example of a structured, valid and widely used survey (Pavič ić Takač , 2008). This questionnaire was created to evaluate strategy use in relation to variables such as gender, cultural background, learning style, and proficiency level. Although the SILL is in English and has been designed for English speakers learning a new language, students whose mother tongue is different have also utilised this survey (ibid). Like Gu and Johnson’s (1996) instrument, Oxford’s survey has ‘undergone standardisation, it is reliable and effective’ (Trendak, 2015: 116). Schmitt (1997) organised his VLSs system based on Oxford’s (1990) study. Here, it is worth mentioning that for the purpose of the present study, the typology used was inspired by Schmitt (1997). According to Brown (2016), questionnaires can be self-administrated (i.e. mailed to the participants to be completed whenever is appropriate and then returned via mail) or group-administrated, which is when they are

75 distributed to groups of individuals at one time and place. In this project, the latter approach was used to guarantee a full return of the questionnaire as well as to provide ‘on-the-spot’ clarification.

However, like any research approach, the use of questionnaires is not without criticism. According to Dörnyei (2014), there are certain problems with the use of such a method. One of these is the unsuitability for probing deeply into an issue, due to the nature of the questions and respondents, which are usually characterised by superficiality. In addition, there is an increased possibility of items being left without a response either by mistake or intentionally, which may result in unreliable findings, and spelling problems that leave little or no room for correcting the respondents’ mistakes. Lastly, and most importantly, is the ‘prestige bias’, that is, it is not always the case that people give honest responses about themselves. Nonetheless, apart from such drawbacks, the advantages that can be achieved from questionnaires are clear, as mentioned above. I am well aware of the disadvantages of questionnaires, but in my study they work well for this objective and in this scenario. Therefore, in the present study, a written questionnaire was a main instrument (more details about the questionnaire utilised will be presented in section 3.3.1). Having discussed the first instrument used in this research, the next section addresses the classroom observation, which was the second method adopted in the investigations.

3.1.2 Classroom observation

Qualitative data was gathered via observation, semi-structured interviews, and open-ended questions. Classroom observation is one of the earliest methods used in identifying language learning strategies (Rubin, 1975; Ahmed, 1989). Observational data on learning strategies can be gathered via recording or videotaping learners and their behaviour in their classrooms (Pavič ić Takač , 2008). However, there are certain problems associated with the use of observational techniques. One of these is that many strategies are mental operations that cannot be simply noted and thus never result in an obvious behaviour (Oxford, 1996; Cohen, 2014). To clarify further, observers

76 can only notice the strategies whose applications are visual, e.g. dictionary use, taking-notes and asking questions (Pavič ić Takač , 2008), and thus, they can produce a description, whereas with cognitive or internal strategies such as making associations for example, observation is inadequate in providing a description, although this does not mean that this method is not workable and useful (Cohen and Aphek, 1981). To overcome this problem, it can be useful to combine the observation technique with other research methods, e.g. interviews and questionnaires, in order to complement the data (Pavič ić Takač , 2008; Oxford, 2013; Cohen, 2014), which this study intended to do. An additional drawback to using the observation approach is, to quote Pavič ić Takač , ‘the initial labelling of the strategies on which coding of the observed behaviour - and consequently the interpretation of the data – will be based’ (2008: 84). That is to say that structured observations can be used to obtain quantitative data suitable for statistical analyses, but sometimes they do not turn out to be successful research instruments, as happened with O’Malley et al.’s study (1983 cited in Pavič ić Takač , 2008). In the current study, a structured observation schedule in the form of an ‘Observation Sheet’ (see Appendix 6) was utilised so that quantitative data could be collected and analysed statistically. Thus, the study hypotheses could be examined and generated.

There are other problems linked with observation, such as the presence of the researcher and the method of recording the observed activities, i.e. audio/video-taping or taking notes (Oxford, 1996; Pavič ić Takač , 2008). In these instances, the learners’ normal behaviour can be affected; they may feel uncomfortable, or furthermore, they may be reluctant to be recorded. These were difficulties which I faced while piloting the observation since the participants’ permission to record their behaviour visually or via an MP3 device could not be obtained (see section 3.4.2). However, despite the advantage of replaying the video and audio data at a later time, there are always some events that cannot be captured by means of such technology (Oxford, 1996; Cohen, 2014). Consequently, in my study, in order to avoid the aforementioned shortcomings, the option of note taking was chosen as a method for recording

77 the participants’ strategy use. Although the use of field notes also comes with its own drawbacks, such as keeping the researcher busy and the impossibility of recording all that happened in the classroom, the prepared observation sheet provided great assistance in taking notes throughout the observation. In the current study, the main reason for employing the live observation was to actually observe what the participants do and not what they say they do. Such observation plays ‘a crucial role in both the collection and interpretation of the language learning strategy data’ (Oxford, 1996: 94). However, despite the limitations, many researchers (Chesterfield & Chesterfield, 1985; Pawlak 2009; and Macaro, 2001 cited in Trendak, 2015) found strategy observation, i.e. a type of strategy assessment tool by which teachers and researchers can observe students’ strategic behaviour (Oxford, 2013), valuable and beneficial. According to Ahmed (1988), this technique is particularly useful in catering for the vocabulary learning strategies that are not verbalised but have a motor activity counterpart, such as consulting dictionaries and writing words down. During the observations, my role as an observer was non-intrusive (see section 3.5.5). The conducted observations mainly focused on identifying the VLSs promoted/employed by teachers and students. An observation sheet was used to record the information. Certain problems that were encountered when piloting the observations, mentioned in subsection 3.5.7, were also faced here. Bearing in mind the above discussion, the present study employed observational techniques as well as questionnaires and interviews, in order to complement the data.

3.1.3 Semi-structured interview

Interviews can be structured, semi-structured or unstructured, by which the interviewee could have more or less freedom in selecting the information to be given in his or her responses (Pavič ić Takač , 2008: 86). In the current study, the semi-structured approach was chosen to (a) supplement the data obtained through the VLS questionnaire, (b) determine the employed strategic action inside the classroom, (c) find out the difficulties regarding vocabulary teaching and learning, and finally (d) provide further information concerning participants’

78 attitudes towards VLS instruction. The retrospective nature of the semi- structured interview, in which the participants’ task is to fully describe what they thought about and what they did in reality while performing a learning task (Trendak, 2015), would allow me to gain deeper insight into strategic profiles. This method is particularly useful for allowing the researcher and the participants to ‘pursue topics of interest which may not have been foreseen when the questions were originally drawn up’ (Cohen, 2014: 71). As with any other research instrument, there are certain problems associated with the use of oral interviews. One of these is the influence of forgetting, as informants may often forget to report some processes and strategies (Ahmed, 1988) or may give answers that they think they are expected to give (Trendak, 2015). Therefore, data collected by the use of this approach was used to supplement those obtained from the VLSs questionnaire and classroom observation.

Interviews can be carried out with individuals or with a group of people. In order to diminish the issues of mutual influence on the interviewees, the talkativeness of informants and the impact of the interviewer (Pavič ić Takač , 2008), face-to-face individual interviews were conducted. In the present research, the semi-structured interview was conducted with the participants after distributing the VLSs questionnaire and conducting the observations. Procedures of the interviews are presented in section 3.4.3.

In general, the information gathered from the participants, teachers and students, via VLSs questionnaires, semi-structured interviews and classroom observations were used to answer research questions 1, 2, and 3, as well as to develop Studies 2 and 3.

3.1.4 Diaries

Diaries have also been used in eliciting information about learners’ utilisation of strategies over a long period of time (Pavič ić Takač , 2008). In these, ‘Learners write personal observations about their own learning experiences and the ways in which they have solved or attempted to solve language problems’ (Chamot, 2004: 16). Diaries are usually retrospective, i.e. recording

79 data after completing the task, and unstructured so that the entries might cover a wide range of topics, which in turn results in gathering a much greater volume of data than is needed for a straightforward analysis (O’Malley & Chamot, 1990). For this reason, this research tool is appropriate in gaining qualitative data on specific strategies used by individual learners (Pavič ić Takač , 2008). In my study however, I will not use diaries because the collected data would then be self-observation, and participants may not necessarily give accurate descriptions of their learning/teaching strategies (Chamot, 2004).

3.1.5 Think-aloud protocols

Think-aloud procedures, or so-called self-revaluation, are another research instrument that has been employed in assessing students’ learning strategies (Cohen & Aphek, 1979; Ahmed, 1989; Alseweed, 2000). In these, the learners are given a learning task and are asked to verbally describe their thoughts and beliefs while working on it (Chamot, 2004; Pavič ić Takač , 2008). By nature, the think-aloud procedure is introspective and non-mentalistic, and is considered as most accurately reflecting learners’ cognitive processes (Cohen, 2014). However, there are some problems linked with this instrument, one of which is the difficulty of interpreting and generalising from the gathered data, as ‘one cannot get information on what it is the learner does not attend to’ (Pavič ić Takač , 2008: 84). Besides, much of cognitive processing is unconscious and thus inaccessible (Cohen, 2014). As with all research measures, the use of think-aloud protocols is not without drawbacks, and thus, researchers should see them as a complement and not as a replacement to other instruments (Cohen, 2014). The next sections will be devoted to discussing location, sample and ethical issues encountered in S1.

3.2 Study 1 population and location

As indicated in section 3.1, in this research, the triangulation was not only in the instrumentation, and in the source of information, but also the location. The participants recruited for this study represented two English language faculties at the Al-jabal Al-gharbi University in the cities of Tiji and Badr. In

October 2015, 109 participants, including 13 EFL teachers from two different university levels (1st and 2nd grade) and from two different locations (Tiji and Badr) were recruited for S1. Since one of the main aims of the present study was to survey vocabulary learning strategies among Libyan EFL teachers and students, teachers from other nationalities were not included. The participating teachers, who freely volunteered to participate in the study, varied in age, qualifications and years of experience in the teaching field. The students targeted were made up of 96 English-majors, who were enrolled in the autumn semester of 2015, and studying English as a foreign language. There were 40 male and 56 female participants. Most of the participating students were aged between 17 and 25 years old, with only a few (14 participants) over 25. The participants all shared the same language (Arabic) and culture. Table 4 (below), illustrates the number, gender and distribution of S1 participants.

Table 4: Number, gender, and distribution of S1 participants

Participants N Gender Grade Male Female grade 1 grade 2 Teachers 13 8 5 - - Students 96 40 56 46 50 Total 109 48 61 46 50

The criteria for selecting the participants was as follows: firstly, they had to be freshmen or sophomores and would therefore likely be less proficient in English than the other grades. This in turn, would make them more eager to learn, or furthermore, invent ways to facilitate their language learning. In my view, the more recently admitted the students are, the greater their needs to develop strategic competence that could assist their language learning. Bearing this in mind, more experienced and advanced students were excluded from the study. It seems reasonable that advanced students have already created their own methods that they stick to, and thus changing their preferences may be a challenging matter (Trendak, 2015). In addition, because of their proficiency level, ‘they are likely to develop learning

81 awareness to a greater degree and (as a result they) require less learner training than their less advanced peers’ (p. 96). In my research, due to the limited time available for the study, strategy training targeted students with little experience in dealing with problems when learning English. With respect to the participating teachers, they were chosen on the basis that their L1 is not English, that they have limited or no knowledge of VLSs, and they have never been trained on the use of VLSs or how to explicitly introduce them to their students. All of which were indicated in the pilot study.

Before proceeding with the ethical considerations, it would be beneficial to discuss the curriculum for English faculty students and the entry criteria.

In Libya, admission to the English programme at the faculty of Education and Arts requires the Secondary Education Certificate (GSES) that students get at the end of the ‘intermediate’ stage, in which they have to achieve a score of 65% or more. They also have to take a written English test for university entrance, which usually focuses on grammar and comprehension skills. Regarding the syllabus of English, students study grammar, conversation, comprehension, phonetics, translation, language lab, theoretical language sciences, literature, and writing. The outline of the syllabus, which shows what courses are to be covered each year, is provided by the university and the details of what to include is left to the teachers based on their experience and knowledge. In this research, I opted for using the term ‘beginners’ to refer to the participating students not because they are beginners in terms of proficiency level, but because they are newly-admitted students and to some extent fresh to the term of VLSs, as the pilot study showed.

3.3 Ethical considerations

The principle of consented participation was followed in all procedures concerning data collection (Appendices 13 and 14). The participants were fully informed about the aims, purpose and procedures of the research. They all read the Information Sheet (see Appendix 12) and signed the consent forms. The participants also understood that they were free to withdraw at any time during the data collection period without giving any reason and without any

82 detriment to themselves (Appendix 13). Permission was granted from the participants and the heads of the English departments at Tiji and Badr faculties at the very beginning of data collection (Appendices 10, and 11). Furthermore, the participants were ensured that the data would remain confidential and anonymous. In the Information Sheet, it was explained that the information provided would be safeguarded unless subject to any legal requirements, and that the data would be stored securely. In order to overcome the problems that occurred during the pilot study (elaborated in the next subsections) and due to religious and cultural constraints, videotaping was avoided and audio-taping used instead. Not using videotaping, however, left me unable to take note of everything that took place in the classrooms.

3.4 Study 1 instrumentation

So far the previous section has focused on ethical issues. The following subsections will deal with Study 1 methods adopted, procedures, results and discussions, starting with the VLS questionnaire.

3.4.1 Vocabulary learning strategies questionnaire (VLSQ)

In order to explore the strategies participants apply to their vocabulary teaching and learning, a 38 item vocabulary learning strategy questionnaire was employed. The VLSQ was adapted from Schmitt’s (1997) 58 strategies, and was expanded by adding some demographic and open-ended questions. When developing the questionnaire, some strategies in the taxonomy were modified, either by combining them together, e.g. the strategy ‘I use a bilingual dictionary’ and ‘I use a monolingual dictionary’ became ‘I use a dictionary (dictionary strategies)’, or in terms of wording. The strategy ‘I associate the word with its coordinates’, for instance, was simplified by including some more relevant examples in brackets, ‘I associate the word with its coordinates (e.g. apple, pears, peaches)’ and so on. With dictionary strategies, mentioned above, one must not forget that bilingual dictionaries and monolingual dictionaries are different VLSs and the normal use of the former is likely to be related to the infrequent use of the latter, but in general the two are not mutually

83 exclusive (Kudo, 1999). In general, the rationales behind the above-mentioned adaptations were to cater for students whose English proficiency was low, in order to make Schmitt’s questionnaire easier to follow and to make it shorter for participants to complete. By doing this, the fatigue effect, i.e. the tiredness and boredom resulting from administering a lengthy questionnaire (Brown, 2016), was avoided.

Being a practitioner of English language teaching has also allowed me to observe the VLSs that were used by undergraduate students in Libya. Therefore, from my perspective as a teacher and based on my experience in the teaching field, I sought to eliminate from the questionnaire, some strategies that would not serve the aims of the study. Some strategies are dated, such as the peg and loci methods, and Libyan teachers and learners seldom, if ever use them. I intended to use the survey that I adapted from Schmitt’s study instead of using his original. To test the hypothesis, two versions of the questionnaire were piloted, Schmitt’s Original Questionnaire (SOQ) with its 58 statements (Appendices 4 and 5) and the developed version being used in this study (Appendices 1, and 2). By analysing the gathered data, the aforementioned supposition was highly supported. The loci and peg methods, for instance, which were avoided in the developed questionnaire, were not loaded at all by the participants in SOQ, since 100% of the participants said that they never used them. Besides, the participants felt more comfortable with the modified survey than SOQ, whose statements per participant were quite extensive. By minimising the SOQ items, more space was left to add some items concerning attitudes towards strategy training.

As stated above, the employed questionnaire was based on Schmitt’s (1997) taxonomy, which included determination (DET), social (SOC), memory (MEM), cognitive (COG), and metacognitive (MET) strategies (Refer to literature review for a detailed description of each category). The category names were not mentioned in the questionnaire as they were not thought to be relevant to the participants and might prove a distraction. The VLSQ was split into three parts: Part A included some demographic statements about the participants’ personal information (e.g. gender and age). Although the demographic data

84 obtained were analysed, they were only examined to determine whether the items of the questionnaire were well formulated and ‘to gather information useful for describing (participants) in some detail’ (Pavič ić Takač , 2008). Part B consisted of rating statements established to measure the participants’ employment of the VLSs. Since this part concerned collecting information on participants’ opinions and beliefs, all statements were on a five-point Likert scale. The statements were arranged as follows: always, often, sometimes, rarely and never. Participants needed to tick the adverb that represented the frequency. The questions involved seven determination strategies, five social strategies, seventeen memory strategies, six cognitive strategies, and three questions addressing metacognitive strategies, Table 7 in section 3.6.1 illustrates this. It is worth mentioning that compared to SOQ the adapted questionnaire lost two determination strategies, three social strategies, ten memory strategies, three cognitive strategies, and two metacognitive strategies. Part C, on the other hand, contained some open-ended questions, in which participants were allowed to describe their own opinions about the idea of conducting strategy training and to explore the difficulties they might encounter during their vocabulary teaching and learning. In this project, I intended to use both closed (as in Part B) and open response questions (Part C) in order to benefit from the advantages of each type. Schmitt’s (1997) questionnaire was established in numerous previous studies, and thus, its construction and validity has been thoroughly investigated. In this study however, Cronbach’s Alpha was used as the indicator of internal consistency of the adapted VLSs questionnaire. The reliability was 0.997 by Cronbach’s Alpha coefficients, which means that the scale had a good internal consistency, see table 5 below.

Table 5: Reliability of the VLS questionnaire

Variable No. of statements Cronbach’s alpha

VLSQ 39 0.997

To avoid any misapprehensions or language barriers, the VLSQ was in the participants’ mother tongue (Arabic). As the population targeted in the present study was Libyan EFL teachers and learners, two parallel versions of the VLSQ were circulated, the Teachers’ Vocabulary Learning Strategies Questionnaire (TVLSQ, Appendix 1) and the Students’ Vocabulary Learning Strategies Questionnaire (SVLSQ, Appendices 2 and 3), which will be discussed in detail later. Both versions were inspired by Schmitt’s (1997) VLS taxonomy, and the only difference between them was in the background and open-ended questions. Questions relating to strategy implementation, in general, were almost identical.

Having discussed the first instrument used in S1, the next section of this chapter addresses the second method adopted in the investigations - classroom observation.

3.4.2 Classroom observation

The observational technique was also employed to supplement the data gathered from the VLSs questionnaire. Live classroom observation was conducted to obtain further in-depth information on the participants’ strategic action and the nature of the teaching methods followed in general. During the observations, my role as an observer was non-intrusive. I watched and wrote down what the teacher and students were actually doing. The conducted observations mainly focused on identifying the VLSs promoted by teacher/employed by students. Attention was also paid to the teaching methods followed since the use and choice of VLSs might be influenced by the students’ perception of vocabulary teaching strategies (Pavič ić Takač , 2008). Bearing in mind time constraints and the impossibility of writing down everything that takes place in the classroom, an observation sheet (Appendix 6) was used to record the most relevant information. Initially, I intended to videotape the observed lessons but unfortunately was not allowed to do so. Certain problems that were encountered when piloting the observations, mentioned in section 3.5.6, were also faced here. Therefore, to better conduct an accurate observation, an observation sheet was prepared. The information

86 gathered from the participants, teachers and students, via classroom observation were to complement those obtained from the VLSQ.

3.4.3 Semi-structured interview

The third method utilized in the present study was the semi-structured interview. This instrument was conducted with the participants after distributing the VLSQ and conducting the observations. The interviewees’ appointments were arranged a few minutes after their regular lessons, one participant at a time, so that their thoughts on their own strategic action were fresh. During the interviews, careful listening and the use of prompts enabled me ‘to ask respondents to extend, elaborate … or qualify their response’ (Cohen et al., 2000). I obtained permission to audio-record the interviews so that, when transcribing, no information was missed. Later, respondents’ answers were translated from Arabic to English and then transcribed. For anonymity purposes, pseudonyms and numbers were used instead of the participants’ real names. At the end of each interview, a copy of the VLSQ was provided to the participants to comment on, so as to probe for more views regarding their strategy utilisation. Appendices 7 and 8 present the whole range of questions for teachers’ and students’ interviews. The data collected from the VLSQ, classroom observation and semi-structured interviews were used to answer research questions 1, 2 and 3 as well as to develop Studies 2 and 3.

3.5 Pilot study

Prior to conducting the main study, I decided to travel to Libya and carry out a pilot study. The reason behind this was to check the comprehensibility and feasibility of implementing the chosen methods and procedures, as well as to increase the chances of assessing the problems that may occur in the main study. Issues relating to time management, such as sufficient time for filling out questionnaires or conducting interviews were also resolved. Some other advantages to conducting such a study, mentioned by Meriwether (2001), were also taken into account, such as allowing a preliminary testing of the research hypothesis, permitting a thorough check of the planned statistical and

87 analytical procedures, and providing me with ideas that might not have been foreseen before conducting the pilot study. The details of the pilot study are summarised as follows:

The study was conducted at the university of Al-jabal Al-gharbi in Tiji City in Libya. The participants who took part in this study shared the same culture and language (Arabic) and majored in English. The study took place over a period of two weeks, from the 1st to the 13th of September 2014. Permission was sought at the very beginning. The head of the English department welcomed the idea and signed the permission. She also provided me with the names of the English teachers. I was then able to meet four English teachers (three males and one female); the other teachers were in classes. I introduced myself and verbally clarified the purposes behind my presence in the university. The Information Sheet, which I developed, was also provided. As indicated previously, in this sheet, explanations about my research and the procedures for the pilot study were provided. I invited them to take part in the study either by filling out the questionnaire or by conducting interviews. I also indicated my need to conduct some classroom observations. The same procedures were followed with the volunteered students. I visited them in their class after their lesson and explained why I was there and what I needed from them. It was ensured that they understood that their participation was entirely voluntary and their confidentiality absolutely guaranteed, and that furthermore, the data that they provided would be destroyed once processed.

3.5.1 The procedures for piloting instruments

During the first week of the pilot study, I repeatedly visited the university in order to meet the participants to speak with them and visit them during their regular classes. The rationale behind that was to familiarise the participants with what would happen next and to make them feel more at ease during the observations. In addition, in order to obtain meaningful data from observation of learning strategy behaviour, ‘it is likely that the investigator will need to visit the same class over an extended period’ (Cohen, 2014). During this week, some strategy training was also introduced to the teachers who were involved

88 in the study, via describing and exemplifying some vocabulary learning strategies. I gave the teachers a short discussion about some VLSs, such as associations, paraphrasing and the keyword method. The discussion was followed by a short practice in which the teachers were encouraged to come up with their own examples for the introduced strategies. Once the training was over, I asked the teachers to give a 10-minute talk about the practised strategies. They were free to speak in Arabic or in English. Later, I asked them to follow the same steps and present the techniques to their students as well as encourage the use of them. In the second week of the pilot study the questionnaires were distributed and observations were carried out before follow-up interviews were conducted.

3.5.2 Piloting the questionnaire

According to Dörnyei, there is only one way to know how the items of the questionnaire will work in actual practice; that is,

By administering the questionnaire to a group of respondents who are in every way similar to the target population the instrument was designed for. This is usually an undeclared pre-test whereby the respondents are not told that this is a questionnaire under construction. (2003: 67)

Therefore, the intention behind piloting the questionnaire was to check the clarity and usefulness of the items in obtaining the expected information. To avoid testing fatigue and overestimating or underestimating the use of certain strategies, the questionnaire was in Arabic (the participants’ mother tongue). The translation was done by the researcher, and prior to administrating the questionnaire, it was revised twice by two Arabic-English linguistic specialists, one from Manchester Metropolitan University and the other a PhD teacher at Al-jabal Al-gharbi University, to check the validity of the translation. There were no significant differences in terms of meaning between the translations. Sufficient verbal explanations of how to respond to the statements were given to the participants. They were informed that the questionnaire was not a test

89 and that their answers would only be used for study purposes. The respondents were encouraged to highlight any difficult or ambiguous questions that they could not understand. The time for completing the questionnaire was not restricted. As strategies differ from one person to another, the participants were not allowed to discuss or share their answers with one another, and therefore completed the questionnaire in front of me. I collected the questionnaires immediately after the students had finished completing them.

In this phase, 14 participants (ten students and four teachers) took part, and two versions of the questionnaire (see section 3.4.1) were demonstrated. Students were divided into two groups, with five in each group. The first group was given the original version of Schmitt’s (1997) questionnaire (Appendix 4), with its 58 items, whereas the second group was handed the adapted version (Appendix 2), also based on Schmitt’s study. The rationale behind developing this version was discussed above in section 3.4.1. Even though the questionnaires were conducted in the participants’ native language (Arabic), and their items were simplified by including some more relevant examples, further ,(الجبر-Algebra ,الكحول -e.g. I check for L1 cognate (e.g. Alcohol explanations were needed, which took more time than expected, especially for SOQ. A parallel version of this questionnaire was also handed to the four volunteer teachers (Appendix 1). As indicated in section 3.4.1, demonstrating two versions of the questionnaire allowed me to test which one could better serve the main study in terms of feasibility, comprehensibility and answering my research questions. When scoring the data, I followed the same method that Schmitt (1997) used in scoring his questionnaire data, which was using percentages to present the collected data. The results were analysed quantitatively with the help of Microsoft Office Excel, either in terms of frequency or in percentages.

3.5.3 Piloting the interview

The aims of testing interviews were: a) to check the clarity of the questions, and b) to identify central problems in the instructions, contents and time

90 allocations so that they could be corrected and resolved before the main study took place. The interviews were carried out in Arabic in order to reduce the possibility of being misunderstood or misinterpreted, as well as to enable participants to freely express their ideas and thoughts. The interviewees’ appointments were arranged based on convenience and availability. The duration of the interviews was about 25 minutes, and the respondents’ answers were recorded and transcribed by the researcher.

3.5.4 Piloting the observation

Observation procedures were also piloted. My role as an observer was a non-intrusive role (Cohen et al., 2000). In other words, it was like ‘someone who takes no part in the activity, but his/her status as a researcher is known to the participants’ (Robson, 2002: 319). Therefore, I did my best not to interrupt the flow of the class. In order to be able to observe both teacher and students, I sat to the side and opened my observation sheet (see section 3.6.2.3), which was prepared so that notes could be taken regarding issues relating to vocabulary learning/teaching strategies, and started writing notes once the teacher began his/her lesson. After each observation, any issues, themes and questions that had been generated from the observational data were discussed in a follow-up interview. The interview was conducted with the teacher that was observed, depending on his or her free time and availability. In analysing the observational data, the focus was on describing what the participants (teacher and students) did in terms of vocabulary learning strategy use/promotion. Piloting the observation in general allowed me to refine my approach (see section 3.4.2 above) and obtain live data on the ongoing actions. It is true that the data gathered by this technique was limited to overt strategies, but the use of observations was essential in order to ensure that the teachers followed their lesson plans as agreed, and also to keep track of how students responded to the strategy instruction provided by their teachers. Strategies operating at a cognitive level were elicited by other instruments, such as questionnaires and interviews.

3.5.5 Pilot study results

The data gathered from the VLSs questionnaires, classroom observation and semi-structured interview will be outlined in this section, starting with the results concerning strategy use/promotion and continuing with identifying the nature of teaching methods adopted. Because the analysis of any kind of pilot study should mainly be descriptive (Bunn et al., 1998), descriptive statistics were used to identify the frequency of VLSs used/promoted or known by Libyan EFL teachers and learners. In terms of strategy use, the obtained results revealed that the deeper the processing the strategy requires, the less frequently it is used by the participants. In other words, participants seemed to prefer mechanical strategies that do not involve complicated stages such as repetition and asking for L1 meaning, at the expense of the deeper ones. Table 6 (below) exemplifies some of the participants’ responses to the piloted VLSQ.

Table 6: Sample of the data gathered in the pilot study

Type Strategy use VLSs of Always Often Sometimes Rarely Never VLSs F % F % F % F % F %

L1 translation DIS 7 70% 2 20% _ _ 1 10% _ _

The key word 50 MEM _ _ _ _ 1 10% 4 40% 5 method % 10 Paraphrasing MEM 1 10% 5 50% 2 20% 1 10% 1 %

Written repetition COG 8 80% 2 20% ______

In general, the participants questioned seemed to resort to VLSs to a medium extent. The strategy category reported to be the most commonly utilised was determination strategies, followed by memory strategies, social strategies, cognitive strategies, and lastly metacognitive strategies. When comparing the results of each individual strategy, it was apparent that the strategies of dictionary use, repetition, contextual clues, and analysing affixes and roots were the most favoured ones among almost all respondents.

Broadly, the feedback of the survey indicated that both teachers and students have very limited knowledge about vocabulary learning strategies. For one reason or another, they seemed to stick to a few strategies, which may be due to them being unaware of any other strategies. The results obtained also showed that teachers and students did not consider VLSs as difficult to teach/learn in classrooms. Instead, they all had a positive attitude towards conducting strategy training and they highly encouraged the idea. In this regard, for example, the overall response to the question ‘Would you be receptive to being taught VLSs in your classroom?’ was very positive. All the participants seemed to share the same view and they all strongly agreed with the suggested idea. For example, one interviewee said: ‘Of course, I like. I need to develop my vocabulary repertoire and I think that this training would help me’, while another commented: ‘Surely, and I encourage conducting such useful programmes.’

During the observations, the strategies that were obvious were very few. Part of this may be due to the fact that observation reveals only those strategies whose application is manifested in observable behaviour (Pavič ić Takač , 2008). In general, the participants being observed tended to use simple strategies, such as dictionary use, asking their teacher for Arabic translations, and guessing meaning from context, which do not comprise complicated steps. However, when the students were given a short talk about the usefulness of VLSs they were interested and eager to know more. In the follow-up interview, they believed that such instruction would be helpful for them in terms of easing their learning of lexis.

If we move to identifying the nature of the teaching approaches followed, the results obtained revealed the use of some vocabulary teaching strategies (see the previous chapter for more details), e.g., giving antonyms, analysing word roots, and memorising lists of words. Here, it is interesting to note that the teachers’ use of certain VTSs seems to influence their students’ choice of VLSs. This explains why there is a kind of agreement in the strategies chosen by both teachers and students, in which the latter possibly acquired them through observation and imitation (Pavič ić Takač , 2008). Bearing the

93 aforementioned point in mind it can be concluded that exposing teachers to strategy training can exert a beneficial influence on students’ use of VLSs. A teacher-fronted approach that encourages one-way communication, on the other hand, has also been observed in the investigated classes.

3.5.6 Drawbacks of the piloting

While piloting the instruments, it was not possible to record the lesson visually or even using an MP3 device. This resulted in pen and paper recording, which was time-consuming. Cultural and religious norms were widely mentioned by the participants as reasons behind their objection to being recorded. However, using a digital audio recorder was not helpful in picking up the information needed regarding vocabulary strategies when the lesson contained reading or writing activities. In such cases, handouts (Yes-No checklist) were prepared and given to the people being observed, who were asked to tick the strategies that applied after the lesson.

In the piloted questionnaire, open-ended items concerning attitudes towards vocabulary learning and the strategy training programme seemed to be ambiguous to some participants, so they were reworded. With respect to the interview questions, they were slightly too long for participants, especially the students. This was therefore to be rectified prior to carrying out the main study by making them shorter and more focused.

The previous sections provided a brief overview of the study location, population, ethical issues, instrumentation and the conducted pilot study. I will now focus on the S1 results and discussion.

3.6 Study 1 analysis

Data concerning strategy use, the nature of teaching approaches, and attitudes towards strategy instruction gathered from the questionnaires, interview and observation will be analysed and discussed in this section. Statistical procedures will be followed in analysing the quantitative data, whereas the qualitative information will be transcribed and used to interpret

94 the results. Since S1 aims to explore and describe the current situation in terms of strategy implementation and teaching methods followed, mixed methods of data collection were adopted, which was assumed to be appropriate for such an investigation. However, the data obtained was used for triangulation in answering S1 questions, stated at the outset of this chapter. For the sake of manageability and practicality, S1 results were coded under two categories according to the type of instrument used in data collection. That is to say, the questionnaire data were presented and discussed under the category of ‘quantitative data analysis’, whereas the category of ‘qualitative data analysis’ was allocated for interpreting the results gathered from observation, interview and the questionnaire’s open-ended questions. Since the VLSQ was the main instrument for S1 data collection, analysis of the quantitative data will be provided first. What follows now is the questionnaire results and discussion.

3.6.1 Study 1: quantitative data analysis, results and discussion

Prior to conducting the strategy training programme, the participants, teachers and students, were given a VLSQ. As discussed above, the purpose behind this was to elicit how often the strategic action is used/promoted, as well as to select certain strategies to be taught in the training programme, which will be accounted for in more detail in the coming chapters. Thirty-eight items were modified based on Schmitt’s (1997) typology, which includes determination, social, memory, cognitive, and metacognitive strategies. Each subgroup will be analysed and interpreted in-depth at a later stage. The coding of the questionnaire data was done manually. When scoring the data, I followed the same method that Schmitt (1997) used in scoring his questionnaire data, which was using percentages to present the collected data. The results were analysed quantitatively with the help of SPSS version 21.0 (Statistical Package for the Social Sciences), one of the most commonly used software programmes in social sciences research. Both the teachers’ and students’ responses were independently entered into SPSS and

95 descriptive statistics in terms of frequencies (F), percentages (%), mean (M) and standard deviation (SD) were produced. From this point on, tables used in presenting data will involve the aforementioned elements. For manageability and practicality purposes, the 38 items in the questionnaire, which concern VLSs, were grouped into five subscales based on the previously mentioned categories, as suggested by Schmitt (1997). Table 7 (next page) illustrates the distribution of the used questionnaire items’ according to the categorisation of the VLSs.

Table 7: Categories of vocabulary learning strategies included in the VLSQ

Category Number of Statement No statements Determination 7 1-7 Social 5 8-12 Memory 17 13-21, 24-25 & 33- 38 Cognitive 6 22-23, 26-27, 29 & 32 Metacognitive 3 28 & 30-31

As shown in the table above, the statements of the questionnaire were presented in a jumbled order, without logical groups, similarly to the manner employed by Schmitt (1997). The logic behind this was to help students work through a different strategy each time, which requires paying more attention to each single strategy, and thus gaining more reliable and transparent answers.

Once the results were input into SPSS, the descriptive statistics for each category were obtained and conceptualised in the form of tables and figures. In comparison to Schmitt’s questionnaire, which included two scales (Yes and No), the adapted questionnaire was based on the 5-point Likert scale in order to obtain more detailed and precise information than Schmitt in terms of strategy implementation. The questionnaire statements had five options,

96 which were later given values from 5 to 1 as follows: 5 = always, 4 = often, 3 = sometimes, 2 = rarely and 1 = never. The participants here had to indicate their frequency of use of the strategy by selecting one of the options for each item in the questionnaire. The score average for each strategy was computed by dividing the sum of the participants’ responses by the number of the participants. For instance, the mean score for the strategy of ‘analysing parts of speech’ (item 1 in Table 9, section 3.6.1.1) in the teachers’ questionnaire was calculated by dividing the total responses for each frequency adverb value by the number of teachers, i.e. 13 (47 ÷ 13 = 3.6). The score average for each of the five categories was calculated by dividing the total mean values of the strategies by the number of strategies. For example, the score average for the category of determination strategies in the teachers’ questionnaire was 3.6 + 3.0 + 2.3 +2.8 + 3.8 + 2.6 + 3 = 21.1 ÷ 7 = 3.0.

After calculating all the mean scores, they were compared according to the differences between them. That is to say, the higher the mean value was, the more often the strategy was utilised. As a 5-point Likert scale was adopted in the distributed questionnaire, a mean value above 3 represented high frequency in the use/promotion of the strategy, while those below 3 indicated low frequency in the use/promotion of the strategy. Bearing this in mind, the mean scores of the five dimensions of VLSs gained in S1 ranged between low to high (see Table 8 below), with a medium overall strategy promotion/use for both teachers (M = 2.7, SD = .22) and students (M = 2.8, SD = .27). Table 8 presents the mean and standard deviation scores of the five categories of VLSs. However, it is worth mentioning that the data collected in S1, which will be presented below, indicates the current situation of strategy use by both Libyan EFL teachers and students before the intervention.

Table 8: Study 1: Mean (M) and standard deviation (SD) values of five VLSs categories

Category M SD

Determination Strategies Teachers 3.0 0.53 Students 3.3 0.46 Social Strategies Teachers 3.0 0.33 Students 2.8 0.37 Memory Strategies Teachers 2.5 0.40 Students 2.6 0.39 Cognitive Strategies Teachers 2.8 0.43 Students 2.9 0.49 Metacognitive Strategies Teachers 2.6 0.15 Students 2.7 0.20 Overall Teachers 2.7 0.22 Students 2.8 0.27

With the purpose of giving an account of the VLSs, teachers’ and students’ data were gathered. Based on the results in Table 8 it is clear that the participants are generally medium use strategy users. Among the five categories of VLSs, determination strategies appeared as the most frequently encouraged/used by both teachers (M = 3.0, SD = .53) and students (M = 3.3, SD = .46) and memory strategies were ranked lowest by teachers (M = 2.5, SD = .40) and students (M = 2.6, SD = .39) alike. In terms of the investigated participants, teachers seem to prefer promoting the use of determination and social strategies, as the mean values of these two categories were found to be ranked highest at 3.0, followed by cognitive strategies (M = 2.8). Metacognitive strategies came next with a mean score of 2.6, and lastly memory strategies ranked the lowest (M = 2.5) among the five dimensions. Although the results of the pilot study (see section 3.5.5) revealed that memory strategies were among the most favoured ones, the main study showed quite the opposite, which was also contrary to my earlier assumption (mentioned on page 51). A possible explanation for this might be that the total number of participants in the pilot study was small (just 14) compared to that in the main

98 study, and also the number of items in the questionnaire, especially SOQ (see section 3.4.1) was quite high and comprised a lot of memory items.

As for the investigated students, according to Table 8, we can assume that participants favoured using determination strategies, with a mean score of 3.3, which was just above their teachers’ score. This finding is in accordance with recent studies such as Aljadee’s (2007) and Amirians and Heshmatifar’s (2013), which found that the determination category was the most preferred amongst the five categories of VLSs among Libyan and Iranian EFL students. Cognitive strategies came in second place in terms of implementation (M = 2.9, SD = .49), followed by social strategies in third place (M = 2.8, SD = .37) and then metacognitive strategies in fourth place with a mean value of 2.7. Memory strategies were observed to obtain the lowest average score (M = 2.6) among all categories by both Libyan EFL teachers and students, which was contrary to my earlier assumption and the pilot study results as indicated above. However, this finding seems to be consistent with Aljadee’s (2007) study, which found that the use of memory strategies was not so frequent among Libyan EFL learners.

Bearing the above discussion in mind it can be assumed that both Libyan EFL teachers and students were positive with regard to employing/encouraging the use of determination strategies and social strategies at the expense of the other categories. They seemed to infrequently promote/utilise metacognitive strategies and memory strategies in their vocabulary teaching/learning. This however, will be accounted in for more detail in the coming sections. By looking at Table 8 in page 97, we can see that apart from social strategies, students’ implementation of the other strategies is slightly higher than their teachers’ promotion of such strategies. The reasons why teachers are normally unaware of encouraging more use of VLSs in their classrooms could be numerous. One interpretation could be that the time constraints, as three interviewees put it, lead to teachers concentrating on covering the materials that are stated in their curriculum rather than anything else. In addition, the teachers are unaware of the

99 importance of such strategies and have never been trained in how to use or teach them before (see section 3.2, page 82-83), which makes it a difficult task to integrate the strategies in their lessons. Teachers were indeed positive with regard to promoting the use of determination strategies and social strategies but this may be due to the strategies being used spontaneously and reactively with the aim of helping students when the need arises.

To sum up, the initial analysis of the S1 survey showed that Libyan EFL teachers and students did sometimes implement/promote the use of some VLSs in their vocabulary teaching/learning. An independent samples t-test comparing the teachers’ scores with the students’ ones showed no statistically significant difference between teachers’ promotion of VLSs and students’ use of the determination strategies Ts (M=3.0, SD=0.53) and Ss (M=3.3. SD=0.46); t(12) = -1.282, p = 0.857. A similar observation holds true for the social strategies t(8) = 1.132, p =0.834, memory strategies t(32) = -0.857 p = 0.655, cognitive strategies t(10) = -0.449, p = 0.879, and metacognitive strategies t(4) = -0.894, p =0.519. The results in general confirmed some findings obtained in earlier studies, as well as demonstrating some contrasts that could be used to enrich our knowledge of VLSs. It is true that the participants in this project were rated as medium strategy users of the five categories overall, but within each category, scores ranged from high to low based on the kind of strategy. In order to give a clear picture of the whole pattern of VLSs implemented/promoted by participants, it is useful to know the frequencies of all the vocabulary learning strategies included in the questionnaire according to their categorisations. The coming two sections will look in detail at the participants’ responses; I will start with the teachers’ survey as this particular group of participants receives the greatest attention in the current research.

3.6.1.1 Teachers’ VLSs questionnaire (TVLSQ)

Although eight teachers were involved in the training programme (S3), the TVLSQ was initially administrated to a total of 13 participants to obtain as much information as possible. As previously indicated, the participating

100 teachers were recruited from two faculties (Tiji and Badr) at Al-jabal Al-gharbi University, and were delivering English lectures to grade 1 and 2 students. The participants varied in age, experience and qualifications (Master’s and Doctor of Philosophy). The TVLSQ items were 41 in total. Part 2 was the main part of the questionnaire and involved 38 items in the form of statements followed by a 5-point Likert scale, where 5 meant ‘always’, 4 ‘often’, 3 ‘sometimes’, 2 ‘rarely’, and 1 ‘never’. The items in this part were divided into five categories, as stated earlier, and focused on those strategies teachers actually had in mind when teaching English vocabulary. The supplementary parts of the TVLSQ included three open-ended questions so that the teachers could provide qualitative data on their beliefs about vocabulary teaching and VLS instruction, plus some items allocated for basic background information i.e., age and years of experience. The results in this section were divided into two parts: demographic information and vocabulary learning strategies use/ promotion, which was further divided into five subsections as we will see next. Open-ended questions included in the TVLSQ were analysed qualitatively in subsection 3.6.2, since this section concerns the quantitative data analysis only.

Part 1: Teachers’ demographic information

As discussed earlier in this chapter, of the initial cohort of 13 EFL teachers, five were female and eight were male, which represents the overall ratio of male to female English language teachers at the university. Instructors whose majors were related to linguistics were given priority to participate in the study because they were more likely to deal with new words in their English teaching, and more likely to be familiar with VLS research. The data gathered revealed that the participants had a wide age range and for the sake of practicality, they were coded under different decades. The same procedure was followed in coding the length of teaching experience. The table below illustrates teachers’ age and years of EFL teaching.

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Table 9: Study 1: teachers’ age and years of EFL teaching

Participants’ age Participants’ experience Years N % Years N % 25-30 2 15% 0-10 7 54% 31-40 7 54% 11-20 4 31% 41-50 3 23% Over 20 2 15% Over 50 1 8% Total 13 100% Total 13 100%

As can be seen from Table 9, the vast majority (around 69%) of the participating teachers were less than 40 years old. Teachers who were aged between 40 and 50 were few (only three, 23%), with only one participant (8%) aged over 50. In the EFL teaching field, most of the instructors involved in this study seemed to be young professionals who had been teaching English for less than ten years (54%). Four teachers had up to 20 years of teaching experience (31%) and just two teachers (15%) had been teaching EFL for more than 20 years.

Part 2: Vocabulary learning strategies promoted

This part included 38 items, and the teachers were asked to rate to what degree they integrate/promote the use of VLSs in their teaching practices. On the five-point scale, teachers were generally found to be moderate strategy users of the five categories of VLSs, namely determination, social, memory, cognitive and metacognitive strategies. However, within each category some strategies were encouraged in the teaching process much more often than others, and this is what will be discussed next.

I. Determination strategies

This category comprised seven items as shown in Table 10, next page. On the whole, the overall mean of this category was the highest (M = 3.0), as noted earlier in this chapter. This means that the use of determination

102 strategies seems to have been more often encouraged by Libyan EFL teachers. This position seemed to be shared with social strategies, which will be discussed later. Table 10 (below) shows the percentages, mean scores and standard deviation of each type of the seven determination strategies included in the questionnaire.

Table 10: Study 1: teachers’ results with regard to determination strategies

Frequency of use

Always Often Some- Rarely Never

no. SD Item Strategy times M F % F % F % F % F % 1 Analysing part of speech 3 23.1 4 30.8 4 30.8 2 15.4 0 0.0 3.6 1.04 (e.g. Noun, verb) 2 Analysing affixes and 0 0.0 4 30.8 6 46.2 3 23.1 0 0.0 3.0 0.75 roots (e.g. Un-predictable) 3 Checking for L1 cognate 2 15.4 0 0.0 2 15.4 5 38.5 4 30.8 2.3 1.37 ,الكحول -e.g. Alcohol) (الجبر-Algebra 4 Analysing any available 2 15.4 3 23.1 2 15.4 3 23.1 3 23.1 2.8 1.46 pictures or gestures 5 Guessing from textual 5 38.5 3 23.1 3 23.1 2 15.4 0 0.0 3.8 1.14 context 6 Using a dictionary 1 7.7 4 30.8 2 15.4 1 7.7 5 38.5 2.6 1.50 7 Using a word list for 2 15.4 2 15.4 5 38.5 3 23.1 1 7.7 3.0 1.18 studying new words

Table 10 shows the results obtained from the initial survey of determination strategies. It is apparent from the table that there is a low-to-high degree of encouragement of determination techniques, since the mean scores of the statements ranged from low, as in item 3 (M = 2.3), to high, as in item 5 (M = 3.8). The respondents appeared to strongly encourage their students to guess the meaning of new words from textual context (item 5). Of the 13 teachers who responded to this question, five said that they always use contextual clues in their teaching practices. This result was rather predictable since the use of such a strategy is a common practice in Libya due to the fact that it saves time and does not interrupt lesson flow. This was followed by the strategy of ‘analysing parts of speech’ (item, 1, M = 3.6), which was second in terms of use. The strategies of ‘using word lists for studying new words’ (item 7) and ‘analysing affixes and roots’ (item 2) came third with a mean score of 3.0. Several studies such as Schmitt (1997), Ghazal (2007), and Narayanasamy

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(2014) have confirmed the effectiveness of the word list strategy in FL vocabulary learning. In the current study, the word list strategy ranked in the middle position in terms of utilisation, which was contrary to expectations. This means that this strategy is often adopted, but not to the extent of usually. In contrast, strategies of ‘analysing any available pictures or gestures’ (item 4, M = 2.8), and ‘using dictionaries’ (item 6, M = 2.6) appeared to have the smallest mean score, with the strategy of ‘checking for L1 cognates’ (item 3, M = 2.3) turning out to be the least known/encouraged amongst the determination strategies. Just two (15.4%) of those who answered question 3 reported that they always encourage students to check for L1 cognates, which is not surprising since Arabic and English languages belong to different families. The former belongs to the Semitic language family whereas the latter to the Germanic branch of the Indo-European family (Aljdee, 2007) and thus finding cognates to take advantage of is a difficult task. If they existed, they would be very few. However, in response to this item, two of the participating teachers chose ‘Always’. A possible explanation for this might be due to loanwords; the Arabic language is like any other language where loanwords from different languages have entered into it and been adapted by people, and the two respondents who opted for ‘always’ may have answered the question with loanwords in mind (Schmitt, 1997). This appears to be the case with their students as well, as we will see later. Another unanticipated finding was that teachers rarely ask their students to check the meaning of unknown words in their dictionaries. They seem to be unaware of the usefulness of consulting dictionaries, which are ‘often the only source of information on words (and)… one of the key strategies for independent learning of a foreign language’ (Pavič ić Takač , 2008). Here, it could be argued that teachers have to be aware of the advantage and applicability of the different VLSs, including dictionary use, in order to aid their students to reflect on their own vocabulary learning.

II. Social Strategies

In this part, five items were allocated for measuring social strategies. Table 11 (next page) revealed that all social strategies received means higher than 3.0, with the exception of the strategy of asking classmates for meaning, and

104 the strategy of discovering the meaning through group work activity, which received means of 2.8 and 2.7 respectively. However, the overall mean of this category, that is 3.0, compared to the other four categories of VLSs (determination, memory, cognitive and metacognitive strategies) meant it came in first place in terms of promotion along with the determination category. Table 11 below presents the percentages, mean, and standard deviation values of each type of the five social strategies included in the questionnaire.

Table 11: Study 1: teachers’ results with regard to social strategies

Frequency of use

Always Often Some- Rarely Never M SD Strategy

times Itemno. F % F % F % F % F % 8 L1 translation 5 38.5 1 7.7 4 30.8 2 15.4 1 7.7 3.5 1.39 9 Paraphrasing the new 1 7.7 3 23.1 6 46.2 3 23.1 0 0.0 3.1 0.89 words or giving synonyms 10 Giving sentences 2 15.4 3 23.1 6 46.2 2 15.4 0 0.0 3.3 0.96 include the new word 11 Asking classmates for 1 7.7 4 30.8 2 15.4 4 30.8 2 15.4 2.8 1.28 meaning 12 Discovering the 0 0.0 2 15.4 6 46.2 5 38.5 0 0.0 2.7 0.72 meaning via group work activity

Table 11 provides the summary statistics for the frequency of promoting the use of the five social strategies involved in the questionnaire. Items in the top half of the table (items 8, 9 and 10) enjoyed a relatively high degree of encouragement in their utilisation. The strategy of ‘L1 translation’, for example, came first in terms of adoption, with a score average of 3.5, followed by the strategy of ‘giving sentences including the new word’ (item, 10, M = 3.3), and then by the strategy of ‘paraphrasing the new words’ (item 9), which came third with a mean value of 3.1. In contrast, the Libyan EFL teachers appeared to highly promote the use of mother tongue, as item 8’s mean score shows. Of the 13 teachers who completed the questionnaire, just three said that they rarely or never provide their students with Arabic translations. The reason for this is not clear but it may have something to do with the traditional teaching methods adopted, such as the grammar translation method, characterised by the use of the mother tongue. Bearing this in mind, the teachers questioned

105 seem to teach English as they were themselves taught (Abukhattala, 2016). Also, the use of L1 might have the advantage of being fast and easily understood by the learners, which might be another possible explanation for Libyan EFL teachers resorting to using L1 in classrooms.

In contrast, the bottom half of the table shows the least known/promoted strategies in this category. Few teachers (only two) seemed to encourage group work activities, which may be because of the fact that the classes are usually large and thus managing time will be difficult. Most of teachers investigated seemed not to encourage their students to consult each other when facing difficulties in identifying the meaning of unknown words (item 11). Almost half of those (around 46%) who responded to this item reported that they do not promote the use of this strategy in their teaching practices. The strategy of ‘discovering the meaning through group work activity’ (item 12) seemed also to receive a moderate degree of attention from the teachers questioned, with a mean value of 2.7, which is perhaps because it is time- consuming. Compared to the other social strategies, the aforementioned items appeared as the least adopted/promoted, which suggests the existence of an interaction barrier between the teachers questioned and their students. Although communicative activities in and out of classes can assist in consolidating the newly learned words (Kudo, 1999), the results obtained seem to show that this is rarely the case. Another possible explanation for this may be that teacher-fronted classes encourage students to be solely receptive, since they provide ‘few opportunities for students to work collaboratively to explore each others’ learning strategies’ (Chamot, 2011: 36). Besides, in an EFL environment such as Libya, exposure to the target language is minimal and so this strategy was expected to rank low.

III. Memory Strategies

Seventeen statements pertaining to memory strategies are included in the VLSQ (Table 12, next page). The overall mean score for memory strategies in comparison to the other four categories was 2.5, which makes it the least encouraged type among all the categories of VLSs. This means that the

106 participating teachers were generally less positive with regard to promoting the use of memory strategies in their teaching practices. Table 12 illustrates the percentages, means and standard deviation scores for each of memory strategy included in the TVLSQ.

Table 12: Study 1: teachers’ results with regard to memory strategies

Frequency of use

Always Often Some- Rarely Never M SD Strategy times Itemno. F % F % F % F % F % 13 Drawing a picture of the 0 0.0 0 0.0 4 30.8 3 23.1 6 46.2 1.8 0.89 new word 14 Understanding the 2 15.4 3 23.1 4 30.8 2 23.1 1 7.7 3.1 1.21 meaning of the unknown words by looking at the accompanying picture 15 Connecting the word to a 0 0.0 3 23.1 4 30.8 3 23.1 3 23.1 2.5 1.12 personal experience 16 Associating the word with 2 15.4 1 7.7 4 30.8 4 30.8 2 15.4 2.7 1.30 its coordinates 17 Associating new words 2 15.4 1 7.7 6 46.2 4 30.8 0 0.0 3.0 1.03 with their synonyms or antonyms 18 Using semantic maps 3 23.1 2 15.4 2 15.4 5 38.5 1 7.7 3.0 1.38 19 Using scales for gradable 1 7.7 2 15.4 3 23.1 4 30.8 3 23.1 2.5 1.26 adjectives 20 Placing new words in a 0 0.0 2 15.4 5 38.5 2 15.4 3 23.1 2.3 1.12 group with other items based on topic, theme etc 21 Using new words in 2 15.4 4 30.8 3 23.1 2 15.4 2 15.4 3.1 1.34 sentences to remember them 24 Repeating a word (i.e. 1 7.7 2 15.4 5 38.5 2 15.4 3 23.1 2.6 1.25 aloud, in mind, by spelling it) 25 Imagining the written 2 15.4 1 7.7 3 23.1 5 38.5 2 15.4 2.6 1.31 form of a word to remember it 33 Using the keyword 0 0.0 1 7.7 2 15.4 3 23.1 7 53.8 1.7 1.01 method 34 Grouping words together 0 0.0 3 23.1 2 15.4 4 30.8 4 30.8 2.3 1.18 spatially on a page 35 Paraphrasing the word’s 1 7.7 3 23.1 3 23.1 4 30.8 2 15.4 2.7 1.23 meaning 36 Learning words of an 0 0.0 5 38.5 3 23.1 1 7.7 4 30.8 2.6 1.31 expression together as if they were just one word 37 Underlining initial letter of 0 0.0 3 23.1 3 23.1 3 23.1 4 30.8 2.3 1.19 the word 38 Outlining the word with 0 0.0 3 23.1 2 15.4 5 38.5 3 23.1 2.3 1.12 lines (configuration)

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From Table 12 we can see that out of the 17 questions relating to memory strategies, just four items, 14, 17, 18 and 21, obtained fairly high scores. However, the memory strategies that were most promoted were item 14 ‘using new words in sentences’ and item 21 ‘looking at the accompanying pictures’ with a mean score of 3.1. The strategies of ‘association’ and ‘using semantic maps’ (items 17, 18, M = 3.0) appeared as the second most frequently promoted in this category. The strategies of ‘associating the word with its coordinates’ and ‘paraphrasing the word’s meaning’ (items 16 and 35) came in third place with a mean score of 2.7. Strategy 24, ‘repeating a word’, strategy 25, ‘imaging the written form of the word’ and strategy 36, ‘learning words of an expression together’ ranked fourth (M = 2.6). The fifth most promoted strategies, with a mean of 2.5, were strategy 15, ‘connecting the word to a personal experience’ and strategy 19, ‘using scales for gradable adjectives’. Apart from these, none of the other strategies were widely promoted. They all scored less than 2.5, especially the strategy of ‘using the keyword method’ (item 33, M = 1.7). For this particular strategy, over half of those surveyed reported that they never encourage their students to use the keyword method in their vocabulary learning. This may be due to the difficulty of using the strategy since finding Arabic words that are phonetically, concretely and orthographically similar to the English ones is a difficult task, if not an impossible one. What is more, the method entails creating an image to combine the two concepts, which some teachers could find difficult to plan. In comparison to the English language, many Arabic words are monosyllabic and thus finding such an association demands a great deal of effort and time. The keyword method demands more active manipulation of information (Schmitt, 1997), and thus, it is rarely spontaneously used unless it has been explicitly taught, which requires careful planning (Pavič ić Takač , 2008). As a rule, learners who are more proficient in the target language can use this method (ibid), whereas beginners often favour rote learning strategies, such as repetition, over more complex ones. Vocabulary learning strategy training success depends on the extent to which teachers know about existing VLSs and ‘what form of knowledge and skills learners need to acquire in order to successfully use each of them’ (2008). Therefore, in the training programme,

108 it would be good to let teachers and students know much more about the different VLSs available and let them decide which ones they prefer to follow. However, almost all of the strategies included in the VLSQ will be introduced in the training and the focus will be on particular strategies (illustrated in study 2, Chapter 4), since a two-week period for teachers will not be enough to apply all the suggested strategies. The strategy of ‘drawing a picture of the new word’ also ranked very low (item 13, M = 1.8). The majority of those who responded to this item (around 46%) said that they never ask their students to draw a picture of the new word. However, the successful integration of the aforementioned strategy demands an efficient teacher, engaged learner and an appropriate level to facilitate teacher-student feedback (Anderson, 2012). The participating teachers also seemed to seldom pay attention to the use of configuration (item 38, M = 2.3), ‘grouping words together spatially (item 34, M = 2.3), or underlining the initial letter of the word (item 37, M = 2.3). Furthermore, the teachers questioned were less likely to encourage their students to imagine the written form of a word or use repetition methods (items 24, 25, M = 2.6).

IV. Cognitive Strategies

The cognitive strategy category involved six statements, as shown in Table 13 (next page). The category of cognitive strategies appeared as the second most preferred one by respondents, with an overall mean score of 2.7, as shown earlier in this chapter. This is still low, yet it means that Libyan EFL teachers often promote the use of some cognitive strategies in their vocabulary teaching. Table 13 (next page) shows the percentages, means and standard deviation scores for each of the six cognitive strategies included in the TVLSQ.

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Table 13: Study 1: teachers’ results with regard to cognitive strategies

Frequency of use

Always Often Some- Rarely Never SD M Strategy times

Itemno. F % F % F % F % F % 22 Writing a word 1 7.7 2 15.4 3 23.1 3 23.1 4 30.8 2.4 1.33 repeatedly 23 Acting out or miming 1 7.7 2 15.4 4 30.8 2 15.4 4 30.8 2.5 1.33 the new word 26 Taping or listening to 0 0.0 3 23.1 2 15.4 4 30.8 4 30.8 2.3 1.18 tapes of new words 27 Taking notes in class 1 7.7 4 30.8 5 38.5 1 7.7 2 15.4 3.0 1.18

29 Using the vocabulary 3 23.1 2 15.4 3 23.1 5 38.5 0 0.0 3.2 1.23 section or glossaries in the textbook 32 Writing new words in 3 23.1 2 15.4 5 38.5 3 23.1 0 0.0 3.3 1.12 vocabulary notebook

The results in Table 13 show that half of the cognitive strategies included in the TVLSQ were not popular among the respondents. It is obvious that strategy 26 ‘taping or listening to tapes of new words’ ranked lowest (M = 2.3) among all the six cognitive strategies in this category, with a standard deviation score of 1.18. Of the 13 participants who responded to this item, seven reported that they either ‘rarely’ or ‘never’ promote such a strategy to their students. The strategies of ‘writing the word repeatedly’ (item 22, M = 2.4) and ‘acting or miming the new word’ (item 23, M = 2.5) were marginally favoured by the respondents. In contrast, the bottom half of the table shows the most reported cognitive strategies in this category, with the strategy of ‘writing new words in vocabulary notebook’ (item 32, M = 3.3) in first place in terms of integration into regular classes. This means the teachers questioned often encourage their students to write the unknown words in their vocabulary notebooks. Although it has been argued that teachers often neglect the strategy of keeping vocabulary notebooks (Pavič ić Takač , 2008), this does not appear to be the case in the present study. Probably it is typical that university students listen to their tutor-fronted lectures and take notes of what was said, which in turn supports the earlier explanation of why classroom interaction was very rare. The strategy of ‘using the vocabulary section in the textbook’ (item 29) appeared in second place with a mean value of 3.2. The participating

110 teachers seemed also to encourage the strategy of ‘taking notes in class’ (item 27, M = 3.0), which appeared to take third place in terms of promotion. Only a small number of respondents, just three, who answered this item reported that they rarely or never ask their students to take notes during lessons. From these results, it can be assumed that strategies that demand less effort on the part of the respondents were most popular.

V. Metacognitive strategies Three statements were set out to measure the teachers’ awareness of metacognitive strategies. Roughly speaking, from Table 14 (below) we can see that none of the metacognitive strategies included in the questionnaire received high scores. The mean values of these strategies ranged from 2.5 to 2.8, which implies that the use of metacognitive strategies was not actively promoted in language classes. Less emphasis seemed to be put to encouraging the use of metacognitive strategies to help students to learn English vocabulary. On average however, the overall mean of the metacognitive strategy category, that is 2.6, still comes in third place among all four categories of VLSs, as reported earlier in this chapter.

Table 14: Study 1: teachers’ results with regard to metacognitive strategies

Frequency of use

Always Often Some- Rarely Never M SD Strategy times Itemno. F % F % F % F % F % 28 Skipping or ignoring the 3 23.1 2 15.4 2 15.4 2 15.4 4 30.8 2.8 1.62 unknown word 30 Using English-language 0 0.0 4 30.8 2 15.4 4 30.8 3 23.1 2.5 1.19 media (i.e. songs, movies) 31 Continuing to study 0 0.0 3 23.1 5 38.5 2 15.4 3 23.1 2.6 1.12 word over time (i.e. revising it several times during the day)

Table 14 shows the frequency of promoting the use of metacognitive strategies. It indicates that the teachers questioned were moderately encouraging students to employ metacognitive strategy in their vocabulary learning. Metacognitive 28, to ‘skip the unknown word’ was the most encouraged strategy among the metacognitive strategies, although this is still

111 low. This strategy came in first place with a mean value of 2.8, followed by strategy 31, ‘continuing to study a word over time’ (M = 2.6). Strategy 30, ‘using English-language media’ came last in terms of encouraging by respondents, as a mean of 2.5 indicated. The latter strategy may be considered to be crucial, as in an EFL environment, where exposure to English is very limited, teachers should encourage their students to, for example, keep reading English books or watching TV programmes spoken in English so to familiarise themselves with the correct pronunciation of English words. It was quite disappointing to know that such authentic materials in learning vocabulary in context were underutilised by Libyan EFL teachers.

Having discussed the results obtained from the TVLSQ, the next section of this chapter concerns the students’ VLS questionnaire. An overview of the outcomes of the teachers’ questionnaire providing the most and least utilised strategies is included as Appendix 16.

3.6.1.2 Students’ VLSs questionnaire (SVLSQ)

The counterpart to the TVLSQ was the SVLSQ. This questionnaire was administered to 96 undergraduate students studying English as a foreign language from two different sites at Al-jabal Al-gharbi University. Of the initial cohort, 40 were female and 56 were male, as indicated at the beginning of this chapter. Only students from grades 1 and 2 were included in the study, the criteria for selecting the participants previously discussed in section 3.2. The structure of the SVLSQ was similar to that of the TVLSQ, differing in the number of questions asked, since the open-ended questions asked to students were not similar to those asked to teachers. In this case, there were 43 in total. As in the TVLSQ, part 2 was the main part of the SVLSQ and contained closed questions that had to be answered using a 5-point rating scale from 1= never to 5= always. Just as was the case with the teachers’, the supplementary parts of the students’ questionnaire included five open-ended questions so that students could mention more techniques if they were not included in the questionnaire, the difficulties they encountered when learning vocabulary, any previous strategy training and their attitudes towards VLS

112 instruction. Additionally, some items were allocated for basic demographic information, e.g. gender, age and level of study. On average, students took about 30 minutes to complete the questionnaire. In reporting the results, the same analysis undergone in providing the teachers’ data will be followed here. Firstly, their basic background information will be discussed, followed by their use of vocabulary learning strategies.

Part 1: Participants’ demographic information

This section presents the students’ background information including their gender, age and level of proficiency. More details are provided in table 15:

Table 15: Study 1: students’ general demographic information

Category Details N % Gender Male 40 42 Female 56 58 Age 17 - 20 46 48 21 - 25 36 37.5 Over 25 14 14.5 Year of enrolment Grade 1 46 48 Grade 2 50 52

The above table depicts the gender, age and proficiency level of the participants. As for the participants’ gender, out of the 96 students, 58% were female. Generally speaking, half of those surveyed (48%) were aged 17-20 years old, while 37.5% were 21-25 years old and only a few (14.5%) were over 25. As for year of enrolment, it can be seen that 52% of the participants were from grade 2, whereas 48% of respondents were in their 1st grade.

Part 2: Vocabulary learning strategy use

Once the responses provided by the participating teachers were analysed, I moved on to analyse those obtained from the participating students. The rationale behind this was to elicit which VLSs were employed by the Libyan EFL learners as well as to draw a comparison between students’ utilisation of the different VLSs and teachers’ adoption/integration of such strategies in their language classes. In this part, the same 38 items that were included in part 2 in the TVLSQ were used. As in the teachers’ questionnaire, all the items had

113 to be answered via the same 5-point Likert scale. On the aforementioned scale, students were generally found to be medium strategy users of the five categories of VLSs (see section 3.6.1). Nevertheless, within each category some strategies were used much more often than others, and this is what will be discussed next.

I. Determination strategies

The students questioned seemed to most often use determination strategies in their vocabulary learning, since almost all the strategies that were involved in this category received means higher than 3.0, with the exception of items 3 and 7, which received a mean of 2.8. This means that respondents were high determination strategy users. For the students, this category came first in terms of use with an overall mean score of 3.3, as indicated earlier in this chapter. Table 16 below shows the percentages, means and standard deviation values for each of the seven determination strategies included in the SVLSQ.

Table 16: Study 1: students’ results with regard to determination strategies

Frequency of use Always Often Some- Rarely Never Strategy times M SD

Itemno. F % F % F % F % F % 1 I try to analyse part of 41 42.7 13 13.5 20 20.8 11 11.5 11 11.5 3.6 1.42 speech 2 I try to analyse affixes 39 40.6 12 12.5 14 14.6 19 19.8 12 12.5 3.4 1.49 and roots 3 I check for L1 cognate 16 16.7 11 11.5 31 32.3 18 18.8 20 20.8 2.8 1.34

4 I try to analyse any 22 22.9 23 24.0 13 13.5 29 30.2 9 9.4 3.2 1.34 available pictures 5 I try to guess from 34 35.4 15 15.6 28 29.2 13 13.5 6 6.3 3.6 1.26 textual context 6 I use a dictionary 57 59.4 10 10.4 19 19.8 10 10.4 0 0.0 4.1 1.08 7 I use a word list for 18 18.8 14 14.6 18 18.8 23 24.0 23 24.0 2.8 1.44 studying new words

Table 16 clearly indicates that the rank order of the determination strategies used by Libyan EFL learners is ‘dictionary use’, ‘guessing from context’, ‘analysing parts of speech’, ‘analysing affixes/roots’, ‘checking for L1 cognate’ and finally ‘using word lists’ coming in last place. From the data in the table,

114 we can see that consulting dictionaries (item 6, M = 4.1) ranked highest not only among the determination strategies, but overall. Of the 96 participants who responded to this question, 57 reported that they always resort to their English dictionaries in their vocabulary learning. This result suggests a greater reliance on dictionary work in providing an explanation or translation for new words. It seems possible that such a result is due to the mobility and accessibility of this strategy. Another possible explanation for this may be the proficiency level, as the students targeted were grade 1 and 2 and when dealing with new words the dictionary may be their first choice, if not the only one available. This finding is in agreement with data obtained by Aljdee (2007), who found that Libyan EFL learners were much in favour of using their dictionaries in their vocabulary learning. The studies that were conducted by Schmitt (1997), and Gu and Johnson (1996) also indicated that Japanese and Chinese learners of English most frequently consult their dictionaries. Next followed strategy 5 ‘guessing from context’ and strategy 1 ‘analysing parts of speech’ (M = 3.6). This mean value is higher than 3, which means that the students frequently use the aforementioned strategies in their language learning.

Apart from that, strategy 2 ‘analysing affixes and roots’ was also among the most frequently used strategies as the mean of 3.4 indicated. This was closely followed by the strategy of ‘analysing any available pictures and gestures’ (item 4) with a mean score of 3.2. In contrast, strategy 3, ‘checking for L1 cognate’ and strategy 7, ‘using word lists’ came at the bottom of the implementation frequency list with a mean score of 2.8. Interestingly, the results showed infrequent use of the word list strategy, although the literature has proved its usefulness especially for beginner students (Schmitt, 1997). Based on my experience, primary and secondary school teachers often encourage students to use this strategy and students normally employ it quite well, especially for independent learning outside their classrooms. However, a possible explanation for the result may be that ‘some learning strategies are more beneficial at certain ages than others, and that learners naturally mature into using different strategies’ when they grow older (Schmitt, 1997). In

115 general, these results are also in agreement with Aljdee’s (2007) findings, which showed the infrequent use of these strategies by Libyan EFL learners. As discussed in TVLSQ above, students may avoid using cognates due to the difficulty in finding Arabic-English associations, which may also be time- consuming.

II. Social strategies

The overall mean value of this category is 2.8, which means that on the whole, social strategies came third in terms of use by the students questioned. Even though the mean score of this category also indicates low use, it still means that the respondents adopt some social techniques to help themselves to learn English vocabulary. Table 17 (below) illustrates the frequency of use and the mean and standard deviation values for each social strategy involved in the SVLSQ.

Table 17: Study 1: students’ results with regard to social strategies

Frequency of use

SD Always Often Some- Rarely Never M Strategy times Itemno. F % F % F % F % F % 8 I use L1 translation 30 31.3 26 27.1 13 13.5 10 10.4 17 17.7 3.4 1.47 9 I ask teacher for 25 26.0 8 8.3 20 20.8 17 17.7 26 26.0 2.8 1.54 paraphrase or synonyms of new words 10 I ask teacher for 14 14.6 14 14.6 21 21.9 33 34.4 14 14.6 2.8 1.27 sentences including the new word 11 I ask the meaning of 15 15.6 20 20.8 17 17.7 21 21.9 23 24.0 2.8 1.41 an unknown word from my classmates 12 I try to discover the 3 3.1 11 11.5 34 35.5 12 12.5 36 37.5 2.3 1.17 meaning through group work activity

Table 17 indicates low to high employment of social strategies. As shown in the table, almost all the mean values ranged lower than 3.0, with only item 8 seeming to receive a relatively high amount of use by respondents as the mean 3.4 indicated. Over half of those surveyed (about 56%) who responded to this question reported that they always or often ask their English teacher for

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Arabic translations. Although this result differs from those of some published studies (Schmitt, 1997; Aljdee, 2007; Amirian & Heshmatifar, 2013), it is consistent with that of Catalan (2003) who found that Spanish-speaking students often ask their teachers for L1 translation. For Libyan EFL students however, there may be some reasons behind their preference for this particular social strategy. One of these could be that Libyan learners totally rely on their teachers in eliciting the meaning of new words. They were not taught how to do this themselves and were provided with the Arabic translation of the English words whenever they needed it. Furthermore, newly admitted students do not usually have sufficient knowledge of vocabulary, which would assist them in understanding the meanings, and thus they generally tend to be silent unless called upon. Consequently, if given a chance they would directly resort to L1 translation as being fast and easy to understand, especially if the teacher and the learners share the same language. Teacher-fronted classes, which still characterise many EFL classrooms, are another reason.

To sum up, social strategies were not very popular among the respondents since the highest mean score achieved was 3.4 for item 8, as mentioned above. This item was followed in rank by items 9, ‘I ask teacher for paraphrase or synonyms’, 10, ‘I ask teacher for sentences including the new word’, and 11, ‘I ask my classmates’ with a mean value of 2.8. On the other hand, strategy 12, ‘I try to discover the meaning through group work activity’ was the least popular in this category, with a mean value of 2.3. This suggests that there is a lack of communication between the respondents, which may be due to their shyness or fear of making mistakes and thus losing face in front of their peers. Bearing this in mind, this point was taken into account during the training programme. The participants were encouraged to break the ice and freely consult with one another or their teacher if they had any problems with vocabulary learning, and were encouraged not to panic.

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III. Memory strategies

In comparison to the other four categories of VLSs, the total mean score for the category of memory strategies ranked lowest (M = 2.6). Libyan EFL learners seemed to be less positive regarding the use of these types of techniques to help themselves learn English vocabulary. The percentages, means and standard deviation values for each of the 17 memory strategies included in the SVLSQ are summarised in table 18.

Table 18: Study 1: students’ results with regard to memory strategies

Frequency of use

Always Often Some- Rarely Never SD Strategy times M Itemno. F % F % F % F % F % 13 I draw a picture of the new 7 7.3 18 18.8 22 22.9 11 11.5 38 39.6 2.4 1.36 word 14 I try to understand the 17 17.7 12 12.5 20 20.8 38 39.6 9 9.4 2.8 1.26 meaning of the unknown words by looking at the accompanying picture 15 I try to connect the word to 12 12.5 15 15.6 25 26.0 34 35.4 10 10.4 2.8 1.19 a personal experience 16 I associate the word with 11 11.5 5 5.2 32 33.3 42 43.8 6 6.3 2.7 1.06 its coordinates 17 I associate new words with 16 16.7 16 16.7 19 19.8 33 34.4 12 12.5 2.9 1.29 their synonyms or antonymous 18 I do a mind map 8 8.3 7 7.3 28 29.2 40 41.7 13 13.5 2.5 1.08 19 I use scales for gradable 6 6.3 12 12.5 26 27.1 43 44.8 9 9.4 2.6 1.02 adjectives 20 I place new words in a 0 0.0 16 16.7 10 10.4 15 15.6 55 57.3 1.8 1.15 group with other items based on topic, theme etc. 21 I use new words in 19 19.8 8 8.3 21 21.9 23 24.0 25 26.0 2.7 1.44 sentences to remember them 24 I repeat a word (i.e. aloud, 31 32.3 26 27.1 21 21.9 18 18.8 0 0.0 3.7 1.10 in mind, by spelling it) 25 I try to imagine the written 13 13.5 18 18.8 19 19.8 26 27.1 20 20.8 2.7 1.34 form of a word to remember it 33 I use the keyword method 6 6.3 18 18.8 26 27.1 21 21.9 25 26.0 2.5 1.23 34 I try to group words 1 1.0 13 13.5 12 12.5 41 42.7 29 30.2 2.1 1.02 together spatially on a page 35 I try to paraphrase the 19 19.8 20 20.8 18 18.8 22 22.9 17 17.7 3.0 1.39 word’s meaning 36 I learn words of an 12 12.5 17 17.7 15 15.5 44 45.6 8 8.3 2.8 1.20 expression together as if they were just one word 37 I try to underline initial 4 4.2 21 21.9 30 31.3 18 18.8 23 24.0 2.6 1.18 letter of the word 38 I try to outline the word with 8 8.3 10 10.4 19 19.8 47 49.0 12 12.5 2.5 1.10 lines (configuration)

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Seventeen items in the questionnaire measured the extent to which Libyan EFL students employ memory strategies in their English vocabulary learning. On average however, memory strategies were shown to enjoy a low (as in item 34) to high (as in item 24) degree of employment by the respondents. The strategies most commonly used were repetition (item 24, M = 3.7), paraphrasing (item 35, M = 3.0), and association (items 17, M = 2.9, and 36, M = 2.8). Apart from these, none of the other strategies were loaded significantly. The mean values of all the remaining items were low. The data obtained indicated that almost half of those surveyed (31 respondents) always resort to the rehearsal technique, either verbally or written, in their vocabulary learning. A possible explanation for this might be the ease of using such a shallow strategy that does not involve any complicated processes. Students usually prefer using simple strategies that help them to memorise English vocabulary effectively with less time and effort. Another possible explanation for this is that the conventional way of teaching and learning English, in which vocabulary is taught mechanically, still influences the education process in Libya. As indicated in Chapter 1, section 1.3.1, Libyan education originated in Quranic schools where rehearsal-oriented learning was adopted to learn the Holy Quran (Deeb & Deeb 1982). Because of that, as I explained earlier, the educational system in Libya became more reliant on rehearsal strategy as a typical way of teaching and learning in schools. Besides this, the surveyed students, who were from Years 1 and 2, were freshmen in terms of not having any other alternatives and not having been introduced to other vocabulary learning strategies before. Furthermore, it was argued that learning strategies and level of knowledge are connected, which is why beginners, who are targeted in the current study, opt more often for mechanical strategies, e.g. repetition strategies, that do not require higher levels of L2 knowledge (Pavič ić Takač , 2008). However, in terms of use, memory strategies scored rather low, as out of the 17 items allocated for this category, only two received relatively high scoring by respondents. In such a case, it would be assumed that if students were introduced to different VLSs, their performance in vocabulary learning could be improved. This finding matches those observed in earlier

119 studies (Gu & Johnson, 1996; Lawson & Hogben, 1996; Schmitt, 1997; Marin, 2006; Aljdee, 2007).

Turning to the table in previous page, we can see that strategies 14, 15 and 36 appeared as the fourth most used strategies with a mean value of 2.8, followed by strategy 16, ‘associating the word with its coordinates’, strategy 21, ‘using new words in sentences’ and strategy 36, ‘imagining the written form of a word’, which came in fifth place with a mean of 2.7. The strategies of ‘using scales for gradable adjectives’ (item 19) and ‘underlining initial letter of the word’ (item 37) came sixth in the implementation scale with a mean value of 2.6. The remaining memory strategies were marginally loaded by respondents. The surveyed students seemed to moderately (M = 2.5) use semantic maps (item 18), the keyword method (item 33) and configuration (item 38). The minority of those who responded to the aforementioned items, chose ‘always’ to describe their frequency of use of such strategies. Generally speaking, these results were in agreement with Schmitt’s (1997) and Aljdee’s (2007) findings, which showed that the keyword method, semantic maps and configuration were relatively unused in Libya and Japan. However, in contrast, strategies 13, ‘drawing a picture of the new word’ (M = 2.4), 20, ‘placing new words in a group based on topic or theme’ (M = 1.8) and 34 ‘grouping words together spatially on a page’ (M = 2.1) were among the least common memory strategies with strategy 20 at the bottom of the implementation scale. These results were somewhat expected because it is difficult for novice students to use such strategies due to their limited vocabulary. At this level, promoting the use of such strategies, in my view, could appear advantageous since low level vocabulary tends to be more easily grouped than high level vocabulary. In addition, it should be taken into consideration that the participants had never been exposed to such techniques in their pre-university or even university studies. Moreover, we cannot ignore the role of traditional vocabulary teaching and learning procedures that are deeply rooted in the participants’ minds, and which may prevent them from trying out new strategies to assist themselves in their vocabulary teaching / learning.

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IV. Cognitive strategies

The cognitive category came second in terms of use by the participating students, with an overall mean score of 2.9, as discussed earlier in this chapter. This score suggests that Libyan EFL students often adopt cognitive strategies to aid them in their vocabulary learning. Table 19 (below) shows the frequency, percentages, means and standard deviation values for each cognitive strategy included in the questionnaire.

Table 19: Study 1: students’ results with regard to cognitive strategies

Frequency of use

Always Often Sometim Rarely Never SD Strategy es M Itemno. F % F % F % F % F % 22 I write a word 27 28.1 22 22.9 29 30.2 14 14.6 4 4.2 3.5 1.16 repeatedly 23 I act out or mime the 8 8.3 11 11.5 28 29.2 15 15.6 34 35.4 2.4 1.30 new word 26 I try to tape or listen 0 0.0 17 17.7 23 24.0 31 32.3 25 26.0 2.3 1.05 to tapes of new words 27 I take notes in class 24 25.0 18 18.8 19 19.8 30 31.3 5 5.2 3.2 1.28 29 I use the vocabulary 15 15.6 18 18.8 20 20.8 39 40.6 4 4.2 3.0 1.18 section/glossaries in the textbook 32 I write new words in 16 16.7 21 21.9 20 20.8 25 26.0 14 14.6 3.0 1.32 vocabulary notebook

From the data in Table 19, it is apparent that there is very frequent use of cognitive strategies amongst the surveyed students, since four out of six items were higher than 3.0. Of the six cognitive strategies included in the questionnaire, just two received very low loading by respondents. However, the rank order of the cognitive strategies was ‘repetition’ (written repetition), ‘note-taking’, ‘using the vocabulary section in the textbook’ and ‘writing new words in vocabulary notebook’, ‘miming’ and finally ‘taping or listening to tapes of new words’. In this category, repetition (item 22) enjoyed the highest amount of usage (M = 3.5), followed by the note-taking strategy (item 27) with mean values of 3.2. These results match those observed in earlier studies (Gu & Johnson 1996; Schmitt, 1997; Aljdee, 2007). This means that the participating students are in favour of employing those ‘traditional’ strategies that do not comprise complicated steps. Furthermore, as discussed in the above sections, Libyan EFL students strongly believe in repetition and thus it received positive responses from the participants. The strategies of ‘using the vocabulary

121 section in the textbook’ (item 29) and ‘keeping a vocabulary notebook’ (item 32) appeared as the third most frequently used cognitive strategies, with a mean score of 3.0. Although these results differ from those of Aljdee (2007), who found that Libyan EFL learners seldom keep a vocabulary notebook, they are consistent with those of Schmitt (1997). This inconsistency may be due to the students’ level of proficiency, as the participants in Ajdee’s (2007) study were in their final year whereas the participants in the present study were freshmen and sophomores, i.e. 1st and 2nd grades. Another possible explanation for this is that the surveyed students have to study units like ‘Advanced Reading and Writing Skills II’, which require learning more academic vocabulary, and thus, the earlier mentioned strategies were needed.

By contrast, the least favoured cognitive strategies were ‘miming the new word’ (item 23, M = 2.4) and ‘taping or listening to tapes of new words’ (item 27, M = 2.3). The aforementioned findings support the fact that the more steps the strategy involves, the less it will be implemented by students. Students may see it as time-consuming to tape each English word they want to learn with its translation into Arabic (the participants’ L1) and then play the tape and listen to the words several times. The use of miming, on the other hand, may be avoided by teachers and students because most of the words are abstract, and thus they cannot be presented by using gestures.

V. Metacognitive strategies

For the students questioned, and compared to the other categories of VLS, the metacognitive strategy category came third in terms of use as the overall mean of 2.7 indicated. This position seemed to be shared with the social strategy category, discussed above. In general, this means that Libyan EFL students adopt metacognitive strategies to help them with their vocabulary learning.

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Table 20: Study 1: students’ results with regard to metacognitive strategies

Frequency of use

always Often Some- Rarely Never Strategy times M SD Itemno. F % F % F % F % F % 28 I skip or ignore the 19 19.8 12 12.5 25 26.0 33 34.4 7 7.3 3.0 3.0 unknown word 30 I use English- 9 9.4 14 14.5 26 27.1 24 25.0 23 24.0 2.6 2.6 language media (i.e. songs, movies etc.) 31 I continue to study the 13 13.5 11 11.5 22 22.9 37 38.5 13 13.5 2.7 2.7 word over time (i.e. revising it several times during the day)

Three questions on the SVLSQ measured the extent to which Libyan EFL students use metacognitive strategies in their English vocabulary learning. As shown in table 20 (above), the overall response to metacognitive strategies was low to moderate. Only one strategy, 28, was relatively high (M = 3.0), whereas the remaining strategies ranked low in terms of use. For metacognitive 28, almost one-third of the participants (around 32%) said that they often skip or neglect unfamiliar words. In contrast, of the 96 participants, just seven reported that they never pass any unknown words. Although these results differ from Schmitt’s (1997), they are broadly consistent with Alhaysony’s (2012), which showed that Saudi EFL learners very frequently employ the aforementioned strategy. Neither do the findings of the present study support Aljdee’s (2007) study, which indicated that Libyan EFL students do not pass any strange words. A possible explanation for this might be that the participants in Aljdee’s study were more advanced than those who participated in the current study. In comparison to successful language learners, unsuccessful learners seem often to ignore unknown words, being unaware of the significance of such a strategy, which centres on improving reading speed rather than vocabulary growth (Mikulecky, 1990 cited in Schmitt, 1997). In contrast, the students questioned seemed to moderately employ continuing to study words over time (item 31, M = 2.7) and using English language media (item, 30, M = 2.6) in their vocabulary learning.

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In summary, just as was the case with the TVLSQ, the results obtained from the SVLSQ were outlined and the most and least used VLSs were provided in Appendix 17. In addition, it should be borne in mind that the TVLSQ and SVLSQ were only used in this phase so as to identify the participants’ strategic action. Referring to the results obtained from the aforementioned questionnaires, some VLSs were chosen, as illustrated in the next chapter, to be introduced in the treatment programme.

3.6.2 Study 1: qualitative data analysis, results and discussion

The previous part of this chapter discussed the findings that emerged from quantitative data analysis. The following is the analysis of qualitative data which emerged from open-ended questionnaire items, classroom observation and semi-structured interview.

3.6.2.1 Open-ended questionnaire items

This subsection presents the participants’ responses to the open-ended questions included in the teachers’ and students’ questionnaires. In this section, relevant comments from the participants are quoted to clarify their opinions and beliefs. The participating teachers were asked to write down their thoughts regarding the teachability of VLSs, teaching vocabulary, and about VLS instruction / training.

➢ Question 1: Do you think VLSs can be taught? Yes, because ______No, because ______

The qualitative data obtained from this question revealed that, of the 13 respondents, five (38.4%) answered ‘Yes’ while eight (61.5%) answered ‘No’. All of the participants except two, who answered only ‘Yes’ or ‘No’, provided the reasons for their positive or negative answers. The participants’ responses to this question were classified into two broad categories for comparative

124 reasons. Table 21 (below) presents the category distributions of teachers’ responses to the above-mentioned question.

Table 21: Teachers' responses regarding the teachability of VLSs

Negative responses n Positive responses n (No) … because of time constraints 5 (Yes) …because they are very 4 useful (No) …because of the students’ 3 …because they help students 1 proficiency level. become better language learners …because of the curriculum 3 They are simple to teach and restrictions. students may find them 1 … most of students use them already 2 enjoyable and interesting (subconsciously).

In short, as shown above, there was a significant difference between the participants who believed in the teachability of VLSs and those who did not. Some teachers thought that most students employ VLSs unconsciously, which is not always true. Language learning strategies can often be used consciously but they can become automatic depending on individual learners and the task they are engaged in (Pavič ić Takač , 2008). Others believed that VLSs are easy to teach, which is not always the case. It is true that some VLSs seem simple to teach by, for example, providing straightforward advice as in ‘say the word aloud several times and you will remember it’, but lots of strategies are complex in nature and demand long-term teaching (ibid). According to Pavičić Takač , learners indeed possess some sort of VLSs repertoire, ‘but they do not make a systematic use of it, and therefore are in need of instruction’ (2008: 76). In general, based on Table 21, it can be assumed that negative comments made by participating teachers regarding the teachability of VLSs were more frequent than positive ones. This indicates that most of the participants questioned did not think that VLSs are teachable. It is perhaps because the teachers investigated had little knowledge of the different vocabulary learning strategies and thus did not seem to be aware of the potential role of these

125 strategies in improving their students’ performance in the target language. Here, it could be argued that teachers might teach VLSs to their students if they were firstly convinced of their effectiveness and understood the implications more clearly. Since the readiness of teachers to receive strategy training is reassuring, it was my intention to design a programme that would overcome the problems regarding timetable and curriculum restrictions that were mentioned by more than half of the participants. By surmounting such obstacles, the teachers’ motivation and willingness to integrate strategy training into their classrooms would be increased. However, some of the negative comments mentioned by the participants corroborate the ideas of Chamot, who maintained that the objectives of the curriculum might ‘determine how much time teachers are willing to spend on learning strategy instruction [since curricula] with very specific standards and high stakes assessments of these standards can make the teacher feel that there is no time to spare for extras like teaching learning strategies’ (2011: 36). Apart from the curriculum objectives, according to Chamot (p. 35), there are other likely factors that may pose a hurdle for many language instructors when they teach VLSs. These are the teacher’s teaching style and disposition, classroom organization, and the language of instruction, to name but a few.

➢ Question 2: How do you wish to help your students with vocabulary learning?

In response to this question, a range of responses was elicited. Four participants (30.7%) believed that providing a high quantity of vocabulary would help their students with vocabulary learning. Here, one may argue that 70% of respondents though would learn more words by studying less! That is itself a vocabulary learning strategy of course, although it is not in any of the questionnaires. Other responses to this question included encouraging students to use English-speaking media, e.g. movies and songs (mentioned by two - 15.3%); avoiding using Arabic (participants’ L1) in English classes; encouraging students to read more; and finally, giving students more activities/exercises on vocabulary. 30.7% of the respondents did not answer

126 this question, possibly because they did not have a clear view or because they preferred not to say what they thought about it.

➢ Question 3: Would you be receptive to being trained in vocabulary- learning strategies?

Although the negative comments about the teachability of VLSs, given in table 21, were much more numerous than the positive ones, the participants expressed very positive opinions about being involved in a strategy training programme. The overall response to the above question was quite encouraging, since 100% of the respondents answered ‘yes’, they would be. Such a response is an optimistic sign and bodes well for me to carry on with the study. The teachers questioned were interested in the VLS training programme and they stressed the necessity of such programmes existing so that they and their students could benefit from them.

T1: ‘Yes, I would like. I am interested in learning the strategies. I think that teaching vocabulary may be better with the use of such strategies.’ T2: ‘Why not. This is a good idea and I hope that there will be more of these programmes in future, which would be useful for language teachers and learners alike.’

Having discussed the data gathered from the open-ended questions included in the teachers’ questionnaire, the next part of this chapter addresses the qualitative data obtained from the open-ended items involved in the questionnaire on the other side of the learning process, that is, the students.

➢ Question 1: Do you use any other way of learning words that are not mentioned in this questionnaire? If YES please write it here:

Of the 96 participants who responded to this question, just seven students (7.3%) said ‘yes’ they employed strategies other than those mentioned in the questionnaire, whereas 89 participants (92.7%) said ‘no’. The extra ways

127 employed by the participants were the use of social networks (e.g. Facebook, Skype and Twitter), games, web pages, apps, computers, iPads and mobile technologies that enable students to study whenever and wherever possible. In fact, the rapid advances in technology and social networks make them universal learning devices, and vocabulary learning is no exception. Some may consider the aforementioned ways as learning strategies while others may not, but generally they can add value to the entire process of second/foreign languages acquisition. Recent empirical research tried to examine the effectiveness of these tools in fostering vocabulary learning (Taki & Khazaei, 2011, and Deng & Trainin, 2015) and found them efficient for both teachers and students. The mass media, i.e. internet, apps, television and so on, is unavoidably connected with contemporary language learning, especially with those aspects related to vocabulary acquisition (Pavič ić Takač , 2008). It plays a significant role in learners’ lives since it provides them with a rich and natural input and thus should be employed for their benefit in language learning, either in or outside their classrooms, as Pavičić Takač (2008) remarks. Although it was indicated that the strategies that are going to be introduced in the training programme will be selected based on S1 results, the use of IT and social media strategies will not be included due to the following reasons: 1) Tiji and Badr English departments suffer from lack of technological equipment such as computer sets, CDs, visual aids, and projectors etc., 2) the lack of professional training in using modern technologies inside classes, and 3) the unavailability and sometimes blackout of the Internet that lasts for days. ‘In fact, Libya is one of a handful of countries in the entire world that has no public Internet infrastructure’ (Elshaikhi, 2015: 12), which is perhaps due to the governmental control over Internet use. This, however, does not mean that the use of IT and social media was not briefly introduced in the programme and participants encouraged to reflect on their experience of using such strategies.

➢ Question 2: What difficulties do you encounter when learning English vocabulary?

The total number of responses to this question was 90 (93.7%). The other 6.3% of respondents did not comment on the question. However, just over two-

128 thirds (68.8%) of those who responded to this item reported that they easily forget the words taught, as one participant said:

S1: ‘Sometimes, remembering the learnt words is a difficult thing. I easily forget them.’

Another participant commented: S2: ‘There are too many words that are difficult to memorise, I learn the new word today, but I forget it tomorrow.’

Other responses to the above-mentioned question included insufficient vocabulary knowledge, pronouncing the word, writing the word, and finally the difference between the written form and the spoken form of the word. The comments below illustrate this: S3: ‘When I speak in English, I face a problem in expressing what is being wondered in my mind fluently. I also struggle in understanding the abstract and complicated words.’ S4: ‘In pronunciation. Some words are long or complicated and thus difficult to pronounce.’ S5: ‘the silent letters.’

The latter two comments steer us to think about the level of proficiency and its impact on the use of the target language. Students seem to be less proficient and because of that they struggle in their language learning. This is often the case not just because their repertoire of words is limited, but also because they are unaware of the VLSs that would facilitate their vocabulary acquisition. This however, supports the view that the less proficient the learners, the less frequently they will employ strategies (Trendak, 2015). The students who complained about long/complicated words, for instance, might not be proficient in analysing affixes and word roots, and so on. The assumption standing behind this is that the use of VLSs can speed up the process of language learning and thus can result in elevating the level of

129 proficiency. This, in turn, leads us to the notion of introducing some vocabulary learning strategies to aid students to overcome such problems.

➢ Question 3: Have you trained to learn about vocabulary learning strategies? If YES when and how?

In response to this question, the majority of respondents (96.8%) said ‘no’, they have never been trained in VLSs. Only three participants (3.2%) said ‘yes’. These participants however, did not provide any further information about when and how they were trained on vocabulary learning strategies. In general, students have not been instructed in the use of VLSs, which may be due to the fact that teacher-training programmes in Libya have not had room for such instruction and thus teachers are not aware of these types of approaches. In the researcher’s experience, VLSs are rarely introduced in pre-service teaching preparation, nor in in-service teaching. This in turn emphasises the importance of improving future teacher training by helping teachers to deal with vocabulary learning strategies and make use of strategy training in their teaching practices. This is one of the ultimate goals of the current study.

➢ Question 4: How do you wish your English teacher to help you with vocabulary learning?

There were 85 responses to this question, while 11 students (11.5%) did not provide an answer. Generally, the students questioned were not quite satisfied with the methods used by their teachers when teaching vocabulary. Approximately half of those who responded to this question (47.9%) mentioned the traditional methods adopted in teaching vocabulary. For example, one participant said, ‘By using other ways for teaching vocabulary than just writing a list of new words on the board as if we in our pre-university stage.’ Another student commented, ‘I would like teachers to employ new ways when teaching vocabulary and they should deal with vocabulary

130 learning as same as they deal with other language aspects such as grammar and writing.’

Following this, 12 students suggested the use of visual images in teaching vocabulary, since they learn better by means of such a method. By contrast, seven learners stressed the importance of paying more attention to vocabulary teaching in the classroom, as one participant said, ‘I would like them to focus more in teaching vocabulary and do not neglect its importance in building up our lexicon repertoire.’ Some students (3.1%) suggested providing more vocabulary practice, while others (2%) wanted to allocate sufficient time for teaching lexis. All in all, the data obtained from this question indicated that some features of the grammar translation method, in which vocabulary teaching is restricted to giving students lists of foreign words together with L1 translations, still plays a prominent role in EFL classes. Besides this, students tended to rely on their teachers (teacher-centred approach) in their language learning. These are rather expected outcomes. Looking back in time, the status of formal vocabulary teaching in L2/FL contexts (and Libya is no exception) has always been affected by the implicit approach of vocabulary learning, contextual clues, monolingual dictionaries and word lists with L1 translations (Pavič ić Takač , 2008). However, the contribution and impact of the earlier mentioned methods in language acquisition cannot be rejected; vocabulary teaching should be based on a variety of strategies to break the lesson routines and cater for students’ learning styles (ibid).

➢ Question 5: Would you be receptive to being taught vocabulary-learning strategies in your classroom?

The students’ positive attitude towards VLSs was confirmed in this question since all the participants (100%) were interested in vocabulary learning strategy training and thought that such training would be fruitful in their language learning. As one participant wrote:

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‘Yes, of course I would be. As an English-major student, learning lots of words is important thing and I think that conducting vocabulary learning strategies is necessary in facilitating vocabulary acquisition.’

Another student said: ‘Yes, I am easily forgetful and I think that training in the vocabulary learning strategies would be beneficial in helping me retain taught words.’

In short, all the students questioned were in favour of vocabulary learning strategy instruction. Such a finding encourages the researcher to pursue the main study, as planned.

3.6.2.2 Interview procedures and analysis

As mentioned earlier, the interviews aimed, on the one hand, to stimulate teachers and learners to reflect on the process of vocabulary teaching/learning, and on the other hand, to verbalise the vocabulary learning strategies promoted/used during their EFL teaching/learning. The participants who were used as interviewees had also participated in the questionnaire. The semi-structured interview was administered to 11 participants, six teachers and five students, at their faculties after distributing the VLSQ. It was decided to interview participants after completing the questionnaire so that the participants could comment on the strategies involved. With the participants’ consent, a smart phone and an MP3 player were used to record the oral answers of the interviewees. The participants were interviewed separately, one at a time, so that they would not be influenced by one another. Each interview session lasted approximately 15-20 minutes. In an attempt to make each interviewee, especially students, feel as comfortable as possible, their L1 (Arabic) was used as a mediator for the communication. The answers were translated from Arabic to English and then transcribed by the researcher. To keep the participant's identities secure, pseudonyms and numbers were used instead of the participants’ real names. As a warm-up, each interview began with some biographical questions in which the interviewees were asked to say

132 something about themselves, e.g. their age, qualifications and so on. At the end of the interview, each interviewee was thanked for his/her participation and asked if he or she was interested in the results and whether they would like to receive them. In analysing the qualitative data, Wenden and Rubin’s (1987) content analysis was adapted, which Neuman (1997: 31) described as:

A technique for examining information, or content, in written or symbolic material... In content analysis, a researcher first identifies a body of material to analyse... and then creates a system for recording specific aspects of it. The system might include counting how often certain words or themes occur. Finally, the researcher records what was found in the material. He or she often measures information in the content as numbers.

Based on the above, the analysis of the data obtained went through the following stages: translating, transcribing, coding, categorizing, and finally interpreting to describe the current use of VLSs and the teaching methods adopted. Having described the interview procedures and analysis, I will now move on to present and discuss the results obtained from both models of interview (teachers’ and students’), starting with teacher interviews.

❖ Teacher interviews

Six teachers who were teaching reading comprehension, writing skills, conversation, vocabulary and spelling volunteered to participate in the interview. Apart from the biographical questions, there were four main parts to the interview. Each part contained two main questions and some follow-up questions to gain further information from of the participants. For instance, the follow-ups for the question ‘What do you think about vocabulary learning strategies?’ were:

• Are they easy to use/teach? • How important are they? Are they useful/not useful? • Should they be taught? Why/why not?

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The first part of the interview (questions 1 and 2) was concerned with attitudes towards vocabulary and how useful it is, how vocabulary is normally taught, and the difficulties found when teaching vocabulary. It was believed that most informants would have some procedures, methods or techniques for their vocabulary teaching. Interviewees were also asked about their experience in teaching English, which was deemed crucial in knowing whether experienced teachers have already been implicitly or explicitly exposed to vocabulary learning strategies. The second part (Questions 3 and 4) was concerned with vocabulary learning strategies, whether they are teachable and learn-able, whether they are important, and which ones can assist students in memorising words. Questions 5 and 6 in the third part dealt with vocabulary learning strategy training. The former was regarding whether VLS instruction increases learners’ awareness towards vocabulary learning, whereas the latter was regarding the idea of conducting a VLS training programme. Some prompts and probes were given to help the interviewee, e.g. good? bad idea? Why?

The fourth part of the teachers’ interviews (Questions 7 and 8) was focused on the participants’ own thoughts about what they would like to see in vocabulary teaching in the future, and whether they had any comments on the questionnaire. Finally, the interviewees were thanked for their participation and were assured that the information they provided would only be used for the current study. The findings gathered will be presented separately according to the different parts. Table 22 (next page) provides some basic information about the participating teachers.

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Table 22: Teacher interviewees’ information

informant gender age Qualification Experience Abdullah*(individual male 55 PhD in translation studies 25 years interview then classroom observation) Hala* (interview) female 34 PhD in Linguistics 11 years Omar* (interview) male 40 MA in TESOL 6 years Farah* (individual interview female 28 MA in TESOL 4 years then classroom observation) Abdul-razag (interview) male 42 PhD in Linguistics 17 years Alia (interview) female 32 MA in Linguistics & 8 years TESOL (*) the teachers’ pseudonyms.

Part 1: attitudes towards vocabulary and vocabulary teaching

In response to question 1, 100% of those interviewed stressed the importance and usefulness of vocabulary in their English language teaching. In this regard, Abdullah stated, ‘Vocabulary is the cornerstone of any educational process without which no language can be learned or taught properly.’ Abdul-razag also commented, ‘Vocabulary is very useful in teaching any foreign language; in fact, all language skills depend mainly on how much vocabulary you have.’ Given the context though, such results were expected, as none could really argue that learning vocabulary is not useful. It was intended to start the interview with a warm-up question so as to break the ice and elicit participants’ attitudes towards vocabulary in order to later see whether the training programme had an effect on their attitudes towards vocabulary teaching.

In question 2, when the interviewees were asked, ‘How do you normally teach vocabulary?’ the majority (67%) commented that they teach it within sentences, i.e. giving sentences including the new words to simplify the meaning. Other responses to this question included asking students to guess the meaning of the new words (50%), using word lists (50%), L1 translation (33%) and dictionary use (16.6%). One participant, Hala said that she prefers asking her students to guess the meaning of any strange words before giving

135 sentences that include them. Hala was asked a follow-up question, that is, 'What do you do if the meaning of the new word is still unclear for students?'. In response to this question, she said: ‘I just give them the Arabic meaning.’ Abdullah, on the other hand, indicated that he usually uses the newly learned words within sentences or by giving the English words accompanied by their definitions in Arabic (a word list). In summary, the reported strategies, mentioned by the teachers above, were consistent with their answers in the survey.

When asked about whether they had a particular method for vocabulary teaching and whether they were satisfied with their way of teaching lexis, the vast majority answered ‘no’ they do not have a particular method to follow. 67% of teachers questioned were quite satisfied with their way of teaching English lexis, whereas 33% of teachers were not sure about their teaching approach. Farah for example, said, ‘Personally, I am not satisfied with my teaching approach. I do not know which method better suits my student learning style.’ This piece of information seems interesting. Teachers seem to know something about learning styles but they have got confused.

When the participating teachers were required to speak about the difficulties encountered during their vocabulary teaching, only a few commented. Most of the teachers were not able to mention any. These teachers seem to leave vocabulary to take care of itself and they may think that it is the learners’ responsibility to build up their lexical repertoire and thus there is no need for direct instruction. However, one of the participants, Abdullah, commented on the question. He said:

‘For me, one of the most problematic aspects of teaching vocabulary is related to the type of words needed to be taught. Are they common and academic and students will benefit from them or not? Also, the type of texts used in certain classes, for example, close or far from the learners’ culture and life they live.’

In summary, the overall response to this part revealed that most of the teachers investigated limited themselves to only a few methods in their

136 vocabulary teaching. Although the teachers seemed to be aware of the importance of vocabulary, they paid little attention or furthermore, neglected it in their classrooms.

Part 2: vocabulary learning strategies

This part of the interview required respondents to give information on vocabulary learning strategies, i.e. which strategies would aid students in memorising words, and whether they are teachable. Questions 3 and 4 formed this part. To start with question 3: ‘What do you think of the so-called vocabulary learning strategies?’ In response to this question, only a few who had some professional knowledge, either because of their experience in teaching EFL or because they were taught abroad, reported that they are methods to facilitate word learning, whilst the vast majority had no idea about what they are. However, once the notion of vocabulary learning strategies was provided, the participants on the whole demonstrated that VLSs were teachable. For example, Alia said:

‘To be honest, I do not know much about vocabulary learning strategies, but based on the ones that you have provided in your questionnaire I think that they are not difficult to teach or learn.’

Alia however, seemed to build up her assumption based on the names of the strategies provided on the survey. It is true that most of the strategies would appear easy to teach, such as ‘saying the word aloud many times’, and ‘analysing affixes and word roots’, but many of them are complex and demand more time and effort.

Another interviewee, Omar, commented on the question by saying:

‘Teaching vocabulary learning strategies would be very useful. I do not think that their teaching is a difficult task if employed properly by qualified teachers. Teachers who are using such methods should get very good training and practice.’

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Omar might sound like he was trying to please me, but he may have wanted to say that teachers need to be acquainted with the necessary knowledge to facilitate the introduction of such instruction.

In response to question 4: ‘Which strategies do you think can help your students to memorise vocabulary?’, all the interviewees, except one, maintained that there were no particular strategies that could be considered the best. According to the teachers questioned, all the strategies are workable and useful. The following quotes illustrate this:

Hala: ‘All the strategies mentioned in the questionnaire should be employed in teaching vocabulary. This is because of the difference among learners where each one may be taught in a way different from others.’ Farah: ‘I think that there are no specific strategies. Teachers and students should know and use all the strategies to facilitate vocabulary acquisition.’ Abdullah: ‘All the strategies mentioned in your questionnaire are helpful and useful for both teachers and learners…some words may demand particular strategies and even with students, each student needs to use the strategy that feel comfortable with or meets his or her requirements.’

The obtained responses seemed to be inconclusive and too general, and thus did not meet my expectations. Therefore, in order to probe for more specific answers, I asked the respondents to mention certain strategies they may feel useful for their students, and told them they were free to refer to their questionnaire if they did not recall any. The strategies of analysing parts of speech, paraphrasing, contextual clues, and dictionary use were the most dominating ones in the teachers’ comments. Drawing on the above discussion, strategy training seems important as it would lead teachers to decide what strategies to integrate in their lessons and what to leave to better suit their students’ needs.

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Part 3: strategy training

In this part of the interview, the respondents were required to give their opinions about the vocabulary learning strategy instruction and the idea of conducting VLS training. Questions 5 and 6 formed this part.

When the participating teachers were asked whether training them on VLSs would make their students more aware of vocabulary learning (question 5), the answer was clear. The majority of them (67%) believed that conducting such training would increase students’ awareness towards vocabulary and make them become more autonomous in setting their own learning targets. Teachers could then apply a varied host of strategies and students could copy the ones that suit their demands. In contrast, 33% of respondents were not sure about the workability and suitability of integrating strategy training in the classroom. To obtain further information, those who provided negative comments were asked to give their reasons. One teacher, Abdul-razag, was quite pessimistic about the effectiveness of strategy training. He reported that most of his students hardly ever make use of the vocabulary they learn outside of the classroom, which would be the case with such training. This is clearly a very negative outlook. However, the fact that students do not make use of the learnt words outside their classrooms does not mean that they do not need good ways to study them, even if it is only for an instrumental purpose. In the longer term, students will use the taught strategies if they feel the results obtained from the training programme are satisfying.

Alia seemed to share Abdul-razag’s view. She commented:

‘I do not think so; most of students are not interested in lexis, they learn words to pass their exam, and thus their interest of learning these strategies would not be different. Contrariwise, they may find them silly or boring.’ Such results obtained from the previous question will be taken into account when designing materials for the training programme, which will be elaborated upon in more detail at a later stage.

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In question 6, the participants were asked about their opinions on the idea of conducting vocabulary learning strategy training. The results were very encouraging, with 83% of teachers welcoming the notion, showing their interest in strategy training. This was reflected by the following comment: ‘Good idea. Conducting strategy training is necessary because students need to remember learnt words and many of them fail in doing so’, and in ‘an excellent idea, we hope see such training programmes in future.’

By contrast, only 17% of the respondents were not in favour of conducting strategy training in regular lessons. Those who were against this type of instruction in regular lessons attributed their answers to a lack of interest on the part of their students, and the lack of time, as illustrated by Farah’s comment: ‘…the time allocated for lessons will not be enough to explain and practise each strategy. I think that vocabulary strategies should be taught separately in specialised didactic sessions during students’ spare time.’

Part 4: further comments

In this part, the interviewees were required to give brief comments about what they would like to see in vocabulary teaching in the future (question 7) and to comment on the questionnaire (question 8).

In response to question 7: ‘What would you like to see in vocabulary teaching in the future?’, a variety of answers were given. Two out of the six respondents mentioned the wide use of media (e.g. the press, TV) and new technology (e.g. the Internet, games) with one informant pointing out his desire to continue participating in useful programmes that will benefit teachers and students alike. This is apparent in the following quotation, ‘In the future, I hope to see such useful programmes that include training both sides of the learning process, that is, teachers and students.’

Another interviewee, Omar, alluded to the notion of improving the current educational system and paying more attention to vocabulary and its learning strategies, ‘…the current educational system should be improved and the

140 vocabulary learning techniques should be involved in it. Vocabulary learning and teaching should gain more emphasis the same as grammar, reading, writing and listening.’ Lastly, Hala suggested teaching vocabulary in the early stages of learning, ‘Vocabulary is important and for me I think that it should be taught as an isolated subject as grammar at primary and secondary schools.’

Finally, at the end of the interview, the participants were given the chance to comment or add any further information on the questionnaire (question 8), and three informants (50%) decided to do so.

Generally speaking, there was a sense of approval amongst the interviewees. They all paid tribute to the idea of the research and one of them praised me for carrying out a study in this area, which was encouraging, as reflected by the comment, ‘It is a good effort that one may benefit from. The idea of your research is new, at least for me, and I think that you will meet the approval of everyone. Good job, carry-on.’

❖ Students’ interviews

As for the student interviewees, as a warm-up (Part 1) they were given a short text to read before going through the interview questions. The participants were told that the purpose of reading the text was see how they deal with new words encountered. Then they were asked whether there were any difficult words in the text and what they did to figure out their meaning. Some prompts based on the literature were given, e.g. guessing, skipping, and analysing parts of the word. After that, the participants were asked some questions (2, 3 and 4), relating to vocabulary learning strategies (Part 2). In those questions, they were asked how they normally learn new words and whether they had a particular method or strategy in learning vocabulary. Some prompts were given to help the volunteer students, such as: ‘When you read, for example a book or a text, and come across a word that you do not know, what do you do?’ (Prompts: look at its structure (noun, verb)? guess its meaning? skip it? check it in your dictionary?).

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Questions 5 and 6 (Part 3) in the student interviews were allocated to vocabulary learning strategy training, whether the students would be receptive to being trained in VLSs, and what they feel about the idea of vocabulary learning strategy instruction. Finally, the students questioned were asked to provide any further data or comment on their questionnaires (Part 4). Just as was the case with the teachers’ interviews, the responses gathered from the five participating students will be presented and clarified with quotations taken directly from informants.

Part 1: warm-up

When the students had finished reading, they were asked their opinion of the text. As mentioned above, some prompts were given: Was it clear to understand? Were there any difficult words that you did not understand? What did you do to figure out their meaning?

The results showed that all the interviewees (100%) found difficulty in understanding several words in the text such as, ‘cremated’, ‘cemetery’ and ‘fought off’. Three of them (60%) opened their smartphones and referred to their dictionaries while two (40%) reported that they had tried to guess the meaning from context.

Part 2: Vocabulary learning strategies

This part was intended to find out how students normally learn vocabulary, how they retain the newly learned words and their knowledge about vocabulary learning strategies. When the students were asked: ‘How do you normally study vocabulary?’ several responses were elicited. The vast majority (80%) of respondents mentioned the use of repetition, either verbal or written. As one informant said, ‘I used to repeat the new word several times to learn it. I do that while I am walking. For me, that helps in memorising words.’ Another reported, ‘I write the word down many times in order to remember, or spell it aloud.’ The former quotation, however, indicated a combination of two techniques, i.e. ‘oral repetition’ and ‘physical action’. On the basis of this quotation one can also conclude that students were able to describe their

142 favoured VLSs accurately. This in turn may due to the frequent use of such strategies over time.

The next method most widely reported strategy by 60% of the participants was word lists, as observed in: ‘I always focus on word lists that are given to us at class,’ and in: ‘In each lesson, our teacher gives us new words with their Arabic translation, and I learn them by heart.’ The same percentage was also given to the use of the internet (social media), as one interviewee put it: ‘I find in Facebook and Twitter a great means for practising vocabulary. I have many friends from different nationalities and we very often chat in English.’ Here it might be suggested that teachers could invest in such methods and use innovate teaching exercises that would meet their students’ digital needs. Thus, students could practise English language and improve their writing skills without the constraints of the traditional curriculum.

Finally, there was another technique mentioned by 40% of the respondents - the use of dictionaries (especially bilingual ones), as one individual reported, ‘I always use my Arabic/English dictionary to learn about words. It provides a great means in finding out meanings, pronunciations and examples.’

In question 3, when asked to speak about vocabulary learning strategies, the answer was definite: none of the respondents had heard about them. They all (100%) reported that the first time they had heard about them was when they were asked to fill in the survey. This does not mean that they do not use VLSs though. Actually, students had not known that there were so many strategies to use for their vocabulary learning until they filled out the questionnaire, which is an expected outcome. In general, this finding is important because the present study is centred around the theme of strategy training and thus this would make comparisons between pre-and post-training clearer. That is to say, finding out whether or not the training encouraged or discouraged the use of vocabulary learning strategies amongst the investigated teachers and students. However, two students alluded to the notion of the subconscious use of most strategies without knowing their names, as reflected in: ‘…I already use most of these strategies

143 unconsciously,’ and in: ‘…some vocabulary learning strategies are already used by many students, but it is useful to have a name for each strategy.’ These quotes generally referred to the lack of the students’ awareness of retrieval strategies, and what is sought in this study is to promote the participants’ awareness of these strategies to make them responsible for their own learning processes.

Bearing the aforementioned responses in mind and in order to obtain further information, the interviewee was asked to imagine that he or she came across an unknown word while reading, for example in a book or a text, and was asked what they would do to figure out its meaning.

As expected, the most frequently used strategy was looking the word up in a dictionary, which was reported by 100% of the respondents, as stated in: ‘I check my dictionary.’ and in: ‘I use the dictionary to find out the meaning. But, if I was doing an exam and came across an unknown word and I did not have my dictionary with me, I would try to guess its meaning from the context.’

Guessing strategies came next with 80% of the students questioned reporting the use of contextual clues in deriving the meaning of unknown words, and the above-mentioned example illustrates this. Conversely, 40% of learners investigated were completely reliant on their teacher’s knowledge in eliciting the meaning of new words. One interviewee said, ‘I rather prefer to ask my English teacher for help,’ and another commented, ‘I ask my teacher to help me.’

Apart from using dictionaries, guessing, and asking teachers for help, skipping the unknown words and analysing parts of speech, e.g. nouns, pronouns and so on, were methods utilised by 20% of the learners questioned. The comments below illustrate this:

‘…if I read a text and come across one or two new words that I cannot understand, I just ignore them’.

‘I try to analyse the unknown word, is it noun, adjective or pronoun? Then, I try to guess its meaning.’

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Part 3: strategy training

Questions 5 and 6 in the student interviews formed this part. The respondents here were required to give their opinion about the idea of conducting strategy training and whether they would be receptive to being taught VLSs in their classrooms. In response to the former, the students’ positive attitude towards VLSs was greatly confirmed, since all the learners questioned were in favour of being taught these types of strategies in their classrooms. As an example, one informant said, ‘I think that it is a good idea to teach these strategies in class. This definitely would facilitate the process of vocabulary learning and would lead students to be responsible for their language learning.’

This positive attitude appeared again when students were asked whether they would like to be taught vocabulary learning strategies in their language classes. The results obtained were encouraging, since all the learners questioned were willing to participate in the study, which in turn reflected their interest in improving their lexical repertoire by obtaining more techniques with which to do so.

Part 4: further comments

At the end of the interviews, the participants were given a copy of the VLS questionnaire and asked to comment on it. The rationale behind this was to probe for further information regarding word learning strategies and the questionnaire in general. None of the participants questioned had any additional remarks. Just one student emphasised the relevance of VLSs and training thereon in their language learning.

The results elicited from the VLS questionnaire and semi-structured interview will be discussed later along with the observation findings so as to provide definite answers to the Study 1 questions as stated below.

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3.6.2.3 Observation analysis

During classroom observations (see table 22, in page 135), I mainly focused on capturing the participants’ observable strategy use and the nature of the teaching approaches adopted. To do so, an observation sheet (see appendix 6) with a list of individual strategies grouped under five categories, as suggested by Schmitt (1997), was used. The rationale behind this was to help guide the writing of field notes. On this sheet, the strategies were presented according to their categorisations, those being, determination, social, memory, cognitive and metacognitive strategies. I ticked the observed strategies and passed comment on them. The following is a sample of the observation sheet

Table 23: A sample of the observation sheet used

Type of the Strategy Group Observed Not Comments Observed 1. Determination strategies • Analysing affixes and DIS* roots (*) DIS =Discovery strategies

The results obtained from observations revealed the participants’ in-class use of strategies and the teachers’ teaching methods. I distributed checklists to the participants so that they could tick the strategies they used and which might not be observed while being engaged in writing field notes. As mentioned above, I used the observation sheet to note down the observational data. On this sheet, a brief description of the strategies noticed, from both teachers and students, was written down, along with to which category they belonged. At the end of the observation sheet, I recorded notes concerning the teaching methods followed. In this regard, while observing the teachers’ methods of instruction, the comments written centred on the strategies the observed teacher used, encouraged or practised. Later, I analysed the comments to identify the effect of teaching methods on strategy utilisation. Two teachers who participated in the VLSQ were observed in their teaching and were involved in a follow-up semi-structured interview to reflect on their teaching

146 methods in the classroom. When selecting the teachers who were to be observed, I intended to choose those who were delivering sessions in linguistics, reading and writing skills so as to increase the chances of coming across unknown words. Although experience (senior or junior) and qualification (Master’s or PhD holder) variables were not targeted in this study, they were considered while observing teachers so as to see whether they had an effect on strategy use/promotion and the nature of teaching approaches. The observation sessions totalled three hours, and lasted for 60 minutes at a time.

During observations, it was obvious that the instructors and learners favoured the traditional approach, in which the teacher is at the centre of the learning process. The interaction between the teachers and students was very limited and thus learning through discussion was barely observed. The teachers’ role was to provide materials, and learners simply followed the instructions. Activities implemented were short and more emphasis was given to grammar and written language at the expense of spoken language. When encountering a new word, the teacher either wrote it on the board, said it aloud, or spelt it. Arabic (participants’ L1) appeared many times during the lessons observed. Based on the above, it may appear that in Libya the Grammar Translation Method is dominant, but this might not be the case. Teachers are using different techniques, which may or (more likely) may not fit into a coherent approach; thus, forming any generalizations on the teaching methods adopted was not possible.

Regarding the teachers’ strategy use, I identified three determination strategies (word list, analysing parts of speech and contextual clues), one social strategy (L1 translation), and three memory strategies (associations, paraphrasing and repetition). On the part of the students, the researcher observed the frequent use of two determination strategies (dictionary use and contextual clues), two social strategies (asking teacher and classmates for L1 equivalent), and two cognitive strategies (repetition and note taking). These results, in general, were consistent with the participants’ answers on the survey.

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To sum up, multiple research methods were used to answer Study 1 questions, which were:

1. What vocabulary learning strategies do Libyan EFL teachers at a university level know/promote to their students?

2. What vocabulary learning strategies do Libyan EFL learners at a university level know/use?

3. To what extent do Libyan EFL teachers believe that VLSs can be taught?

As seen above in the analysis, and based on the data obtained from the VLS questionnaires, the participants reported an overall medium promotion/implementation (teachers, M = 2.7; students, M = 2.8) of VLSs in their teaching and learning practices. Such an outcome was contrary to my earlier assumption that Libyan EFL teachers and students have no knowledge of vocabulary learning strategies. A possible explanation for this might be that participants had most likely developed conscious learning strategy knowledge due to the repeated administration of the study instruments (i.e. VLS questionnaires, interviews etc.), and thus they became more acquainted with the strategies. However, the obtained results in general are in agreement with those of earlier studies, such as Riazi (2007), which investigated vocabulary learning strategies among 120 female Arabic-speaking students studying English at a university in Qatar, Riazi and Rahimi (2005), which studied those of Iranian EFL learners, and Ismail and Al-Khatib (2013), which researched those of the Foundation Programme of the United Arab Emirates University, to name but a few.

The strategy categories promoted most frequently by the participating Libyan EFL teachers were determination and social strategies, with an overall mean value of 3.0, followed by the cognitive category (M = 2.8) and metacognitive category (M = 2.7), while the memory category (M = 2.5) was promoted least among the five categories. Perhaps this may due to the fact that visible motor VLSs are possibly ‘contagious’, i.e. if I see people doing something I may well copy them, whereas memory strategies and many others are less visible and

148 therefore less likely to be copied. For example, students cannot all ask the teacher for an L1 translation, because this only needs to happen once per word per class, unless they do not hear it, so they may in fact be reporting other people’s VLSs use. On the students’ side, they reported using determination strategies most frequently (M = 3.3), followed by cognitive strategies (M = 2.9), social strategies (M = 2.8), metacognitive strategies (M = 2.7), and finally memory strategies (M = 2.6). The findings are consistent with those of Oxford (1990), as memory strategies have been found to be infrequently used by language learners.

Lastly, it should be kept in mind that the questionnaires utilised in Study One (S1) were only designed to answer S1 questions, and thus were not used in S3. Based on quantitative data obtained from S1, the S3 questionnaire was designed (Appendix 18). In the latter stages, the strategies included were only those focused on in the training programme, and for each of the items in the survey, participants were asked how frequently they used the strategy stated and the extent to which they thought the same strategy was or may be useful to them.

Study 1 questions are now complete, and I will move on to describe the second study, which focuses on designing the Vocabulary Learning Strategy Training programme. The principal goal for the upcoming study (i.e. S2) is to develop a 12-week strategy training course consisting of two weeks of teacher training followed by ten weeks of student training. The results obtained from S1 were used to identify the current situation in Libya in terms of strategy utilisation and also as a basis for designing the instruction programme, as we will see in the next chapter.

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4.0: STUDY 2: The VLST programme

As indicated in the previous chapter, vocabulary learning strategies in Libya are something that teachers and students have very little, or no, exposure to. Due to limited time allocated to English classes, teachers often concentrate on covering the materials that are scheduled in their curriculum, and the most common tips that they provide to their students are taking notes, word formation and the use of dictionaries. According to Chamot (2011), students are advised to use more learning strategies in order for them to take more responsibility for their own vocabulary learning, thus allowing teachers to concentrate on other things. To do so, this demands that teachers be convinced of the usefulness of such strategies, which in turn requires teachers to develop expertise in VLS instruction – something that is at the core of the present study. Teachers need to know more about learning strategies and how to effectively plan and introduce them to their students (Trendak, 2015). This, ultimately, would not only persuade students of the value of working on learning strategies but would also convince other instructors as well. However, more or less all studies in this area deal with learners’ strategic training, i.e. providing learners with some strategy instruction, and they neglect to look at the teachers’ knowledge and training. Very little attention has been given to guiding language teachers on how to integrate VLS instruction into their regular language classes (O’Malley & Chamot, 1990). Accordingly, developing teachers’ expertise in strategy instruction is vital, especially in the context of Libya, where teachers and learners have had no previous experience of such training.

Therefore, this chapter presents a description of the VLST programme for both sides of the learning process - the teachers and students, with the emphasis on training teachers, since the existing strategic training of students seems to be mostly ‘implicit, sporadic and based on the teachers’ assessment, interest, knowledge, experience and intuition’ (Pavič ić Takač , 2008: 148).

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4.1 Strategy training

Prior to presenting the VLST programme, I need to address several issues, starting with terminology. The terms ‘strategy training’ and ‘strategy instruction’ have been presented in the literature for a few decades (Oxford, 1990: 200) and they will be used throughout this thesis as they are both descriptive and sufficient in meeting its needs.

The next issue relates to planning a strategy instruction programme. According to Nation (2014), this requires making a decision on the content, i.e. deciding which strategies should be taught, making a decision on the time spent on strategy training, developing a syllabus for each strategy, and finally monitoring and providing feedback to learners on their strategy utilisation. The third issue is the intensity of the training. In this regard, Oxford (1990) mentioned three different ways to teach learning strategies: a) awareness training, b) one-time strategy training, and c) long-term strategy training. With the first type, participants become familiar with the notion of learning strategies and the way such strategies can enhance their achievement in different language tasks. The pilot study of the current thesis could be considered awareness training, referred to in section 3.5 of the previous chapter. With one-time strategy training, participants learn and practise one or more strategies with actual language tasks. This type informs participants about the value of the strategy, its utilisation, function and how to evaluate its success and effectiveness. The third type of training, long-term strategy training, bears similarities to the one-time strategy but is more lengthy and covers a larger number of strategies; that is why it is believed to be more valuable and effective than one-term training (p. 1990). All in all, the main study of the present research could be considered long-term training, since it is focused on teaching as many VLSs as possible over a long period of time and tying these strategies together with regular language learning classes, as we will see next.

Another issue worth mentioning is the explicitness of the training. Research on the implementation of strategy training has increased the consensus that it should be made explicit, i.e. explain why and what strategies are being taught,

151 and incorporate strategy instruction into normal lessons instead of it being taught individually (Rubin et al., 2007) (refer back to literature section 2.5.1 for more details about explicit strategy training). Explicit VLS instruction generally demands ‘raising the learners’ [and teachers’] awareness of their own strategies, introducing them to new ones, and giving them any opportunity to apply, analyse and adopt new vocabulary learning strategies’ (Pavič ić Takač , 2008: 148), all of which were included in the VLST programme.

Finally, it should also be considered that while designing the course, three major perspectives were contemplated - those of the teacher, the learner and the researcher respectively. It was essential to bear in mind that the planning for strategic teaching demands including all aspects of knowledge and the preparation of a sufficient amount of tasks and activities for participants to develop gradually into autonomous strategy users (Pavič ić Takač , 2008). Key issues and further considerations for planning and implementing a strategic teaching programme have been addressed in Chapter 2, section 2.6. One of the ultimate goals of the current study was to encourage language teachers to allocate some lesson time to strategic training and encourage students to use the introduced strategies. According to Nation (2014: 333-334), teachers have many options when planning strategic teaching in order to suit their learners’ needs:

• The teacher demonstrates the employment of the strategy. • The steps included in the strategy are practised separately. • Learners administer the strategy in pairs, supporting each other. • Learners report back on their strategy use. • Learners report on their difficulties and success in strategy usage outside their class time. • Teachers systematically test the strategy use of learners and give them feedback. • Where necessary, learners consult the teacher on their strategy use.

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Nation argues that this ‘mini syllabus’ is required to be designed for every individual vocabulary learning strategy, particularly those that are complex and involve several steps, for example the keyword method. However, due to limited time being available for strategy instruction, a simpler model was favoured, that being the Cognitive Academic Language Learning Approach (section 2.7.2). The main reasons for the selection of this particular framework were: firstly, it encompasses three components, which are content, language and a direct instruction in learning strategies, which in turn helps teachers to combine them in a carefully planned lesson. Secondly, it provides guidelines for instruction and elucidates how something is learned because it is grounded in theory. Thirdly, it is a recursive cycle so that participants always have the opportunity to revise former instructional phases when needed. Fourthly, its purpose is to gradually build their self-confidence in language learning via training students to choose the appropriate strategies that help them learn effectively. Lastly and most importantly, students with limited English proficiency and who are less likely to have improved their own VLSs are specifically targeted in this approach. As covered in the literature, the instructional procedures of this approach are based on five phases: introducing, teaching, practising, evaluating, and finally applying the strategies taught. In the present study, the first three steps were administrated during the training process, whereas the latter two were performed at the end of the training programme. More information about the instructional procedures adopted will be addressed later in this chapter.

The overarching conclusion suggests that strategy training demands careful planning, explicitness, integration into normal language classes, and consistent cooperation between teachers and learners. These, amongst others, were all accounted for in order to conduct successful training. The next section reviews the language of instruction prior to considering the selection of strategies to be taught in the VLST programme in section 4.3.

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4.2 Language choice

In the VLST programme, I decided to choose a language medium in which all the participants were proficient. In my context, it was impossible to avoid using the participants’ mother tongue (i.e., Arabic) to provide the instructions, especially with the students, who seemed to lack the necessary vocabulary to understand the explanations of learning strategies. However, to ensure a complete understanding of the explanations as to why and how to use VLSs, a combination of Arabic and English was used. That is to say that the actual strategy instruction was in English, simplified as much as possible, and then supported in Arabic. Some materials such as questionnaires and checklists were in Arabic, especially those used for students, while others, such as the teachers’ lesson plans, descriptions of strategies, activities and handouts were written in simple English. For both however, the participants were free to respond either in Arabic or in English.

4.3 Selection of strategies

After assessing the participants’ strategy use, beliefs, and prior assumptions about vocabulary learning strategy training, the selection of certain strategies began. Taking into consideration the S1 results obtained (See previous Chapter), and in order to carry out relevant and useful strategy instruction, it was decided to select a set of strategies considered effective enough to be taught in the training programme. It is worth reporting that although Schmitt’s (1997) taxonomy served as a basis for the current study, it was impossible to thoroughly teach all the strategies embedded, and the time allocated for the project did not warrant a longer scheme of strategy instruction. Added to that is the fact that the strategies suggested in this taxonomy are not all equally useful and/or equally accessible (e.g. the loci method).

Study 1 showed that most of the strategies the participants often employed were shallow ones (e.g. repetition methods) which, according to Pavič ić Takač (2008), can be taught easily via the provision of straightforward advice, e.g. ‘Say the words out loud when you learn them, because you will remember

154 them better!’ However, this does not mean that they were not briefly introduced in the programme since it was advisable to start with shallow strategies and move towards the deeper ones (Chamot et al., 1999), and it would be more sensible to move from familiar to unfamiliar when learning something new. Because there is no single strategy that is appropriate for all learners and tasks, different strategies were chosen from the different VLS categories (see Table 26), some of them being easy to learn and some demanding more effort. Bearing this in mind, the strategies were chosen in light of Oxford’s (1990) observation that broad focus strategy training shows participants how strategies interact and gives them a broader understanding of the process of language learning. A broad approach compared to a narrow one, according to Oxford, ‘trains learners in large segments of the whole strategy classification system’ (p. 205) by combining groups of strategies such as affective, social and metacognitive. However, in this approach, the possibility of evaluating the training success in relation to a specific strategy does not guarantee but does allow ‘for multiple strategies to interact to maximize learning potential’ (p. 205), which is one of the main goals of the present thesis.

From my perspective, the more teachers know about VLSs, the better strategic trainers they will be. As the present study looks at introducing participants to as many strategies as possible, 26 deep and shallow strategies from Schmitt’s 58 strategies were selected for the training programme. The basis of preferring Schmitt’s taxonomy in particular was made explicit in subsection 2.5.1, in the previous chapter. However, while selecting the VLSs, I avoided strategies that were least favoured, familiar or required most learning time (e.g. Loci and Peg methods) and those that were impossible to use in the participants’ context (e.g. ‘using the vocabulary section or glossaries in students’ textbooks’, as they did not exist in their syllabus). Furthermore, I combined the strategies that were similar to each other (e.g. ‘asking teacher for an L1 translation’ and ‘asking classmates for the L1 translation’ became ‘asking for L1 translation’). Strategies that seemed to be routine in Libyan universities, such as ‘continue to study a word over time’, were also excluded.

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In this context, having an applicable and comprehensive list of vocabulary learning strategies, such as those suggested by Schmitt (1997), is crucial. By means of this, I was able to raise the participants’ awareness of the different VLSs they employ or do not employ, provide and discuss new VLSs, highlight changes reported in use and perceived usefulness, and then plan and conduct a strategic teaching programme. To be more organised, the selected strategies would be grouped in light of their process in vocabulary learning. That is, the participants would be taught firstly how to discover the meaning of new words, and then presented with ways to consolidate their meaning. Table 26 shows the strategies to be taught in the VLST programme.

Having discussed the selection of strategies, I will now move on to outline the VLST programme.

4.4 Design

Once S1 was finished, and the VLSs the participants already knew or used had been identified, the preparation phase for S2 started. This research was carried out in two main stages. Teachers were targeted in phase (I) and students in phase (II). Table 24 (next page) outlines the two phases including the number of participants and their roles in the training programme, the VLST, and the methods used for data collection.

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Table 24: Training applications in the study

Stage I (Teachers’ training) Stage II (Students’ training) • The researcher = • The researcher = observer/ Participants instructor facilitator • 8 teachers = trainees • 8 teachers = instructors* • 96 students (46 from Year 1, and 50 from Year 2) = trainees. • Assess teachers’ • Assess student’s knowledge Pre-teacher/student knowledge and and use of VLSs. training (i.e. Study 1) promotion the use of VLSs. • Methods used: initial VLS questionnaire, classroom observation, and semi-structured interview. Time • 10 days • 10 weeks • 20 hours • 27 hours • 2 hours per a session • The first 20 minutes of the regular class. Teaching • Vocabulary learning • Vocabulary learning strategies. strategies. The VLST • 10 sessions • One strategy per a day programme • Approx. 4 strategies per (the researcher and teachers (i.e. S2) a session worked on the strategies targeted) • Lesson plan, checklists • Checklists and handouts Materials and handouts include include description of description of strategies strategies and activities. and activities. Post-teacher/ student • Assess teachers’ use / • Assess students’ use / training (i.e. Study 3) knowledge, perceptions, knowledge, perceptions, and and perceived perceived usefulness of the usefulness of the VLST. VLST. • Methods used: pre, post, and delayed-questionnaire, classroom observation, semi-structured interview, and end of course evaluation sheet. (*) teaching their classes using/not using VLS sessions.

As mentioned in the previous chapter, teachers’ (TVLSQ) and students’ (SVLSQ) questionnaires were only used in S1 in order to identify the participants’ strategic action, that was, finding out what vocabulary learning strategies the participants were already using and knew. Referring to the results obtained from the aforementioned questionnaires, the VLS questionnaire used in Studies 2 and 3 was modified. Since the current thesis concentrates on measuring the extent to which strategy training influenced the participants’ utilisation of VLSs, and due to wording constraints, one version,

157 involving only the VLSs items, was distributed to both teachers and students. This version was almost the same as those aforementioned, and what made it distinct was adding some rows for perceived usefulness, as shown below, and the time of administration. In other words, the questionnaire was distributed before and after the instructional training so as to investigate the participants’ perceptions of VLSs in terms of usefulness and frequency of use. For each item in this questionnaire, participants were required to respond to both the frequency of use of the strategy stated, and the extent to which they may find it useful. The following is a sample of the questionnaire format used in Study 3; see Appendix 18 for the whole questionnaire.

Table 25: A sample of Study 3 questionnaire format

How frequently do you To what extent is it

use the strategy? useful?

The strategy

Often

Never

Rarely Useful

Always Always

Notsure

Notuseful

Sometimes Veryuseful

1. Analysing part of speech (e.g. noun, verb) تحليل أجزاء الكالم )مثال: اسم، فعل إلخ...(

As indicated earlier, the participants were the researcher, teachers and students, and each one had their own responsibility which was made clear to them at the very beginning of the research. Figure 3 below summarises the shift of responsibility in the training programme from the researcher to the teacher and then to the learner, which was adapted from ‘The Learning Strategies Handbook’ by Chamot et al. (1999:43):

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Researcher Teacher responsibility Student responsibility responsibility Preparation (activate Attend participate. Attend participate. background knowledge). Presentation (explain & Apply the VLST sessions Apply strategies with model). with guidance. guidance. Practice (prompt strategies & give feedback). Teach strategies Use strategies Evaluation (assess independently. independently. strategies). Expansion (support & transfer). Encourage using strategies. Transfer strategies to new tasks.

Figure 3: VLST framework for strategy instruction

4.4.1 Teachers’ training phase

In order to maximise the length of the programme, the teacher training phase was carried out two weeks prior to the students’ training phase, so the pre- training survey was administered at the very beginning of the course. To be more precise, the teachers’ training lasted for ten days, taking into account the public holidays in Libya, which are Fridays and Saturdays. Consequently, the training included ten sessions in total, all carried out by the researcher. All the participating teachers were involved in the training programme in order to get as much benefit as possible, but during the students’ instructional training only those who were to teach the experimental group were allowed to provide the strategy sessions, whereas teachers in the control group were asked to follow their normal instruction. The next chapter provides in-depth information about this.

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Table 26: Research timetable of teachers’ training phase

Time Strategies focused on Day 1 Warm-up session: Pre-VLS questionnaire, introduce the concept and definition of vocabulary learning strategy, list the strategies that they know / use, discussing / raising awareness of VLSs. Day 2 Discovering new words meanings (Part 1): analysing strategies (i.e. analysing parts of speech, any available pictures, affixes and roots), dictionary use Day 3 Discovery strategies (Part 2): asking teacher or classmates for clarifications (e.g. L1 translation, synonyms, paraphrasing, a sentence including the new word), group work activity + lesson plan Day 4 Discovery strategies (Part 3): check for L1 cognates, word lists, flash cards Day 5 Discovery strategies (Part 4): Guess from textual context, and review of learned discovery strategies. Day 6 Consolidating new words’ meaning (Part 1): repetition methods (i.e. written and oral rehearsal), semantic maps + lesson plan Day 7 Consolidation strategies (Part 2): Imagery strategies + the keyword method – a brief description. Day 8 Consolidation strategies (Part 3): Use of vocabulary notes, use scales for gradable adjectives, and lesson plan Day 9 Consolidation strategies (Part 4): grouping strategies (e.g. study them together, spatially on a page etc.). Day Review, practise teaching VLSs (lesson plans), post-VLS questionnaire 10 and end of course evaluation sheet

As indicated earlier in this chapter, the training was based on the CALLA framework of teaching learning strategies. In each session, I began by explaining the importance of the introduced strategies and distributing handouts including explanations written in simple English (see Appendix 19 for a sample of the handouts administered). In relation to the lesson plans that some sessions involved, teachers, with help and guidance, were trained on how to plan for strategy instruction within a certain time frame.

In the presentation phase, I explicitly modelled and described the characteristics, functions, and efficiency of each strategy taught with thorough illustrations and exemplification. Teachers were also instructed in how to choose certain words from their learning materials and apply the strategies that were introduced in the session. Later in the practice phase, the opportunity to employ the strategies learned within authentic learning tasks was provided

160 and guided by the researcher (refer to Appendix 20 for a sample of the sessions conducted). The participants became aware of various learning strategies available for use in determining the meaning of unknown words. It was made clear to the participants that no single learning strategy can work in every case and when the strategy is not workable they can use another one. In this phase, I also provided feedback on the teachers’ work and lesson plans. It should be borne in mind that while procedures in this phase are potentially variable, and could have been done very differently, from my experience in the EFL teaching field, this pedagogic approach most suits the Libyan teachers’ experience.

The opportunity to develop awareness and evaluate the success of the training sessions was provided at the end of the VLST in the form of a post- and delayed-questionnaire, checklists, observations, interviews, and an evaluation sheet, in which participants expressed their opinions on the fruitfulness of the training programme. At the end of the training programme pre- and post- results were gathered from the participants in the control group and the experimental group. They were then compared and discussed to ascertain the effects of the course. This will be addressed in more detail along with the data analysis procedures in the next chapter. In the final phase, that is the expansion phase, teachers were asked to apply the VLST sessions in their classroom. They were also encouraged to plan for strategy instruction, choose and teach the strategies that they felt were workable with their students, and guide students on how to employ these strategies.

With regard to the delivery of strategy sessions itself, Cohen (2011) suggests several options, such as general study-skills instruction, lectures, workshops, and peer tutoring. In the teacher-training phase, in addition to normal classroom guidance and help, lectures and discussions were also provided. The rationale behind choosing such an option was to assist language teachers in becoming more aware of and familiar with the notion of vocabulary learning strategies and the ways in which such strategies can help their students accomplish different language tasks (ibid). The delivered lectures involved my explanation, handouts, and PowerPoint slides. Later, during the students’

161 training phase, the teachers were to integrate their strategy training sessions into their classroom teaching and; …make sure that their students experience the advantages of systematically applying strategies to the learning and use of the language that they are studying… [and moreover] have the opportunities to share their own preferred strategies with the other students in the class and to increase their strategy repertoires within the context of the typical language tasks that they are asked to perform. (Cohen, 2011: 138)

To sum up, as stated at the outset of this chapter, strategy training aims to teach language teachers how to provide strategy instruction, giving them opportunities to practise incorporating strategies into their regular lesson plans and having them adapt existing course material to develop strategy teaching. By doing so, teachers can heighten their students’ awareness of the different VLSs that they can choose and use in their language learning.

4.4.2 Students’ training phase

In this phase, students were taught by the newly trained teachers. Before and during the students’ training sessions, I worked with participating teachers on their lesson plans and developed the materials used. Teachers were encouraged to choose the strategies that they wanted to introduce to their students. Then, the chosen strategies were developed using the students’ material, since in this phase the participating teachers and I were to continue with the current syllabus of the university. I attended all the sessions in the first six weeks of the students’ training programme to ensure teachers followed the lesson plans as agreed. Then, I periodically observed the participants and provided help when necessary. However, similarly to any teacher trying to implement strategy instruction, some problems were encountered. These difficulties included curriculum constraints, teaching styles, classroom organisation, the teacher's beliefs, the language of instruction and the

162 teacher’s knowledge of promoting strategies, which all hampered further improvement in the area of strategic intervention (Trendak, 2015). Consequently, one direct benefit of S1 was the chance it created to identify such hindrances, which were later considered in order to provide the ideal conditions for the training programme.

After three months, I visited the participants (teachers and students) in their classrooms, administered the same questionnaire and carried out some short interviews and observations to measure the benefit of the training programme and the use of strategies over that course of time.

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5.0: STUDY 3: trial and evaluate the training programme

Having reviewed the current situation in Libya in terms of VLSs promoted/used (S1 in Chapter 3) and the design of the VLS training programme (S2 in Chapter 4), this chapter will describe the testing and assessment of the VLST programme, and report on the findings collected as a result of it. Study 3 answers the fourth and most important question in this research which is:

➢ Does training Libyan EFL teachers in how to teach the VLSs play any significant role in vocabulary strategy use and perceptions by either teachers or students?

Similarly to S1, a multi-method approach has been used in order to answer this question. The instruments utilised were pre-, post-, and delayed-VLS questionnaires, a 12-week strategy training course consisting of two weeks of teacher training followed by ten weeks of student training, semi-structured interviews, and classroom observations of the sessions in which the trained teachers implemented the strategy training. Before proceeding with the analysis of the obtained data, it is important to discuss S3 sample and data collection procedures.

5.1 Study 3 population

The same participants who took part in S1 participated in this study. The only difference was in the number of participating teachers since in this study only eight teachers were trained and used to teach the control and experimental groups. Table 27 (next page) presents the number and distribution of S3 participants.

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Table 27: Number and distribution of Study 3 participants.

Groups Sort Class Site N Teachers Students Experimental A 1st year Tiji 2 22 B 2nd year Tiji 2 24 Control C 1st year Badr 2 27 D 2nd year Badr 2 23 Total 8 96

As illustrated in Table 27, the sample recruited for this research represented two English language faculties at the Al-jabal Al-gharbi University in two different locations (Tiji and Badr). The criteria for selecting the participants were made explicit in Chapter 3, section 3.2. The participants consisted of four classes and their teachers, who were already assigned into groups by the university. The Tiji participants formed the experimental groups (A and B) and were subjected to strategy instruction, whereas the Badr participants acted as the control groups (C and D), and followed their regular lessons. The participants were chosen from different sites in order to avoid any possible interaction between them. In other words, the participants that formed the experimental groups were not able to tell those in the control groups about the training sessions, thus increasing the reliability of the study.

In reporting S3 results, the same analysis used in presenting S1 (elaborated in Chapter 3) will be followed. The quantitative data analysis in the form of pre- , post-, and delayed-VLS questionnaires (henceforth VLSQ1, VLSQ2, and VLSQ3) will be discussed first, followed by an interpretation of the qualitative data analysis including observation, interview and end of evaluation sheet. I will now move on to analyse and discuss the quantitative data obtained.

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5.2 Study 3: quantitative data analysis, results and discussion

Since the principal aim of this thesis is to test the efficiency of the VLS training course, the VLS questionnaire was distributed to all of the participants before and after the training programme. The rationale behind administrating VLSQ1 was to determine the current preferences and perceptions of the participants before instruction took place, whereas the VLSQ2 and VLSQ3 were used to examine the subsequent use and perception of the VLSs taught after the training was completed (as indicated in the previous chapter). Study 3 questionnaires included only the VLSs that were being taught in the training programme. Thus, the survey consisted of 26 items in total. For analysis, and for the sake of simplicity, the strategies were grouped under two broad categories: discovery strategies and consolidation strategies, in light of their process in vocabulary learning (see Table 3 in Chapter 2). The discovery section comprised 12 items whereas the consolidation section contained 14 statements. The previous chapter can be referred to for the questionnaire format and procedures (see Appendix 18 for S3’s whole questionnaire). For each item in this questionnaire, participants were firstly required to respond using a five-point Likert scale, ranging from 5 = always to 1 = never, to determine which VLSs they preferred. Then, for the same items, they were asked to respond using a four-point Likert scale to measure usefulness. The anchor points for this segment ranged from 4 = very useful to 1 = not useful, so as to indicate the perceived usefulness of the items. In this regard, it should be mentioned that while reporting on the results obtained, I faced a problem when making the comparisons, which was due to the use of different measuring scales, as mentioned above. However, to overcome this limitation, percentages were used where relevant so as to identify whether the gap between use and perceived usefulness has been bridged after the training programme or not. In other words, to find out whether the strategies that were perceived as more useful after the instruction were promoted/employed more often or not.

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During the analysis of Study 3 results, I followed almost the same method used in scoring S1 findings, using descriptive statistics in terms of frequencies (F), means (M), and standard deviations (SD) to present the obtained data. Due to wording constrains, mean and standard deviation only were mentioned here, with complete results included in Appendices 21 and 22. In these appendices, EG results were thoroughly presented as they were subjected to the VLST programme. Turning to the analysis procedures, a paired t-test and Pearson correlation were also used in order to check whether there were differences in preferences and perceptions before and after the training. As was the case with S1, in S3 the higher the mean value, the more often the strategy was promoted/employed/found useful, or vice versa. Data from VLSQ1, VLSQ2 and VLSQ3 was inputted into SPSS. The analysis of the quantitative data was divided into two sections and each section further divided into subsections as seen below. As indicated earlier, the results of the experimental groups will be presented, compared and discussed, followed by the control groups’ responses.

5.2.1 Results of questionnaire 1 (VLSQ1)

This section shows the responses of groups A and B to the VLSQ1. The overall results will be tabulated first followed by the outcomes of the individual strategies. Table 28 (below) presents the overall findings regarding the frequency of use/promotion of use of VLSs and perceptions of usefulness before the training programme.

Table 28: Overall averages in use and perceived usefulness in VLSQ1.

Group participants N Category of Frequency of Perceived VLSs use (1-5) usefulness (1-4) M SD % M SD % Experimental Teachers 4 Discovery 2.9 1.00 58 2.4 0.56 60 group (EG) Consolidation 2.0 0.58 40 2.2 0.45 55 Students 46 Discovery 2.9 0.51 58 2.7 0.20 68 Consolidation 2.8 0.50 56 2.5 0.28 63 Control Teachers 4 Discovery 2.7 0.72 54 2.6 0.36 65 group (CG) Consolidation 2.6 0.72 52 2.5 0.38 63 Students 50 Discovery 2.9 0.36 58 2.9 0.29 73 Consolidation 2.7 0.49 54 2.6 0.45 65

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The results in Table 28, in general, reveal the relatively moderate use/promotion of vocabulary learning strategies by both teachers and students, which supports the findings obtained from S1 (see Chapter 3 for further information). Concerning the frequency of use/encouraging the use of VLSs however, EG students and teachers, before strategy training, seemed to prefer using/encouraging the use of discovery strategies – these had an overall mean of 2.9, as shown in Table 28. Consolidation strategies came next in terms of promotion/utilisation with an overall mean value of 2.0 and 2.8 for teachers and students respectively. Based on the data obtained, it seems obvious that teachers’ encouragement of the use of the different VLSs is lower than their students’ employment of such strategies. Section 3.5.1 in chapter 3 provides some possible explanations for such a result. When the results of EG and CG were tested again by the use of an independent samples t-test, no statistically significant difference was found between EG teachers and CG teachers for promoting the use of discovery strategies t(22) = 0.499, p = 0.158, and consolidation strategies t(26) = - 2.256, p = 0.307. A similar observation holds true for EG and CG students’ employment of consolidation strategies t(22) = 0.297, p =0.912, and discovery strategies t(26) = 0.479, p = 0.769. In terms of perceived usefulness, the preliminary examination of the data revealed that the average means of the participating students in the discovery and consolidation strategies, which were 2.7 and 2.5 respectively, were also slightly higher than those of their teachers. This means that students consider some VLSs more beneficial for discovering and consolidating the meaning of unknown words than their tutors do. By looking at the mean values for all of the participants with regard to usefulness, one can see that most of them were lower than those for the frequency of use. An independent samples t-test generally did not show any statistically significant difference between the mean scores for EG and CG teachers for the discovery strategies’ usefulness t(22) = -1.033, p =0.155, and the consolidation strategies’ usefulness, t(26) = -1.360, p =0.755. Similarly, the differences between the mean scores for EG and CG students were not statistically significant for both discovery strategies usefulness t(22) = -1.265, p = 0.107 and consolidation strategies usefulness t(26) = 0.404, p =0.077. However, further analysis with the use of percentages

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(see section 5.2 for reasons for calculating proportion) revealed that teachers and students can see value in vocabulary learning strategies even though they do not use them, which is an interesting point. Here, one may ask what the logic is behind seeing value in things and not actually doing them. This is perhaps best attributed to human nature – like smokers who still smoke even though they know it is bad for their health.

Nevertheless, in order to provide a comprehensive picture of the whole pattern of preferences for and perceptions of vocabulary learning strategies before training, it is useful to present the participants’ responses to the individual strategies according to their categorisation. For the sake of practicality and space, teachers’ and students’ answers to each category will be outlined in tables, and I will begin by summarising the findings related to the frequency of use/encouragement of the use of VLSs, followed by their perceived usefulness outcomes.

5.2.1.1 VLSQ1: strategy use by experimental groups’ participants

Table 29 (next page) displays the participants’ preferences, prior to training, for the 26 strategies concerning discovery and consolidation categories. What should be borne in mind before proceeding with the analysis is that the pre- training data obtained in this study regarding the frequency of use of VLSs was almost identical to those obtained in Study 1. That is to say that most of the strategies that received high mean scores in S1 also ranked highly in S3 results, for example ‘to analyse parts of speech’ (S1 = 3.6; S3 = 3.5) and ‘to guess from textual context’ (S1 = 3.8; S3 = 4.5). The interpretations in this section will be kept somewhat brief since most of them have been made explicit in S1 in Chapter 3.

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Table 29: VLSQ1: VLSs promoted/used by EG participants

Discovery strategy Teachers Students M SD M SD 1. Analysing parts of speech (e.g., noun, verb) 3.5 1.29 2.8 1.19 2. Analysing affixes and roots (e.g. un-predict-able) 3.0 0.81 2.9 1.22 1.15 2.3 0.95 2.2 (الكحول -Checking for L1 cognate (e.g. Alcohol .3 4. Analysing any available pictures or gestures 4.0 0.81 3.1 1.36 5. Guessing from textual context 4.5 1.00 3.5 1.27 6. Using dictionaries 2.0 1.81 3.8 1.08 7. Using word lists 4.2 0.95 3.0 1.37 8. Using L1 translation 2.2 0.95 3.5 1.37 9. Paraphrasing the new words or giving synonyms 3.2 1.25 2.8 1.18 10. Giving sentences including the new word 2.7 0.95 2.5 0.96 13. Using flash cards 1.5 0.57 2.1 1.10 19. Using semantic maps 2.0 0.81 2.6 1.11

Consolidation strategies

11. Discovering the meaning through group work activity 2.2 0.95 2.4 1.27 12. Associating the word with its coordinates 3.2 1.25 2.9 1.26 14. Associating new words with their synonyms or antonyms 2.0 0.81 2.8 1.25 15. Using the keyword method 1.5 0.57 1.8 0.91 16. Repeating a word (i.e. aloud, in mind, by spelling it) 2.2 1.50 3.5 1.37 17. Using scales for gradable adjectives 2.9 0.95 2.6 1.07 18. Writing a word repeatedly 1.2 0.50 3.6 1.10 20. Placing new words in a group with other items based on 1.7 0.95 2.2 1.00 topic or function etc. 21. Imagining the written form of a word to remember it 1.7 0.95 3.3 1.17 22. Taking notes in class. 2.5 1.29 3.0 1.29 23. Grouping words together spatially on a page. 1.2 0.50 2.3 1.10 24. Learning words of an expression together as if they were 2.0 0.81 3.0 1.28 just one word. 25. Writing new words in vocabulary notebook. 2.2 1.25 2.7 1.21 26. Acting out or miming the new word. 2.0 0.81 2.8 1.10

Some discrepancies in terms of preferences between teachers and students can be noted. The teachers, for example, frequently promoted the use of half of the discovery strategies to their students, with the strategy of guessing from textual context coming at the top of the list (M = 4.5, SD = 0.81), not only in this category, but overall. This was followed by the strategy of word lists (M = 4.2), with the analysing any available pictures strategy in third place with a mean score of 4.0. The strategies of analysing parts of speech (item 1), paraphrasing (item 9) and analysing affixes (item 2) came in fourth, fifth and sixth places with mean values of 3.5, 3.2, and 3.0 respectively. In contrast, strategies relating to the use of L1 cognates (item 3), dictionaries (item 6), L1 translation (item 8), semantic maps (item 19), and giving sentences including

170 the new word (item 10) were the least encouraged, with the strategy of using flash cards (item 13) at the bottom in terms of preferences, with a mean score of 1.5. Apart from the mean achieved for item 7, which was 4.2, these results generally supported those obtained in Study 1. Although S1 outcomes revealed the infrequent use of the word list strategy (a compatible VTS), S3 showed quite the opposite. This however, may be attributed to the small number of teachers who participated in S3 compared to those in S1, or perhaps to the lack of teachers’ and students’ understanding and insight into what strategies they really use.

The participating students, on the other hand, seemed to frequently employ the strategies of guessing from context (item 5, M = 3.5), analysing available pictures (item 4, M = 3.1), and using word lists (item 7, M = 3.0). These results provide encouragement for teachers who believe in their importance and may ensure they keep up their use. Possible explanations for obtaining such results were made explicit in S1, Chapter 3. Students rely strongly on their first language (item 8, M = 3.5) and dictionaries for their vocabulary learning, with the latter being the most common strategy used amongst participating students (item 6, M = 3.8). Students seemed to disagree with their teachers regarding the use of such strategies, which is not surprising bearing in mind the gap between teachers and students in terms of proficiency level. The least commonly used discovery strategies on the other hand, were the strategies of giving sentences including the learned words (item 10, M = 2.5, SD = 0.96), checking for L1 cognates (item 3. M = 2.3, SD = 1.15), and using flash cards (item 13), which received the lowest mean value of 2.1. This means that this strategy was rarely used by the participants. Figure 4 (next page) better summarises the initial discovery strategies use by experimental group participants. One more thing to bear in mind is that correlations were also tested at the end of the quantitative data analysis section, so as to identify whether there was a correlation between the teachers’ and students’ opinions.

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5 4.5 4 3.5 3 2.5 2

Meanscores 1.5 1 0.5 0 Q1 Q2 Q3 Q4 Q5 Q6 Q7 Q8 Q9 Q10 Q13 Q19 Teachers 3.5 3 2.2 4 4.5 2 4.2 2.2 3.2 2.7 1.5 2 Students 2.8 2.9 2.3 3.1 3.5 3.8 3 3.5 2.8 2.5 2.1 2.6

Figure 4: Initial DIS strategies use by EG participants

As for the consolidation strategies, the overall mean of teachers’ scores in this category was 2.0, as indicated earlier, which means that teachers were less positive with regard to encouraging their students to use consolidation strategies. However, within this category, there is a certain degree of variety between the achieved means, as noted in Table 29 above. The pre-training survey, in general, shows that Libyan EFL teachers do not commonly favour promoting the use of this type of strategy. Among the 14 items allocated to this category, only one strategy, item 12 (to associate the word with its coordinates), was relatively highly rated (M = 3.2, SD = 1.25). The results presented in Table 29 (above) show that this finding might seem somewhat surprising, as apart from promoting the use of coordinates, no other word association strategies received a high rating. The literature, traditionally, has shown that this type of strategy and other sense relationships such as synonyms and antonyms can be illustrated with the use of semantic maps (Oxford, 1990; Schmitt, 1997). In this study, Libyan EFL teachers seem to promote the use of few associations and semantic grouping strategies and they regard them as less helpful as will be shown in the next observations. The results obtained concerning the above-mentioned item however, confirm those obtained in S1 (see Chapter 3 for further details). In general, Table 29 clearly shows that teachers before the training were low consolidation strategy promoters. Statement 17, to use scales for gradable adjectives, came second in terms of promotion with a mean score of 2.9, followed by the strategy of

172 taking notes in class (item 22), as the mean of 2.5 indicated. These ratings were low, but higher than the others in this category. The remaining items received lower ratings by respondents, especially those related to promoting the use of the keyword method (item 15, M = 1.5, SD = 0.57), writing words repeatedly (item 18, M = 1.2, SD = 0.50), and grouping words together spatially on one page (item 23, M = 1.2, SD = 0.50). This generally confirms the findings of Study 1.

Students’ usage of consolidation strategies, on the other hand, appeared to somewhat exceed their teachers’ reinforcement of such strategies, as shown in Table 29. Out of the 14 items relating to the consolidation category, five items - 18, 16, 21, 22 and 24, ranked higher than 3.0. Despite the fact that the overall average score of this category, which was 2.7, indicated a moderate use of such strategies, the individual results within this category revealed a low-to-high degree of employment. Broadly, Libyan EFL learners in the EG, as seen in Table 29, seemed to rely to a large degree on repetition methods, either written or verbal. Consolidation 18, for instance, to write a word repeatedly, was often utilised, as the mean of 3.6 shows. The second highest mean in the consolidation strategies was achieved by statement 16, to repeat a word aloud, in the mind or by spelling it, (M = 3.5, SD = 1.37), followed by imagery strategies (item 21, M = 3.3, SD = 1.17) in third place in terms of usage. Consolidation 22 and 24 came fourth in the implementation scale with a mean value of 3.0, which means that Libyan students often resort to taking notes in class and learning words of an expression together as if they were just one word. The strategy of associating the word with its coordinates (item 14), which was the only strategy that appeared to be highly preferred by teachers, came fifth in terms of usage with a mean score of 2.9. This was somewhat low, yet higher than the remaining consolidation strategies. Other consolidation strategies, as noted in Table 29, ranked from low, as in item 15 (M = 1.8), to moderate, as in items 14 and 26 (M = 2.8). The strategies least preferred by students were complicated ones that require deeper processing. Again, these results are similar to those revealed in Study 1. Chapter 3 can be referred to for detailed information and explanations. Figure 5 (next page)

173 clearly outlines the initial scores of 14 consolidation strategies across 8 teachers and 96 students. In this figure however, some kind of similarity can be noted between teachers’ and students’ results, which may indicate the existence of a correlation between the reported VLSs used and the compatible VTSs adopted.

4 3.5 3 2.5 2

1.5 Mean Mean scores 1 0.5 0 Q11 Q12 Q14 Q15 Q16 Q17 Q18 Q20 Q21 Q22 Q23 Q24 Q25 Q26 Teachers 2.2 3.2 2 1.5 2.2 2.9 1.2 1.7 1.7 2.5 1.2 2 2.2 2 Students 2.4 2.9 2.8 1.8 3.5 2.6 3.6 2.2 3.3 3 2.3 3 2.7 2.8

Figure 5: Initial CON strategies use by EG participants

In summary, Table 29 reveals that before the training, teachers and students had a preference for guessing strategies (item 5), analysing any available pictures (item 4), and using word lists (item 6). The participants seemed also to agree on the infrequent use/promotion of flash cards (item 13), L1 cognates (item 3), and semantic maps strategies (item 19). When the results were tested by the use of an independent samples t-test, there was a statistically significant difference between teachers’ promotion of use of discovery strategies and students’ utilisation of such strategies t(22) = 0.026, p = 0.016. However, the consolidation strategies showed no statistically significant difference t(26) = - 3.636, p = 0.730. Based on S1 outcomes, these results were perhaps rather predictable (see Appendix 21 for percentages and frequencies). However, for the purpose of comparing teachers’ and students’ preferences before and after the instruction, for the strategies being taught, the survey was undertaken again. Section 4.4 in Chapter 4 can be referred to for further details about the survey. In the consolidation category, the analysis of the data revealed that

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Libyan EFL learners are more in favour of using these types of strategies, even though their teachers do not usually encourage their use, which is not surprising. Students are expected to employ more techniques to reach their goal of successful learning.

5.2.1.2 VLSQ1: perceived usefulness by experimental groups’ participants

In the current survey, the participants were also asked to respond as to whether they thought the strategies sounded useful even if they did not use or know them. This was used to provide an overall view of strategy use and perceptions of individual strategy usefulness before the instruction. As the VLSs were presented for the third time to the participants (i.e. pilot study, S1, and S3) and each time they were free to ask questions if they did not understand any strategy, it appears that most of the participants now have an idea, no matter how limited, of how these strategies work. Similarly to the previous analysis, Appendix 22 provides the frequencies and percentages of each item in the questionnaire. Table 30 (next page) shows the teachers’ and students’ perceptions of the 26 VLSs.

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Table 30: VLSQ1: perceived usefulness of VLSs by EG participants

Discovery strategy Teachers Students M SD M SD 1. Analysing parts of speech (e.g., noun, verb) 3.0 0.81 2.8 1.02 2. Analysing affixes and roots (e.g. un-predict-able) 2.2 0.95 2.8 0.77 0.85 2.8 0.81 2.0 (الكحول -Checking for L1 cognate (e.g. Alcohol .3 4. Analysing any available pictures or gestures 3.0 0.81 2.5 1.00 5. Guessing from textual context 3.0 0.57 2.9 0.98 6. Using dictionaries 2.5 1.29 3.3 0.70 7. Using word lists 2.2 0.95 2.7 0.95 8. Using L1 translation 2.0 1.41 2.6 1.07 9. Paraphrasing the new words or giving synonyms 1.5 0.57 2.6 0.93 10. Giving sentences including the new word 3.0 1.15 2.8 0.90 13. Using flash cards 2.2 0.50 2.7 0.84 19. Using semantic maps 2.2 1.50 2.5 0.93

Consolidation strategies

11. Discovering the meaning through group work activity 2.2 0.50 2.3 1.04 12. Associating the word with its coordinates 2.7 0.95 2.7 1.07 14. Associating new words with their synonyms or antonyms 2.5 0.57 3.1 0.75 15. Using the keyword method 1.7 0.95 2.4 1.02 16. Repeating a word (i.e. aloud, in mind, by spelling it) 2.2 0.95 2.9 1.04 17. Using scales for gradable adjectives 2.2 0.50 2.4 1.04 18. Writing a word repeatedly 2.2 1.50 2.9 0.82 20. Placing new words in a group with other items based on 2.5 1.29 2.3 1.13 topic or function etc. 21. Imagining the written form of a word to remember it 2.2 0.50 2.4 1.02 22. Taking notes in class. 3.2 0.95 2.8 0.85 23. Grouping words together spatially on a page. 1.7 0.95 2.1 0.90 24. Learning words of an expression together as if they were 2.2 0.50 2.5 1.11 just one word. 25. Writing new words in vocabulary notebook. 3.0 0.81 2.5 0.98 26. Acting out or miming the new word. 1.7 0.95 2.6 1.07

From Table 30 we can see that three out of the six discovery strategies that teachers very often promoted the use of were also considered beneficial. The three most highly encouraged discovery strategies were: item 1 ‘analysing parts of speech’, item 4 ‘analysing any available pictures’, and item 5 ‘guessing from textual context’ with a mean score of 3.0, which means that teachers do not only encourage the use of such discovery strategies in their teaching practices, but also believe in their potential helpfulness. In contrast, although the strategy of word lists (item 7) received a high rating by teachers in terms of promotion (M = 4.2; 84%), its helpfulness rating stood at only 2.2 (55%), which means that teachers do not see this strategy as useful, despite the fact that they promote its use frequently. Likewise, the usefulness of analysing

176 affixes and roots (item 2), and paraphrasing (item 9) was also rated low by the participating teachers, with mean values of 2.2 (55%) and 1.5 (38%) respectively. These low ratings for strategies that were reported by the participants to be frequently promoted shows that teachers cannot necessarily see any utility in some of the strategies that they currently encourage (see Figure 6). This in turn justifies the strategy training provided, by which teachers could notice and explore these techniques, and invest in them to bridge the gap between their preferences and perceptions of helpfulness. Such instruction helps teachers to identify strategies that can and cannot work with their students, and to be aware of their potential utility. Item 10, ‘giving sentences including the new words’, was also perceived as helpful with a mean score of 3.0 (75%), which is inconsistent with its frequency of use/promotion (54%) as shown in the Figure below. This shows that although teachers rarely promote the use of this kind of discovery strategy, they strongly believe in its helpfulness. This result matches that observed in Schmitt’s study (1997). With the exception of the mean scores achieved by the above- mentioned strategies, none of the other items differed to any great extent. The remaining strategies were perceived to be relatively less helpful as indicated by the low mean score achieved for promoting the use of L1 cognates (item 3, M = 2.0; 50%) and paraphrasing (item 9, M = 1.5; 38%) strategies, which turned out to be the least effective ones.

100%

80%

60%

40%

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Usefulness Use

Figure 6: Initial DIS strategies promotion and perceptions of usefulness by EG teachers.

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Unlike their teachers, students before the training thought that all the discovery strategies that they already used were useful, but they did not always use them. By comparing the percentages of the ‘most used’ list with the ‘most useful’ one, we can see a great discrepancy between the frequency of use and the perceived usefulness. It was interesting to find that of the 12 discovery strategies, there was only one strategy, L1 translation (item 8), where the usefulness score was slightly lower than that of usage (frequency of use 70%; perceived usefulness 65%). However, these percentage scores seem to be close and thus it still suggests that Libyan EFL students often resort to their mother tongue in their vocabulary learning, and that they find it advantageous. This finding further supports those obtained by Schmitt (1997) and Fan (2003). The achieved percentages for usefulness for other strategies reported to be very frequently used in this category were all above 60%. The use of a language dictionary (item 6), for example, was among the strategies that ranked highly in both frequency of use and usefulness (frequency of use 76%; perceived helpfulness 83%), which means that they do consider the use of languages dictionaries as profitable in their vocabulary learning. This appears to be the case with the other three discovery strategies reported to be very often used by the participating students (items 4, 5, and 7). These items received high scores in both usefulness (63%, 73%, and 68%, respectively) and usage (62%, 70%, and 60%, respectively). Students here seem to utilise the strategies that they believe to be helpful, which is perhaps not surprising. This finding generally matches those observed in Schmitt’s (1997) study. Figure 7 (next page) summarises the above discussion.

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Usefulness Use

Figure 7: Initial CON strategies’ use and perceived usefulness by EG students

On the whole, EG students were generally positive towards the efficiency of all discovery strategies, with no strategy below 63%, as shown in Figure 5 below. When comparing helpfulness with promotion of use results among EG teachers, in contrast, we can see that almost all discovery strategies were ranked lower in perceived helpfulness than in frequency of promoting their use, which might be interpreted as teachers knowing some discovery strategies but not being completely satisfied with their potential utility. Although these findings contradict Fan’s earlier works (1999; 2000), in which he acknowledged the existence of a positive correlation between learners’ beliefs and their strategy employment, they broadly support his later view that language learners may or may not realise the value of the strategies they often use (Fan, 2003). To clarify further, the participating teachers, as Figure 6 (above) depicts, reported preferring to encourage the use of ‘word lists’ strategy more than they did other sorts of discovery strategies, but did not consider it more efficient in vocabulary learning/teaching than the use of ‘semantic mapping’, and vice versa. Therefore, strategy training would be worthwhile to encourage teachers and students to deepen their knowledge of strategy use and thus see the relevance of employing more strategies that may enrich their vocabulary learning repertoire. Figure 8 (next page) shows EG teachers’ and students’ mean scores with regard to the perceived usefulness of discovery strategies.

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3.5 3 2.5 2 1.5

Meanscore 1 0.5 0 Q1 Q2 Q3 Q4 Q5 Q6 Q7 Q8 Q9 Q10 Q13 Q19 Teachers 3 2.2 2 3 3 2.5 2.2 2 1.5 3 2.2 2.2 Students 2.8 2.8 2.8 2.5 2.9 3.3 2.7 2.6 2.6 2.8 2.7 2.5

Figure 8: Initial DIS strategies perceived usefulness by EG participants

With regard to the teachers’ and students’ prior assumptions, before training took place, concerning the helpfulness of the consolidation strategies, the second part of Table 30 clearly illustrates them. In this regard, it is perhaps wise to assume that most of the participants’ responses with regard to the usefulness of VLSs might be considered as an unwillingness to appear uninformed. That is to say, teachers and students have perhaps not considered the utility of VLSs, but do not want to seem like they have not, which in turn could possibly inflate their rating of potential helpfulness.

Turning to the table, on average, there were discrepancies between the mean score for frequency of promotion/use and perceptions of helpfulness of consolidation strategies. Amongst the teachers for example, almost all the mean scores, as well as percentages (see Figure 6 below), for helpfulness were higher than those for the frequency of promotion, with note taking strategies (items 22 and 25) selected as the most useful, as the proportion scores of 80% and 75% respectively indicate. Although these items ranked low in terms of promoting their utilisation, they appeared to capture the first two places in terms of perceived usefulness by the same participants. This might mean that although Libyan EFL teachers express hesitancy in encouraging their students to take notes in class, they seem to agree over its helpfulness in consolidating the meaning of learned words. A possible

180 explanation for their hesitation might be that, to quote Pavič ić Takač (2008: 82), these strategies are ‘time-consuming and strenuous, and learners need to be constantly encouraged not to give up and to understand its advantages.’

Encouraging the use of scales for gradable adjectives (item 17), in contrast, was perceived as moderately valuable despite the fact that it was the second most commonly preferred strategy by the participants (frequency of promotion 3.2/58%; perceived helpfulness 2.7/55%). These results, again, contradict those of Fan (1999; 2000b cited in Fan 2003), who claimed that the more the strategies were valued, the more often they would be utilised. Apart from items 15 and 23, the remaining achieved mean scores in this category were rather impressive. That is to say that the average scores for usefulness of many of the individual consolidation strategies ranged from medium, as in items 11, 16, 17, 18, 21 and 24 (M = 2.2/ 55%), to high, as in item 25 (M = 3.0/ 75%). This would suggest that Libyan EFL teachers before the training were generally negative towards the use of some consolidation strategies, but did consider them efficient (see previous explanation).

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Usefulness Use

Figure 9: Initial CON strategies’ promotion and perceptions of usefulness by EG teachers.

Regarding the students’ perceived usefulness for consolidation strategies, we can see from the analysis that the students had a preference for utilising

181 such strategies and they agree about their efficiency. All consolidation items received relatively high percentages reached to 78%, as in strategy 14 (to associate words with their synonyms or antonyms). These ratings in general score highly when compared to those achieved for their frequency of use (see Figure 7 below). Schmitt (1997) showed that the majority of Japanese learners agree on the usefulness of studying synonyms and antonyms although they do not currently use them, which appears to be similar to this case in the present study. One other strategy perceived as useful was the use of repetition methods, either verbal (item 16) or written (item 18). The mean score here was 2.9 (73%), making it the second most helpful consolidation strategy in terms of overall average. Other consolidation strategies were also perceived as helpful from the students’ perspective, as shown by high percentages. Interestingly, students reported using the consolidation strategies from a low- to-moderate extent but they perceive them as very useful. This result is in agreement with Schmitt’s (1997) findings, which showed that students can see benefit in strategies that they do not currently employ. The low percentages obtained can perhaps be attributed to their insufficient knowledge concerning the use and value of such strategies. Such a claim is clearly supported by the data obtained. Take items 15 (to use the keyword method), 20 and 23 (to use grouping strategies), for example, which received the lowest mean scores in both frequency of use and perceived helpfulness (Figure 10, next page), showing that the participants were generally negative towards the strategies they had never heard of nor used. Bearing this in mind, strategy training could be fruitful in enhancing learners’ understanding of the various VLSs that they either use or do not use, and assisting them to choose strategies appropriate to different tasks.

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Usefulness Use

Figure 10: Initial CON strategies’ use and perceived usefulness by EG students

To conclude, before the training programme, vocabulary learning strategies were generally neither very frequently used/promoted nor considered as effective, which is clearly evident by looking at the averages of the two categories, i.e. discovery and consolidation strategies, presented in Table 28. On the categorical basis however, Libyan EFL teachers and students reported promoting/using more discovery strategies and finding them more profitable than consolidation strategies, with a slight increase from the learners’ side as the analysis indicated. A similar argument holds true for the individual strategies, since the percentage scores for usefulness in each category were generally higher than those of promotion/usage. On the individual strategy level, we can also see that teachers’ and students’ perceptions were different. Teachers, for example, had a preference for six discovery strategies (i.e. analysing parts of speech, guessing from context, analysing available pictures, analysing affixes, word list, and paraphrasing), and one consolidation strategy (to use coordinates). From the teachers’ point of view, only the former three discovery strategies can be considered as efficient for vocabulary learning, whereas with the consolidation category, note taking was believed to be more useful than the use of coordinates, which teachers reported encouraging the use of very often. Students, on the other hand, seemed also to value the use of word lists, analysing available pictures, and guessing strategies, finding the latter very helpful as a discovery strategy. The participating students appeared

183 to favour two more discovery strategies, those being the use of language dictionaries, and L1 translation, with the former deemed to be the most helpful in this category, as discussed above. As for the consolidation category, students valued five strategies (e.g. repetition, imagery, and note taking), but they did not feel them useful enough for studying and practising vocabulary, whereas they believed in the utility of studying synonyms and antonyms in consolidating the meaning of learned words but rarely utilised them. Just as was the case with S1, Appendices 28 and 29 list the VLSs that were used most and those considered useful by the participants as a whole before the VLST programme. Figure 11 (below) compares the mean scores achieved by EG participants with regard to the usefulness of consolidation strategies.

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0 Q11 Q12 Q14 Q15 Q16 Q17 Q18 Q20 Q21 Q22 Q23 Q24 Q25 Q26 Teachers 2.2 2.7 2.5 1.7 2.2 2.2 2.2 2.5 2.2 3.2 1.7 2.2 3 1.7 Students 2.3 2.7 3.1 2.4 2.9 2.4 2.9 2.3 2.4 2.8 2.1 2.5 2.5 2.6

Figure 11: Initial CON strategies’ perceived usefulness by EG participants

A correlational analysis between teachers’ and students’ results was applied, as we will see later, to identify whether there is a relationship between the participants’ views. Having provided an overall picture of the EGs’ preferences and perceptions of vocabulary learning strategies before the training programme, I will move on to discuss the results obtained from the CG participants.

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5.2.1.3 VLSQ1: strategy use by control groups’ participants

In order to answer S3's question, more focus will be laid on the experimental groups’ results since they were subjected to strategy instruction. Control groups were also assigned to the current study to allow for comparisons of the impact of teaching VLSs, thus increasing the reliability of measuring the effectiveness of the training programme. Bearing this, and wording constraints in mind, the results of the control groups will briefly be outlined. Table 31 (below) shows the initial VLSs survey of the control groups.

Table 31: VLSQ1: VLSs promoted/used by CG participants

Discovery strategy Teachers Students M SD M SD 1. Analysing parts of speech (e.g., noun, verb) 4.0 1.41 2.8 1.32 2. Analysing affixes and roots (e.g. un-predict-able) 3.0 1.63 3.1 1.27 1.22 2.3 1.29 2.5 (الكحول -Checking for L1 cognate (e.g. Alcohol .3 4. Analysing any available pictures or gestures 2.7 0.95 3.1 1.41 5. Guessing from textual context 3.5 1.29 3.1 1.29 6. Using dictionaries 2.2 0.95 3.3 1.28 7. Using word lists 3.7 1.50 3.1 1.29 8. Using L1 translation 2.7 0.95 3.2 1.51 9. Paraphrasing the new words or giving synonyms 2.5 0.57 3.1 1.32 10. Giving sentences including the new word 2.7 0.95 2.7 1.05 13. Using flash cards 1.7 0.95 2.3 1.25 19. Using semantic maps 1.7 0.95 2.4 1.16

Consolidation strategies

11. Discovering the meaning through group work activity 2.0 0.81 2.3 1.33 12. Associating the word with its coordinates 2.0 1.41 2.5 0.97 14. Associating new words with their synonyms or 3.7 1.89 2.3 1.30 antonyms 15. Using the keyword method 1.7 0.95 2.0 1.21 16. Repeating a word (i.e. aloud, in mind, by spelling it) 3.2 1.25 3.5 1.35 17. Using scales for gradable adjectives 2.2 1.25 2.4 1.09 18. Writing a word repeatedly 2.7 1.70 3.5 1.24 20. Placing new words in a group with other items 1.7 1.50 2.2 1.27 based on topic or function etc. 21. Imagining the written form of a word to remember it 2.7 1.70 3.2 1.27 22. Taking notes in class. 4.0 1.41 3.0 1.49 23. Grouping words together spatially on a page. 2.0 1.41 2.3 1.02 24. Learning words of an expression together as if they 2.5 0.57 2.8 1.38 were just one word. 25. Writing new words in vocabulary notebook. 3.2 1.70 3.0 1.42 26. Acting out or miming the new word. 2.7 0.95 2.6 1.33

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Table 31 reveals that the use of discovery strategy 1 ‘analysing parts of speech’ was the most frequently promoted amongst teachers in the control groups (M = 4.0, SD =1.41) followed by discovery strategy 7, ‘the use of word lists’ (M = 3.7, SD = 1.50). Strategies 5 (to guess from textual context) and 2 (to analyse affixes and roots) were the third and fourth most actively encouraged by teachers in their practices, as the mean scores of 3.5 and 3.0 respectively indicate. Teachers in both groups seemed to agree on encouraging the use of the discovery category, although the discovery strategies that were highly loaded by the teachers in the experimental groups outnumbered those by their colleagues in the control groups. However, apart from the above, other mean scores gained by control group teachers in this category were less than impressive. They ranked from low, as in items 13 and 19 (M = 1.7), to moderate, as in items 4, 8 and 10 (M = 2.7).

The discrepancy between the teachers and students’ adoption of discovery strategies is clearly shown in Table 31. Although the overall average scores of teachers’ and students’ promotion/employment of this category were similar (2.7 and 2.9 respectively, as Table 28 on page 167 indicates), the individual strategies that were highly ranked by learners outnumbered those that were promoted by their teachers. This however, confirms the findings of 5.2.1.1. Control group students prior to instruction actively used more than half the discovery strategies, with strategy 6 (to use a language dictionary) and strategy 8 (to use L1 translation) being the most used strategies, as the mean scores of 3.3 and 3.2 respectively indicate. The other strategies that had mean scores higher than 3.0 for frequency of use were items 2, 4, 5, 7, and 9 (M = 3.1). The use of these particular strategies seemed to be shared amongst students in both groups (EG and CG), although the scores of some discovery strategies in the former group were much higher than the ones achieved by the latter. For example, the mean score achieved on the use of dictionaries (item 6) by the experimental groups, of 3.8, was much higher than in the control groups (M = 3.1). A similar argument holds true for strategy 5 (to guess from textual context) and strategy 8 (to use L1 translation). Students also seemed to resort to the strategies of ‘analysing parts of speech’ (item 1, M = 2.8, SD =

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1.32) and ‘giving sentences including the learned words’ (item 10, M = 2.7, SD = 1.05), to a medium extent. The obtained values of the remaining items, i.e. ‘checking for cognates’ (item 3), ‘using flash cards’ (item 13), and ‘using semantic maps’ (item 19), were not significant. As indicated earlier, such strategies involve deeper cognitive processing and thus students may find them difficult to employ (Schmitt, 1997). Figure 12 (below) better summarises the aforementioned results.

4.5 4 3.5 3 2.5 2

1.5 Meanscores 1 0.5 0 Q1 Q2 Q3 Q4 Q5 Q6 Q7 Q8 Q9 Q10 Q13 Q19 Teachers 4 3 2.5 2.7 3.5 2.2 3.7 2.7 2.5 2.7 1.7 1.7 Students 2.8 3.1 2.3 3.1 3.1 3.3 3.1 3.2 3.1 2.7 2.3 2.4

Figure 12: Initial DIS strategies’ results by CG participants The use of consolidation strategies was also not promoted very frequently by CG teachers, as the overall average of 2.5 (see Table 28 on page 167) indicates. Out of the 14 statements in this category, just four items were relatively highly rated. The strategies with a mean exceeding 3.0 were: making associations (item 14), repetition (item 16), and note taking (items 25 and 22), with the latter being the most preferred amongst teachers in the control groups (item 22, M = 4.0, SD = 1.41). This was followed by association strategies and repetition strategies in second and third place in terms of promotion, with mean values of 3.7 and 3.2 respectively. Strategies 18 (to write a word repeatedly), 21 (to imagine the written form of a word), and 26 (to mime the new word) ranked in the middle in terms of promotion, as their mean scores of 2.7 indicate. The rest of the strategies in this category received low mean scores, especially those related to placing new words in a group based on topic or function (item 20) and encouraging the use of the keyword method (item 15).

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Compared to their colleagues in the EGs, CG teachers generally encouraged the use of consolidation strategies in their teaching practices, as the overall mean suggests.

CG students, on the other hand, seemed to moderately use consolidation strategies in their vocabulary learning, as Table 28 on page 167 demonstrates. As the results show, there was a difference between teacher and student preferences for such strategies, but in total both agreed on the use of repetition methods (item 16) and note taking strategies (items 22 and 25). Mechanical repetitions had the highest score from students (items 16 and 18, M = 3.5) due to ease of utilisation, which in turn supports the aforementioned argument that the higher the level of L2 knowledge, the higher the use of complex strategies (Pavič ić Takač , 2008). Learners in the current study were year 1 and 2, which may justify the results obtained in this area. The strategy of imagining the written form of the word came second in terms of employment (M = 3.2) followed by note taking strategies in third place (item 22 and 25) with a mean score of 3.0. Other strategies ranged from low, as in item 15 (the keyword method, M = 2.0), to moderate, as in item 24 (to learn words of an expression together, M = 2.8). Figure 13 (below) summarises the results concerning the use of consolidation strategies by CG participants.

4.5 4 3.5 3 2.5 2

Meanscores 1.5 1 0.5 0 Q11 Q12 Q14 Q15 Q16 Q17 Q18 Q20 Q21 Q22 Q23 Q24 Q25 Q26 Teachers 2 2 3.7 1.7 3.2 2.2 2.7 1.7 2.7 4 2 2.5 3.2 2.7 Students 2.3 2.5 2.3 2 3.5 2.4 3.5 2.2 3.2 3 2.3 2.8 3 2.6

Figure 13: Initial CON strategies use by CG participants

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5.2.1.4 VLSQ1: perceived usefulness by control groups’ participants

Table 32 (below) depicts the initial results of VLSs’ perceived usefulness by CG participants. The use/promotion of use of the 26 VLSs was generally perceived as moderately useful by participants, although the overall average scores of students were slightly higher than the ones achieved by their teachers, as Table 28 on page 167 indicates.

Table 32: VLSQ1: perceived usefulness by CG participants

Discovery strategy Teachers Students M SD M SD 1. Analysing parts of speech (e.g., noun, verb) 2.5 1.29 2.7 1.10 2. Analysing affixes and roots (e.g. un-predict-able) 3.2 0.95 2.9 0.99 0.86 2.8 0.95 2.2 (الكحول -Checking for L1 cognate (e.g. Alcohol .3 4. Analysing any available pictures or gestures 2.7 0.95 3.2 1.04 5. Guessing from textual context 3.0 0.81 3.1 1.01 6. Using dictionaries 2.2 0.95 3.4 1.03 7. Using word lists 2.5 1.29 2.6 1.08 8. Using L1 translation 3.0 0.81 3.2 1.05 9. Paraphrasing the new words or giving synonyms 2.0 0.81 3.0 1.06 10. Giving sentences including the new word 2.7 1.25 2.6 1.03 13. Using flash cards 2.5 1.29 2.5 1.12 19. Using semantic maps 2.5 0.57 2.6 0.85

Consolidation strategies

11. Discovering the meaning through group work activity 2.5 1.25 2.7 1.12 12. Associating the word with its coordinates 3.0 1.15 2.7 1.10 14. Associating new words with their synonyms or antonyms 3.0 0.81 2.5 0.99 15. Using the keyword method 2.0 0.81 2.1 1.02 16. Repeating a word (i.e. aloud, in mind, by spelling it) 2.5 1.29 3.4 0.88 17. Using scales for gradable adjectives 2.0 1.15 2.0 0.92 18. Writing a word repeatedly 2.7 1.25 3.1 1.03 20. Placing new words in a group with other items based on 2.2 1.25 2.2 1.03 topic or function etc. 21. Imagining the written form of a word to remember it 3.0 0.81 2.5 1.01 22. Taking notes in class. 2.7 0.95 3.3 0.86 23. Grouping words together spatially on a page. 2.0 0.81 2.4 1.08 24. Learning words of an expression together as if they were 2.7 0.95 2.4 1.01 just one word. 25. Writing new words in vocabulary notebook. 2.7 1.25 3.1 1.11 26. Acting out or miming the new word. 2.2 1.25 2.3 1.08

In the case of the teachers, the percentage scores of many of the discovery strategies fell under 54%, as Figure 14 (p. 190) indicates. Only three strategies, item 2 (to study affixes and roots), item 5 (to guess from context),

189 and item 8 (to use L1 translation), were perceived as being very efficient, with the former (80%) being the most useful from the teachers’ point of view. Although CG teachers encourage the use of strategy 8 in their teaching practices to a medium extent, they believe strongly in its utility (frequency of promotion 2.7/54%; perceived usefulness 3.0/75%). Bearing these mean/percentage values in mind, the opinions of the teachers’ in the control groups seem to contradict those of their colleagues’ in the experimental groups. By comparing the most promoted strategies with the most useful ones, we can clearly see that the CG teachers seem to undervalue the efficiency of studying parts of speech (item 1) and word lists (item 7) although they very frequently encourage their utilisation in their vocabulary teaching (Figure 14 next page). This generally refers to a teacher-centred approach that controls the entire process of language learning in many EFL contexts. One possible explanation for the aforementioned results however, may be a lack of teacher awareness of other strategies. The use of the compatible VTS word lists, for example, could be very useful if newly learned words were enriched by semantic maps or were being utilised in sentences (Schmitt, 1997). The strategies of studying any available pictures (item 4) and giving sentences including the learned words (item 10) were moderately valued by the teachers, as their mean score of 2.7 (68%) indicates. The result is consistent with their frequency of promotion as discussed earlier. Teachers agreed that the usefulness of the remaining discovery strategies was low, with the promotion of the use of paraphrasing strategies being seen as least useful (M = 2.0/50%).

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90% 80% 70% 60% 50% 40% 30%

20% 10% 0%

Use Usefulness

Figure 14: Initial DIS strategies’ use and perceived usefulness by CG teachers

CG students valued the use of all the discovery strategies, with the strategy of dictionary use turning out to be the most useful in this category, as the mean score of 3.4 (85%) indicates. This strategy was followed by item 4 (to analyse any available pictures), and item 8 (to use the mother tongue) with percentage scores of 80%. The strategy of guessing from context (item 5, M = 3.1/78%) ranked third in terms of perceived helpfulness, closely followed by item 9 (paraphrasing strategies, M = 3.0/75%). The strategies coded Q1, Q2, Q3, Q7, Q10, Q13 and Q19 were in middle positions in terms of perceived usefulness, with no average score coming below 63%. All discovery items, except two (items 3 and 7), were almost congruent in their usage and utility. This may indicate that students generally have positive opinions about the use and usefulness of these types of strategies. CG students also reported high usage of the word list strategy (item 7) with a low degree of satisfaction, as shown in Figure 15 (next page). Students here seemed to copy some of their teachers’ VTSs into their vocabulary learning strategies even though they did not find them useful, which is an interesting finding. Bearing this in mind, Pavič ić Takač (2008) suggested that promoting teachers’ awareness of the different VLSs available, and the ones that are used by their students, could strengthen the link between teaching and learning strategies and thus allow teachers to adapt

191 their teaching methods to meet their students’ needs. Figure 15 clearly depicts all the mean scores achieved by the participants.

90% 80% 70% 60% 50% 40% 30% 20% 10% 0%

Use Usefulness

Figure 15: Initial DIS strategies’ use and perceived usefulness by CG students.

Within the consolidation category, ‘to associate new words with their synonyms or antonyms’ (item 14), ‘to repeat a word verbally’ (item 16), and ‘to write words in vocabulary notebook’ (item 26) seemed to be the only strategies that CG teachers agreed on regarding their adoption and usefulness, as shown in Figure 16, next page. It is notable that almost all the most promoted strategies in this category were perceived as not useful for practising and learning vocabulary. CG teachers, for instance, reported encouraging the use of note taking strategies (item 22), but do not consider them valuable (see sections 5.2.1.2 and 5.3.1.1.3 for a possible explanation). In contrast, they believe in the potential helpfulness of studying coordinates (item 12, M = 3.0/75%) although they seldom encourage their use in their teaching practices (40%). These findings may imply that teachers’ awareness of the different VLSs available needs to be developed so as to bridge the gap between frequency of promotion and perceptions of usefulness. In the current study, it was my intention to stimulate teachers and provide them with opportunities to adopt and apply compatible vocabulary teaching strategies that would cater to their students’ needs.

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90% 80% 70% 60% 50% 40% 30% 20% 10% 0%

Use Usefulness

Figure 16: Initial CON strategies’ promotion and perceptions of usefulness by CG teachers.

The means scores achieved by CG students regarding the perceived usefulness of some consolidation strategies were also not high, with only two strategies considered as being useful. The strategies that scored above 75% were repetition strategies (items 16 and 18) and note taking strategies (items 22 and 25). These findings however, are in agreement with those obtained by Schmitt (1997), who partially attributed this to the study system encouraged by EFL schools, in which students are required to remember English grammar and vocabulary via repetition or taking notes in class. Table 32 (p. 188), again, clearly shows that strategies that require more active manipulation of information, as in items 15, 17, and 20, were not only avoided by Libyan EFL learners but were also not considered useful in learning and practising vocabulary. Perhaps students did not know about such strategies and thus reported that they are not efficient. That is why it seems essential to conduct strategy training to provide students with opportunities to practise new vocabulary learning strategies and to see whether there is any difference in terms of use and perceived usefulness before and after training.

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90% 80% 70% 60% 50% 40% 30% 20% 10% 0%

Use Usefulness

Figure 17: Initial CON strategies’ use and perceived usefulness by CG students.

All in all, CG participants prior to strategy instruction seemed to promote/use and consider VLSs useful to a medium extent, as the overall averages in Table 28, on page 167 indicate. Like EG participants, CG participants prior to the treatment reported preferring discovery strategies and believing in their helpfulness more than they did that of consolidation strategies. With individual strategies, teachers and students appeared to have different opinions concerning the use and usefulness of some VLSs, as shown above. As opposed to their teachers, CG students viewed almost all the strategies that scored highly in terms of use as also being valuable in acquiring vocabulary, as the earlier analysis discussed. Once again, the dominating strategies that enjoyed a high degree of usage and were perceived as most useful from the CG students’ point of view, were the use of dictionaries, L1 translation, repetitions methods, guessing from context, note taking strategies, and word formation analysis strategies.

Finally, a correlational analysis was conducted to investigate whether there is a relationship between teachers’ and students’ adoption/perceived usefulness of VLSs. The results of the Pearson’s correlation show no significant correlation between the scores of the students and those of the teachers in terms of VLSs adoption and perceived usefulness. Indeed these results further support the idea that students’ preferences for VLSs are

194 independent of their teachers’ compatible VTSs (Pavič ić Takač , 2008). Further statistical tests (i.e., paired-sample t-test), discussed in the upcoming sections, showed a statistically significant difference between the pre- and post-training results, which in turn supports the supposition that the current research built on. However, a positive correlation was only found between CG teachers’ and students’ adoption of consolidation strategies (r = .558), as illustrated in the table below. This result is interesting, bearing in mind that CG students did not receive any strategy training, but is insufficient to form the basis for any final conclusions.

Table 33: Results of a Pearson correlation coefficient calculation between teachers’ and students’ responses

Variables Participants Type of Pearson Sig. (2- strategies correlation tailed) EG DIS .343 .275 VLSs CON .101 .731 adoption CG DIS .443 .149 CON .558* .038 EG DIS .245 .442 VLSs CON .379 .182 usefulness CG DIS .330 .294 CON .506 .065 * Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed)

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5.3 Strategy training programme

As discussed in S2, the training programme was carried out in two main stages. Teachers were targeted in the first phase and students were then trained in the second stage (see S2 in Chapter 4, section 4.4 for more details about the design of the training programme). Each stage went through three phases: pre-, during-, and post-implementation. The VLS questionnaire was used in the former stage so as to elicit the participants’ preferences and perceptions of the selected vocabulary learning strategies before training took place. The during-implementation phase, was based on the five steps of the instructional model of Chamot and O’Malley’s (1994) Cognitive Academic Language Learning Approach, which involves: preparation, presentation, practice, evaluation, and expansion. See sections 4.4.1 and 4.4.2 in the previous chapter for further information about how the CALLA steps were adapted in the current study.

The teachers’ instruction lasted for ten days (20 hours in total, approximately two hours per day). Both the experimental and control group teachers attended the training sessions, which were carried out by the researcher. I explained the aim and procedures of the training programme at the very beginning. Each session focused on different elements, and the teachers received handouts that explained the target strategies accompanied by some exercises. Session four, for example, was devoted to three discovery strategies - L1 cognates, word lists, and flash cards. This session, as usual, began by revising the strategies discussed in the previous session. Once the discussion was over, handouts relating to the first strategy, i.e. L1 cognates (Appendix 19), were distributed and teachers were asked to read through them. After that I asked teachers if they had ever used or promoted the use of such a strategy in their teaching practices. Teachers were free to share their thoughts with each other, and speak in Arabic if they wanted to do so. In the presentation phase, I explained the strategy and engaged teachers in some tasks. Initially, some teachers struggled to find Arabic/English cognates, which was expected due to the fact that the languages differ markedly from one another. However,

196 latterly and with some assistance, teachers succeeded in producing their own examples. Once the first strategy was clarified and practised, handouts of the second strategy (i.e. flash cards) were distributed and similar procedures (as above) were followed.

Figure 18: A sample of flash cards presented in the lesson

The cards involved words, pictures, examples, word formations, or mind maps printed on both sides. I divided teachers to groups of four and spread the cards face up on the middle of each table. Then I asked questions and teachers either to respond by saying the word, giving examples, collocations, or creating mind maps. Slides were also used in the presentation phase to assure full understanding of the strategies introduced. The teachers were interested and enthusiastic throughout the course and there was not any resentment, which may be due to the variety of activities and learning devices implemented. A similar observation holds true for the participating students. Although the participating students had no idea about their teachers’ training, they notice a positive change in the teaching methods followed by their teachers, which was good, according to some student interviewees, to break

197 up the classroom routine. The following is a sample of the slides used in the instruction.

Figure 19: A sample of slides used in the VLST programme.

Appendix 20, however, provides a sample of the sessions conducted. In some sessions, the teachers received additional training on how to plan for strategy instruction within a certain period, in which milestones of how to prepare, present, practise, and integrate strategic intervention were provided. Appendix 25 represents a sample lesson plan for one of the teachers’ training sessions. The strategies covered in the training programme were 26 deep and shallow strategies from Schmitt’s (1997) taxonomy. Sections 4.3 and 4.4.1 in Chapter 4 discuss these strategies and provide reasons for adopting Schmitt’s (1997) classification of VLSs. As indicated in the aforesaid chapter, the strategies were selected based on S1 results. Table 26 in the former chapter highlights the VLSs that have been focused on in this study. At the end of ten days training, only EG teachers were allowed to provide strategy instruction to their classes, whereas CG teachers were asked to follow their regular lessons. I made unexpected observations of CG teachers to ensure that they actually followed the instructions as agreed. The rationale behind this was to find out whether following strategy training with practice and integration into a normal classroom situation would have any impact on the use of VLSs in the long run. The current literature however, does not provide much information about strategy training from the language teachers’ perspective, their opinions on

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VLSs, or their implementation during regular classes. Therefore, the present study aims to obtain as much information as possible in this area. During the training programme, the participating teachers acquired basic knowledge of VLSs and understood the discrepancy between vocabulary teaching strategies and vocabulary learning strategies. Then, they were directed to expand their knowledge further by integrating what they had learned into their classrooms. With my guidance, the trainee teachers carried out the second stage of the training programme, the students’ training phase. This phase lasted for ten weeks (27 hours in total, each session scheduled for 20 minutes of strategy training). The training sessions were fitted into the normal teaching timetable and the materials used were those set by the university. That is to say, the participating teachers selected the target words from their students’ material and tried to choose and use the strategies that they thought would be suitable for learning and retaining them. During this phase, I did not intervene in the training process of the participating students. The teachers were required to plan for strategy instruction, activate learners’ background knowledge, and explain, model, and practise the strategies targeted. S2 in the previous chapter thoroughly discusses the VLST programme design, the participants’ roles and the procedures followed.

The post-implementation phase involved two stages: the post-VLS survey and the delayed VLS survey. The latter survey was conducted three months after the former so as to determine the extent to which the participants had benefitted from the conducted programme in the course of time and to identify the changes that had emerged in terms of use and perceived usefulness of taught strategies. Had the participants’ awareness of the VLSs presented increased or decreased during this time? And had the training yield the expected results? All these questions will be discussed along with the main research question stated at the outset of this chapter.

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5.3.1 Results of questionnaire 2 (VLSQ2)

At the end of the student training phase, the participants (teachers and students) were asked to fill in the same VLS questionnaire that they had completed prior to the instructional programme being conducted. Again, the mean and standard deviation were used as indicators for the central tendency. For the sake of clarity, both pre- and post-survey results were presented in a combined manner so that the difference in the means and standard deviation could be noted easily. The next part compares the pre- and post-training questionnaire results (i.e., VLSQ1 and VLSQ2), which are further divided into two sections: the training’s influence on the frequency of strategy promotion/use, and the training’s influence on the perceived usefulness of the VLST programme.

5.3.1.1 Effects on frequency of promotion/use of VLSs

This section will discuss the effects of the training programme on frequency of promotion/use of VLSs. The results obtained from the participants of the experimental group will be discussed first, followed by the control group outcomes. Therefore, discussing CG results, even briefly, may reveal some insights into the impact of VLS teachability.

❖ The effects on frequency of promotion/use of VLSs on EG participants

In order to determine whether any significant changes occurred in participants’ reported adoption of VLSs after the strategy training, the initial and post mean scores are presented and compared in Table 34 next page:

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Table 34: VLSQ1 and VLSQ2 results in frequency of use/promotion of VLSs: Experimental Groups

Teachers Students

Discovery strategy VLSQ1 VLSQ2 VLSQ1 VLSQ2 (Pre) (Post) (Pre) (Post) M (SD) M (SD) M (SD) M (SD) 1. Analysing parts of speech 3.5 (1.29) 3.3 (0.96) 2.8 (1.19) 3.0 (1.33) 2. Analysing affixes and roots 3.0 (0.81) 3.0 (0.82) 2.9 (1.22) 3.1 (1.26) 3. Checking for L1 cognate 2.2 (0.95) 2.8 (1.26) 2.3 (1.15) 2.9 (1.36) 4. Analysing any available pictures 4.0 (0.81) 3.8 (0.96) 3.1 (1.36) 3.0 (1.47) 5. Guessing from textual context 4.5 (1.00) 4.8 (0.50) 3.5 (1.27) 3.7 (1.22) 6. Using dictionaries 2.0 (1.81) 2.8 (0.96) 3.8 (1.08) 3.9 (1.19) 7. Using word lists 4.2 (0.95) 4.8 (0.50) 3.0 (1.37) 2.9 (1.48) 8. Using L1 translation 2.2 (0.95) 2.8 (1.26) 3.5 (1.37) 3.4 (1.50) 9. Paraphrasing the new words 3.2 (1.25) 3.0 (0.82) 2.8 (1.18) 2.7 (1.44) meaning 10. Giving sentences including the new 2.7 (0.95) 2.5 (1.29) 2.5 (0.96) 3.1 (1.42) word 13. Using flash cards 1.5 (0.57) 2.0 (0.82) 2.1 (1.10) 2.8 (1.35) 19. Using semantic maps 2.0 (0.81) 2.8 (1.71) 2.6 (1.11) 2.9 (1.30) Overall mean 2.9 3.2 2.9 3.1 Consolidation strategies

11. Discovering the meaning through 2.2 (0.95) 2.8 (0.50) 2.4 (1.27) 2.7 (1.34) group work activity 12. Associating the word with its 3.2 (1.25) 3.5 (1.29) 2.9 (1.26) 3.0 (1.39) coordinates 14. Associating new words with their 2.0 (0.81) 3.0 (1.41) 2.8 (1.25) 3.2 (1.21) synonyms or antonyms 15. Using the keyword method 1.5 (0.57) 2.8 (0.96) 1.8 (0.91) 2.1 (1.14) 16. Repeating a word (i.e. aloud, in 2.2 (1.50) 3.0 (1.83) 3.5 (1.37) 3.7 (1.19) mind, by spelling it) 17. Using scales for gradable adjectives 2.9 (0.95) 2.5 (1.29) 2.6 (1.07) 2.8 (1.11) 18. Writing a word repeatedly 1.2 (0.50) 2.8 (0.96) 3.6 (1.10) 3.5 (1.07) 20. Placing new words in a group with 1.7 (0.95) 2.5 (1.29) 2.2 (1.00) 1.6 (0.80) other items based on topic or function etc. 21. Imagining the written form of a word 1.7 (0.95) 2.5 (8.58) 3.3 (1.17) 3.5 (1.24) 22. Taking notes in class. 2.5 (1.29) 3.0 (1.83) 3.0 (1.29) 3.3 (1.45) 23. Grouping words together spatially 1.2 (0.50) 1.5 (1.00) 2.3 (1.10) 2.5 (1.15) on a page. 24. Learning words of an expression 2.0 (0.81) 2.5 (1.73) 3.0 (1.28) 3.2 (1.17) together as if they were just one word. 25. Writing new words in vocabulary 2.2 (1.25) 2.8 (0.96) 2.7 (1.21( 3.1 (1.30) notebook. 26. Acting out or miming the new word. 2.0 (0.81) 2.5 (1.29) 2.8 (1.10) 3.0 (1.24) Overall mean 2.0 2.7 2.8 2.9

The data shown in Table 34 demonstrate that the participants’ general use/promotion of use for both discovery and consolidation strategies increased by the end of the semester. The teachers’ overall score for the

201 discovery strategies rose by 0.3, from 2.9 to 3.2, and by 0.7 for the consolidation strategies (pre 2.0; post 2.7). A paired t-test comparing the teachers’ initial questionnaire (i.e., VLSQ1) scores with the final ones (i.e., VLSQ2), showed that there was a significant difference between teachers’ scores for the discovery strategies VLSQ1 (M = 2.9, SD = 0.97) and VLSQ2 (M = 3.2, SD = 0.86); t(11) = -2.364, p = 0.038. A similar observation holds true for the consolidation strategies VLSQ1 (M = 0.2, SD = 0.57) and VLSQ2 (M = 2.0, SD = 0.44); t(13) = -5.175, p = 0.00. Almost all the discovery strategies that scored low prior to implementing the strategy instruction showed a noticeable increase in their mean scores, amounting to an increase of 0.6 and 0.8 by the end of the training programme. The strategies of using cognates (item 3), dictionaries (item 6), L1 translation (item 8), and semantic maps all received mean scores close to 3.0, which indicates that the training succeeded in altering the teachers’ adoption of these strategies in their teaching practices. Promoting the use of the word list strategy captured the second highest mean value prior to the training (i.e. 4.2) and also received a significant rise, amounting to an increase of 0.6, to be ranked first in terms of promotion along with the strategy of guessing from textual context (item 5, +0.3). In accordance with the results obtained from the initial questionnaire, amongst all the discovery strategies, the encouraging the use of guessing strategy took first place, while the ‘flash cards’ strategy (item 13) took last. However, considering the previous mean score achieved for promoting the use of flash cards, its final mean (i.e. 2.5, +0.5) was much improved. In contrast, the final value of other discovery strategies that were reported to be more frequently promoted before the training, such as items 1, 4, and 9 dropped by 0.2 after the training, which is somewhat disappointing. However, despite this slight decrease, the mean scores of the aforementioned strategies were still relatively high and they were amongst the most frequently promoted strategies by the participating teachers. Item 2 (to analyse affixes and roots), on the other hand, was the only discovery strategy that stayed the same as before the training (pre 3.0; post 3.0), which may indicate that the training failed to change the teachers’ general promotion of this strategy. All in all, although the reported progress overall was rather small, as indicated previously, the general promotion level for using the

202 discovery strategies changed from medium-to-high, which is an encouraging sign.

The overall mean for consolidation strategies also saw a general increase amounting to 0.6, and thus altered the teachers’ general promotion of this category to a moderate level (pre 2.0; post 2.6). Discrepancies were also found within the mean scores attained by the individual strategies within this category. The biggest increase noticed amounted to 1.6 (item 18, written repetition), followed by strategy 15 (the keyword method, +1.3), and then strategy 14 (to associate the word with its synonyms or antonyms, +1.0). Interestingly, the mean score of the latter strategy was greatly increased to rank highly in terms of promotion (pre 2.0; post 3.0), whereas the two other strategies ranked in the moderate level. This suggests that training in raising teachers’ awareness and developing their strategy application is efficient, and thus, the time spent in training teachers was worthwhile. It seems clear that there was a positive effect, not only on the surface strategies that do not involve complicated steps, such as the use of rote memorisation and word lists, but also on the deeper strategies, such as forming associations and the keyword method.

Other consolidation strategies whose mean scores improved significantly after conducting the training include strategies 16, 20 and 21; their increase amounted to 0.8. Apart from item 17 (to use scales for gradable adjectives) which decreased by 0.4, all the remaining consolidation strategies showed progress in terms of promotion/application, which is a positive sign. Some strategies rose considerably, such as strategies 16, 20, and 21, while others improved slightly, as in items 12 and 23 (+0.3), but in general all these changes resulted in altering the extent to which the use of those strategies was being promoted. For example, the strategy of miming the learned words (item 26) was amongst the least encouraged strategies before the training programme, with an average of 2.0. Its final value rose to the moderate range (post 2.5). Though this score did not reach 3.0, the progress made is much more

203 impressive than before (+0.5). Figures 20 and 21 clearly explain the above- mentioned results.

6 4 3.5 5 3 4 2.5 3 2 1.5 2 1 1 0.5

0 0

Prior Post Prior Post

Figure 20: EG teachers’ prior and post Figure 21: EG teachers’ prior and post results in frequency of use of CON results in frequency of use of DIS strategies strategies

As for the participating students, the overall average for the use of discovery strategies also witnessed a general increase amounting to 0.2. Such an increase is far from impressive, but when tested again by the use of the paired t-test, a significant difference was noticed between students’ scores for VLSQ1 (M = 2.9, SD = 0.50) and VLSQ2 (M = 3.1, SD = 0.36); t(11) = -2.457, p = 0.032. Prior to conducting the training programme, some discovery strategies were used to a low or medium extent (e.g. 13 and 19), but after the instruction there were no low ranks, and moreover, most of those strategies that achieved moderate averages improved to around 3.0, which is an encouraging sign. This means that the training was effective and the EG students made progress in terms of strategy use. These results provide further support for the hypothesis that VLSs can be taught and that students’ awareness and knowledge of such strategies can be enhanced as a result of strategy training. However, there were cases where the application of discovery strategies decreased by 0.1 (items 4, 7, 8 and 9), although they are still amongst the most preferred strategies, as table 34 indicates.

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As for the means achieved by EG students regarding the use of consolidation strategies (Table 34 on page 201), one can observe a considerable improvement in terms of strategy employment. However, although the mean scores of individual consolidation strategies were higher than those obtained initially, the overall usage of consolidation strategies still falls in the middle in terms of strategy application (pre 2.8; post 2.9). Although the reported increase was not that big (only 0.1 point), a significant increase was found between VLSQ1 (M = 2.77, SD = 0.50) and VLSQ2 (M = 2.94, SD = 0.57) results; (t(13) = -2.430, p = 0.030), which in turn suggests that the training succeeded in changing the students’ general use of this type of strategy. However, it would be useful here to discuss the results achieved by individual strategies so as to find out the general trends as regards strategy application. Apart from item 20 (to place new words in groups based on the topic or function etc.), all the consolidation strategies showed an increase in their mean scores. The biggest rise amounted to 0.4 (items 14 and 25). The reported high use of strategies 14 and 15 was represented by scores of 2.8 and 2.7 respectively before the training, while the final scores were around 3.2 after the strategy instruction. This, in turn, means that the training did have some positive impact on the students’ general use of these strategies, moving them from medium strategy users (pre) to high strategy users (post). Similar findings were revealed regarding items 12 (+0.1) and 26 (+0.2). Although the increase in these two strategies appears small, it altered general strategy use from medium to high. The remaining consolidation strategies also increased either by 0.3 points as in items 11, 15, 22, or by 0.2 points as in statements 16, 17, 21, 23, and 24. The reported increase for the individual strategies in this category is a positive sign, though it was considerably lower compared to that achieved with the discovery strategies. This may explain the small increase in the overall value gained from the whole consolidation category. The following figures (i.e., 22 and 23, next page) better outline the aforesaid results concerning prior and post consolidation strategies utilisation.

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4 4.5 3.5 4 3 3.5 2.5 3 2 2.5 2 1.5 1.5 1 1 0.5 0.5 0 0

Prior Post Prior Post

Figure 22: EG students’ prior and post results Figure 23: EG students’ prior and post in frequency of use of DIS strategies results in frequency of use of CON strategies

Having discussed the impact of strategy training on EG participants’ reported use/promotion of use of VLSs, the next section will present the CG participants’ post-training results.

❖ The effects on frequency of use of VLSs on CG participants

As indicated previously, the control group teachers, who were also enrolled in the training sessions, were asked to follow the conventional way of teaching vocabulary without consciousness raising or discussing any strategies. The rationale behind this was to see whether accompanying the strategy instruction with real practice in regular classrooms would have any impact on teachers’ and students’ application/promotion and perceptions of usefulness of VLSs in the long run, which, in turn, would answer the primary research question of this study, stated at the outset of the current chapter. CG teachers were periodically visited in their classes to ensure that they followed the instruction as agreed.

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Table 35: VLSQ1 and VLSQ2 results in frequency of use/promotion of VLSs: Control Groups

Teachers Students

Discovery strategy VLSQ1 VLSQ2 VLSQ1 VLSQ2 (Pre) (Post) (Pre) (Post) M (SD) M (SD) M (SD) M (SD) 1. Analysing parts of speech 4.0 (1.41) 4.3 (0.96) 2.8 (1.32) 3.0 (1.35) 2. Analysing affixes and roots 3.0 (1.63) 3.5 (0.58) 3.1 (1.27) 2.9 (1.30) 3. Checking for L1 cognate 2.5 (1.29) 1.5 (0.58) 2.3 (1.22) 2.5 (1.28) 4. Analysing any available pictures 2.7 (0.95) 3.0 (1.63) 3.1 (1.41) 2.8 (1.33) 5. Guessing from textual context 3.5 (1.29) 4.3 (0.50) 3.1 (1.29) 3.0 (1.39) 6. Using dictionaries 2.2 (0.95) 1.8 (0.96) 3.3 (1.28) 3.6 (1.30) 7. Using word lists 3.7 (1.50) 4.0 (1.41) 3.1 (1.29) 3.0 (1.34) 8. Using L1 translation 2.7 (0.95) 4.0 (0.82) 3.2 (1.51) 3.5 (1.37) 9. Paraphrasing the new words meaning 2.5 (0.57) 2.8 (1.26) 3.1 (1.32) 2.8 (1.22) 10. Giving sentences including the new 2.7 (0.95) 2.3 (0.96) 2.7 (1.05) 2.6 (1.28) word 13. Using flash cards 1.7 (0.95) 1.3 (0.50) 2.3 (1.25) 2.0 (1.10) 19. Using semantic maps 1.7 (0.95) 1.8 (0.96) 2.4 (1.16) 2.1 (1.11) Overall mean 2.7 2.9 2.9 2.8 Consolidation strategies

11. Discovering the meaning through group 2.0 (0.81) 2.5 (0.50) 2.3 (1.33) 2.5 (1.16) work activity 12. Associating the word with its 2.0 (1.41) 2.3 (0.43) 2.5 (0.97( 2.1 (1.11) coordinates 14. Associating new words with their 3.7 (1.89) 3.0 (0.71) 2.3 (1.30) 2.6 (1.36) synonyms or antonyms 15. Using the keyword method 1.7 (0.95) 1.8 (0.83) 2.0 (1.21) 2.3 (1.14) 16. Repeating a word (i.e. aloud, in mind, by 3.2 (1.25) 3.8 (1.09) 3.5 (1.35) 3.8 (1.09) spelling it) 17. Using scales for gradable adjectives 2.2 (1.25) 2.5 (0.87) 2.4 (1.09) 2.3 (1.04) 18. Writing a word repeatedly 2.7 (1.70) 3.0 (1.22) 3.5 (1.24) 3.7 (1.13) 20. Placing new words in a group with other 1.7 (1.50) 1.5 (0.50) 2.2 (1.27) 2.0 (1.05) items based on topic or function etc. 21. Imagining the written form of a word 2.7 (1.70) 3.0 (0.71) 3.2 (1.27) 3.5 (1.42) 22. Taking notes in class. 4.0 (1.41) 4.3 (0.83) 3.0 (1.49) 3.4 (1.32) 23. Grouping words together spatially on a 2.0 (1.41) 1.5 (0.50) 2.3 (1.02) 2.1 (1.04) page. 24. Learning words of an expression 2.5 (0.57) 3.3 (0.83) 2.8 (1.38) 3.1 (1.21) together as if they were just one word. 25. Writing new words in vocabulary 3.2 (1.70) 3.5 (1.12) 3.0 (1.42) 3.3 (1.25) notebook. 26. Acting out or miming the new word. 2.7 (0.95) 3.0 (1.41) 2.6 (1.33) 2.8 (1.32) Overall mean 2.6 2.8 2.7 2.8

Like the EG participants, CG teachers and students were asked to fill in the post-training questionnaire at the end of the programme. Although CG teachers were not allowed to discuss any VLSs with their students, they had to keep an eye on the strategies that they normally promoted and felt were compatible with their vocabulary teaching strategies. Teachers during the training sessions reported that they do implicitly model some compatible VLSs

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(e.g., using synonyms, antonyms, and word lists) in their vocabulary teaching, but in a subconscious way. Therefore, they were asked to pay attention for such strategies. It seems obvious that when teachers knew more about the different VLSs, their utilisation, and functions, they became more conscious of the strategies they adopted in their teaching, and were thus able to provide more definitive answers than before. That is say, when the participating teachers fully understood the strategy of ‘using L1 cognates’ (item 3), its post- training mean dropped to 1.5 points. The follow-up interviews revealed some reasoning behind such a decline. When teachers were asked about the possibility of using the aforementioned as a vocabulary teaching method, more than half commented on the difficulty of finding Arabic/English associations, and thus the fact that it would consume more time and effort in planning and preparation. Although this view was also encoded by EG teachers, they admitted that their students enjoyed using the method and found it beneficial in remembering and retaining the learned words, which is corroborated by the post-mean scores achieved (see Table 35) and the researcher's observations. After having training, and compared to their initial thoughts, CG teachers seemed to realise that they very rarely promote using the strategies of ‘including new words into sentences’ (item 10), ‘using flash cards’ (item 13), and ‘asking students to check the meaning of a word in a dictionary’ (item 6). In contrast, they noticed that the use of the strategies coded 1, 5, 2, 4, 7, and 8 were frequently promoted to their students in their teaching practices, with the former two strategies (to analyse parts of speech and to guess from textual context) being at the top of the list. It seems apparent that cognitive strategies focusing on word formations and including repetition, either verbal or written, are prevalent. These findings are perhaps rather predictable since there are some strategies (e.g. to use L1 translation, word lists, and rote memorising) that can be considered the core of VLSs due to their globality and applicability for various learning contexts (Pavič ić Takač , 2008).

As for consolidation strategies, most of the post-mean scores were close to those initially attained. The consolidation strategies that were reported to be very frequently promoted by CG teachers prior to the training (i.e. items 14,

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16, 18, 21, 22, 25, and 26) were still predominant. Other strategies with low initial mean scores (e.g. the keyword method and grouping words spatially on a page) also maintained low values. Though informative, quantitative data does not provide much detail, so with qualitative data one can assume that some VLSs were not well known to Libyan EFL teachers and students, and thus were rarely, if ever, adopted. This however, fits well with the data obtained from S1 (see Chapter 3), as when asked about VLSs at the very beginning of this research, few strategies were identified. Interestingly, the strategy of studying idiomatic expressions together (item 24) received a big rise amounting to 0.8 points, to be ranked 4th in terms of use. This may indicate that the training programme made teachers more aware of the strategies that they spontaneously promote the use of, which seems positive in terms of raising teachers’ awareness of their strategic profile. Figures 24 and 25 illustrate the pre- and post- mean scores reported by EG teachers regarding the use of VLSs.

5 5 4.5 4.5 4 4 3.5 3.5 3 3 2.5 2.5 2 2 1.5 1.5 1 1 0.5 0.5 0 0

Prior Post Prior Post

Figure 24: CG teachers’ prior and post results Figure 25: CG teachers’ prior and post in frequency of promoting the use of DIS results in frequency of promoting use of strategies CON stra tegies

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Finally, with CG teachers, the paired t-test generally showed no significant difference for either discovery strategies (t(11) = -0.795, p = 0.443) or consolidation strategies (t(13) = -1.775, p = 0.099). These results are rather expected bearing in mind that CG teachers were asked to follow their normal lessons without any strategy teaching, as indicated previously. This strongly suggests that teachers did follow my instructions not to vary their usual practice - i.e., teachers did not ‘accidentally’ teach different VLSs, and thereby inadvertently affect the results of the study.

As for CG students, the results from Table 35 (p. 205) revealed that the discovery strategies most used by students were items 1 (to study word formation), 5 (to guess from textual context), 6 (to use language dictionaries), 7 (to study word lists), and 8 (to use L1 translation), with dictionary use remaining the most used VLS, with its final mean value increasing by 0.3 points (pre-use 3.3; post-use 3.6). Notably, all the post-training results attained regarding the use of discovery strategies were close to those achieved initially. This suggests that without strategy instruction there would not be any difference in VLSs use. Compared with before, and even though there were some ups and downs in mean scores achieved, in general the strategies that ranked highly in the initial survey remained high, and those scored that low (e.g. the use of flash cards, and semantic maps) were still low by the end of the semester. This in turn explains the overall mean score obtained for the discovery category, which was very close to that achieved in the initial survey (pre 2.9; post 2.8). Also, as might be expected, the paired t-test results of the aforementioned means showed that there was no statistically significant difference for the discovery strategies (t(11) = 0.832, p = 0.423).

A similar observation holds true for the consolidation category. Although the general use of these type of strategies increased by 0.1 points, from 2.7 to 2.8, the final score still falls in the moderate use range with no statistically significant difference found (t(13) = -2.032, p = 0.063). The strategies that enjoyed a high degree of use were ‘repetition’ (items 16 and 18), ‘note taking’ (items 22 and 25), ‘imagining the written form of a word’ (item 21), and

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‘studying the words of an expression as a whole’ (item 24). In fact, a few strategies made a small amount of progress in their mean scores, but in general the strategies that were reported to be very often employed in the initial survey were still predominantly used, and those requiring deeper processing, such as item 15 (to use the keyword method) and item 23 (to group words together spatially on a page) were underutilised. Bearing this in mind, it could be concluded that without strategy training, CG students still mainly utilised the same vocabulary learning strategies as before. This, in turn, shows that the training was valuable. From Table 35, however, it is interesting to note that most of the consolidation strategies that were reported to be very frequently used by CG students were also mentioned by their teachers as the most promoted ones. This result may indicate that students choose their VLSs based on the VTSs employed by their teachers, which contradicts Pavič ić Takač ’s (2008) study findings. Figures 26 and 27 demonstrate CG students’ prior and after-training results with regards to frequency of use of VLSs.

4 4 3.5 3.5 3 3 2.5 2.5 2 2 1.5 1.5 1 1 0.5 0.5 0 0

Prior Post Prior Post

Figure 26: CG students’ prior and post results Figure 27: CG students’ prior and post in frequency of use of DIS strategies results in frequency of use of CON strategies

As far as the participants’ prior and post use/promotion of VLSs are considered, we will move on to discuss the influence on perceived helpfulness so as to understand whether the training led to any changes in perceptions of usefulness of the strategies introduced.

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5.3.1.2 Effects on perceived usefulness of VLSs

❖ The effects on perceived usefulness of VLSs on EG participants Table 36 (below) presents the individual means of pre- and post-strategy use/promotion with regards to their perceived helpfulness so as to understand for which strategies an increase occurred.

Table 36: VLSQ1 and VLSQ2 results in perceived usefulness of VLSs: Experimental Groups

Teachers Students

Discovery strategy VLSQ1 VLSQ2 VLSQ1 VLSQ2 (Pre) (Post) (Pre) (Post) M (SD) M (SD) M (SD) M (SD) 1. Analysing parts of speech 3.0 (0.81) 3.3 (0.96) 2.8 (1.02) 3.6 (0.75) 2. Analysing affixes and roots 2.2 (0.95) 3.0 (0.82) 2.8 (0.77) 3.3 (0.84) 3. Checking for L1 cognate 2.0 (0.81) 3.5 (0.58) 2.8 (0.85) 3.5 (0.75) 4. Analysing any available pictures 3.0 (0.81) 3.0 (0.82) 2.5 (1.00) 3.0 (0.92) 5. Guessing from textual context 3.0 (0.57) 3.8 (0.50) 2.9 (0.98) 3.2 (0.85) 6. Using dictionaries 2.5 (1.29) 3.3 (0.50) 3.3 (0.70) 3.8 (0.60) 7. Using word lists 2.2 (0.95) 3.0 (1.41) 2.7 (0.95) 2.9 (1.07) 8. Using L1 translation 2.0 (1.41) 2.8 (0.50) 2.6 (1.07) 3.3 (0.83) 9. Paraphrasing the new words meaning 1.5 (0.57) 2.8 (1.26) 2.6 (0.93) 3.2 (0.90) 10. Giving sentences including the new word 3.0 (1.15) 3.3 (0.50) 2.8 (0.90) 3.0 (1.18) 13. Using flash cards 2.2 (0.50) 2.8 (1.26) 2.7 (0.84) 2.6 (1.11) 19. Using semantic maps 2.2 (1.50) 3.5 (0.58) 2.5 (0.93) 3.1 (1.03) Overall mean 2.4 3.1 2.7 3.2 Consolidation strategies

11. Discovering the meaning through group 2.2 (0.50) 3.0 (0.82) 2.3 (1.04) 2.7 (0.98) work activity 12. Associating the word with its coordinates 2.7 (0.95) 3.3 (0.96) 2.7 (1.07) 3.0 (0.99) 14. Associating new words with their synonyms 2.5 (0.57) 3.8 (0.50) 3.1 (0.75) 3.3 (0.88) or antonyms 15. Using the keyword method 1.7 (0.95) 3.0 (0.82) 2.4 (1.02) 2.9 (0.90) 16. Repeating a word (i.e. aloud, in mind, by 2.2 (0.95) 3.3 (0.96) 2.9 (1.04) 3.0 (1.07) spelling it) 17. Using scales for gradable adjectives 2.2 (0.50) 2.5 (1.00) 2.4 (1.04) 2.5 (1.01) 18. Writing a word repeatedly 2.2 (1.50) 3.5 (1.00) 2.9 (0.82) 3.0 (0.99) 20. Placing new words in a group with other 2.5 (1.29) 2.3 (0.50) 2.3 (1.13) 2.7 (1.06) items based on topic or function etc. 21. Imagining the written form of a word 2.2 (0.50) 3.0 (0.82) 2.4 (1.02) 3.1 (1.00) 22. Taking notes in class. 3.2 (0.95) 3.8 (0.50) 2.8 (0.85) 3.2 (0.89) 23. Grouping words together spatially on a 1.7 (0.95) 2.3 (0.96) 2.1 (0.90) 2.2 (1.00) page. 24. Learning words of an expression together 2.2 (0.50) 2.8 (0.50) 2.5 (1.11) 2.9 (0.98) as if they were just one word. 25. Writing new words in vocabulary notebook. 3.0 (0.81) 2.8 (0.96) 2.5 (0.98) 3.1 (1.02) 26. Acting out or miming the new word. 1.7 (0.95) 2.5 (1.29) 2.6 (1.07) 3.1 (0.86) Overall mean 2.2 3.0 2.5 2.9

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The results in Table 36 also reveal positive changes in the overall values of perceived usefulness, with EG teachers making considerable progress compared to their students. Compared with before, the final means achieved by EG teachers as regards the usefulness of discovery strategies and consolidation strategies stood at 3.1 and 3.0 respectively, which represents a 0.7 and 0.8 increase over the initial survey. When these scores were further checked by the paired sample t-test, a significant difference was found, i.e. discovery strategies (t(11) = -6.055, p = 0.00) and consolidation strategies t(13) = -5.318, p = 0.00), which suggests that the training was useful in raising teachers’ awareness of VLSs. EG students’ perceived usefulness of the aforementioned strategies improved by 0.5 points for the discovery category and 0.4 points for the consolidation category. Even though this increase is somewhat small, it is a good sign (discovery, t(11) = -6.084, p = 0.00; consolidation, t(13) = -6.450, p = 0.00).

The means achieved by the EG participants regarding individual strategies were also rather encouraging. EG teachers, for example, perceived all 12 discovery strategies as useful (M ≥ 3.0), compared to 5 strategies initially. It seems clear that after the strategy training, none of the discovery strategies were considered as not being useful (see Table 36). This suggests that strategy training had a positive effect in altering teachers’ perceptions regarding the utility of encouraging the use of VLSs in their teaching practices. The biggest increase noticed in this category amounted to 1.5 points (item 3, to check for L1 cognates), followed by 1.3 points for items 9 (to paraphrase a word’s meaning) and 19 (to use semantic maps), whereas the smallest rise amounted to 0.3 point for items 1 and 10, which is also considered remarkable progress. The only strategy where the mean value stayed exactly the same throughout the training programme was discovery strategy 4 (to analyse any available pictures, M= 3.0). Although the training succeeded in boosting the teachers’ application of strategy 4, its perceived helpfulness score remained steady to parallel its promotion in the final survey. Teachers, as will be discussed next in the qualitative data analysis section, see this method as time-consuming and not always possible, as some words are abstract and

213 cannot be presented in pictures. Besides, and as already mentioned in section 5.2, a four-point Likert scale was used to measure the participants’ perceived helpfulness of VLSs compared to the five-point scale that was employed with frequency of use, which may explain the results obtained. That is to say that although the mean values for the promotion/use of some discovery strategies in the final survey are still higher than in usefulness (e.g. item 5, post-use 4.8; post-usefulness 3.8, and item 7 post-use 4.8; post-usefulness 3.0), they can generally be considered as congruent. Roughly speaking, with these strategies (i.e. items 5 and 7), the mean scores in terms of usefulness increased by 0.8, which may imply that the training programme succeeded in bridging the gap between preferences and perceptions of usefulness of these discovery strategies, which is a rather promising result.

As for the consolidation category, EG teachers also made positive changes in terms of perceived usefulness. When comparing the initial questionnaire results with those of the post-, it seems obvious that all of the final rates of consolidation strategies, except for two (items 20 and 25), improved, with their increase ranging from 0.6 (items 12, 22,23 and 24) to 1.3 points (item 14 and 15). An improvement in the mean values reflects greater perceived usefulness of the strategies taught amongst the participating teachers, this being one of the desired goals of the conducted programme. However, there were a few consolidation strategies (items 20 and 25) that showed a slight drop in average amounting to 0.2 points. Although the reported decrease is rather small, it affected the rank orders of the strategies. Before the training, the strategy of ‘writing new words in a vocabulary notebook’ (item 25), for example, was ranked second in terms of usefulness with a mean score of 3.0, but fell later to fourth place as the mean of 2.8 indicates. The decrease in perceived usefulness could be attributed to the fact that helping students to keep a well- organised vocabulary notebook requires teachers’ constant encouragement, guidance, and regular checks, or marking and correcting the information noted (Pavič ić Takač , 2008), which in turn demands more strenuous effort and is thus time-consuming, as some teachers commented in the interviews. A similar argument holds true for item 20 (to place new words in a group with

214 other items based on topic or function etc.). However, as was the case in the discovery category, the progress made in usefulness of consolidation strategies is much more impressive when compared to the initial survey, which reflects the positive effect of the training on the reported perceptions of usefulness. Figures 28 and 29 (below) depict the EG teachers’ perceived helpfulness of strategies before and after conducting the training.

4 4 3.5 3.5 3 3 2.5 2.5 2 2 1.5 1.5 1 1 0.5 0.5 0 0

Prior Post Prior Post

Figure 29: EG teachers’ prior and post Figure 28: EG teachers’ prior and post results results in usefulness of CON strategies in usefulness of DIS strategies

With regard to EG students, the overall mean percentage for both categories of VLSs also had a remarkable rise from 2.7 to 3.2 (+0.5) for discovery strategies and from 2.5 to 2.9 (+0.4) for consolidation strategies. Such results are indicative of the fact that the ten-week strategy instruction had a beneficial influence on the students’ perceived usefulness of VLSs. For the former category, all of the post-mean scores were noticeably higher than those initially. The biggest improvement amounted to an increase of 0.8 (item 1, to analyse parts of speech). The mean score achieved for this strategy was 3.6 and was much higher than previously, i.e. 2.8, to put it second by rank in usefulness after the strategy of ‘using language dictionaries’ (item 6, +0.5). The other mean scores obtained also appeared higher than those in the initial questionnaire, with their increase ranging from 0.2 points, as in items 7 and 10, to 0.7 points, as in items 3 and 8. The only discovery strategy that showed a slight decline, amounting to 0.1, was item 13 (use of flash cards). Apart from

215 this, there were no other cases of decreases in perceived usefulness, which indicates that EG students’ belief in the utility of discovery strategies was promoted further after learning more about and practising such strategies. Another possible explanation for this might be that the students might have been trying to reflect what they perceived as my (the researcher’s) intention - people sometimes say what they think you want to hear or what they would like you to believe (Cameron, 2001).

As for the consolidation strategies, compared with before, all mean scores showed improvement; some of them were high in usefulness while others were low. The strategies that reported a greater rise were strategy 21 (to imagine the written for of a word, +0.7) and strategy 25 (to write new words in vocabulary notebooks, +0.6), whereas those which showed a slight increase (0.1) were items 16, 17, and 18. After the training programme, and like their teachers, EG students were more convinced about the helpfulness of using vocabulary notebooks as it captured fourth place in terms of use and usefulness as well. It seems obvious that when students learned how to properly deal with vocabulary notebooks, their potential value rose, and this in turn, indicates that the explicit strategy training led to changes in use and perceived usefulness of some VLSs. These changes though, seem to affect the rank order of some strategies. That is to say that prior to conducting the training, the mean score of only one consolidation strategy (item 14) exceeded 3.0 in usefulness, but after the treatment, strategies 21, 22, 25 and 26 were listed among the most useful strategies, with item 14 (associating words with synonyms or antonyms) still being at the top of the list with a mean score of 3.3.

In contrast, the participating students still do not find any utility in grouping words together spatially on a page (item 23) in their vocabulary learning. Even though the mean value of this strategy did slightly increase by 0.1, it fell into the low range category in terms of usefulness (pre 2.1; post 2.2). When comparing the post-use of this consolidation strategy with its post-perceived usefulness, we can see that the rise that occurred in usage was much higher than in usefulness (post-use 2.5; post-usefulness 2.2). This may indicate that

216 the training affected the general use of some strategies, but failed to create a noticeable increase in participants' perceptions of usefulness. Students’ results here seem parallel to what their teachers reported in this regard, which is an interesting finding. Apart from this, the mean increased for all the remaining consolidation strategies, which may be attributed to the training programme and raising awareness of VLSs available. Figures 30 and 31 illustrate the EG students’ perceived strategy usefulness prior to and after the strategy instruction.

4 3.5 3.5 3 3 2.5 2.5 2 2 1.5 1.5 1 1 0.5 0.5 0 0

Prior Post Prior Post

Figure 30: EG students’ prior and post results Figure 31: EG students’ prior and post in usefulness of DIS strategies results in usefulness of CON strategies

❖ The effects on perceived usefulness of VLSs on CG participants

Although CG teachers were not allowed to discuss any vocabulary learning strategies with their students, their overall scores with regards to the usefulness for both categories of VLSs were higher than those obtained in the prior survey, which may indicate that the training was able to create an increase in teachers’ awareness and perceptions of the efficiency of VLSs. With discovery strategies, the mean achieved was 3.2 (see Table 37, page 219) and was much higher than the score prior to conducting the training (i.e. 2.6), making it fall into the high range in terms of usefulness. The final mean regarding the utility of consolidation strategies meanwhile, also improved by

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0.4 points to make it stand at 2.9 by the end of the semester. The paired sample t-test results for the aforementioned mean scores showed a significant difference for discovery strategies (t(11) = -5.846, p = 0.000) and consolidation strategies (t(13) = -7.297, p = 0.000), which may be because CG teachers had the training and thus became more aware of the utility of such strategies. Such values, in general, are indicative of the fact that the strategy training succeeded in raising teachers’ awareness of VLSs and positively changed their beliefs about the advantages of vocabulary learning strategies. However, to have a more comprehensive picture of the effects of the training on participants’ beliefs, a closer examination of individual strategies will be helpful.

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Table 37: VLSQ1 and VLSQ2 results in perceived usefulness of VLSs: Control Groups

Teachers Students

Discovery strategy VLSQ1 VLSQ2 VLSQ1 VLSQ2 (Pre) (Post) (Pre) (Post) M (SD) M (SD) M (SD) M (SD) 1. Analysing parts of speech 2.5 (1.29) 3.5 (0.58) 2.7 (1.10) 2.9 (1.02) 2. Analysing affixes and roots 3.2 (0.95) 3.8 (0.50) 2.9 (0.99) 2.7 (0.97) 3. Checking for L1 cognate 2.2 (0.95) 3.0 (0.82) 2.8 (0.86) 2.6 (1.03) 4. Analysing any available pictures 2.7 (0.95) 3.0 (1.41) 3.2 (1.04) 3.0 (0.90) 5. Guessing from textual context 3.0 (0.81) 3.3 (0.96) 3.1 (1.01) 3.3 (0.85) 6. Using dictionaries 2.2 (0.95) 3.5 (1.00) 3.4 (1.03) 3.7 (0.55) 7. Using word lists 2.5 (1.29) 2.8 (1.26) 2.6 (1.08) 3.4 (0.88) 8. L1 translation 3.0 (0.81) 3.3 (0.96) 3.2 (1.05) 3.1 (1.04) 9. Paraphrasing the new words meaning 2.0 (0.81) 2.8 (1.26) 3.0 (1.06) 2.9 (1.06) 10. Giving sentences including the new word 2.7 (1.25) 3.0 (1.15) 2.6 (1.03) 2.7 (1.17) 13. Using flash cards 2.5 (1.29) 2.8 (1.26) 2.5 (1.12) 2.3 (0.97) 19. Using semantic maps 2.5 (0.57) 3.5 (0.58) 2.6 (0.85) 2.9 (1.09) Overall mean 2.6 3.2 2.9 3.0 Consolidation strategies

11. Discovering the meaning through group 2.5 (1.25) 2.8 (1.26) 2.7 (1.12) 2.5 (1.13) work activity 12. Associating the word with its coordinates 3.0 (1.15) 3.3 (1.50) 2.7 (1.10) 2.7 (0.99) 14. Associating new words with their 3.0 (0.81) 3.5 (0.58) 2.5 (0.99) 2.8 (1.00) synonyms or antonyms 15. Using the keyword method 2.0 (0.81) 2.8 (1.26) 2.1 (1.02) 2.4 (0.95) 16. Repeating a word (i.e. aloud, in mind, by 2.5 (1.29) 3.0 (0.82) 3.4 (0.88) 3.6 (0.76) spelling it) 17. Using scales for gradable adjectives 2.0 (1.15) 2.5 (1.00) 2.0 (0.92) 2.4 (1.03) 18. Writing a word repeatedly 2.7 (1.25) 3.0 (0.82) 3.1 (1.03) 3.4 (0.84) 20. Placing new words in a group with other 2.2 (1.25) 2.8 (0.96) 2.2 (1.03) 2.0 (0.98) items based on topic or function etc. 21. Imagining the written form of a word 3.0 (0.81) 3.0 (1.41) 2.5 (1.01) 2.7 (1.11) 22. Taking notes in class. 2.7 (0.95) 3.3 (0.96) 3.3 (0.86) 3.5 (0.86) 23. Grouping words together spatially on a 2.0 (0.81) 2.5 (0.58) 2.4 (1.08) 2.3 (0.99) page. 24. Learning words of an expression together 2.7 (0.95) 2.8 (1.26) 2.4 (1.01) 2.7 (1.12) as if they were just one word. 25. Writing new words in vocabulary 2.7 (1.25) 3.5 (0.58) 3.1 (1.11) 3.0 (0.97) notebook. 26. Acting out or miming the new word. 2.2 (1.25) 2.8 (1.26) 2.3 (1.08) 2.5 (1.03) Overall mean 2.5 2.9 2.5 2.7

When comparing the data in Table 37 with that in Table 36, we can see that most of the strategies that were perceived as more helpful were generally promoted to students more often. Teachers, for example, opt for promoting the use of studying parts of speech (item 1), word formation (item 2), and using the mother tongue (item 8) in their teaching practices and they find them effective for learning and retaining vocabulary. After being trained on the different VLSs, CG teachers seemed to value all the strategies taught more -

219 something clearly supported by the post-training results, which were observably higher than those attained initially. There were no cases of a decrease in usefulness within the categories, and all mean scores lay between medium (2.5) to high (3.8), which is an optimistic and encouraging sign as it indicates that even though CG teachers were not allowed to integrate strategy instruction into their classes, their awareness of the utility of VLSs arose. Such results, in general, positively affected the overall value of the categories, as shown above. However, there were some strategies, which, though perceived as helpful, were underused (e.g. items 3, 6, 13, and 19). The reason for this may be that teachers in control groups were asked to follow their normal teaching methods without any conscious increase of vocabulary learning strategies. In fact, most of the interviewees, as we will see next, admitted that VLSs would work best if they were integrated and practised in regular classrooms, which is true for virtually every aspect of language learning. Based on the data obtained, we can generally assume that the training was profitable in creating a change in strategy promotion and perceived usefulness amongst Libyan EFL teachers, with discovery strategies being favoured in terms of promoting their use and usefulness. Figures 32 and 33 show the CG teachers’ perceived strategy helpfulness prior to and after conducting the strategy instruction.

4 4 3.5 3.5 3 3 2.5 2.5 2 2 1.5 1.5 1 1 0.5 0.5 0 0

Prior Post Prior Post

Figure 32: CG teachers’ prior and post results Figure 33: CG teachers’ prior and post in usefulness of DIS strategies results in usefulness of CON strategies

220

As for CG students, the strategies that were reported to be very useful in the before-training questionnaire (i.e. items 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 16, 18, 22 and 25) were still predominantly used in the post-training questionnaire. Other strategies ranged from low in usefulness, as in statement 20, to almost high, as in items 1 and 9 (M = 2.9). In general, there was not much difference in the students’ pre- and post-perceptions regarding the utility of VLSs, and most of the mean scores attained were close to those reported initially. By contrast, the strategies that were reported to be less efficient in learning and retaining vocabulary, from the students’ point of view, such as items 15 (to use the keyword method), 20 (to place words in a group with other items based on topic or function etc.), and 23 (to group words together spatially on a page), were still considered less helpful in the post-training survey. These findings generally support the hypothesis that strategy instruction raises students’ awareness and utilisation of learning strategies. This is clearly supported when comparing the results gathered from CG students to those obtained from the experimental group. With the latter group for instance, the training was able to create a change either in use and perceived helpfulness as was the case with the keyword method (item 15), in utilisation only (e.g. item 23), or just in helpfulness, as in item 20. Figures 34 and 35 present the CG students’ perceived strategy usefulness before and after the training.

4 4

3.5 3.5

3 3

2.5 2.5

2 2

1.5 1.5

1 1 0.5 0.5 0 0

Prior Post Prior Post

Figure 34: CG students’ prior and post results Figure 35: CG students’ prior and post in usefulness of DIS strategies results in usefulness of CON strategies

221

Contrary to expectations, the results of the paired sample t-test indicated a significant difference between VLSQ1 and VLSQ2 mean scores of the consolidation strategies (t(13) = -2.342, p = 0.036). This result does not tell us much, and one possible explanation for it might be the fact that the VLSs questionnaire was administered several times throughout the study, and thus students became more acquainted with the questions. However, with discovery strategies, there was no significant difference (t(11) = -0.852, p = 0.412), as might be expected due to the lack of strategy training.

Before moving on to discussing the qualitative data, i.e. semi-structured interviews and observations, it should be mentioned that in order to better verify whether Libyan EFL teachers and students profited in the long run from the conducted programme, I also carried out a delayed survey. This survey was administered three months after the training programme and contained the same VLS questionnaire (i.e. VLSQ3) that the participants had filled out previously along with some interviews (2 teachers and 2 students) and a classroom observation. For the sake of organisation, and in order to easily make comparisons between the prior (VLSQ1), post (VLSQ2), and delayed (VLSQ3) surveys, the VLSQ3 results will be presented and discussed next.

5.4 Comparison of VLSQ1, VLSQ2, and VLSQ3 results

In this section, and for the sake of space and wording constrains, it is worth mentioning that abbreviations based on the initial letters of words accompanied with the item number indicating the ordinal number of the statement in the questionnaire will be used to refer to the strategies taught, instead of the statements in their entirety. To clarify further, DVLS1, for example, will be used to refer to discovery strategy 1 (to analyse parts of speech), and CVLS15 to consolidation strategy 15 (to use the keyword method), and so on. To make the reader familiar with the taxonomy of the present study, I did not follow this procedure throughout the whole paper (i.e. in presenting VLSQ1 and VLSQ2 data). As language teachers were primarily targeted in the current study, the data obtained from them will be thoroughly discussed, whereas with their students, examples of their prior, post and

222 delayed data will be highlighted and the results will be included in Appendices 23 and 24. Figures 36 and 37 present the total means achieved by the participating teachers in frequency of use of VLSs.

4 3 3.5 2.5 3 2 2.5 2 1.5 1.5 1 1 0.5 0.5 0 0 PRIOR POST DELAYED PRIOR POST DELAYED

EG CG EG CG

Figure 36: Overall mean scores for frequency Figure 37: Overall mean scores for of use of DIS strategies achieved by EG and frequency of use of CON strategies by EG CG teachers prior, post and after the training and CG teachers prior, post and after the training

Based on the results obtained it can be said that both the experimental and control groups made progress in terms of use/promotion of use of VLSs, even though the training was over. EG teachers, for example, reported higher mean scores on the post (i.e. VLSQ2) and delayed (i.e. VLSQ3) surveys, and the changes that occurred were remarkable as they amounted to 0.6 points for discovery strategies when comparing the delayed average with the prior one, and 0.7 points for consolidation strategies. The strategy application/promotion for CG teachers had also improved over time. Indeed while their promotion of the use of consolidation strategies slightly decreased by 0.1 point on the delayed survey, it still scored higher than the one achieved initially (pre 2.6; post 2.8; delayed 2.7). By contrast, with regards to the discovery strategies, the increase was visible and amounted to 0.6 points when comparing the delayed result with the initial one, and to 0.4 points when comparing it to the post mean score. One possible explanation for such an increase, even though teachers in the control groups were not obliged to teach their students any vocabulary learning strategies, may be their full understanding of existing VLSs and the skills they need in order to successfully teach them to their learners, which in turn were gained via the teachers’ participation in the VLST

223 programme, as indicated previously. In order to better understand whether a total of 12 weeks of strategy training led to an improvement in strategy promotion/use and perceived usefulness over time, more in-depth comparisons for individual strategies are presented in Table 38 below

Table 38: Comparison of teachers’ VLSQ1, VLSQ2 and VLSQ3 results in frequency of promoting the use of VLSs

Type of the survey Statement Initial (VLSQ1) Post (VLSQ2) Delayed (VLSQ3) EG (T) CG (T) EG (T) CG (T) EG (T) CG (T) M M M M M (SD) M (SD) DVLS1 3.5 4.0 3.3 4.3 4.3 (0.96) 3.8 (1.26) DVLS2 3.0 3.0 3.0 3.5 3.8 (0.50) 3.8 (0.50) DVLS3 2.2 2.5 2.8 1.5 3.3 (0.96) 2.0 (0.82) DVLS4 4.0 2.7 3.8 3.0 4.3 (0.96) 3.3 (0.96) DVLS5 4.5 3.5 4.8 4.3 4.5 (1.00) 4.5 (0.58) DVLS6 2.0 2.2 2.8 1.8 4.0 (0.82) 3.0 (0.82) DVLS7 4.2 3.7 4.8 4.0 3.8 (1.26) 4.3 (0.96) DVLS8 2.2 2.7 2.8 4.0 2.0 (0.82) 3.8 (0.96) DVLS9 3.2 2.5 3.0 2.8 3.3 (0.96) 3.0 (1.41) DVLS10 2.7 2.7 2.5 2.3 3.0 (0.82) 2.8 (0.96) DVLS13 1.5 1.7 2.0 1.3 1.8 (0.96) 2.0 (0.82) DVLS19 2.0 1.7 2.8 1.8 3.3 (0.96) 3.0 (0.82) OVERALL 2.9 2.7 3.2 2.9 3.5 3.3 CVLS11 2.2 2.0 2.8 2.5 2.5 (1.00) 2.3 (1.26) CVLS12 3.2 2.0 3.5 2.3 3.0 (0.82) 2.5 (1.29) CVLS14 2.0 3.7 3.0 3.0 3.8 (0.96) 3.5 (1.29) CVLS15 1.5 1.7 2.8 1.8 2.0 (0.82) 2.3 (0.96) CVLS16 2.2 3.2 3.0 3.8 3.3 (0.50) 4.0 (1.15) CVLS17 2.9 2.2 2.5 2.5 1.8 (0.96) 2.0 (0.82) CVLS18 1.2 2.7 2.8 3.0 3.0 (1.41) 3.3 (1.50) CVLS20 1.7 1.7 2.5 1.5 1.3 (0.50) 1.5 (0.58) CVLS21 1.7 2.7 2.5 3.0 2.3 (0.96) 2.8 (1.71) CVLS22 2.5 4.0 3.0 4.3 4.0 (0.82) 3.8 (0.96) CVLS23 1.2 2.0 1.5 1.5 1.8 (0.50) 1.3 (0.50) CVLS24 2.0 2.5 2.5 3.3 3.0 (1.41) 2.8 (0.50) CVLS25 2.2 3.2 2.8 3.5 3.5 (1.29) 3.3 (0.96) CVLS26 2.0 2.7 2.5 3.0 2.8 (0.50) 3.0 (1.15) OVERALL 2.0 2.6 2.7 2.8 2.7 2.7

Table 38 shows an increase in all individual discovery strategies, except five (three for EG teachers and two for CG teachers) regarding frequency of promoting their use over time. As for EG teachers, the strategies that decreased in the VLSQ3 were (DVLS7), (DVLS8), and (DVLS13). Despite the fact that the former dropped by 1 point when compared with its post-training result, it still falls in the high range in terms of promoting its use, as the mean score of 3.8 indicates. Encouraging the use of the mother tongue and flash

224 card strategies, on the other hand, initially amounted to 2.2 and 1.5 respectively and then increased to 2.8 and 2.0 respectively, to finally drop to reach 2.0 and 1.8 in the delayed survey. These results may seem somewhat surprising bearing in mind the popularity of these strategies in an EFL/ESL context, as mentioned in the literature - see for example Schmitt (1997), Kudo (1999), and Pavič ić Takač (2008). However, the strategy of using word lists is often presented via L1 translation (Schmitt, 1997), which may explain the low mean scores attained in these two strategies. It is also possible that after being trained on the use and teaching of VLSs, making it possible for teachers to implement what they had learned into their regular classrooms, new vocabulary learning strategies came to light and were found to be more effective than traditional methods. The single most striking observation to emerge from data comparison though, was the sharp increase in the mean score of strategy 6 (dictionary use), which amounted to 2 points when comparing the delayed-training result with that achieved initially, and to 1.8 points when compared it to the result attained in the post-survey. What is more, the impact of teaching this particular strategy was also lasting amongst CG teachers, which is a positive sign as it shows the development of teachers’ awareness regarding the use/promotion of use, and usefulness of a strategy that scholars consider ‘one of the key strategies for independent learning of a foreign language’ (Pavič ić Takač , 2008: 130). With CG teachers, the discovery strategies that diminished in the VLSQ3 results were strategy 1 (to promote the use of studying word formation) and strategy 8 (translation); the decrease amounted to 0.2 and 0.4 points respectively. Despite the drop in mean values, the earlier-mentioned techniques remained within the high promotion range with an average of 3.8, making them acquire third place in terms of encouraging their usage. All in all, except for strategy 3 and strategy 13, where the mean averages remained low throughout the training, it is comforting to learn that the overall mean score of discovery strategies improved, taking into account the percentages obtained previously.

The training conducted was also able to promote more frequent use of consolidation strategies amongst the experimental group's teachers, with the

225 strategy of note taking (CVLS22) maintaining good progress throughout the training programme, as the mean scores of 2.5 (VLSQ1), 3.0 (VLSQ2), and 4.0 (VLSQ3) indicate. Other consolidation strategies where the mean values improved were strategies 18, 24, 25, and 26, with strategy 18 (the use of repetition method) achieving the biggest rise in the VLSQ3 results, amounting to 1.8 points when compared with that obtained in the VLSQ1 survey. However, there were some consolidation strategies for which promoting their use to students declined noticeably after the training programme, such as strategy 17 (to use scales for gradable adjectives) and strategy 20 (to use group organisation). There were also other cases where although promoting their use to students gradually increased, they still remained within the low range in terms of promotion, as was the case with the method of ‘spatial page organisation’ (CVLS23, pre 1.2; post 1.5; delayed 1.8). These strategies may require deeper processing and that may be why some teachers find them strenuous and thus avoid adopting them in their teaching practices. After the strategy intervention, EG and CG teachers seemed to agree on promoting the use of strategies 14, 16, 18, 22 and 25, with the repetition strategy (CVLS16, M = 4.0) being the one most preferred by CG teachers, followed by the strategy of note taking (CVLS22), as the delayed mean score of 3.8 indicates. The consolidation strategies that were discouraged by EG teachers, such as strategies 20 and 23 on the other hand, were also disregarded by the teachers in the control groups, which may explain the overall results obtained for this category.

If we now turn to comparing the initial, post and delayed-training results concerning the perceived usefulness of VLSs, we can observe a general increase over the course of time as the overall mean scores in Table 39 (below) indicate. The progress in percentages that was made by EG teachers was higher than those reported by CG teachers; teachers in the control groups reported much higher results in the post and delayed surveys, which implies that the training was able to promote their awareness regarding the promotion of use, and helpfulness of VLSs, even three months after the training programme took place. As was the case with Table 38, in order to provide a

226 more comprehensive picture of perceived usefulness throughout, it would advantageous to examine the changes in the pre-, post- and delayed means for individual strategies.

Table 39: Comparison of teachers’ VLSQ1, VLSQ2 and VLSQ3 results in perceived usefulness of VLSs

Type of the survey Statement Prior (VLSQ1) Post (VLSQ2) Delayed (VLSQ3) EG (T) CG (T) EG (T) CG (T) EG (T) CG (T) M M M M M (SD) M (SD) DVLS1 3.0 2.5 3.3 3.5 3.8 (0.50) 3.3 (0.96) DVLS2 2.2 3.2 3.0 3.8 3.5 (0.58) 3.5 (0.58) DVLS3 2.0 2.2 3.5 3.0 3.3 (0.96) 3.0 (1.41) DVLS4 3.0 2.7 3.0 3.0 3.8 (0.96) 3.3 (0.96) DVLS5 3.0 3.0 3.8 3.3 3.5 (1.00) 3.5 (0.58) DVLS6 2.5 2.2 3.3 3.5 3.3 (1.50) 3.3 (0.50) DVLS7 2.2 2.5 3.0 2.8 3.8 (0.50) 3.5 (0.58) DVLS8 2.0 3.0 2.8 3.3 3.0 (0.82) 3.0 (1.41) DVLS9 1.5 2.0 2.8 2.8 3.0 (1.15) 3.0 (0.82) DVLS10 3.0 2.7 3.3 3.0 3.5 (0.58) 3.5 (0.58) DVLS13 2.2 2.5 2.8 2.8 2.8 (1.26) 3.0 (0.82) DVLS19 2.2 2.5 3.5 3.5 3.8 (0.50) 3.8 (0.50) OVERALL 2.4 2.6 3.1 3.2 3.4 3.3 CVLS11 2.2 2.5 3.0 2.8 3.3 (1.50) 3.3 (0.50) CVLS12 2.7 3.0 3.3 3.3 3.5 (0.58) 3.0 (1.41) CVLS14 2.5 3.0 3.8 3.5 3.8 (0.50) 3.8 (0.50) CVLS15 1.7 2.0 3.0 2.8 3.5 (0.58) 3.0 (0.82) CVLS16 2.2 2.5 3.3 3.0 3.3 (0.50) 3.3 (0.96) CVLS17 2.2 2.0 2.5 2.5 3.0 (0.82) 2.8 (0.50) CVLS18 2.2 2.7 3.5 3.0 3.3 (0.50) 3.5 (1.00) CVLS20 2.5 2.2 2.3 2.8 2.8 (0.50) 2.8 (1.50) CVLS21 2.2 3.0 3.0 3.0 3.3 (0.50) 2.8 (1.26) CVLS22 3.2 2.7 3.8 3.3 3.5 (0.58) 3.5 (0.58) CVLS23 1.7 2.0 2.3 2.5 2.8 (1.26) 2.5 (1.73) CVLS24 2.2 2.7 2.8 2.8 3.0 (0.82) 3.3 (0.96) CVLS25 3.0 2.7 2.8 3.5 3.8 (0.50) 3.5 (0.58) CVLS26 1.7 2.2 2.5 2.8 3.0 (1.41) 2.5 (1.00) OVERALL 2.2 2.5 3.0 2.9 3.3 3.1

As shown in Table 39, the discrepancy between the initial and the delayed- training results was noticeable, as it reached 3.4 and 3.3 points for EG and CG teachers respectively in the discovery category, and 3.3 and 3.1 respectively in the consolidation category. This is certainly a very encouraging sign as it implies that the strategy intervention was able to bridge the gap between frequency of use/promoting the use of learning strategies (see table 38), and perceptions of helpfulness.

With regard to individual strategies, Libyan EFL teachers generally perceived all VLSs taught, especially those relating to the discovery category,

227 as useful (M = ≥ 3.0). The only strategy below 3.0 was the ‘use of flash cards’ (item 13, pre 2.2; post 2.8; delayed 2.8). Although, with this particular strategy, there was no progress in mean score, when compared with other strategies as over time, it did not decrease in terms of perceived usefulness. To CG teachers, the most useful discovery strategies where the mean values improved, even though the training was over, were strategies 1 (to study word formation), 4 (to study any available pictures), 7 (to use word lists), and 19 (to use semantic maps), with the latter two strategies showing the biggest rise, which amounted to 1.6 points when compared with the results obtained initially. Interestingly, although EG teachers still reported a low degree of promoting the use of flash cards strategy, their beliefs in its utility in learning vocabulary increased markedly, as the pre (2.2), post (2.8), and delayed (3.0) training results indicate. However, the perceived usefulness of these strategies was generally congruent with usage (see Table 38) and there were no cases where VLSs were undervalued. A similar argument holds true for the CG teachers’ results. The mean scores achieved in usefulness in the delayed survey were much higher than those scored in the initial and post-training surveys, which is indicative of the fact that the strategy training programme positively affected the teachers’ attitudes towards the utility of vocabulary learning strategies. Similarly to the results from EG teachers, semantic mapping was the most useful discovery strategy (M = 3.8), followed by word formation analysis, inferring from context, word lists, and using words in sentences - all joint second in terms of perceived usefulness, with a mean score of 3.5. It is interesting to note that although the strategy of guessing from context is complicated, as it involves several steps (e.g. word formation analysis, defining the word class, substitution), teachers still maintain that they encourage its use and even find it efficient in vocabulary teaching and learning. This is probably because of its applicability to different language tasks and skills, making it, to quote Pavič ić Takač , ‘One of the crucial strategies in the framework of incidental implicit vocabulary learning’ (2008:80(. However, it should be borne in mind that not every study supports the efficiency of using guessing strategies in vocabulary teaching/learning. Gu’s (2003) study for example, found that beginner learners are not successful in guessing due

228 either to the lack of quantity of lexis or skills of incidental learning. Therefore, guessing from context, for many people, may mean nothing more than ‘ignoring the unknown item’ rather than actually going through the aforementioned steps.

The progress made in the usefulness of consolidation strategies in the delayed results was also much more impressive than that made between the initial and post-training surveys, with EG teachers outperforming their colleagues in the control groups. This is clearly evident by the percentages presented in Table 39 above. These results are somewhat predictable bearing in mind that teachers in the experimental groups had the opportunity to practise what they learned about VLSs, whereas CG teachers did not. In fact, some teachers, as we will see in the qualitative data analysis, admitted that strategies became more frequently used and that they told their students about the strategies that they themselves found effective, which is a very promising result, indicating the increase in teachers’ awareness of VLSs. On average, the strategies of using spatial grouping (CVLS23) and miming (CVLS26) were ranked least useful by CG teachers. When compared with previous results however, the mean score of the former strategy stayed the same as in post- training, i.e. 2.5 points, whereas the mean value of the latter dropped by 0.3 points, although generally both scores are still in the moderate range. Figures 38 and 39 (next page) present the total means achieved by the participating teachers with regard to perceived usefulness of VLSs.

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4 3.5 3.5 3 3 2.5 2.5 2 2 1.5 1.5 1 1 0.5 0.5 0 0 prior Post Delayed prior Post Delayed

EG CG EG CG

Figure 39: Overall mean scores for Figure 38: Overall mean scores for perceived perceived usefulness of DIS strategies usefulness of CON strategies achieved by EG achieved by EG and CG teachers prior, and CG teachers prior, post and after the post and after the training. training.

All in all, the delayed survey results revealed noticeable progress in VLSs’ use/promotion and perceived usefulness, with EG teachers’ results outperforming those in the control groups. Furthermore, the gap that existed between frequency of encouraging students to use learning strategies, and perceptions of helpfulness prior to the strategy instruction seemed to be balanced after the training. That is to say that the strategies that were perceived as more helpful were used/promoted more frequently. These results, however, are in accordance with those of Schmitt (1997).

Having discussed the results obtained from the participating teachers, the following is a brief description of students’ responses with regards the pre-, post-, and delayed-training questionnaires (see Appendix 18 for more in-depth information). Table 40 (next page) compares the statistics for the prior (VLSQ1), post (VLSQ2), and delayed (VLSQ3) questionnaires in a combined manner so as to clearly illustrate the differences occurring over the course of time.

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Table 40: Overall comparison of students’ prior, post and delayed- questionnaires

Group of Group of Frequency of use Perceived usefulness participants strategies Prior Post Delayed Prior Post Delayed M M M M M M EG students Discovery 2.9 3.1 (+2) 3.3 (+4) 2.8 3.2 (+4) 3.5 (+7) Consolidation 2.8 2.9 (+1) 3.0 (+2) 2.6 2.9 (+4) 3.3 (+7) CG students Discovery 2.9 2.8 (-1) 3.0 (+1) 2.9 3.0 (+1) 3.2 (+3) Consolidation 2.7 2.8 (+1) 2.8 (+1) 2.6 2.8 (+2) 3.0 (+4)

As shown in table 40, there was a clear trend of an increase in terms of preferences and perceptions regarding the use of VLSs by both groups of students, with priority to EG students, as the mean scores indicate. It is apparent from the table that there were no cases of any decrease in use or perceived usefulness of vocabulary strategies. What is interesting about the data obtained is that even though CG students were not subjected to strategy training, their delayed mean scores rose. This could be attributed to the increase of teachers’ awareness, as many became aware of the existing strategies and began to apply them immediately after the training programme, as acknowledged by some interviewee teachers. These results however, may imply that raising teachers’ awareness of strategies reflects on students’ use and perceived usefulness of such strategies. On closer inspection of the data gathered though, we can see that despite the improvement in overall percentages attained by CG students, a remarkable discrepancy is found on an individual level. To clarify this further, the strategies that demand a deep level of processing (e.g. spatial grouping, flash cards, using scales, and looking for L1 cognates) are usually difficult for learners to apply unless they have had training in them, which is supported by the results achieved when compared with those from EG students. Because of this, the students may opt for the strategies that are available to them, which are usually the traditional ones (e.g. repetition methods), in order to help them attain a satisfactory mark in their exams. Table 41(next page) highlights some examples of the aforementioned observation.

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Table 41: Examples of students’ VLSQ1, VLSQ2, and VLSQ3 results in frequency of use.

Type of the survey Statement Prior (VLSQ1) Post (VLSQ2) Delayed (VLSQ3) EG (S) CG (S) EG (S) CG (S) EG (S) CG (S) M M M M M (SD) M (SD) DVLS3 (cognates) 2.3 2.3 2.9 2.5 3.1 (1.18) 2.2 (1.18) DVLS13 (flash cards) 2.1 2.3 2.8 2.0 2.8 (1.42) 1.9 (0.96) DVLS19 (semantic maps) 2.6 2.4 2.9 2.1 3.3 (1.16) 2.6 (1.20) CVLS11 (group working) 2.4 2.3 2.7 2.5 3.0 (1.27) 2.1 (1.24) CVLS16 (verbal repetition) 3.5 3.5 3.7 3.8 3.6 (1.18) 3.9 (0.99)

With perceived helpfulness on the other hand, it is important to note that the data shows a gap existing between frequency of use and perceived usefulness of some VLSs. Certain strategies, though considered as efficient in vocabulary learning, were underutilised.

Table 42: Examples of students’ VLSQ1, VLSQ2, and VLSQ3 results in perceived usefulness.

Type of the survey Statement Prior Post delayed EG (S) CG (S) EG (S) CG (S) EG (S) CG (S) M M M M M (SD) M (SD) DVLS3 (cognates) 2.8 2.7 3.5 2.6 3.7 (1.36) 3.0 (0.98) DVLS13 (flash cards) 2.7 2.5 2.6 2.3 2.7 (1.35) 2.9 (0.93) DVLS19 (semantic maps) 2.5 2.6 3.1 2.9 3.3 (1.30) 3.1 (1.07) CVLS11 (group working) 2.3 2.7 2.7 2.5 3.0 (1.34) 2.7 (1.09) CVLS16 (verbal repetition) 2.9 3.4 3.6 3.6 3.8 (1.19) 3.3 (0.82)

While the quantitative data analysis revealed that the training had a significant impact on the participants’ use and perceived usefulness of the taught VLSs over time, before moving to a general conclusion, a discussion of further qualitative data results is needed to provide a wider viewpoint from which to consider S3’s research question, mentioned at the outset of this chapter.

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5.5 Study 3: qualitative data analysis, results and discussion As was the case with the S1 investigations, some supplementary techniques in the form of an evaluation sheet, semi-structured interview, and classroom observation were used to elicit more relevant information regarding the efficiency of the training programme.

5.5.1 The evaluation form

The evaluation form (Appendix 15) was distributed at the end of the training programme to a total of eight teachers (four EG teachers and four CG teachers) and 46 EG students. This form was divided into three parts, with each part consisting of two questions that investigated a particular aspect prior to, during, and after strategy instruction. Part (1) elicited the participants’ awareness of VLSs. In this part, the respondents were asked to indicate the extent to which they knew about VLSs before the treatment (Q1). In answering this question, 26 students reported that they had had no knowledge of VLSs before the training, whereas 17 opted for ‘a little’ and only three respondents selected ‘somewhat’. Most of the participating teachers (5 teachers, 62.5%), in their answer to this question, chose ‘somewhat’ to describe their knowledge of VLSs, whilst three teachers reported that they knew ‘a lot’ about these strategies due to their studies and conferences (some wrote comments next to their choice). However, when asked to indicate the extent to which they were aware of their own VLSs before the programme (Q2), all teachers were less acquainted, as the percentages of (50%, 37.5%, and 12.5%) for ‘a little’, ‘not at all’, and ‘somewhat’ respectively, indicate. This appears to be the case with EG students as well, since the majority (58.7%) replied that they had never been aware of their own strategies before the training, whereas 32.6% and 8.7% respectively, thought that they had been a ‘little’ or ‘somewhat’ aware of their learning strategies. Figure 40 (page 235) compares teachers’ and students’ responses with regard to their awareness of VLSs prior to and after the VLST programme.

In the second part of the evaluation form the participants were asked what they had learned most from the training (Q3), and whether they had

233 encountered any difficulties whilst applying the strategies taught (Q4). In response to the third question, a variety of answers were given. For the sake of precision and organisation, the frequency of how often themes occurred was tabulated. Table 43 (below) presents teachers’ and students’ answers to Q3.

Table 43: EG participants’ responses to question 3 on the evaluation form

Teachers’ responses to question 3 on the evaluation form No.

The VLST programme helped teachers in expanding their knowledge of VLSs. 6

… become more familiar with the notion of vocabulary learning strategies. 8

… becoming more familiar with VLSs and their compatible VTSs. 3

Teachers’ understanding to the concept of strategy training improved, and 7

become more acquainted with how to plan, prepare, and implement strategy 4 instruction.

Students’ responses to question 3 on the evaluation form

The training programme helped them in identifying their own learning strategies. 13

Explore new vocabulary learning strategies. 7

The programme was interesting / good in breaking classroom routine. 8

The sessions and activities were memorable. 2

Turning to the teachers’ responses to the fourth question, three out of four EG teachers pointed out the insufficient time allotted for the students’ training. They felt that 20 minutes of strategy instruction was inadequate to provide students with ample opportunity to practise the strategies introduced, especially complicated ones, taking into account the large class sizes. Such a view however, was felt amongst less than half of the participating students (around 41%). In addition, some strategies consumed more of the teachers’ free time due to preparation (mentioned by two instructors), since they had to choose the relevant words from the students’ materials and apply the strategies to them. For students, apart from the lack of time, there were no negative comments about the programme. In fact, the vast majority of students

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(67.3%) praised the training course and found it workable. For example, one student said, ‘I enjoyed the training sessions very much’, and another reported that 20 minutes of strategy training at the beginning of each lesson increased her motivation and confidence to go through the different tasks and activities required. Here, to be objective, we may need to consider the power of novelty - the ‘something different’ effect. That is to say that if the VLST programme were done regularly, it would soon be perceived as the ‘same old stuff’.

In the third part of the evaluation sheet, the participants were again required to answer the question ‘How aware were you of your own vocabulary learning strategies?’ (Q5), this time after they had been instructed on the different vocabulary learning strategies. They also had to respond to, ‘What did you most like about the training programme?’ (Q6) and could give reasons and explanations where relevant. In answering the former question, both teachers and students reported that they had become more acquainted with their own learning strategies than beforehand, which is clearly supported by the data obtained. When compared with before, all of the teachers (100%) and 39 (84.8%) students chose ‘a lot’ to describe their level of awareness after the training. Figure 38 (below) compares the participants’ responses to question 5 with those obtained from question 1, mentioned earlier.

Students

training Teachers

Participants'

awareness of awareness VLSs before the VLSsbefore

Students

training Teachers

Participants'

awareness of awareness VLSs after the VLSsafter

0 20 40 60 80 100 120

A lot Somewhat A little Not at all

Figure 40: Participants’ awareness of VLSs before and after the VLST programme

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In fact, it is a drawback usually associated with this type of survey, that participants may give responses they think are expected of them, so to overcome this potential shortcoming, question 6 in this section was designed to elicit further insights with regard to the usefulness of the training programme.

In general, the results gathered from Q5 in part 3, as mentioned above, reflect positive changes in the participants’ attitudes, which is a very encouraging sign. With Q6, the responses were varied and indicative of teachers’ and students’ concentration levels during the training course. Teachers, for example, pointed out the efficiency of the materials distributed (reported by 6 teachers), and the clarity of the course objectives (reported by 4 teachers). Some instructors felt that the training was a good experience (3 teachers), while others were eager to know more about vocabulary learning strategies and, furthermore, asked me for some resources to refer back to. These findings further support those obtained in Ali’s (2008) study, which found that Libyan EFL teachers were interested ‘to learn about more approaches, the latest findings, and to understand the new techniques of EFL teaching’ (p. 152). Another teacher referred to the lack of such workshops in Libya. This is an important issue in my opinion, and one that should be considered by the Ministry of Education when arranging out- or in-service teacher-training programmes. Students, in their answer to the second question, seemed to agree that the training was interesting or enjoyable (reported by 21 students) although 20 minutes devoted to strategy training, in their view, was insufficient (mentioned by 19 students). This reflects the challenge described by Pavič ić Takač (2008: 77-78), who made the point that students, ‘need to first understand the goal of strategy use, know in which conditions each of them is efficient, have the knowledge necessary to apply the strategy and, finally, practise their use in various tasks and activities’. This definitely consumes time, and the more complicated the strategy is, the more the time needed to meet the aforesaid goals. However, 38 students admitted that they benefited from the training sessions and that the materials used were relevant. What is more, seven students acknowledged that they had not realised that there were

236 so many strategies they could use in their vocabulary learning until they had attended the sessions.

Overall, the data gathered from the course evaluation forms seem to be consistent with those achieved in the surveys. That is to say, after the training course there was a noticeable increase in the participants’ awareness of learning strategies, which in turn assisted in promoting more frequent use. However, to gain more precise responses, some post and delayed classroom observations and follow-up semi-structured interviews were conducted.

5.5.2 Study 3: Observation and semi-structured interview analysis

As indicated in Chapter 4, section 4.5.2, I attended all the sessions in the first six weeks of the students’ training phase so as to ensure that teachers in both groups followed the instructions as agreed. The teachers observed were eight in total (EG teachers = 4, CG teachers = 4), six of them were described in Table 22 in Chapter 3, and an additional two teachers were used to teach CG students. During the observations, more attention was paid to EG teachers and their lesson plans because they were responsible for teaching the VLST sessions to their learners (for sample pages of a lesson plan and training session, see Appendices 20 and 25). As agreed, teachers introduced the strategies that assisted in discovering the meaning of learned words before presenting ones that helped in consolidating the meaning. The CALLA framework of teaching learning strategies (refer back to Chapter 4, section 4.4 for information) was adapted, in which teachers began by describing the target strategy, modelling it, and practising it. At the end of each week, the teachers distributed checklists (Appendices 26 and 27), including the strategies that were introduced during the week, and the students were required to tick the VLSs that they found useful or applicable. Afterwards, follow-up interviews were carried out with both the teachers and the students, who were ten in total (six teachers and four students). Bearing S1 interview questions in mind (see Chapter 3), and since the rationale behind S3 interviews was to explore the subsequent impact of strategy intervention, only the questions concerning

237 strategy training (i.e. part 2) were administered (see Appendices 7 and 8 for a sample of interview questions). In general, the results obtained from S3 interviews were used to interpret those gathered from the observations and questionnaires.

Turning to the observational technique, and compared to what was previously conducted, the focus of S3 observations was to provide in-depth information about the training process, as well as indicating the immediate and delayed influence of the strategy intervention on the participants’ use of VLSs. Since many observations were carried out, as mentioned above, and for the sake of space, I only highlighted and interpreted the important issues raised and supported them with some excerpts taken from teacher and student interviews.

At the very beginning of the students’ training phase, some teachers felt a bit anxious and followed their lesson plans strictly, which usually happens due to the fear of being observed (Pavič ić Takač , 2008; Trendak, 2015). This however, disappeared gradually as time passed and teachers became much more confident compared with what had been observed previously, especially when they encountered more interaction and enthusiasm from the students. Besides, teachers and students were free to resort to L1 when explaining difficult VLSs or facing problems in comprehension. This in turn resulted in teachers and students becoming more comfortable and relaxed during the sessions. At the end of each week, teachers revised the VLSs discussed during the week and then engaged students in a short discussion about the strategies that they found most/least useful. Any issues that they felt uncomfortable with were also raised so as to resolve them in the upcoming sessions.

With the students, although the 20 minutes allocated for strategy instruction was short (an issue raised by both teachers and students), most of the them enjoyed the new learning atmosphere, as some interviewees explained:

Student 1: ‘I liked the PowerPoint slide show [explanation] and I would prefer to always start our lessons with things like these.’

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Student 2: ‘In fact, I used to spontaneously use some learning strategies before, and the activities were useful in alerting my use of these strategies. Um… yes, some strategies were new but when the teacher showed us how to use them, I found them useful. I really liked the way of instruction and the material used.’ Student 4: ‘Change is good. I sometimes get bored, and I think it was good to break up the classroom routine. Each time, I was looking forward to learning the next strategy. Before the training, I used to find out the meaning of new words from the dictionary. I did not know that there are so many techniques to use in vocabulary learning but now, I know these ways. They are really useful.’

Students may truly have enjoyed the training sessions or, as mentioned previously, perhaps the power of innovation affected their responses, which is another explanation that may need to be considered. During the observations however, it was clear that students enjoyed the short follow-up activities, especially those related to the use of cognates and the keyword method, which is worth exploring further in future research. Indeed, while the planning for these two strategies consumed more of the teachers’ time, both teachers and students enjoyed finding L1 equivalents. The teachers’ comments below illustrate this:

Abdullah: ‘In fact, while preparing materials and activities to teach the keyword method, I came to the lesson that I had to teach and I thought a lot. It was difficult to find equivalents to the target words chosen. Therefore, I had to think of other examples, not related to the lesson taught, so as to explain the method to the learners.’

Farah: ‘Um... I still remember my presenting of the keyword method. We all enjoyed it, and the students came up with many examples, some of them were so funny (hahaha). I worked a

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lot on the examples and, actually, some of the words chosen were familiar to students, such as the word feel = [fi:l] in Arabic which means [elephant], but in general I explained that the aim here is to know how the strategy works.’

However, there were a few negative comments raised during the discussions, concerning the use and usefulness of some vocabulary learning strategies. Based on the data obtained throughout the three studies, it was apparent that discovery strategies were much more commonly used amongst Libyan EFL teachers and students than consolidation strategies. Even though the utilisation of the latter category improved after the training, the use of the former strategies is still predominant. This can be attributed to the fact that some consolidation strategies, from the students’ point of view, were either difficult to employ or inefficient in promoting their vocabulary learning, as some students commented:

Student 3: ‘… I do not fully understand the strategy of spatial grouping. It might be useful for recalling words but I prefer more direct methods. I don't think I will use it again. It is a bit complicated and not as useful as some others.’ Student 1: ‘The strategy of acting out words is interesting and enjoyable but not always practical. I used to use this strategy and often encountered words that cannot be mimed, which is somewhat frustrating!’ Student 4: ‘In my view, the strategy of grouping words under columns would work better with young learners since we usually, at this stage, do not learn words by themes, functions or topics. I often paraphrase the word’s meaning to remember it and I find this helpful. It is much easier than grouping strategies.’

Some strategies require regular revision and additional checking, such as the keyword method and note taking, which may require teachers to re- evaluate how they spend time in class. In this regard and from the teachers’

240 point of view, time and syllabus play an important role in strategic integration, which are themes that came up in class discussions. Teachers were consistently obliged to cover the topics that students needed for their exams, and thus had little or no time left for strategy training. To gather further information on this, teachers were asked during the follow-up interviews whether, if the university organised free voluntary lessons in strategy instruction in the future, would they like to take part. Interestingly, six out of eight teachers welcomed the notion, especially when progress in students’ learning outcomes was noted throughout the semester, as the comments below indicate:

Omer: ‘Oh, why not! It would be a good idea if it was conducted. It is my pleasure helping my students become autonomous learners.’ Alia: ‘Yes, of course… I personally noticed that to start a lesson with teaching tips for vocabulary learning works well as a warm-up. My students enjoyed it very much, and they worked harder than usual, which is good! There were some improvements in students’ exam marks, which may be because students have found some useful learning strategies.’ Abdul-razag: ‘Yes, I would gladly participate. To be honest, during the training, I noticed that most of students were interested in what was introduced. I also noticed that students’ implementation of learning strategies increased day by day. I mean that the use of vocabulary notebooks, association, and word formation strategies became more apparent amongst students.’ The other two teachers, who found it difficult to answer the aforementioned question with any certainty, had taught CG students. Their unwillingness to participate probably stemmed from the fact that they did not themselves experience how it felt to teach the VLST sessions, unlike their colleagues. Because of this they may not believe in the feasibility of conducting such

241 training, or they may be unwilling to waste their free time in unpaid classes. However, it is comforting to know that all teachers admitted that direct instruction in vocabulary learning strategies can yield better results, especially when it relates to the students’ syllabus and materials.

In the delayed observations, of which there were two in total, it was apparent that teachers more frequently referred to VLSs in their vocabulary teaching. When they come across unknown words, for example, they used compatible VTSs (such as providing synonyms, antonyms, and using words in sentences) and explained them to their students. Encouragingly, two teachers were still following this same procedure in their lesson plans after I had showed it to them in the training programme, which is a positive sign bearing in mind that they did not expect there to be delayed observations after the training. In this regard, when asked about the efficiency of the training sessions and the lesson plan suggested as time passed by, Farah replied:

‘This is my first time attending such workshops. I feel more satisfied with my teaching methods than before. In the last semester, my students made progress in their reading and writing. Before that, I used to see some poor writing, repetitive words and phrases, but now their writing has become much more varied and organised than before. Some students seemed to really benefit from the strategy training. I feel happy with what has been achieved.’

In the observed lesson, the strategy of word formation was discussed. Farah started by explaining the strategy, and then ample examples and activities were provided throughout the lesson. Both teacher and students seemed to be enthusiastic and motivated. In the follow-up interview, Farah reported that after the training, it had become a habit to allocate some lesson time to discussing at least one or two VLSs where possible, depending on the lesson being taught. Farah was the least experienced teacher when compared to her colleagues (see Table 22 in Chapter 3, page 135), with four years spent

242 practising teaching. It has been suggested that the greater the work experience, the more strategy training implemented (Trendak, 2015), however this does not appear to be the case here.

Based on the above, it can generally be assumed that the strategy instruction was effective in changing teachers’ attitudes, improving students’ learning skills and increasing their vocabulary repertoire. These results are in agreement with those gathered from the quantitative data. However, to provide clear answers to the research questions suggested, it would be useful to summarise the results obtained and interpret them with relevant literature.

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6.0 Summary of major findings

The current study examined the impact of vocabulary learning strategy instruction on Libyan EFL teachers’ and learners’ use and perception of the usefulness of these strategies. The research involved three studies - an overview of the current situation (S1), the VLST programme (S2), and a trial and evaluation of the training programme (S3). 96 students participated in the study alongside 13 teachers from two English language faculties at the Al-jabal Al-gharbi University in the cities of Tiji and Badr. The participating teachers and students were given strategy training for 12 weeks. I instructed the former for two weeks, while the latter were instructed by the trainee teachers for ten weeks. A pre-, post- and delayed VLS questionnaire, along with semi- structured interviews, classroom observations, checklists, and an end of course evaluation sheet were administered in order to determine the possible changes in the participants’ reported use and perceived usefulness of VLSs after strategy instruction. In this section, the results of studies 1 and 3 will be reviewed and summarised so as to provide definite answers to the research questions stated at the outset of each study. For the sake of clarity and organisation, the discussion of the results will be divided into two sub-sections based on the studies mentioned above.

6.1 Study 1 results: an overview of the current situation

This sub-section will present the answers to the first three questions of this study, starting with question 1:

➢ What vocabulary learning strategies do Libyan EFL teachers at a university level know/promote to their students?

Libyan EFL teachers at the Al-jabal Al-gharbi University initially reported moderate strategy use/promotion, as the overall mean score of 2.7 indicates (see Table 8, page 98). When it comes to the rank order of the five categories of vocabulary learning strategies discussed in Chapter 3, determination and social strategies came first in terms of adoption in teachers’ teaching practices, followed by cognitive strategies, then metacognitive strategies, and lastly

244 memory strategies. On an individual level, according to S1 results, the most popular VLSs brought up by the participating teachers were as follows: word formation, guessing, word lists, L1 translation, paraphrasing, using words in sentences, using semantic maps, association, analysing pictures, note taking, using the vocabulary section in textbooks, and lastly, skipping. Despite the utility of the aforementioned strategies, mentioned in the literature, the teachers seemed to be unaware of how to appropriately promote their utilisation to students. Additionally, when taking into account the 58 VLSs suggested by Schmitt (1997), Libyan EFL teachers seemed to know/promote the use of a limited number of strategies in their teaching practices. Most of the teachers, except the more experienced ones, had no knowledge of vocabulary learning strategies and their corresponding teaching strategies. Bearing the above in mind, it is likely that the teachers’ knowledge of VLSs was based mainly on their personal learning experiences. According to the data obtained, it was also apparent that teachers subconsciously resorted to VLSs with the aim of helping students understand the meaning of newly encountered words. This seemed to occur without teachers’ awareness of such strategies. Bearing this in mind, it was necessary to conduct the subsequent studies in order to develop the teachers’ expertise at integrating VLSs into regular classroom instruction (i.e. S1) and to see whether there was a difference in participants’ general strategy use/promotion and perceived usefulness. Before doing so, it was also essential to identify the VLSs that were utilised by the participating students, whether they were low or high strategy users, and which type of VLSs they preferred in their vocabulary learning.

➢ What vocabulary learning strategies do Libyan EFL learners at university level use/know?

The study results have shown that Libyan EFL learners were also medium strategy users (M = 2.8 as indicated in Table 8, page 98) with determination strategies at the top of their preferences. This was followed by cognitive strategies in second place, then social strategies, metacognitive strategies, and finally memory strategies. Based on S1’s statistics, both Libyan EFL

245 teachers and students in the initial survey seemed to frequently use determination strategies and resort to the other remaining strategies to a medium extent. Although these findings are in agreement with those of Amirian & Heshmatifar (2013), who found that determination and cognitive strategies were at the top of Iranian EFL learners’ preferences, they seem to contradict their results, as well as those of Kudo (1999) and Kafipour (2006), with regard to using social strategies. In the current study, social strategies came third out of five in terms of utilisation. This may mean that Libyan EFL learners do not consider language learning an individual process since they do seek the help of others, especially teachers, when encountering unknown words.

On an individual level, the most common vocabulary learning strategies amongst Libyan EFL learners were: repetition, dictionary use, word formation, analysing pictures, guessing, asking the teacher for L1 translation, paraphrasing, note taking, using the vocabulary section in textbooks, and finally, skipping. These results are generally in line with those of previous studies (Gu & Johnson, 1996; Schmitt, 1997; Kudo, 1999; Marin, 2006; and Amirian & Heshmatifar, 2013). When comparing students’ results with those obtained from their teachers, we can observe a consensus towards employing certain strategies, such as L1 translation, repetition, and word formation, which is probably due to students’ unconsciously copying what their teachers do (i.e. compatible VTSs). Such strategies, which are commonly established in many parts of the world (Schmitt, 1997), were not only well known to the participants studied but also highly practised in their language classes. However, using vocabulary teaching strategies does not usually guarantee students’ use of their compatible vocabulary learning strategies (Pavič ić Takač , 2008), an issue which was clearly verified in S3 results, as we will see throughout this section.

➢ To what extent do Libyan EFL teachers believe that vocabulary learning strategies can be taught?

According to the responses obtained from open-ended questions (TVLSQ, Part C), more than half of the teachers studied in S1 did not believe in the teachability of vocabulary learning strategies (see 3.6.2.1). The teachers

246 attributed the difficulty of teaching VLSs to many factors, such as time constraints, students’ proficiency level, teaching materials, and a set syllabus (see 3.6.2.1). In fact, such factors along with the impact of large class sizes, lack of in-/out service training, and a teacher-centred approach, which were revealed in S3’s results, do, to quote Richards and Pennington (1998: 187- 88), ‘discourage experimentation and innovation, and encourage [the] safe strategy of sticking close to prescribed materials and familiar teaching approaches’. The teachers’ previously adopted beliefs regarding the teachability of VLSs seemed to impede their ability to implement strategy instruction. However, this seemed to disappear when they had appropriate strategy training, as we will see next. Their positive attitudes towards involvement in the training programme (see 3.6.2.1) generally reflect their dissatisfaction with the current teaching methods, and their willingness to find alternative practices to apply in their vocabulary teaching.

In so far as the first three questions of the study were answered, the VLST programme (see Chapter 4) was designed, trialled, and evaluated (see Chapter 5) so as to establish a definite answer to S3’s question, as stated below.

6.2 Study 3 results: trial and evaluation of the VLST programme

This section summarises the answers to the main research question, which is:

➢ Does training Libyan EFL teachers in how to teach vocabulary learning strategies play any significant role in vocabulary strategy use and perceptions by either teachers or students?

The analysis of the pre-, post-, and delayed data obtained in this study generally showed an increase in the overall mean scores for use and usefulness in both discovery and consolidation categories, which resulted in changing the participants’ general strategy use and perceptions of such strategies. According to the results of the VLS questionnaires, there was a

247 significant difference between prior and post responses, suggesting that the VLST programme was able to promote the participants’ awareness with regard to the use and usefulness of vocabulary learning strategies. However, before providing a more definitive answer to the research question, it would be useful to remember some details that served as a basis for our final conclusion. For the sake of clarity, teachers’ and students’ results will be discussed separately in the two subsequent sections, beginning with those from the participating teachers.

6.2.1 Effect on teachers’ promotion and perceived usefulness of VLSs

The statistical outcomes showed that the training programme had a positive impact on teachers’ usage of VLSs, which was clearly evident by the paired sample t-test results achieved. When comparing VLSQ1 and VLSQ2 results, a statistical difference was found in the results of the experimental groups’ teachers, while no such difference was found in the control groups. This in turn, suggests that the two weeks of strategy training, which were followed by ten weeks of classroom strategy integration, encouraged the teachers’ use/promotion of vocabulary learning strategies in their teaching practices. Both discovery and consolidation strategies significantly improved by the end of the semester, with the increase made in the former being much more impressive than that in the latter. Bearing this in mind, the teachers seemed to be more interested in assisting students on how to discover the meaning of newly encountered words than consolidating their meaning. One possible explanation for this might be the teachers’ consistent need to cover the materials required, which may make it difficult for them to take further action to help students to consolidate the meanings of words. Here, it should be borne in mind that promoting the use of discovery strategies was initially favoured when compared to promoting consolidation strategies, and the conducted training served to enhance the promotion of using both categories, with the former still being the most preferred type, not only among the

248 participating teachers, but also among their students, as will be discussed next.

Encouragingly, the VLST programme also positively affected the teachers’ perceived usefulness of VLSs, which resulted in bridging the gap between frequency of use/promoting the use of VLSs and perceptions of utility. This was clearly supported by the paired sample t-test results discussed above in this chapter. Another finding that emerged from the data analysis was that the training programme seemed to [a certain extent] succeed in making teachers, in both groups, see value in vocabulary learning strategies and their integration into their classrooms.

Finally, when comparing teachers’ results with those of their learners it was obvious the participants’ adoption of VLSs is independent. In other words, there was no correlation between teachers’ and students’ use of vocabulary learning strategies. This finding further supports that of Pavič ić Takač (2008), who concluded that students choose their own vocabulary learning strategies regardless of the compatible VTSs utilised by their teachers.

6.2.2 Effects on students’ use and perceived usefulness on VLSs

Positive changes had also occurred in students’ use and perceptions of the usefulness of vocabulary learning strategies by the end of the semester. Again, the use of discovery strategies was much higher than that of consolidation, which might be attributed to the fact that students normally restrict themselves to discovering the meaning in order to answer and comprehend the questions. This finding however, is consistent with that of Aljadee (2007). When analysing the average mean scores for the two categories of VLSs, it can be seen that the gap between frequency of use and perceptions was balanced after the training. In other words, almost all the strategies that were considered effective were utilised more often, whereas with CG students, who did not receive any strategy instruction, there were still

249 some learning strategies, though used frequently, that were undervalued, and vice versa.

Prior to conducting the VLST programme, VLSs were used and perceived useful to a medium extent, but this later changed to a high level in the delayed survey (≥ 3, see Table 40). The ten weeks of training seem to have had an impact on the students’ awareness of these strategies, and this impact seems to have been durable. Most of the students became aware of learning strategies and continued using them even though the training was over, which in turn indicates that the students have benefited from the VLST programme.

To conclude, the analysis of the quantitative and qualitative data reveals that teaching vocabulary learning strategies plays a positive role in increasing teachers’ and learners’ use, awareness, and perceptions of usefulness of such strategies.

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7.0 Conclusion

This thesis began by asking the following questions:

1. What vocabulary learning strategies do Libyan EFL teachers at a university level know/promote to their students? 2. What vocabulary learning strategies do Libyan EFL learners at a university level use/know? 3. To what extent do Libyan EFL teachers believe that vocabulary learning strategies can be taught? 4. Does training Libyan EFL teachers on how to teach the vocabulary learning strategies play any significant role in vocabulary strategy use and perceptions by either teachers or students?

In order to answer these questions, three studies were carried out in a predetermined order. Firstly the data on what Libyan EFL teachers and learners are doing in terms of VLSs promoted/utilised, teaching methods adopted, and attitudes towards the teachability of VLSs were collected via a multi-method approach in the form of a VLS questionnaire, a semi-structured interview and classroom observations. Upon completing the analysis of study 1, the first three questions, as stated above, were answered, and based on the results obtained alongside literature within the context of strategy instruction, study 2, the Vocabulary Learning Strategy Training programme was designed. This study comprised two main stages, with teachers targeted in the first stage and students in the second one. After that the VLST programme was trialled and then evaluated in study 3 so as to provide an answer to the fourth and most important question in this research, as mentioned above.

In relation to question one, the results achieved suggest that Libyan EFL teachers at the Al-jabal Al-gharbi University promote the use of vocabulary learning strategies to their students to a medium extent, with determination and social strategies being the most utilised, followed by cognitive strategies, metacognitive strategies, and memory strategies. Out of the 58 VLSs

251 suggested by Schmitt (1997), i.e. the taxonomy of the present research, only 13 strategies (see section 5.6.1) were identified during the investigations as being frequently reinforced by teachers. This number is certainly small when compared with that mentioned above. It should be stressed that the empirical research on the influence of introducing VLS training to language teachers, to the best of my knowledge, is very limited, and most studies have concentrated on examining the impact of strategy instruction on language learners’ achievements. That is why this thesis is devoted to gaining more insight into the impact of strategic intervention on both teachers and learners. This research can serve as the basis for further studies and can also be of use to teachers who want to integrate strategic intervention into their classes. The results of the study cannot be considered conclusive however, and thus calling for more thorough research in this area is certainly advised.

With regard to question two, the research has shown that strategy use for Libyan EFL learners before the training was moderate. Determination strategies came first in terms of utilisation followed by cognitive strategies, social strategies, metacognitive strategies, and lastly, memory strategies. The use of various vocabulary learning strategies, based on the data obtained, is not very common amongst the students since out of the 58 strategies, only ten strategies (see section 5.6.1) were highly utilised. The VLSs that are used by the students are mostly simple and direct, and this may explain why Libyan EFL learners are more familiar with the use of determination strategies than that of cognitive and metacognitive ones. Although these results differ from the findings of Kafipour & Naveh (2011), they are broadly consistent with those of Kasmani & Bengar (2013) and Amirian & Heshmatifar (2013). It is advisable for language teachers to be aware of their students’ strategic profile (Pavič ić Takač , 2008) as the more conscious they are of the strategies employed by their learners, the better they may plan for the introduction of effective strategy instruction. The students’ utilisation of some shallow strategies (e.g., repetition strategies) was still predominant after the VLST, which is perhaps due to their ease of employment. The use of deep or complex strategies (e.g., word formation and imagery) was also improved. According to the results achieved,

252 the strategies implemented by the experimental groups’ students outnumbered those of the control groups, which probably explains the achievements made throughout the semester (see section 5.5.2). In addition, teachers and students seemed to make further use of VLSs (see section 5.4), even though the training was over, which is a very encouraging sign.

Question three related to the teachability of vocabulary learning strategies. In answering this question, several factors were identified. Some related to educational policies and facilities (e.g., large class sizes and lack of in-/out service training), while others related to language learners (e.g., proficiency and learning style) and the teachers themselves (e.g., motivation and teaching style). Sections 3.5.1 and 3.5.6 mention some more obstacles that may impede the introduction of the training in classrooms. It should be borne in mind that these concerns were generally raised before the VLST programme was conducted. It was my intention to identify the teachers’ prior and post- assumptions with regard to the teachability of VLSs as well as to somehow surmount any possible difficulties that could be encountered during the implementation. Despite some constraints, many teachers reported that integrating regular strategy training could yield satisfactory results for both teachers and learners. Once the teachers became involved in the training programme, their awareness, motivation, and promotion of the use of VLSs were noticeably increased (see section 5.5.1). The training made a significant difference to the teachers’ beliefs on the value of strategies and strategy integration. Research conducted on the teachability of VLSs is fairly limited, especially that dealing with the training of a great number of strategies (Tassana-ngam, 2004). The findings of the current study show the success of training in multiple strategies in a real EFL context. These results generally support those observed in earlier studies (Cohen & Aphek, 1981; Avila & Sadoski, 1996, Tassana-ngam, 2004; Aktekin & Guven, 2007; Tanyer & Ozturk, 2014; Trendak, 2015). Notwithstanding the fact that the previously mentioned studies are devoted to training a single type of VLS, all concluded that language learning strategies are teachable.

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In terms of question three, after VLST the experimental groups showed better progress when it came to adoption, usage and perceptions of usefulness than the control groups. This is clearly supported by the post- and delayed results that were obtained (see previous Chapter). It was also comforting to learn that strategic intervention succeeded in bridging the gap between the frequency of use and the perceived usefulness of VLSs. For example, teachers prior to the training encouraged students to implement certain strategies, although they were not sure about their potential utility, but when teachers had received the training, their perceptions regarding the efficiency of most strategies became more positive. Learners are more likely to depend on their teachers, or moreover, copy their strategic behaviour, and in order to persuade students to use more VLSs, their teachers should firstly be convinced of the value of working on such strategies, which this research has succeeded in achieving. However, with the aforementioned discussion in mind, it can be concluded that the findings of the present research generally accept the alternative hypothesis and reject the null one (see section 1.9). In other words, this research suggests that VLS instruction has an impact on teachers’ and students’ strategy adoption, use, and perceptions of helpfulness.

7.1 Research limitation

Despite the useful information presented in this research, it is not devoid of some limitations. To start with, there were time constraints. Although the VLST ran over a period of 12 weeks this might not have been enough time to guarantee that teachers obtained a comprehensive picture of VLSs, compatible VTSs, and strategy intervention. A similar argument holds true for the students’ training. Twenty minutes of strategy instruction per day was rather limiting in terms of being able to check students’ understanding and provide ample opportunities to practise and evaluate the strategies introduced. Therefore, it would be beneficial to regularly conduct similar programmes, workshops, and courses specifically devoted to strategy instruction, by which teachers and students would be provided with practical tips on how to integrate VLSs into their vocabulary teaching/learning. The current study was also

254 limited by the small sample size of teachers, which may not allow for making broader generalisations. The step that further research may take is to include a greater number of language teachers in order to provide more comprehensive information on strategic intervention. Another limitation encountered was that the participants rejected being recorded visually. In order to overcome this, I resorted to using pen and paper and an observation sheet designed for the purpose. The use of pen and paper has its limitations however, as it is not optimally efficient and prevented me from recording all of what happened in the classroom. One final shortcoming was the translation of data. All the instruments utilised in this research were initially translated into Arabic, and extensive quantitative and qualitative data were gathered, which then needed to be translated back into English. This required more time and effort in order to check the translated data. Although Arabic-English linguistic specialists from Manchester Metropolitan University and other colleagues revised the translation done by the researcher, the process was not free from its own inconveniences.

7.2 Research contribution and implications

Despite its limitations, the present study touches upon a significant issue, the creation of a ‘strategic teacher’ who is equipped with theoretical and practical knowledge of how to integrate strategic intervention into their regular classes. Teachers need not only to teach learning strategies but also to learn more about how to effectively prepare and introduce strategy instruction (Trendak, 2015). This study provides a framework for those who are interested in implementing strategy training, as well as for the exploration of the impact of strategy intervention on teachers. While it may be a study of students and teachers in one Libyan university, it perhaps has implications for teacher training in the whole country and beyond. The key strengths of this study are not only its long duration and focus on providing strategy instruction for multiple strategies in a real learning context, but also the fact that, for the first time, it goes some way towards presenting new and in-depth insights into teachers’ training, awareness and perceptions of usefulness in terms of VLSs.

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The pressing need to switch attention from learners to teachers with regard to being involved in strategy training has been successfully highlighted in this study. It is perhaps now the decision-makers' and educators’ mission to conduct professional strategy training for teachers in their universities, and design, for example, strategy guidebooks or materials to assist teachers in conducting strategic interventions in their classrooms.

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8.0 APPENDICES

8.1 Appendix 1: S1 teachers’ questionnaire (TVLSQ)

Dear teacher… This questionnaire is an attempt to gather information about how much Libyan EFL teachers at university level know about vocabulary learning strategies. Your answers are highly valued and your co-operation genuinely appreciated. The data collected will be kept strictly confidential and will only be used to serve this particular research. If you are interested in the results of this survey, please do not hesitate to leave your e-mail address and a copy of the results will be sent to you afterwards.

Structure of the questionnaire...

This questionnaire is split into two parts: the first part (a) is personal information, whereas part (b) is the vocabulary learning strategy. The questionnaire is an attempt to discover the strategies that teachers include in their classes, so there are no right or wrong answers here.

I. Background Information

a) Gender: Male Female

b) How many years have you taught English? ______

c) Have you received any training on how to teach vocabulary-learning

strategies? If yes (Please specify what type of training:

______). If not please tick here

Note: If you are interested in the results, please leave your mail :

______

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II. Vocabulary Learning Strategies ❖ Please tick the appropriate response (no more than one for each question)

Q: To what degree do you promote the use of the following

strategies in your class?

Often

Never

Rarely

Always

Sometimes

1. Analysing part of speech (e.g. noun, verb) تحليل أجزاء الكالم )مثال: اسم، فعل إلخ...( 2. Analysing affixes and roots (e.g. un-predict-able) تحليل لواحق الكلمة وجذورها (الجبر-Algebra ,الكحول -checking for L1 cognate (e.g. Alcohol .3 التحقق من شبيه أو مثيل الكلمة الجديدة في اللغة العربية 4. Analysing any available pictures or gestures تحليل الصور واإليماءات المتاحة 5. Guessing from textual context التخمين من خالل سياق النص المقروء أو المكتوب 6. Using a dictionary استخدام القاموس 7. Using word lists استخدام قوائم الكلمات 8. Using L1 (Arabic) translation الترجمة للغة العربية 9. Paraphrasing the new words or giving synonyms إعادة صياغة الكلمة أو إعطاء مرادفها 10. Giving sentences include the new word إعطاء جملة تتضمن الكلمة الجديدة 11. Asking classmates for meaning طلب المعنى من طالب الفصل 12. Discovering the meaning through group work activity اكتشاف المعنى من خالل النشاط الجماعي 13. Drawing a picture of the new word رسم صورة للكلمة الجديدة 14. Understanding the meaning of the new word by looking at the accompanying picture فهم معنى الكلمة الجديدة من خالل النظر إلى الصور المصاحبة لها

258

Q: To what degree do you promote the use of the following

strategies in your class?

Often

Never

Rarely

Always Sometimes

15. Connecting the word to a personal experience ربط الكلمة بتجربة شخصية مررت بها 16. Associating the word with its coordinates (e.g. apple, pears, peaches) جمع الكلمة مع مثيالتها مثال: تفاح، كمثرى، خوخ 17. Associating new words with their synonyms or antonymous (e.g. quick – fast), (quick – slow) جمع الكلمات الجديدة مع مرادفاتها أو أضدادها

18. Using semantic maps sunny  Weather  rainy warm   cloudy استخدام الخرائط الذهنية أو الداللية 19. Using scales for gradable adjectives (e.g. freezing, cold, hot, boiling) استخدام جداول الصفات المتغيرة مثال: يغلي، ساخن، بارد، متجمد 20. Placing the word in a group with other items based on topic, theme or function وضع الكلمات في مجموعة حسب الموضوع، الفكرة أو الوظيفة 21. Using new words in sentences to remember them استخدام الكلمات الجديدة في جمل ليسهل تذكرها 22. Writing a word repeatedly كتابة الكلمة عدة مرات 23. Acting out or miming the new word القيام بحركات جسدية لتمثيل الكلمة الجديدة 24. Repeating a word (i.e. aloud, in mind, by spelling it) تكرار الكلمة )بصوت عا ٍل، في الذهن، بتهجئتها( 25. Imagining the written form of a word to remember it. تخيل الشكل الكتابي للكلمة ليسهل تذكرها 26. Typing or listening to tapes of new words. تسجيل أو االستماع ألشرطة للكلمات الجديدة 27. Taking notes in class اخذ مالحظات في الفصل 28. Skipping or ignoring the unknown word تخطي أو تجاهل الكلمة الغير معروفة 29. Using the vocabulary section or glossaries in the textbook استخدام باب المفردات الموجود في الكتاب المدرسي

259

Q: To what degree do you promote the use of the

following strategies in your class?

Often

Never

Rarely

Always Sometimes

30. Using English-language media (e.g. songs, movies, newscasts, etc.) استخدام وسائل االعالم الناطقة باللغة اإلنجليزية مثل األغاني واألفالم 31. Continuing to study word over time (i.e. revising it several times during the day) االستمرار في دراسة الكلمة مع مرور الوقت )مراجعتها عدة مرات( 32. Writing new words in vocabulary notebook كتابة الكلمات الجديدة في دفتر المفردات 33. Using the keyword method (e.g., to connect the word (in Arabic سُنبلة symbol to the picture of استخدام طريقة Keyword مثال: ربط كلمة symbol بكلمة ُسنبلة في اللغة العربية 34. Grouping words together spatially on a page جمع الكلمات الجديدة مع معانيها في اللغة العربية في صفحة واحدة، ولكن ليس في شكل أعمدة، كأن تكتب على سبيل المثال الترجمة في أسفل الصفحة بشكل قطري 35. Paraphrasing the word’s meaning إعادة صياغة معنى الكلمة الجديدة 36. Learning words of an expression together as if they were just one word (e.g. what a shame!) تعلم مفردات المصطلحات مع بعض كما لو أنها كلمة واحدة 37. Underlining initial letter of the word تحديد أو وضع خط تحت الحرف األول من الكلمة 38. Outlining the word with lines (configuration) e.g. 'elephant' تحديد الكلمة بخطوط فوق وتحت

39. Do you think VLSs can be taught? Yes, because ______No, because ______

40. How do you wish to help your students with vocabulary learning? كيف ترغب/تتمنى ان تساعد طالبك في تعلم المفردات؟ ………………………………………………………………………………………… 41. Would you be receptive to being trained in vocabulary-learning strategies? إذا تم اجراء دورة تدريبية للمعلمين في استراتيجيات تعلم المفردات، هل ترغب في المشاركة فيها؟ ………………………………………………………………………………………

Thank you for being helpful and cooperative

260

8.2 Appendix 2: S1 students’ questionnaire (SVLSQ)

Dear student.... I am working on a research project that studies the vocabulary learning strategies among Libyan EFL learners. It will be greatly appreciated if you can co-operate with me and spend some time on finishing the questionnaire. This will probably take less than 35 minutes.

The questionnaire is an attempt to discover the strategies that students apply to their vocabulary learning, so there are no right or wrong answers here.

Note: your answers will be kept strictly confidential. Structure of the questionnaire... This questionnaire is split into two parts: the first part (a) is personal information, whereas part (b) is the vocabulary learning strategy.

a) Background Information: • Please, tick the suitable answer for you

a) Gender: Male Female

b) Age: 17-20 21-25 over 25

c) Level: year 1 year 2 year 3 year 4

261 b) Vocabulary Learning Strategies ❖ Please tick the appropriate response (no more than one for each question)

The statement (Think what you do when you

encounter a new word)

Often

Never

Rarely

Always Sometimes 1. I try to analyse part of speech (e.g. noun, verb) 2. I try to analyse affixes and roots (e.g. un-predict-able) -Algebra ,الكحول -I check for L1 cognate (e.g. Alcohol .3 (الجبر 4. I try to analyse any available pictures or gestures. 5. I try to guess from textual context. 6. I use a dictionary. 7. I use a word list for studying new words. 8. I ask teacher for L1 translation. 9. I ask teacher for paraphrase or synonyms of new words. 10. I ask teacher for a sentence including the new word. 11. I ask the meaning of an unknown word from my classmates. 12. I try to discover the meaning through group work activity. 13. I draw a picture of the new word. 14. I try to understand the meaning of the new word by looking at the accompanying picture. 15. I try to connect the word to a personal experience. 16. I associate the word with its coordinates (e.g. apple, pears, peaches) 17. I associate new words with their synonyms or antonyms (e.g. quick – fast), (quick – slow) 18. I do a mind map sunny weather  rainy

19. I use scales for gradable adjectives (e.g. freezing, cold, hot, boiling)

262

The statement (Think what you do when you encounter

a new word)

Often

Never

Rarely

Always Sometimes 20. I place the word in a group with other items based on topic, theme or function. 21. I use new words in sentences to remember them. 22. I write a word repeatedly. 23. I act out or mime the new word. 24. I repeat a word (aloud or whisper to myself, in my mind, or by spelling it) 25. I try to imagine the written form of a word to remember it. 26. I try to tape or listen to tapes of new words. 27. I take notes in class. 28. I skip or ignore the unknown word. 29. I use the vocabulary section or glossaries in my textbook. 30. I use English-language media (e.g. songs, movies, newscasts, etc.) 31. I continue to study word over time (i.e. revise it several times during the day) 32. I write new words in vocabulary notebook. 33. I use the keyword method (e.g., to connect the word (in Arabic سُنبلة symbol to the picture of 34. I try to group words together spatially on a page. 35. I try to paraphrase the word’s meaning. 36. I learn words of an expression together as if they were just one word (e.g. what a shame!) 37. I try to underline initial letter of the word. 38. I try to outline the word with lines (configuration) e.g. 'elephant'

263

39. Do you use any other way of learning words that are not mentioned in this questionnaire, if YES please write it here: ………………………………………………………………………………………… 40. What difficulties do you encounter when learning English vocabulary? ………………………………………………………………………………………… 41. Have you trained to learn about vocabulary learning strategies? If YES when and how? ………………………………………………………………………………………… 42. How do you wish your English teacher to help you with vocabulary learning? ………………………………………………………………………………………… 43. Would you be receptive to being taught vocabulary-learning strategies in your classroom? …………………………………………………………………………………………

Thank you for being helpful and cooperative

264

8.3 Appendix 3: S1 students’ questionnaire (Arabic version)

استبيان حول استراتيجيات تعلم المفردات

عزيزي الطالب ....

أقوم بإجراء بحث حول االستراتيجيات التي يستخدمها طلبة قسم اللغة اإلنجليزية في تعلمهم لمفرداتها، وسأكون ممتنةٌ جداً إذا تعاونتم معي في اإلجابة عن أسئلة االستبيان التي لن تستغرق الكثير من وقتكم.

مالحظة: اجاباتكم عن أسئلة االستبيان سيتم حفظها بسرية تامة .

بُنية االستبيان ...

ينقسم هذا االستبيان إلى قسمين:

أ( المعلومات الشخصية

ب( استراتيجيات تعلم المفردات.

أ( المعلومات الشخصية:

❖ من فضلك ضع إشارة عن اإلجابة المناسبة:

1. الجنس: ذكر انثى

2. العمر: 17-20 20-25 أكثر من 25

3. المستوى: سنة أولى سنة ثانية سنة ثالثة سنة رابعة

265

ب( استراتيجيات تعلم المفردات:

❖ من فضلك، لكل سؤال من األسئلة االتية اختر إجابة واحدة فقط من الخيارات الخمسة ماذا تفعل عندما تواجهك كلمة جديدة في اللغة اإلنجليزية. كيف تتعلمها؟ دائما عادة احيانا نادرا ابدا

1. أحاول ان احلل أجزاء الكالم )مثال: اسم، فعل( 2. أحاول تحليل لواحق الكلمة وجذورها )مثل: un-predict-able) 3. أحاول إيجاد شبيه الكلمة في اللغة العربية مثال: الكحول (Alcohol( الجبر )Algebra( 4. أحاول ان أخمن او احلل الصور واالشارات المتاحة )مثال: الصور المرفقة مع الدرس أو حركات المعلم( 5. أحاول ان أخمن معنى الكلمة من سياق النص. 6. استخدم القاموس. 7. استخدم قائمة الكلمات )word lists( لتعلم المفردات. 8. اطلب من المعلم ترجمة الكلمة للغة العربية. 9. اطلب من المعلم إعطاء مرادفاً للكلمة الجديدة أو إعادة صياغتها باستخدام كلمات أخرى مشابهة لها. 10. اطلب من المعلم إعطاء جملة تتضمن الكلمة الجديدة. 11. اطلب من زمالئي معنى الكلمة الجديدة. 12. أحاول اكتشاف معنى الكلمة من خالل النشاط الجماعي مع الطلبة. 13. ارسم صورة للكلمة الجديدة. 14. افهم معنى الكلمة من خالل النظر إلى الصورة المرفقة معها. 15. أحاول ربط معنى الكلمة الجديدة بتجربة شخصية مررت بها. 16. أحاول ربط الكلمة الجديدة بمثيالتها )مثال: خوخ، تفاح، إجاص( 17. أحاول ربط معنى الكلمة الجديدة مع مرادفاتها أو اضدادها مثال: (quick – slow)،(quick – fast) 18. أقوم برسم خريطة ذهنية للكلمة:

دافئ مشمس الجو ممطر غائم

266

ماذا تفعل عندما تواجهك كلمة جديدة في اللغة اإلنجليزية. كيف دائما عادة احيانا نادرا مطلقا تتعلمها؟ 19. استخدم ميزان الكلمات أو الصفات:

Freezing cold hot boiling 20. أحاول تصنيف الكلمة الجديدة في مجموعات حسب الموضوع، الفكرة أو الوظيفة. 21. استخدم الكلمات الجديدة في جمل ليسهل تذكرها. 22. اكتب الكلمة الجديدة مراراً وتكراراً لكي أتعلمها. 23. أحاول تمثيل او تقليد الكلمة الجديدة . 24. أُكرار الكلمة الجديدة: )لنفسي بصوت عا ٍل أو صوت خافت، في ذهني، من خالل ته ُجاؤها( 25. أحاول تخيل اح ُرف الكلمة ليس ُهل تذكرها. 26. استخدم األشرطة لتسجيل أو سماع الكلمات الجديدة. 27. أُدون مالحظات في الفصل. 28. اتجاهل أو اتخطى الكلمة الجديدة التي ال اعرف معناها. 29. استخدم باب المفردات الموجود في الكتاب المدرسي. 30. استخدم وسائل اإلعالم الناطقة باللغة اإلنجليزية مثل: األغاني، األفالم، نشرات األخبار إلخ... 31. أُراجع الكلمة عدة مرات في اليوم. 32. اكتب الكلمات الجديدة في دفتر المفردات. 33. أحاول استخدام استراتيجية key method كأن تربط كلمة symbol بصورة ُسنبلة أو شيء من هذا القبيل. 34. جمع الكلمات الجديدة مع معانيها في اللغة العربية في صفحة واحدة، ولكن ليس في شكل أعمدة، كأن تكتب على سبيل المثال الترجمة في أسفل الصفحة بشكل قطري إلخ... 35. أحاول إعادة صياغة معنى الكلمة ليسهل حفظها. 36. تعلم كلمات المصطلحات معاً كما لو أنها كلمة واحدة مثل: What a shame! 37. التركيز على الحرف األول من الكلمة أو وضع حط تحته. 38. تحديد الكلمة من خالل وضع خطوط فوق وتحت الكلمة.

39. هل تستخدم أي وسيلة أخرى لتعلم المفردات لم تُذكر في هذا االستبيان؟ إذا كانت اإلجابة بنعم، الرجاء كتابة الوسيلة أو الطريقة هنا: ...... 40. ماهي الصعوبات التي تواجهك عند تعلُمك لمفردات اللغة اإلنجليزية؟ ...... 41. هل سبق أن تدربت على استراتيجيات تعلم المفردات؟ إذا كانت إجابتك بنعم، الرجاء أن تكتب متى؟ ...... وكيف؟ ......

267

42. هل تتمنى أن يُساعدك مدرس اللغة اإلنجليزية في تعلم المفردات؟ ولماذا؟ ...... 43. هل توافق على فكرة تدريس استراتيجيات تعلم المفردات داخل الفصل؟ ......

شكرا جزيال لتعاونكم

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8.4 Appendix 4: Schmitt’s original questionnaire (SOQ)

The questionnaire is an attempt to discover the strategies that students apply to their vocabulary learning, so there are no right or wrong answers here.

Note: your answers will be kept strictly confidential.

Structure of the questionnaire...

This questionnaire is split into two parts: the first part (a) is personal information, whereas part (b) is the vocabulary learning strategy.

a) Background Information: • Please, tick the suitable answer for you

1. Gender: Male Female

2. Age: 17-20 21-25 over 25

3. Level: year 1 year 2 year 3 year 4

269 b) Vocabulary Learning Strategies ❖ Please tick the appropriate response (no more than one for each question)

The statement (Think what you do Always Often Some Rarely Never when you encounter a new word) - times 1. I analyse parts of speech 2. I analyse affixes and roots 3. I check for L1 cognate 4. I analyse any available pictures or gestures 5. I guess from textual context 6. I use bilingual dictionary 7. I use monolingual dictionary 8. I use word list 9. I use flash cards 10. I ask teacher for L1 translation 11. I ask teachers for paraphrase or synonym of new word 12. I ask teachers for a sentence including the new word 13. I ask classmates for meaning 14. I try to discover new meaning through group work activity 15. I try to study and practise meaning in a group 16. I ask teacher to check my flash cards or word lists for accuracy. 17. I try to interact with native-speakers 18. I study word with a pictorial representation of its meaning 19. I image words meaning 20. I connect the word to a personal experience 21. I associate the word with its coordinates 22. I connect the word to its synonyms and antonyms 23. I use semantic maps 24. I use ‘scales’ for gradable adjective

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The statement (Think what you do Always Often Some- Rarely Never when you encounter a new word) times 25. I use the Peg Method 26. I use the Loci Method 27. I group words together to study them 28. I group words together spatially on a page 29. I use new word in sentences 30. I group words together within a storyline 31. I study the spelling of a word 32. I study the sound of a word 33. I say new word aloud when studying 34. I image word form 35. I underline initial letter of the word 36. I use configuration 37. I use the keyword method 38. I analyse affixes and roots to remember the new word 39. I analyse parts of speech to remember the new word 40. I paraphrase the word’s meaning 41. I use cognates in study 42. I learn the words of an idiom together 43. I use physical action when learning a word 44. I use semantic features grids 45. I say the word repeatedly 46. I write the word repeatedly 47. I use word list 48. I use flash cards 49. I take notes in class 50. I use the vocabulary section in my textbook 51. I listen to tape of word lists 52. I put English labels on physical objects 53. I keep a vocabulary notebook 54. I use English-language media (songs, movies, newscasts, etc.) 55. I test myself with word tests 56. I use spaced word practice 57. I skip or pass new word 58. I continue to study word over time

(Thank you)

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8.5 Appendix 5: Schmitt’s original questionnaire (SOQ) (Arabic version)

استبيان حول استراتيجيات تعلم المفردات

عزيزي الطالب .... أقوم بإجراء بحث حول االستراتيجيات التي يستخدمها طلبة قسم اللغة اإلنجليزية في تعلمهم لمفرداتها، وسأكون ممتنةٌ جداً إذا تعاونتم معي في اإلجابة عن أسئلة االستبيان التي لن تستغرق الكثير من وقتكم. مالحظة: اجاباتكم عن أسئلة االستبيان سيتم حفظها بسرية تامة . بُنية االستبيان ...

ينقسم هذا االستبيان إلى قسمين: أ( المعلومات الشخصية ب( استراتيجيات تعلم المفردات.

أ( المعلومات الشخصية: ❖ من فضلك ضع إشارة عن اإلجابة المناسبة: 1. الجنس: ذكر انثى 2. العمر: 17-20 20-25 أكثر من 25 3. المستوى: سنة أولى سنة ثانية سنة ثالثة سنة رابعة

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ب( استراتيجيات تعلم المفردات: ❖ من فضلك، لكل سؤال من األسئلة االتية اختر إجابة واحدة فقط من الخيارات الخمسة ماذا تفعل عندما تواجهك كلمة جديدة في اللغة اإلنجليزية. كيف دائما عادة احيانا نادرا ابدا تتعلمها؟ 1. احلل أجزاء الكالم )مثال: اسم، فعل، حرف إلخ...( 2. أحلل لواحق الكلمة وجذورها )مثل: un-predict-able) 3. أحاول إيجاد شبيه الكلمة في اللغة العربية مثال: الكحول – Alcohol / الجبر -Algebra 4. أحاول ان أخمن او احلل الصور واالشارات المتاحة )مثال: الصور المرفقة مع الدرس أو حركات وإيماءات المعلم( 5. أخمن معنى الكلمة من سياق النص 6. استخدم قاموس انجليزي – انجليزي 7. استخدم قاموس عربي – انجليزي 8. استخدم بطاقات العرض السريع )flash cards( 9. استخدم قائمة الكلمات )word lists( لتعلم المفردات الجديدة 10. اطلب من المعلم ترجمة الكلمة للغة العربية 11. اطلب من المعلم إعطاء مرادفاً للكلمة الجديدة أو إعادة صياغتها باستخدام كلمات أخرى مشابهة لها 12. اطلب من المعلم إعطاء جملة تتضمن الكلمة الجديدة 13. اطلب من زمالئي معنى الكلمة الجديدة 14. أحاول اكتشاف معنى الكلمة من خالل النشاط الجماعي مع الطلبة 15. أحاول دراسة وممارسة الكلمة الجديدة في مجموعة 16. أطلب من المعلم التحقق من بطاقات العرض السريع وقوائم الكلمات الخاصة بي للتأكد من دقتها 17. أتحدث مع اشخاص يجيدون اللغة اإلنجليزية 18. أدرس الكلمة مع التمثيل التصويري لمعناها 19. أحاول تخيل معنى الكلمة الجديدة 20. أحاول ربط معنى الكلمة الجديدة بتجربة شخصية مررت بها سابقا ً 21. اربط الكلمة الجديدة مع مثيالتها )مثال: خوخ، تفاح، إجاص إلخ.( 22. اربط الكلمات الجديدة مع مرادفاتها أو اضدادها مثال: )quick -slow( ،)quick -fast( 23. أرسم خريطة ذهنية للكلمة الجديدة:

مشمس الجو دافئ ممطر غائم

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ماذا تفعل عندما تواجهك كلمة جديدة في اللغة اإلنجليزية. كيف دائما عادة احيانا نادرا ابدا تتعلمها؟ 24. استخدم ميزان الكلمات أو الصفات: Freezing - cold - hot - boiling 25. أستخدم طريقة الربط أي ان اربط الكلمات بقافية ليسهل حفظها، مثال: One is bun, two is a shoe, three is a tree, four is a door etc… 26. أستخدم طريقة المواضع أو األماكن، أي ان تربط الكلمات التي تريد تعلمها باماكن في غرفة مألوفة لك ومن ثم تحاول تذكرالكلمات من خالل تصور موقعها 27. اجمع الكلمات مع بعضها البعض لكي أدرسها 28. جمع الكلمات الجديدة مع معانيها في اللغة العربية في صفحة واحدة، ولكن ليس في شكل أعمدة، كأن تكتب على سبيل المثال الترجمة في أسفل الصفحة بشكل قطري الخ. 29. استخدم الكلمة الجديدة في جمل ليسهل تعلمها 30. اجمع الكلمات مع بعضها البعض ضمن قصة أو كقصة 31. ادرس احرف الكلمة الجديدة و اتهجؤها 32. ادرس صوت الكلمة الجديدة 33. أقول الكلمات الجديدة بصوت عالي عند دراستها 34. أحاول تخيل شكل الكلمة 35. اضع خط تحت الحرف األول من الكلمة 36. أضع خطوط فوق وتحت الكلمة لسهل تذكرها 37. استخدم )Keyword Method( مثال: ان تربط كلمة symbol بصورة سُنبلة في اللغة العربية 38. ادرس لواحق الكلمة وجذورها ليسهل تذكرها 39. احلل أجزاء الكالم ليسهل تذكر الكلمات الجديدة 40. أقوم بإعادة صياغة معنى الكلمة الجديدة 41. اصنف الكلمات الجديدة في مجموعات حسب الموضوع، الفكرة أو الوظيفة 42. تعلم كلمات المصطلحات معاً كما لو أنها كلمةً واحدةً مثال: What a shame! 43. أقوم بحركات أو إيماءات عند تعلم المفردات الجديدة 44. استخدم استراتيجية جدول خصائص الكلمات، كأن تكتب في أعمدة الحشرات التي لها 6 أرجل = النحل/النمل/الدبابير. لها اجنحة = النحل/الدبابير. تلسع = النحل/الدبابير 45. اكرر الكلمة الجديدة عدة مرات شفهيا ً 46. اكتب الكلمة الجديدة عدة مرات ليسهل تذكرها 47. استخدم قائمة الكلمات 48. استخدم بطاقات العرض السريع (flash cards)

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ماذا تفعل عندما تواجهك كلمة جديدة في اللغة اإلنجليزية. دائما عادة احيانا نادرا مطلقا كيف تتعلمها؟ 49. أقوم بأخذ مالحظات في الفصل 50. استخدم باب المفردات الموجود في نهاية الكتاب المدرسي 51. استمع الى قائمة المفردات المسجلة على شريط التسجيل 52. اضع التسميات اإلنجليزية في شكل حركات أو ايماءات جسدية 53. احتفظ بدفتر مالحظات خاص بالمفردات الجديدة 54. استمع لوسائل االعالم الناطقة باللغة اإلنجليزية مثل: األغاني، األفالم نشرات االخبار، الخ. 55. امتحن نفسي باستخدام اختبار الكلمات 56. ادرس الكلمات الجديدة على فترات خالل اليوم 57. أحاول تجاهل أو تخطي الكلمة الجديدة 58. استمر في دراسة الكلمة الجديدة مع مرور الوقت

شكرا جزيال لتعاونكم

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8.6 Appendix 6: Observation sheet

Teacher: ______Observer: ______University:

______Class/level: ______Lesson observed ______No. of students:

______Date: ______Start: ______Finish: ______

Type of vocabulary learning strategies Group Observed Not observed Comments 1. Determination

• Analysing affixes and roots Discovery • Guess meaning from textual context Discovery • Use a dictionary (bilingual or monolingual) Discovery • Analysing part of speech Discovery • Check for L1 cognate Discovery • Word lists Discovery • Flash cards Discovery

Notes ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

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Type of vocabulary learning Group observed Not Comment strategies observed 2. Social

• Ask teacher for an L1 Discovery translation • Ask teachers for paraphrase or Discovery synonyms of new word • Ask teachers for sentence Discovery including the new word • Ask classmates for meaning Discovery • Discover new meaning through Discovery group work activity • Study and practise meaning in Consolidation a group 3. Metacognitive • Use spaced word practise Consolidation • Skip or pass new word Consolidation • Use English language media Consolidation (songs, movies, newscasts etc…)

Notes: ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

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Type of vocabulary learning Group observed Not Comment strategies observed 4. Cognitive

• Verbal repetition Consolidation

• Written repetition Consolidation

• Word lists Consolidation

• Take notes Consolidation

• Use vocabulary section in their Consolidation textbook

• Listen to tape of word lists Consolidation

• Put English labels on physical Consolidation objects

• Keep a vocabulary notebook Consolidation

Notes: ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

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Type of vocabulary learning Group Observed Not Comment strategies observed 5. Memory

• Image word’s meaning Consolidation • Associate the word with its Consolidation coordinates • Connect the word to its synonyms Consolidation and antonyms • Use semantic maps Consolidation • Use ‘scales’ for gradable adjectives Consolidation

• Group words together to study Consolidation them

• Use new words in sentences Consolidation

• Study the spelling of a word Consolidation

• Study the sound of a word Consolidation

• Say new aloud when studying Consolidation

Notes: ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..

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8.7 Appendix 7: Teachers’ interview questions

Hello, I am a PhD student at Manchester Metropolitan University, Faculty of Humanities, Languages and Social Sciences. The purpose of the interview is to explore the impact of vocabulary-learning strategy instruction on Libyan EFL teachers and learners. You are not obligated to mention your name and the information collected in the interview will be only used for this research. All the participants’ details will be secret and confidential.

Institution: ______Time: ______Date: ______

- Can you please tell me something about yourself? (e.g., your name, age and qualifications)

1. How long have you been teaching English? During your personal experience in the teaching field, do you find vocabulary useful? If yes, why? If no, why not? 2. How do you normally teach vocabulary? Do you have a particular method for you to teach in the class? What difficulties do you face in teaching vocabulary? 3. What do you think of vocabulary learning strategies? Are they easy to use/teach? How important are they (e.g., useful, not useful)? Should they be taught? If yes, why? If no, why not? 4. Which strategies do you think can help your students to memorise vocabulary? 5. Do you think training on Vocabulary Learning Strategies would make your students more aware of vocabulary learning? If yes, in what way? If no, why not? 6. How do you feel about the idea of conducting Vocabulary Learning Strategies training? (e.g. good, bad idea?) 7. What would you like to see in vocabulary teaching in the future? 8. Here is your questionnaire; would you like to comment on? THANK YOU

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8.8 Appendix 8: Students’ interview questions

Hello, I am a PhD student at Manchester Metropolitan University, Faculty of Humanities, languages and social sciences. The purpose of the interview is to explore the vocabulary learning strategies among Libyan EFL learners. You are not obligated to mention your name and the information collected in the interview will be only used for this research. All the participants’ details will be secret and confidential.

Institution: ______Time: ______Date: ______This is “a mother’s letter to her son” could you please have a look on it?

My dear J,

I am in a well here and hoping you are also in a well there. I am writing this letter slowly because I know you cannot read fast.

We changed our house. It is really nice. It even has a washing machine situated right above the toilet. I am not sure it works too well. Last week I put in three shirts, pulled the chain and not seen them still.

The weather here is not bad. It rained twice last week. The first time it rained for three days and second time four days.

The coat you wanted me to send you, your aunt said it would be too heavy to send in the mail with all the metal buttons. So we cut them off and put them in the pocket.

Your father has another job. He has five hundred men under him. He is cutting the grass at the cemetery.

Your sister had a baby, this morning, I have not found out whether it is a girl or boy, so I do not know whether you are aunt or uncle.

Your uncle, fell in the nearby well. Some men tried to pull him out, but he fought them off bravely and drowned. We cremated him and he burned for three days.

There is not much more news. This time nothing much has happened.

With love Mom.

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1. OK now, what do you think about the letter? Is it clear to understand? Are there any difficult words that you do not understand? If yes, what did you do to figure out their meaning?

2. How do you normally study vocabulary?

3. What do you know about the so-called vocabulary-learning strategies?

4. When you read, for example a book or a text, and come across a word that you do not know, what do you do? Do you ever do things like figuring out the word by looking at its structure (noun, verb) or something like that?

5. How do you feel about the idea of training in vocabulary learning strategies? (e.g. good, bad idea?)

6. Would you be receptive to being taught vocabulary-learning strategies in your classroom?

7. Finally, here is your questionnaire; would you like to comment on?

THANK YOU

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8.9 Appendix 9: Students’ interview questions (Arabic version)

أسئلة المقابلة )للطلبة(

مرحبا، أنا طالبة دكتوراه في جامعة مانشستر متروبوليتان، كلية اللغات والعلوم اإلنسانية واالجتماعية. الغرض من المقابلة هو استكشاف استراتيجيات تعلم المفردات بين الطالب الليبيين )قسم اللغة اإلنجليزية(. لست ملزماُ أن تذكر اسمك والمعلومات التي سيتم جمعها في هذه المقابلة ستُستخدم فقط لغرض الدراسة. كل البيانات التي ستدلون بها ستُحفظ بسرية تامة.

الجامعة: ______التاريخ: ______الوقت: ______

1. حسناً، ما رأيك في الرسالة؟ هل هي واضحة وسهلة الفهم؟ هل هناك أي كلمات صعبة لم تفهم معناها؟ إذا كان الجواب بنعم، ماذا فعلت لتفهم معنى الكلمات الصعبة؟ 2. عادةً، كيف تد ُرس أو تتعلم مفردات اللغة اإلنجليزية؟ 3. ماذا تفعل في الفصل لتساعد نفسك في تعلم الكلمة الجديدة؟ ماهي االستراتيجيات أو اإلجراءات التي تستخدمها؟ 4. ماذا تفعل عندما تقرأ على سبيل المثال كتاب أو نص وتصادف كلمة ال تعرف معناها؟ هل سبق لك أن قمت بأشياء مثل معرفة معناها من خالل النظر في هيكليتها )اسم، فعل( أو شيء من هذا القبيل؟ 5. ما رأيك في فكرة إجراء دورة تدريبية في استراتيجيات تعلم المفردات؟ هل هي فكرة جيدة/سيئة إلخ؟ 6. هل ترغب في أن تُدرس هذه االستراتيجيات داخل الفصل؟ 7. اخيراً، هل لديك أي تعليق على أسئلة االستبيان؟ شكرا جزيال

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8.10 Appendix 10: A letter of permission

A LETTER OF PERMISSION

To whom it may concern

I am the Head of the English Department of

______, University of Al-Jabil Al-

Gharbi. I give my permission to the researcher, Warda Rashed to gain access to the English department lecturers and students.

I understand that the researcher access to the department is contributing to the educational research. I also understand that the identity of the participants will be anonymous and kept confidential.

Head of English Department Name______

Signature ______

Date ______

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8.11 Appendix 11: A letter of permission (Arabic version)

) تصريح (

إلى من يهمهُ األمر...

أنا رئيس قسم اللغة اإلنجليزية ______بجامعة الجبل العربي، أسمح للباحثة:

وردة راشد ب ُحرية التواصل مع المحاضرين وطالب قسم اللغة اإلنجليزية. وأنا اتفهم بأن هذا التواصل هو عبارة

عن مساهمة في البحوث التربوية، وأن هوية المشاركين لن تُذكر حفاظا ً على سريتها.

رئيس قسم اللغة اإلنجليزية

االسم: ______

التوقيع: ______

التاريخ: ______

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8.12 Appendix 12: Information sheet

INFORMATION SHEET

I am currently doing a research in the effect of training in vocabulary-learning strategies (VLSs) on Libyan EFL learners as a part of my PhD study at Manchester Metropolitan University in the United Kingdom. The primary aim of my research is to empower language learners with flexible ways or techniques to facilitate their recall of learned words. This study will go through running a training course of 12 weeks on vocabulary learning-strategies’ usage. During this course, students will be encouraged to discover and utilise different VLSs that fit their learning. To provide access to things that cannot be directly observed about the perceived effectiveness and ineffectiveness of the designed course such as comments and attitudes, interviews will be also carried out. The lecturers who are participating in this study are going to teach the designed model and encourage students to gain better understanding of strategy use. The participants’ interview usually lasts between 25-35 minutes for each one, and it is on a one-to-one basis. The interview timing will be held before and at the end of the course. The interview should be at a time when it is appropriate for the students and lecturers, and it does not disrupt their ordinary class work. Finally, be assured of the following: 1) The gathered data will not be stored on shared drives, unless password protected and backup data stores will be kept securely in a locked cabinet.

2) Only the data that is necessary for the purposes of the research will be collected. Personal names will only be kept in order that participants can be tracked otherwise, all data will be anonymised and a ‘number’ or a ‘code’ will be used instead.

3) The data will be destroyed on completion of the research, and once the thesis has been through the award process (or registration for award at MMU is withdrawn).

Thank you.

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8.13 Appendix 13: Consent form for participants

Consent form for participants in research projects

Title of Project

A study to examine the impact of teaching Vocabulary Learning Strategies among Libyan EFL learners and the influence it casts on the students’ use of those strategies

Name of researcher: Warda Ali Salem Rashed

Department: Languages, Information and Communications

Participant (volunteer)

Please read this and if you are happy to proceed, sign below.

The researcher has given me my own copy of the information sheet, which I have read and understood. The information sheet explains the nature of the research and what I would be asked to do as a participant. I understand that the confidentiality of the information I provide will be safeguarded unless subject to any legal requirements, and that the data will be stored securely. The researcher has discussed the contents of the information sheet with me and given me the opportunity to ask questions about it.

I agree to take part as a participant in this research and I understand that I am free to withdraw at any time without giving any reason, and without detriment to myself. I understand that I will not be paid for taking part in this research.

Signed: ______Print name: ______Date: ______

Researcher I, the researcher, confirm that I have discussed with the participant the contents of the information sheet.

Signed: ______Date: ______

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8.14 Appendix 14: Consent form for participants (Arabic version)

استمارة موافقة المشاركين في المشاريع البحثية عنوان المشروع: دراسة أثر تدريس استراتيجيات تعلم المفردات بين الطلبة الليبيين )الدارسين للغة اإلنجليزية كلغة اجنبية( والنفوذ الذي يضفيه على استخدام الطلبة لتللك االستراتيجيات.

اسم الباحثة: وردة علي سالم راشد القسم: اللغات والمعلومات واالتصاالت المشارك: )المتطوع( يرجى قراءة هذا، وإن كنت سعيدا في المضي قُدماَ، وقع أدناه: لقد اعطتني الباحثة ورقة المعلومات الخاصة بي ولقد قراءتها وفهمتها. في ورقة المعلومات شرح لطبيعة البحث وما قد يُطلب مني القيام به كمشارك. أنا أفهم أن سرية المعلومات التي سأقدمها سيتم الحفاظ عليها ما لم تخضع ألية شروط قانونية، وأن البيانات ستُخزن بشكل آمن. وقد ناقشت الباحثة محتويات ورقة المعلومات معي وسمحت لي بطرح األسئلة حول هذا الموضوع. أنا أوافق على المشاركة في هذا البحث وأعلم أني حر في االنسحاب في أي وقت دون إبداء أي سبب، ودون حساب لنفسي وأنه لن يُدفع لي للمشاركة في هذا البحث. التوقيع: ______االسم: ______التاريخ: ______الباحثة: أنا، الباحثة، أُقر بأنني قد ناقش ُت مع المشاركين محتويات ورقة المعلومات. التوقيع: ______التاريخ: ______

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8.15 Appendix 15: End of course evaluation form a) Before the training programme: 1. How much did you know about vocabulary learning strategies? i. Not at all ii. A little iii. Somewhat iv. A lot 2. How aware were you of your own vocabulary learning strategies? i. Not at all ii. A little iii. Somewhat iv. A lot b) During the training programme: 1. What have you learned so far in the training programme? …………………………………………………………………………… …………………………………………………………………………… 2. What difficulties have you faced while applying the strategies taught? …………………………………………………………………………… …………………………………………………………………………… c) Now: 1. How aware were you of your own vocabulary learning strategies? i. Not at all ii. A little iii. Somewhat iv. A lot

2. What did you most like about the training programme? …………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………

➢ Please tick the appropriate answer a) Occupation: Teacher  student  b) Class level: Year 1  year 2  c) Institution: Tiji  Badr 

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8.16 Appendix 16: VLSs most and least promoted by teachers (S1)

Table 1: VLSs most and least promoted by teachers (S1) Strategies Strategy M group Item 5: guessing from textual context Determination 3.8 Item 1: analysing part of speech Determination 3.6 Item 8: using L1 translation Social 3.5 Item 10: giving sentences include the new word Social 3.3 Item 32: writing new words in vocabulary notebook Cognitive Item 29: using the vocabulary section in the textbook 3.2 Item 9: paraphrasing the new words or giving synonyms Social 3.1 Item 14: looking at the accompanying pictures Social Item 21: using new words in sentences Memory Item 2: analysing affixes and roots Determination 3.0 Item 7: using word lists Determination Item 17: associating with synonyms or antonymous Memory Item 18: using semantic maps Memory Item 27: taking notes in class Cognitive Item 4: analysing any available pictures or gestures Determination 2.8 Item 28: skipping or ignoring the unknown word Metacognitive Item 12: discovering meaning through group work activity Social 2.7 Item 16: associating the word with its coordinates Memory Item 35: paraphrasing the words’ meaning Metacognitive Item 6: using dictionaries Determination 2.6 Item 24: repeating a word aloud, in mind or by spelling it Memory Item 25: imagining the written form of a word Memory Item 36: learning words of an expression together as one Memory word Metacognitive Item 31: continuing to study word over time Item 15: connecting the word to a personal experience Memory Item 19: using scales for gradable adjectives Memory 2.5 Item 23: acting out or miming the new word Cognitive Item 30: using English language media Metacognitive Item 22: writing a word repeatedly Memory 2.4 Item 3: checking for L1 cognate Determination Item 20: placing words in a group based on topic, theme Memory Item 26: taping or listening to tapes of new words Cognitive Item 34: grouping words together spatially on a page Metacognitive 2.3 Item 37: underlining initial letter of the word Metacognitive Item 38: configuration Memory Item 13: drawing a picture of the new word Memory 1.8 Item 33: using the keyword method Memory 1.6

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8.17 Appendix 17: VLSs most and least used by students (S1) Table 2: VLSs most and least used by students (S1) Strategies Strategy M group Item 6: using dictionaries Determination 4.1 Item 24: repeating a word aloud, in mind or by spelling it Memory 3.7 Item 1: analysing part of speech Determination 3.6 Item 5: guessing from textual context Determination Item 22: writing a word repeatedly Memory 3.5 Item 2: analysing affixes and roots Determination 3.4 Item 8: using L1 translation Social Item 4: analysing any available pictures or gestures Determination 3.2 Item 27: taking notes in class Cognitive Item 28: skipping or ignoring the unknown word Metacognitive 3.0 Item 29: using the vocabulary section in the textbook Cognitive Item 32: writing new words in vocabulary notebook Cognitive Item 35: paraphrasing the words’ meaning Memory Item 17: associating with synonyms or antonymous Memory 2.9 Item 3: checking for L1 cognate Determination 2.8 Item 7: using word lists Determination Item 9: paraphrasing the new words or giving synonyms Social Item 10: giving sentences include the new word Social Item 11: asking classmates for meaning Social Item 14: looking at the accompanying pictures Memory Item 15: connecting the word to a personal experience Memory Item 36: learning words of an expression together as one word Memory Item 16: associating the word with its coordinates Memory 2.7 Item 21: using new words in sentences Memory Item 25: imagining the written form of a word Memory Item 31: continuing to study word over time Metacognitive Item 19: using scales for gradable adjectives Memory 2.6 Item 30: using English language media Metacognitive Item 37: underlining initial letter of the word Memory Item 18: using semantic maps Memory Item 33: using the keyword method Memory 2.5 Item 38: configuration Memory Item 13: drawing a picture of the new word Memory 2.4 Item 23: acting out or miming the new word Cognitive Item 12: discovering meaning through group work activity Memory 2.3 Item 26: taping or listening to tapes of new words Cognitive Item 34: grouping words together spatially on a page Memory 2.1 Item 20: placing words in a group based on topic, theme, etc. Memory 1.8

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8.18 Appendix 18: Study 3’s VLSs questionnaire

Dear participant… This questionnaire is an attempt to gather information concerning how you learn / teach English words. Please do not neglect any questions and tick (✓) the appropriate answer for you in both questions of each statement: one on how often you use the particular strategy and the other on to what extent you find it helpful. Your answers are highly valued and your co-operation genuinely appreciated. The data collected will be kept strictly confidential and will only be used to serve this particular research. If you are interested in the results of this survey, please do not hesitate to leave your e-mail address and a copy of the results will be sent to you afterwards.

• Background Information

a. Gender: Male Female

b. Occupation: Teacher Student

Note: If you are interested in the results, please leave your mail :

______

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❖ Please tick the appropriate response (no more than one for each question)

How frequently do To what extent

you use the strategy? is it useful?

The strategy

Often Often

Never

Rarely Useful

Always Always

Not sure Not

Not useful Not

Sometimes Sometimes Very useful Very

1. Analysing part of speech (e.g. noun, verb). تحليل أجزاء الكالم )مثال: اسم، فعل إلخ...( 2. Analysing affixes and roots (e.g. un-predict-able). تحليل لواحق الكلمة وجذورها 3. Checking for L1 cognate (e.g. .(الجبر-Algebra ,الكحول -Alcohol التحقق من شبيه أو مثيل الكلمة الجديدة في اللغة العربية 4. Analysing any available pictures or gestures تحليل الصور واإليماءات المتاحة، كالصور المرفقة مع الدرس أو إشارات المعلم 5. Guessing from textual context التخمين من خالل سياق النص المقروء أو المكتوب 6. Using a dictionary استخدام القاموس 7. Using word lists استخدام قوائم الكلمات 8. L1 (Arabic) translation الترجمة للغة العربية 9. Paraphrasing the new words or giving synonyms إعادة صياغة الكلمة أو إعطاء مرادفها 10. Giving sentences include the new word إعطاء جملة تتضمن الكلمة الجديدة 11. Discovering the meaning through group work activity اكتشاف المعنى من خالل النشاط الجماعي 12. Associating the word with its coordinates (e.g. apple, pears, peaches) جمع الكلمة مع مثيالتها مثال: تفاح، كمثرى، خوخ 13. Using flash cards.

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How frequently do To what extent

you use the strategy? is it useful?

The strategy

Often Often

Never

Rarely Rarely Useful

Always Always

Not sure Not

Not useful Not

Sometimes Very useful Very 14. Associating new words with their synonyms or antonymous (e.g. quick – fast), (quick – slow) جمع الكلمات الجديدة مع مرادفاتها أو أضدادها 15. Using the keyword method (e.g., to connect the word symbol to the (in Arabic سُنبلة picture of استخدام طريقة Keyword مثال: ربط كلمة symbol بكلمة وصورة ُسنبلة في اللغة العربية 16. Repeating a word (i.e. aloud, in mind, by spelling it) تكرار الكلمة )بصوت عا ٍل ، في الذهن ، بتهجئتها( 17. Using scales for gradable adjectives (e.g. freezing, cold, hot, boiling) استخدام جداول الصفات المتغيرة مثال: يغلي، ساخن، بارد، متجمد 18. Writing a word repeatedly. كتابة الكلمة عدة مرات 19. Using semantic maps

sunny  Weather  rainy warm   cloudy استخدام الخرائط الذهنية أو الداللية 20. Placing the word in a group with other items based on topic, theme or function وضع الكلمات في مجموعة حسب الموضوع، الفكرة أو الوظيفة 21. Imagining the written form of a word to remember it. تخيل الشكل الكتابي للكلمة ليسهل تذكرها 22. Taking notes in class اخذ مالحظات في الفصل

295

How frequently do To what extent you use the is it useful?

strategy?

The strategy

Often Often

Never

Rarely Useful

Always

Not sure Not

Not useful Not

Sometimes Veryuseful

23. Grouping words together spatially on a page جمع الكلمات الجديدة مع معانيها في اللغة العربية في صفحة واحدة، ولكن ليس في شكل أعمدة، كأن تكتب على سبيل المثال الترجمة في أسفل الصفحة بشكل قطري 24. Learning words of an expression together as if they were just one word (e.g. What a shame!) تعلم مفردات المصطلحات مع بعض كما لو أنها كلمة واحدة 25. Writing new words in vocabulary notebook كتابة الكلمات الجديدة في دفتر المفردات 26. Acting out or miming the new word القيام بحركات جسدية لتمثيل الكلمة الجديدة

Thank you for being helpful and cooperative

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8.19 Appendix 19: A sample of handouts distributed in S3

Sample handout – session four: The strategy of checking for L1 cognates

❖ What is it? Cognates are words that have the same pronunciation, meaning, and sometimes spellings across two languages.

❖ Examples: English word Arabic cognate سكر (Sugar (sukkar قطن(Cotton (Qutn ليمون(Lemon (Laymuun موميا (Mummy (Mumiya الكحول(Alcohol (Al-Kuhul غول(Ghoul (Ghul حناء (Henna (hinna التّن(Tuna (Al-tunn غربال(Garble (Gharbal ح ّمص(Hummus (Himmas

❖ Practice: In pairs, find other Arabic English cognates.

………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………… …………………………………………………………………………………………

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8.20 Appendix 20: A sample of training sessions conducted in S3

Sample session – session one:

I started the session by distributing the pre-VLS questionnaire in order to identify the participants’ perceived usefulness and frequency of VLS use before the training program began. The distribution of the questionnaire was also to raise the teachers’ awareness about the introduced topic. I asked the participants to complete the questionnaire and return it before starting the lesson.

Asking questions was a way to raise the participants’ awareness and engage them. I asked the participants to imagine there is a small cat stuck up high in a tree and they want to help it, and asked which strategies they would use to do so. The participants suggested several ideas such as climbing the tree, getting some food and encouraging the cat to come down, and calling the fire department, or local animal officer. Having discussed all these options, I wrote the word ‘strategies’ on the board and asked the teachers for other situations where they might come across this word during their daily life. The answers provided were various such as, amongst others, military, language learning, and playing games such as football. With language learning, the participants were asked to explain more and give examples. Most of the examples provided related to word formation, paraphrasing, and association. Based on the discussions raised, I asked the teachers to define language learning strategies. Some hints were provided to assist them to build their own definition of learning strategies, and vocabulary learning strategies in particular. During the discussion, the teachers’ opinions about the importance of vocabulary learning strategies were elicited. They all came to the conclusion that the use of VLSs were undeniably efficient for both language learning and teaching.

Following this, I distributed handouts that included descriptions of VLSs and the taxonomy that was going to be introduced in the upcoming sessions. Once

298 the handouts were explained and discussed, the participants were encouraged to come up with their own examples for the different methods that might help students better learn the vocabulary. The teachers’ lesson plans and the possibility of including at least two to three learning strategies pre- week in their lesson plans and integrating them in their classrooms were also considered, which will be all dealt with in the upcoming sessions.

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8.21 Appendix 21: Experimental groups’ results to VLSQ1 in frequency of use/promotion of VLSs

Table 3: Experimental groups’ discovery strategies use [VLSQ1]

Frequency of use (1-5) Discovery Always Often Sometimes Rarely Never M SD strategies F % F % F % F % F % 1. Analysing parts of speech (e.g., noun, verb) Teacher 1 25.0 1 25.0 1 25.0 1 25.0 0 0.0 3.5 1.29 Students 5 10.9 9 19.6 14 30.4 12 26.1 6 13.0 2.8 1.19 2. Analysing affixes and roots (e.g. un-predict-able) Teachers 0 0.0 1 25.0 2 50.0 1 25.0 0 0.0 3.0 0.81 Students 7 15.2 7 15.2 11 23.9 17 37.0 4 8.7 2.9 1.22 (الجبر -Algebra ,الكحول -Checking for L1 cognate (e.g. Alcohol .3 Teachers 0 0.0 0 0.0 2 50.0 1 25.0 1 25.0 2.2 0.95 Students 2 4.3 6 13.0 10 21.7 15 32.6 13 28.3 2.3 1.15 4. Analysing any available pictures or gestures Teachers 1 25.0 2 50.0 1 25.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 4.0 0.81 Students 11 23.9 8 17.4 12 26.1 9 19.6 6 13.0 3.1 1.36 5. Guessing from textual context Teacher 3 75.0 0 0.0 1 25.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 4.5 1.00 Students 14 30.4 10 21.7 11 23.9 8 17.4 3 6.5 3.5 1.27 6. Using dictionaries Teachers 0 0.0 0 0.0 1 25.0 2 50.0 1 25.0 2.0 0.81 Students 17 37.0 13 28.3 9 19.6 7 15.2 0 0.0 3.8 1.08 7. Using wordlists Teachers 2 50.0 1 25.0 1 25.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 4.2 0.95 Students 10 21.7 8 17.4 6 13.0 17 37.0 5 10.9 3.0 1.37 8. Using L1 translation Teachers 0 0.0 0 0.0 2 50.0 1 25.0 1 25.0 2.2 0.95 Students 16 34.8 12 26.1 5 10.9 9 19.6 4 8.7 3.5 1.37 9. Paraphrasing the new words or giving synonyms Teachers 1 25.0 0 0.0 2 50.0 1 25.0 0 0.0 3.2 1.25 Students 6 13.0 8 17.4 9 19.6 20 43.5 3 6.5 2.8 1.18 10. Giving sentences include the new word Teachers 0 0.0 1 25.0 1 25.0 2 50.0 0 0.0 2.7 0.95 Students 1 2.2 7 15.2 11 23.9 22 47.8 5 10.9 2.5 0.96 13. Using flash cards Teachers 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 2 50.0 2 50.0 1.5 0.57 Students 0 0.0 8 17.4 7 15.2 14 30.4 17 37.0 2.1 1.10 19. Using semantic maps Teachers 0 0.0 0 0.0 1 25.0 2 50.0 1 25.0 2.0 0.81 Students 3 6.5 6 13.0 17 37.0 12 26.1 8 17.4 2.6 1.11

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Table 4: Experimental groups’ consolidation strategies use [VLSQ1]

Frequency of use (1-5) Consolidation Always Often Sometimes Rarely Never M SD strategies F % F % F % F % F % 11. Discovering the meaning through group work activity Teacher 0 0.0 0 0.0 2 50.0 1 25.0 1 25.0 2.2 0.95 Students 6 13.0 3 6.5 8 17.4 19 41.3 10 21.7 2.4 1.27 12. Associating the word with its coordinates (e.g. apple, pears, peaches) Teachers 1 25.0 0 0.0 2 50.0 1 25.0 0 0.0 3.2 1.25 Students 7 15.2 9 19.6 10 21.7 15 32.6 5 10.9 2.9 1.26 14. Associating new words with their synonyms or antonyms (e.g. quick – fast) Teachers 0 0.0 0 0.0 1 25.0 2 50.0 1 25.0 2.0 0.81 Students 5 10.9 10 21.7 13 28.3 10 21.7 8 17.4 2.8 1.25 15. Using the keyword method Teachers 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 2 50.0 2 50.0 1.5 0.57 Students 0 0.0 3 6.5 7 15.2 16 34.8 20 43.5 1.8 0.91 16. Repeating a word (i.e. aloud, in mind, by spelling it) Teacher 0 0.0 1 25.0 1 25.0 0 0.0 2 50.0 2.2 1.50 Students 15 32.6 12 26.1 5 10.9 10 21.7 4 8.7 3.5 1.37 17. Using scales for gradable adjectives (e.g. freezing, cold, hot, boiling) Teachers 0 0.0 1 25.0 1 25.0 2 50.0 0 0.0 2.9 0.95 Students 2 4.3 8 17.4 16 34.8 13 28.3 7 15.2 2.6 1.07 18. Writing a word repeatedly. Teachers 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 1 25.0 3 75.0 1.2 0.50 Students 12 26.1 14 30.4 10 21.7 10 21.7 0 0.0 3.6 1.10 20. Placing new words in a group with other items based on topic or function etc. Teachers 0 0.0 0 0.0 1 25.0 1 25.0 2 50.0 1.7 0.95 Students 2 4.3 2 4.3 13 28.3 19 41.3 10 21.7 2.2 1.00 21. Imagining the written form of a word to remember it. Teachers 0 0.0 0 0.0 1 25.0 1 25.0 2 50.0 1.7 0.95 Students 9 19.6 11 23.9 15 32.6 8 17.4 3 6.5 3.3 1.17 22. Taking notes in class. Teachers 0 0.0 1 25.0 1 25.0 1 25.0 1 25.0 2.5 1.29 Students 7 15.2 12 26.1 6 13.0 16 34.8 5 10.9 3.0 1.29 23. Grouping words together spatially on a page. Teachers 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 1 25.0 3 75.0 1.2 0.50 Students 2 4.3 6 13.0 10 21.7 18 39.1 10 21.7 2.3 1.10 24. Learning words of an expression together as if they were just one word. Teachers 0 0.0 0 0.0 1 25.0 2 50.0 1 25.0 2.0 0.81 Students 8 17.4 9 19.6 11 23.9 13 28.3 5 10.9 3.0 1.28 25. Writing new words in vocabulary notebook. Teachers 0 0.0 1 25.0 0 0.0 2 50.0 1 25.0 2.2 1.25 Students 4 8.7 10 21.7 10 21.7 15 32.6 7 15.2 2.7 1.21 26. Acting out or miming the new word. Teachers 0 0.0 0 0.0 1 25.0 2 50.0 1 25.0 2.0 0.81 Students 3 6.5 9 19.6 16 34.8 12 26.1 6 13.0 2.8 1.10

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8.22 Appendix 22: Experimental groups’ results to VLSQ1 in perceived usefulness of VLSs

Table 5: Experimental groups’ perceived usefulness of discovery strategies [VLSQ1]

Perceived usefulness (1-4) Discovery strategies Very useful Useful Not sure Not useful M SD F % F % F % F % 1. Analysing parts of speech (e.g., noun, verb) Teachers 1 25.0 2 50.0 1 25.0 0 0.0 3.0 0.81 Students 14 30.4 15 32.6 11 23.9 6 13.0 2.8 1.02 2. Analysing affixes and roots (e.g. un-predict-able) Teachers 0 0.0 2 50.0 1 25.0 1 25.0 2.2 0.95 Students 10 21.7 21 45.7 14 30.4 1 2.2 2.8 0.77 (الجبر -Algebra ,الكحول -Checking for L1 cognate (e.g. Alcohol .3 Teachers 0 0.0 1 25.0 2 50.0 1 25.0 2.0 0.81 Students 13 28.3 19 41.3 12 26.1 2 4.3 2.8 0.85 4. Analysing any available pictures or gestures Teachers 1 25.0 2 50.0 1 25.0 0 0.0 3.0 0.81 Students 9 19.6 16 34.8 13 28.3 8 17.4 2.5 1.00 5. Guessing from textual context Teachers 2 50.0 2 50.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 3.0 0.57 Students 17 37.0 11 23.9 15 32.6 3 6.5 2.9 0.98 6. Using dictionaries Teachers 1 25.0 1 25.0 1 25.0 1 25.0 2.5 1.29 Students 22 47.8 18 39.1 6 13.0 0 0.0 3.3 0.70 7. Using word lists Teachers 0 0.0 2 50.0 1 25.0 1 25.0 2.2 0.95 Students 12 26.1 14 30.4 16 34.8 4 8.7 2.7 0.95 8. Using L1 translation Teachers 1 25.0 0 0.0 1 25.0 2 50.0 2.0 1.41 Students 11 23.9 18 39.1 7 15.2 10 21.7 2.6 1.07 9. Paraphrasing the new words or giving synonyms Teachers 0 0.0 0 0.0 2 50.0 2 50.0 1.5 0.57 Students 9 19.6 15 32.6 17 37.0 5 10.9 2.6 0.93 10. Giving sentences including the new word Teachers 2 50.0 0 0.0 2 50.0 0 0.0 3.0 1.15 Students 12 26.1 20 43.5 10 21.7 4 8.7 2.8 0.90 13. Using flash cards Teachers 0 0.0 1 25.0 3 75.0 0 0.0 2.2 0.50 Students 9 19.6 21 45.7 13 28.3 3 6.5 2.7 0.84 19. Using semantic maps Teachers 1 25.0 1 25.0 2 50.0 0 0.0 2.2 1.50 Students 5 10.9 22 47.8 10 21.7 9 19.6 2.5 0.93

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Table 6: Experimental groups’ perceived usefulness of consolidation strategies [VLSQ1]

Perceived usefulness (1-4) Consolidation strategies Very useful Useful Not sure Not useful M SD F % F % F % F % 11. Discovering the meaning through group work activity. Teachers 0 0.0 1 25.0 3 75.0 0 0.0 2.2 0.50 Students 6 13.0 19 41.3 8 17.4 13 28.3 2.3 1.04 12. Associating the word with its coordinates (e.g. apple, pears, peaches) Teachers 1 25.0 1 25.0 2 50.0 0 0.0 2.7 0.95 Students 15 32.6 12 26.1 12 26.1 7 15.2 2.7 1.07 14. Associating new words with their synonyms or antonyms (e.g. quick – fast) Teachers 0 0.0 2 50.0 2 50.0 0 0.0 2.5 0.57 Students 17 37.0 19 41.3 10 21.7 0 0.0 3.1 0.75 15. Using the keyword method. Teachers 0 0.0 1 25.0 1 25.0 2 50.0 1.7 0.95 Students 8 17.4 13 28.3 15 32.6 10 21.7 2.4 1.02 16. Repeating a word (i.e. aloud, in mind, by spelling it) Teachers 0 0.0 2 50.0 1 25.0 1 25.0 2.2 0.95 Students 18 39.1 12 26.1 11 23.9 5 10.9 2.9 1.04 17. Using scales for gradable adjectives (e.g. freezing, cold, hot, boiling) Teachers 0 0.0 1 25.0 3 75.0 0 0.0 2.2 0.50 Students 8 17.4 14 30.4 13 28.3 11 23.9 2.4 1.04 18. Writing a word repeatedly. Teachers 1 25.0 1 25.0 2 50.0 0 0.0 2.2 1.50 Students 12 26.1 21 45.7 11 23.9 2 4.3 2.9 0.82 20. Placing new words in a group with other items based on topic or function etc. Teachers 1 25.0 1 25.0 1 25.0 1 25.0 2.5 1.29 Students 10 21.7 10 21.7 12 26.1 14 30.4 2.3 1.13 21. Imagining the written form of a word to remember it. Teachers 0 0.0 1 25.0 3 75.0 0 0.0 2.2 0.50 Students 7 15.2 16 34.8 12 26.1 11 23.9 2.4 1.02 22. Taking notes in class. Teachers 2 50.0 1 25.0 1 25.0 0 0.0 3.2 0.95 Students 9 19.6 23 50.0 10 21.7 4 8.7 2.8 0.85 23. Grouping words together spatially on a page. Teachers 0 0.0 1 25.0 1 25.0 2 50.0 1.7 0.95 Students 2 4.3 15 32.6 15 32.6 14 30.4 2.1 0.90 24. Learning words of an expression together as if they were just one word. Teachers 0 0.0 1 25.0 3 75.0 0 0.0 2.2 0.50 Students 12 26.1 10 21.7 14 30.4 10 21.7 2.5 1.11 25. Writing new words in vocabulary notebook. Teachers 1 25.0 2 50.0 1 25.0 0 0.0 3.0 0.81 Students 7 15.2 19 41.3 11 23.9 9 19.6 2.5 0.98 26. Acting out or miming the new word. Teachers 0 0.0 1 25.0 1 25.0 2 50.0 1.7 0.95 Students 10 21.7 23 50.0 2 4.3 11 23.9 2.6 1.07

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8.23 Appendix 23: Students’ results in frequency of use [VLSQ1, VLSQ2, and VLSQ3]

Table 7: Comparison of students’ results in frequency of use of VLSs

Type of questionnaire Statement VLSQ 1 VLSQ 2 VLSQ 3 EG (S) CG (S) EG (S) CG (S) EG (S) CG (S) M M M M M (SD) M (SD) DVLS1 2.8 2.8 3.0 3.0 3.2 (1.35) 3.3 (1.39) DVLS2 2.9 3.1 3.1 2.9 3.2 (1.21) 3.4 (1.24) DVLS3 2.3 2.3 2.9 2.5 3.1 (1.18) 2.2 (1.18) DVLS4 3.1 3.1 3.0 2.8 2.9 (1.47) 3.2 (1.30) DVLS5 3.5 3.1 3.7 3.0 3.6 (1.22) 3.5 (1.15) DVLS6 3.8 3.3 3.9 3.6 4.1 (0.92) 3.7 (1.21) DVLS7 3.0 3.1 2.9 3.0 3.0 (1.26) 3.3 (1.36) DVLS8 3.5 3.2 3.4 3.5 3.7 (1.16) 3.5 (1.37) DVLS9 2.8 3.1 2.7 2.8 3.0 (1.07) 2.9 (1.50) DVLS10 2.5 2.7 3.1 2.6 3.1 (1.35) 2.9 (1.34) DVLS13 2.1 2.3 2.8 2.0 2.8 (1.41) 1.9 (0.96) DVLS19 2.6 2.4 2.9 2.1 3.3 (1.16) 2.6 (1.20) OVERALL 2.9 2.9 3.1 2.8 3.3 3.0 CVLS11 2.4 2.3 2.7 2.5 3.0 (1.27) 2.1 (1.24) CVLS12 2.9 2.5 3.0 2.1 3.1 (1.27) 2.8 (1.19) CVLS14 2.8 2.3 3.2 2.6 3.5 (1.07) 2.7 (1.27) CVLS15 1.8 2.0 2.1 2.3 2.3 (0.95) 2.2 (0.98) CVLS16 3.5 3.5 3.7 3.8 3.6 (1.18) 3.9 (0.99) CVLS17 2.6 2.4 2.8 2.3 3.0 (1.21) 2.5 (1.34) CVLS18 3.6 3.5 3.5 3.7 3.4 (1.25) 3.8 (0.99) CVLS20 2.2 2.2 1.6 2.0 2.0 (0.73) 2.0 (0.99) CVLS21 3.3 3.2 3.5 3.5 3.4 (1.13) 3.2 (1.61) CVLS22 3.0 3.0 3.3 3.4 3.6 (1.33) 3.5 (1.15) CVLS23 2.3 2.3 2.5 2.1 2.0 (0.97) 2.4 (1.01) CVLS24 3.0 2.8 3.2 3.1 3.0 (1.38) 3.0 (1.26) CVLS25 2.7 3.0 3.1 3.3 3.3 (1.28) 2.8 (1.33) CVLS26 2.8 2.6 3.0 2.8 2.9 (1.45) 2.9 (1.45) OVERALL 2.8 2.7 2.9 2.8 3.0 2.8

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8.24 Appendix 24: Students’ results in perceived usefulness [VLSQ1, VLSQ2, and VLSQ3]

Table 8: Comparison of students’ results in perceived usefulness of VLSs

Type of questionnaire Statement VLSQ1 VLSQ 2 VLSQ3 EG (S) CG (S) EG (S) CG (S) EG (S) CG (S) M M M M M (SD) M (SD) DVLS1 2.8 2.7 3.6 2.9 3.8 (0.48) 3.1 (0.99) DVLS2 2.8 2.9 3.3 2.7 3.5 (0.72) 3.0 (1.07) DVLS3 2.8 2.8 3.5 2.6 3.7 (0.55) 3.0 (0.98) DVLS4 2.5 3.2 3.0 3.0 3.4 (0.72) 3.3 (0.92) DVLS5 2.9 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.7 (0.57) 3.5 (0.86) DVLS6 3.3 3.4 3.8 3.7 3.9 (0.25) 3.6 (0.57) DVLS7 2.7 2.6 2.9 3.4 3.1 (0.88) 3.2 (1.03) DVLS8 2.6 3.2 3.3 3.1 3.2 (0.79) 3.4 (0.88) DVLS9 2.6 3.0 3.2 2.9 3.3 (0.89) 3.1 (0.99) DVLS10 2.8 2.6 3.0 2.7 3.5 (1.42) 2.9 (1.02) DVLS13 2.7 2.5 2.6 2.3 2.7 (1.35) 2.9 (0.93) DVLS19 2.5 2.6 3.1 2.9 3.3 (0.92) 3.1 (1.07) OVERALL 2.7 2.9 3.2 3.0 3.5 3.2 CVLS11 2.3 2.7 2.7 2.5 3.0 (0.99) 2.7 (1.09) CVLS12 2.7 2.7 3.0 2.7 3.3 (0.69) 2.9 (1.10) CVLS14 3.1 2.5 3.3 2.8 4.0 (0.21) 3.3 (0.83) CVLS15 2.4 2.1 2.9 2.4 3.0 (0.93) 2.2 (1.04) CVLS16 2.9 3.4 3.0 3.6 3.8 (1.19) 3.3 (0.82) CVLS17 2.4 2.0 2.5 2.4 2.7 (1.02) 2.6 (1.05) CVLS18 2.9 3.1 3.0 3.4 3.7 (0.47) 3.7 (0.66) CVLS20 2.3 2.2 2.7 2.0 2.9 (0.98) 1.9 (0.96) CVLS21 2.4 2.5 3.1 2.7 3.3 (0.76) 3.0 (1.04) CVLS22 2.8 3.3 3.2 3.5 3.5 (0.69) 3.6 (0.67) CVLS23 2.1 2.4 2.2 2.3 2.5 (0.89) 2.0 (1.11) CVLS24 2.5 2.4 2.9 2.7 3.5 (0.59) 3.5 (0.84) CVLS25 2.5 3.1 3.1 3.0 3.3 (0.94) 3.4 (0.92) CVLS26 2.6 2.3 3.1 2.5 3.0 (0.91) 3.1 (1.06) OVERALL 2.5 2.5 2.9 2.7 3.3 3.0

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8.25 Appendix 25: A sample of lesson plan

Session one: Introductory and awareness-raising (Time: 2hrs)

Session aims: - Familiarise teachers with the notion of language learning strategies (LLSs) and vocabulary learning strategies (VLSs). - Raising teachers’ awareness of the importance of such strategies and their role in the process of language teaching/learning.

Preparation: - Distribute the VLSQ1 and ask teachers to complete it and return it before starting the lesson.

- Start the session with some warm-up activities [e.g. me: imagine there is a small kitty stuck up high in a tree and you want to help her get down. What would you use in doing so?]. Discuss and write the answers on board. - Writing the word ‘strategies’ on the board and asking teachers to think about it. Where may they come across such a word? - After the discussion, teachers work in pairs and are encouraged to come up with their own definition of ‘strategies’ and ‘vocabulary learning strategies’.

Presentation and practice: - Before distributing handouts including definition terms and the taxonomy of VLSs (i.e. Schmitt’s taxonomy), teachers work in pairs and write down as many learning strategies as possible before discussing the answers together. - Explain VLSs and how they can facilitate students’ learning. Show that there are strategies used for discovering the meaning of unknown words and strategies for consolidating their meaning, and some strategies which may be used for both. Where appropriate, think about the compatible vocabulary teaching strategies of these strategies.

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- Discuss the teachability of VLSs [Are they teachable and learnable?] - Discuss teachers’ lesson plans followed, and introduce a sample lesson plan to be used in the training programme and see what teachers think of it.

A sample of lesson plan for strategy intervention Teacher: Level: Subject: Class size: 8 Date: Duration:

Session objectives:

Time: Session phase: Strategy/ies Materials targeted

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8.26 Appendix 26: A sample of checklist

❖ Please tick the applicable response

1. When I encounter a new word, I … Yes No - Ask teacher for Arabic translation - Ask classmates for a meaning - Look it up in my dictionary - Look it up in a wordlist - Look it up in existing flash cards - Guess its meaning - See if there is an Arabic cognate (sugar-sukkar; cotton-Qutn) - See whether it is noun, verb, pronoun etc.. - Analyse its parts (affixes, roots, suffixes etc…) - Analyse any available picture or gesture - Repeat it verbally several times - Write it down several times - Ask teacher for a sentence includes the word - Ask teacher for synonyms or antonymous - Write it in my notebook - Discover its meaning through group work activities - Associate the word with its coordinates - Use semantic maps - Ignore it.

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8.27 Appendix 27: A sample of checklist (Arabic version)

عندما تواجهني كلمة جديدة ... نعم ال أسأل األستاذ على معناها بالعربي أسأل زمالئي على المعنى ابحث عن معناها في القاموس ابحث عن معناها في قائمة الكلمات ابحث عن معناها في بطاقات العرض السريع الموجودة اخمن معناها انظر ما إذا كان لها مشابه في النطق والكتابة في اللغة العربية انظر ما إذا كانت اسم، فعل أو ضمير إلخ... احلل اجزائها )لواحقها وجذورها إلخ...( احلل االيماءات والصور المتوفرة اكررها شفهياً عدة مرات اكتبها عدة مرات اطلب من األستاذ جملة تتضمن الكلمة الجديدة اطلب من األستاذ مرادف الكلمة أو عكسها اكتب الكلمة في دفتر مالحضاتي أحاول اكتشاف معناها من خالل األنشطة الجماعية أحاول جمع الكلمة مع نظائرها مثل: تفاح، إجاص، خوخ إلخ... استخدم الخرائط الذهنية اتجاهلها

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8.28 Appendix 28: VLSs most promoted/perceived usefulness by EG teachers (Study 3) Table 9: VLSs most promoted by EG teachers Table 10: VLSs most perceived useful by EG teachers Vocabulary learning strategy Type M Vocabulary learning strategies Type M

Item 5: guessing from textual context DIS 4.5 Item 22: taking notes in class. CON 3.2 Item 7: using word lists DIS 4.2 Item 1: analysing parts of speech (e.g., noun, verb) DIS Item 4: analysing any available pictures or gestures DIS 4.0 Item 4: analysing any available pictures or gestures. DIS Item 1: analysing parts of speech (e.g., noun, verb) DIS 3.5 Item 5: guessing from textual context. DIS 3.0 Item 9: paraphrasing the new words DIS 3.2 Item 10: giving sentences including the new word. DIS Item 11: associating the word with its coordinates CON Item 25: writing new words in vocabulary notebook. CON Item 2: analysing affixes and roots DIS 3.0 Item 12: associating the word with its coordinates. CON 2.7 Item 17: using scales for gradable adjectives CON 2.9 Item 6: using dictionaries DIS Item 10: giving sentences including the new word DIS 2.7 Item 14: association. CON 2.5 Item 22: taking notes in class. CON 2.5 Item 20: grouping words based on topic or function etc. CON Item 3: checking for l1 cognates. DIS Item 2: analysing affixes and roots. DIS Item 8: using l1 translation. DIS Item 7: using word lists. DIS Item 11: group work activity. CON 2.2 Item 13: using flash cards. DIS Item 16: verbal repetition. CON Item 19: using semantic maps. DIS Item 25: writing new words in vocabulary notebook. CON Item 11: associating the word with its coordinates. CON Item 6: using dictionaries. DIS Item 16: verbal repetition. CON 2.2 Item 19: using semantic maps. DIS Item 17: using scales for gradable adjectives. CON Item 14: association. CON 2.0 Item 18: written repetition. CON Item 24: learning words of an expression together. CON Item 21: imagining the written form of a word. CON Item 26: acting out or miming the new word. CON Item 24: learning words of an expression together. CON Item 20: group words based on topic or function etc. CON 1.7 Item 3: checking for l1 cognates. DIS 2.0 Item 21: imagining the written form of a word. CON Item 8: using l1 translation. DIS Item 13: using flash cards. DIS 1.5 Item 15: using the keyword method. CON Item 15: using the keyword method. CON Item 23: grouping words together spatially. CON 1.7 Item 18: written repetition. CON 1.2 Item 26: acting out or miming the word meaning. CON Item 23: grouping words together spatially. CON Item 9: paraphrasing the new words. DIS 1.5

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8.29 Appendix 29: VLSs most used/perceived useful by EG students

Table 11: VLSs most used by EG students Table 12: VLSs most perceived useful by EG students

Vocabulary learning strategies Type M Vocabulary learning strategies Type M

Item 6: using dictionaries DIS 3.8 Item 6: using dictionaries. DIS 3.3 Item 18: written repetition. CON 3.6 Item 14: associating new words with their synonyms etc. CON 3.1 Item 5: guessing from textual context. DIS Item 5: guessing from textual context. DIS Item 8: using l1 translation. DIS 3.5 Item 16: verbal repetition. CON 2.9 Item 16: verbal repetition. CON Item 19: written repetition. CON Item 21: imagining the written form of a word. CON 3.3 Item 1: analysing parts of speech (e.g., noun, verb) DIS Item 4: analysing any available pictures or gestures. DIS 3.1 Item 2: analysing affixes and roots (e.g. Un-predict-able) DIS Item 7: using word lists. DIS Item 3: checking for l1 cognates. DIS 2.8 Item 22: taking notes in class. CON 3.0 Item 10: giving sentences including the new word. DIS Item 24: learning words of an expression together. CON Item 22: taking notes in class. CON Item 2: analysing affixes and roots. DIS 2.9 Item 13: using flash cards. DIS Item 12: associating the word with its coordinates. CON Item 12: associating the word with its coordinates. CON 2.7 Item 1: analysing parts of speech (e.g., noun, verb) DIS Item 7: using word lists. DIS Item 9: paraphrasing the new words. CON 2.8 Item 8: using l1 translation. DIS Item 14: association. CON Item 9: paraphrasing the new words. DIS 2.6 Item 26: acting out or miming the new word. CON Item 26: acting out or miming the new word. CON Item 25: writing new words in vocabulary notebook. CON 2.7 Item 4: analysing any available pictures or gestures. DIS Item 19: using semantic maps. DIS 2.6 Item 19: using semantic maps. DIS 2.5 Item 17: using scales for gradable adjectives. CON Item 24: learning words of an expression together. CON Item 10: giving sentences including the new word. DIS 2.5 Item 25: writing new words in vocabulary notebook. CON Item 11: group work activity. CON 2.4 Item 15: using keyword method. CON Item 3: checking for l1 cognates. DIS 2.3 Item 17: using scales for gradable adjectives. CON 2.4 Item 23: grouping words together spatially. CON Item 21: imagining the written form of a word. CON Item 20: group words based on topic or function etc. CON 2.2 Item 11: group work activity. CON 2.3 Item 13: using flash cards. DIS 2.1 Item 20: group words based on topic or function etc. CON Item 15: using the keyword method. CON 1.8 Item 23: grouping words together spatially on a page. CON 2.1

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