Appendix D. Field guide to the beaches of Dade County

The islands of Beach, , and you pedalin from the causewayentrance or rent bicyclesat some are the most southerly of the sand barrier islands along the east of the stops. The park areas have bicycle paths and numerous coast of the United States fig. D-r!. The material making up beachaccesses, Once the new bridge is completed, bicycle access theseislands is a mixture of quartz sand, which hastraveled south from the mainland will be much safer. by longshoredrift from northern and Georgia,and more The tour next examines the sediment-starved shoreline of Vir- locally derived calcium carbonate grains from the breakdown of ginia Key, after which you will then return to the mainland, drive mollusk shells and other marine skeletal remains. In addition, north through Miami, and headout to the southtip of Miami recent beachnourishment projects haveadded sandsfrom various Beachvia the MacArthur ,The massivenew renourish- sources that were not naturally part of the beach system. ment beach of Miami Beach is accessible at numerous points. As this guide wasgoing to press,a numberof changeswere Three stops are recommended,including one at Government Cut taking place in Dade County. The drawbridge on Rickenbacker jetty at the south end. Causewaywas being replaced by a new high bridge designedto The final stop on the tour is at Bakers Haulover Beach,an area make storm evacuationsafer!. The city of Miami was in the begin- that has received renourishment several times but which still has ning stagesof developing northern Virginia Key as a recreational sandgenerally similar to that originallyfound on Miami Beach. park facility. A large amount of new sand was scheduledto be o.o Toll booth at the entrance to the pumpedup on the beachesof' centraland southernKey Biscayne toll $o.75!. in r 984.And, as noted earlier, Miami Beachrecently has beenthe Drive out on the Rickenbacker Causeway which be- site of the largest and most costly beach replenishmentproject in comes Crandon Boulevard on Key Biscayne! to Cape American shoreline history. Florida State Park at the south end of Key Biscayne. The guide begins at the entrance to Rickenbacker Causeway Rickenbacker Causewaywas built during and just after reached by Interstate 95, exit t to Key Biscayne!.The tour leads World War II. The fill areas, including much of the road- you out the causewayacross Virginia Key to Key Biscayneto visit way on Virginia Key, have restricted water circulation in naturaland developed beaches on thissouthernmost barrier island. BiscayneBay. This causewayand five others to the north This portion of the trip could best be enjoyed by bicycle, whether havedivided northern BiscayneBay into a numberof sepa- Appendix D. Field guide 231

qo % y+eC miles 0 2 4 ~8 @0 kilometers

Flg. D-1. Map of the Miami area and coasts! barrier islands showing locations of stops for this field trip, 232 Living with the East Florida shore

ratebays, Each of thesecauseways serves as an evacuation this casefill associatedwith causewayconstruction. These route for island residents. However, all of them become beautifultrees are a greathazard to the inhabitantsof Key impassibleduring the early stages of a hurricane'sapproach. Biscayne.They are shallow-rootedand as a consequence are readilyblown overduring hurricanes.They will block On the left, PlanetOcean, created by the International 2.5 passageon and off the island. OceanographicFoundation, is an outstandingand enjoy- ableplace to visitto learnabout our oceansand also our 5.6 Enter the central one-third of Key Biscayne,which is resi- shorelines.It is well worth your time. dential and commercial. Enter Bill BaggsCape Florida State Park, whichoccupies i.g TheSeaquarium on the right has an exhilarating display of 7.0 marine life. the southern one-third of Key Biscayne. It is open from 8 A,M. to sundown; the entrance fee is $.5o per person. Onthe right is theUniversity of Miami'sRosenstiel School Write to the superintendentfor a waiverof feesfor educa- of Marine and AtmosphericScience. It has tours far the tionalgroups Key Biscayne,FL 33L49!. publicon Mondaysat i p.m, Therealso is a nicecafeteria on the water.! 7.$ Turn left into the parkinglot and park assoon as possible. On the left are the laboratoriesof the National Oceanic Walk out to the beach. andAtmospheric Administration and the Tropical Marine Stopt. Naturalahorellne with seaoat stabilization,beach Fisheries Center, ridges,and controlledaccess walkways. In t95o thebulk of CapeFlorida wasfilled by a devel- 3.0 Takethe bridge across Bear Cut, which separates Virginia Keyand Key Biscayne. Bear Cut is a naturaltidal inlet that operto its presentelevation by material from the is notedon mapsfrom the earliest exploration of Florida bayside fig. D-2!. Onlythe section of beachridges at this waters. The tidal currents through Bear Cut have shifted stopand at an areanear the lighthouseremain in their muchof Virginia Key'ssouthward-drifting beach sand sea- originalnatural state fig, D 3!. Hence,the dominance of ward,forming a broad,shallow, underwater sand platform Australianpines throughout the park. Prior to filling, this seawardof northern Key Biscayne, southernthird of Key Biscaynewas a seriesof southward- arching, sandy beach ridges that in somecases were sepa- Comeon to Key Biscayne,The Australianpines Casurina! 35 ratedby mangrovesor small ponds fig. D 2!. Eachridge that dominatethis northerntip of Key Biscayneare exotic of sandwas once at the tip of the island,clearly showing treesthat rapidlygrow on disturbedor filled land in Ap pen di x D. Fi eid guide 233 that Cape Florida grew southward, Seaward of the beach is a very broad, shallow, littoral On the walk out to the beach, you will cross several sand platform on which the seagrassTha assiaflourishes. beachridges. These are quite young, having only seaoats Though important to the stabilizationof the offshoresands, and shrub vegetation. This is one of the few sections of the blades wash ashore in great abundance after winter beach in Dade County that has been building out during the storms, detracting from the aesthetic quality of the beach last 5o years. By coring into theseridges we have learned to many beachgoers.The various parks havevarious ways that each one was formed during a major storm, and that of handling this problem. Wisely, park managersof Cape seaoats subsequentlygrew on the ridges and causedsome Florida either do not disturb this seagrasswrack or they further growth as they trappedfiner sand blown or washed rake it to the edgeof the beachridges as a protection to the onto the ridges during lesser storms. ridge and as shore mulch. This, at the same time, deters Here as elsewhere sea oats and other coastal vegetation foot traffic in from the beach.Only litter is removed from are important to assure stabilization and preservation of the beach. To simply gather the seagrassfrom the beach the beach ridges and dunes. The beach ridges in the park and carry it away also would removeprecious beachsand. were severely damaged in areas where foot traffic destroyed The beaches of southeast Florida differ from those far- the vegetation. In r 982 Cape Florida park began a program ther north from Palm Beach north! in that the Bahamas of restricting accessto the beachesby putting up fencesto to the east protect the shoresfrom large wavescoming in define walkways. Notice the diA'erence in the beach ridge from the open Atlantic, In addition, certain stretches are elevations at and away from the walkways. protected by seaward reef ridges near the edge of the con- 'I'he shrubsof the round-leafedseagrape, the low, crawl- tinental shelf. Thesebreak up larger wavesgenerated in the ing vines of the beach peanut and the beach star, and Straits of Florida. Seaward of Key Biscayne,for example. the other grassesalso are important to stabilization of the is a shelf edge ridge rising from the deeper seafloor to a ridges. depth of 9 to r2 feet. In addition,north and south Key To encourage recovery of the previously damaged beach Biscayne have broad, shallow, littoral sand platforms ex- ridges, the park planted 20,000 sea Oat plants in i982 and tending about i mile seaward of the shore. These further l 983.As you will seeat the next stop, the park also is begin- dampenincoming waveenergy. As a result of the relatively ning to construct board walkways across beach ridges, a small waves, the beaches of Key Biscayne are composed of program they plan to expand. somewhat finer-grained sand than is present on the more 234 Living with the East Florida shore

Fig.D-2. Aerial photographsfrom 1945,1951, and 1972of CapeFlorida, was severely modified in 1950 when dredged to provide fill for nearly the southern Key Biscayne.Cape FloridaChannel, just left of Key Biscayne, entire cape area. This fill covered the curving beach ridges that recorded Appendix D. Field guide 235

exposedbeaches farther north. From the beachhere you can look north to the developed part of Key Biscayne,, Fisher Island, and Miami Beach the buildings in the distance!, To the south you can seeCape Florida Lighthouse fig. D-3!, and if you look due south you may be able to see Soldier Key,the northernmost of the Florida Keys. Soldier Key is composedof coral limestone a reef formed some t 2o,ooo years ago during a previous interglacial stage when sealevel was about 2z feet higher than it is at present. Beach sand that is transported south past Key Biscayne is mostly carried southeastward across an elongated, shal- lowly submergedsand ridge that extendssouth about as far as the level of Soldier Key, Directly south of Key Biscayne is a carbonate mud bank cut by numerous tidal channels. Tidal ebb flow through these channels is responsiblefor shifting the southward-drifting beach sand seaward. It is from this southeastward extending sandbank that sandwas obtained for the Key Biscaynebeach nourishment in t984. The sand will be spread on the beach from just north of this stop northward through the park and in front of the commercial sector, Return to your car and drive on south through the park- ing lot. Continue on the drive around Cape Florida unless you want to stop at the lighthouse. the natural southward growth history of Key Biscayne in 1945 photo!, As you drive through the Australian pine forest hereyou can see that almost nothing lives on the forest floor except 236 Living with the East Florida shore

The Cape Florida Lighthouse, constructed in t825, was active until t878 when it was replacedby FoweyRock light at the shelfedge reef visibleto the southeastabout 3 miles distant!. The old lighthouse has now been restored, and togetherwith a replicaof the lightkeeper'shome is open for tours. When constructed, the lighthouse was apparently about zoo feet from the shoreline. Gradual erosion has left the lighthouseat the water'sedge, with only concreteseawalls protectingit from erosion.The r984 beachnourishment programadded sand and an erosioncontrol structure near the lighthouse. When Cape Florida was filled in 1950 fig. D-2!, the sediment was dredgedfrom the Cape Florida channel and from the carbonate tnud bars alongthe southwest side of Cape Florida, and a seawallwas addedalong the entire southwestshore. The deep,broad channel producedby this dredging is a trap for beach sands carried south past the lighthouseand is a major causeof shoreerosion at the south tip of Key Biscayne. On the drive beyondthe lighthouseyou cansee "Sti!ts- Flg. D-3. Cape Florida Lighthouse 't978! with the eroded beach to the ville" to the south. These are weekend homes built on northeast. pilings along the edgeof tidal channelsin the mud bar belt, the Australian pines.The needlesfall off thesetrees in such This area is presentlybeing incorporatedinto Biscayne profusionthat othergrowth is stiAed,This, combinedwith National Park, and by the turn of the century thesehouses the aforementionedshallow root systemsand easeof blow- will be removed. over, make this pine a less-than-desirablebarrier island 8.9 No Name Harbor, This small harbor has been a refuge inhabitant. Appendix D. Field guide 237

from hurricanes since early explorers first traversed these was built an a "compacted sand foundation" on the filled waters, In i 982, scout groups began planting red mangrove portion of the canal. The beach has a small bulge here seedlings in the riprap shore margin, probably caused by the filling of Pines Canal! giving a false senseof beachprotection. The seawall also the front 9.2 Crossthe main park road and park in the parking lot. The lot is sometimesclosed on weekdays;if so, park along the of the more seaward building! lines up with the beach roadway and walk ioo yards to the beach.! Walk across the shoreline to the north and south. clearing to the beach. 10.2 Turn right on Seaview Drive.

Stop 2. htatural beach wlNt boardwanre. This is a sotnewhat 10+ Stop at the corner of SeaviewDrive and Ocean Drive. The less used portion of the Cape Florida beach, In t983, to large building in front of you, the 26-story Casadel Mar, in reducestress to the vegetationon the beachridges, 3 board- contrast to the Towers of Key Biscayne, is built on deep walks were constructed across to the beach. At least 3 more pilings and has a massive,sloping seawall whose founda- are planned. Very shortly visitors should be able to com- tion is supposedto extend 3o feet below sea level lime- pare the influence of vegetation here with the areasto the stone bedrock begins at about 2o feet!. The purpose of south where boardwalks are absent. deep pilings is to help the building survive a big storm if From here north, beach fill was added in t984. From the beach erodes right out from under the foundation. here south, the shoreline has been stable or building out There is theoretically a public accessjust to the left during the past ioo years,but there has been lessbuild-up north! of the Casa del Mar entrance. The gate is usually recently than at Stop t. locked. Leave the parking lot and turn right north! on the main 10.$ Turn left on Ocean Drive. park road toward the exit, 10.5 Key Biscayne Hotel and Villas was constructed in i952, 9.8 On the left, just beyondthe park exit, is PinesCanal. This is When first built, it had more than too feet of beach in front an artificial canal constructed about ]92o. lt briefly sepa- of the presentseawall. This beachlost more than 25 feet of rated Cape Florida from the rest of Key Biscayne,but since shoreline in Hurricane Donna i 96o!, another 25 feet dur- there were no significant jetties constructed, it quickly filled ing ]965!, and has had minor erosion in on the beachside with sandcarried in by longshoredrift. since. There has been little to no beach since t965 fig. On the right, the Towersof Key BiscayneCondominium D-4!. 238 Living with the East Florida shore

Note; Publicbeach access on thecommercial section of Key Biscayneis presentlypoor but mayimprove somewhat after the l984 nourishmentproject. Good publicaccess is requiredbecause tax moneywill paypart of the replenish- ment bill, The various hotels oH'er good accessto the shore and are, of course,open to the public for drinks and meals. This guidedoes not suggestthat hotelsofler public beach access for individuals or large groups.!

to,6 Key BiscayneBeach Club. There is anothertheoretical publicbeach access to the left of the entry drive. By October f983 the seawalledproperties to the north and south of the Key BiscayneBeach Club had no beach even at low water. The beach at the club had eroded back to a naturally cementedlayer containing mangroveroots.

I 0.7 Turn left on Galen Drive. I I .0 Turn right north! on Crandon Boulevard.

I 1.3 Turnright on East Drive. The older homesin the devel- opmenton the right are mostlylow and wereseverely in- undated during Hurricane Betsy t96g!. Federal flood in- suranceregulations now require first-floor elevationsto be to feet above mean sea level on the east side of Crandon Fig.D-4. Viewalong the seawallof the Key BiscayneHotel during a Boulevard and 9 feet on the west side. winter storm in January, 1982.Note how the seawallscompletely reflect incomingwaves. This tends to movewhat sand is nearthe shoreback I I .7 Turn right on OceanDrive. seaward off the beach. Hence seawalls.while protecting basic structures Stop 3. Developedshoreline ol Key Blsceyne.You have 2 built close to the beach, tend to destroy the beach, Of cOurse the beach choiceshere; a! Turn left into Silver Sandsand Sand Bar was the reasonthe buildings were built there to begin with. Restaurant. Park and walk up the stairs to the bar over- Appendix D. Field guide 239 looking the beach where there is a nice view of the beach system; b! or park at Sonesta Beach Hotel and walk through the main entrance to the beachat the back, The Silver Sands, built prior to Hurricane Betsy, was damaged and the seaward part of the structure undermined by both that storm and HurricaneInez a year later i 966!, Figure D-5 shows conditions along this shore during a winter storm. The Sonesta Beach Hotel was built following these storms. The hotel is set back from the beach as it is prior to renourishmentl about the same distance that the now beachlessvillas of the Key BiscayneHotel were when first constructed more than 30 years ago, The effective beach was more than too feet wide at the SOneSta priOr tO the l984 renOuriShment!,HOwever, the beachis severelyeroding at present not laterally but verti- cally. The beach ridges that usedto be here were stripped of vegetation as recreational use increased, and the beach ridges and back-beacharea have had over z feet of lower- ing, or vertical erosion, This can be seen by the exposed roots of the palms extending about 2 feet above the sand surface. The heavily used portions of Crandon Park to the north display similar vertical erosion. This vertical erosion means that there is less volume of sand present to act as a buffer to storm erosion. Storm wavesalso will inore easily overtop the now lower beach. This shoreline may thus severely erode laterally during the Fig. 0-5. Seagrasa wrack along the beach at the Sonesta Beach Hotel next significant hurricane. during a winter storm. 240 Living with the East Florida shore

Looking north, you can see Crandon Park beyond the moved onshore here, Prior to that time the offshore bar was condominiums.Sand pushedby the tides through Bear Cut separatedfrom the beachby a troughgo to zoofeet wide at the north end of Key Biscayne has formed a permanent and to to t2 feet deep. offshor bar. This bar is about t mile offshore at the north The heavy recreational use, uncontrolled liow of pedes- end of Key Biscayne,and southward it anglestoward the trian trafftc, and use of heavy equipment on the shore shore. preventeffective vegetation from stabilizingthe back-beach You can seethis bar just offshoreby the Silver Sandsand area,Again, theexposed roots of palm treesare an indica- Sonesta, It joins the shorejust north of the Key Biscayne tion of the vertical erosion, or beach lowering, that has taken Beach Club. If there is an onshore wind, the waves will be place in portions of the beachand the grassedpicnic areas breaking on it. This essentiallyis a permanentfeature that behind seento the north of the loop!. protectsthe adjacentbeaches from someof the offshore In t969 a small amount of sand was pumped onto the wave energy. beach from the north end of Key Biscayne south to the north Disturbance of this bar by dredging off northern Key end of the parking lot, The sourcefor this sand was a Biscaynein t969 causedlarge volumesof sand to drift "borrow" area t,goo feet offshore inside of an offshoresand south.This drifting sandmay eventually provide a natural" ridge! on a seagrass-stabilizedportion of the nearshore pulseof beachnourishment on the commercialsector of platform. Both the sandput on the beachand the sand Key Biscayne. exposedoffshore by the dredgingwere quite fine-grained Return to Crandon Boulevard, having beentrapped andstabilized there by the seagrasses!, Most of this nourishment is now gone, and the offshore Turn right north! on Crandon Boulevard. borrow pit becamequite dynamic for about to years,Break- Turn right into CrandonPark just beyondthe police sta- ing wavesactually eroded the inner margin of the borrow tion and park in the lot entrance fee $t.oo!. Walk out to pit, and the sandreleased spread both shoreward smother- the beach at the north end of parking lot ¹t, ing other extensiveareas of seagrass!and southwardparallel Stop4. CrartdonPerk Bettch. To the south of the loopwalk to the offshoreridge. The area is gradually restabilizing as with the curved seawall,the beach is very broad. This is the seagrasscomes back. partly becausethe seawallis setwell backfrom the shore One of the reasonsthat the portion of Crandon Park and partly becausethe offshore sandbar in about t975 north of the loop has been eroding is that, in conjunction Appendix D. Field guide 24 I with developmentof the park in the early i95os, an elon- If you feel adventurous,the walk to the north tip of the gated trench was dredged just offshore from the beach, island is pleasantand normally much lesspeopled than near Extending from just north of the loop to just north of the the parking lots. At the north end of the island is a rocky northernmostparking lot, this trench has an uncertain pur- intertidal platform. It is actually an exposureof the 2 oldest pose. Perhaps it was to provide 611for the parking areas. beach ridges on Key Biscayne formed about 3,ooo years Whatever, it has not only been the site of numerous un- ago! that were subsequently partly inundated by later sea- fortunate drownings over the years but also a sink for level rise, As black mangrovescolonized the area about sand shifting southward along the coast. The trench is now z,ooo years ago!, their roots penetrated the former beach largely filled. ridges. With time, the roots were fossilized and became The absenceof vegetation-stabilizedbeach ridges in the quite hard on exposure. These cementedbeach ridges are developed part of Crandon Park leads to the landward loss very important to the stability of northern Key Biscayne. of a great amount of sand by wind. If appropriate dune The area appearserosional, but comparison with surveys vegetation was present, this sand would be trapped and made in i77o indicates that there has beenvery little long- would build up the dunes. term erosion of this rocky platform, As this park is a major beach recreation area for the Return to Crandon Boulevard. Mileage includes a o,5- county, the park managersattempt to keep it free of sea- mile circuit in Crandon Park; adjust if necessary.!Continue grass wrack. A large scraper-loadermoves up the beach north. scraping the wrack and somesand!. In the past they have I 5.0 Marina and Hear Cut Beach, lf you wish to visit Bear Cut dug a trench along the base of the seaward-most dune Beach, park in the Marina on the left and carefully cross north of the parking lots! to deposit the material so it can the causeway,The north tip of Key Biscaynealso can be decay. The sand was then returned to the beach. This served reached by walking along the shore from this side. Much two purposes. It cleaned the beach without removing sand of the shore is an eroding forest of red and black man- from the system,and the trench minimized the landward groves, capped by a thin beach ridge. loss of sand from the beach zone, Unfortunately, on my last Continue driving acrossHear Cut Bridge. Bear Cut has trip to the dump which is on the west side of Crandon been here a long time, lt is shown on a t52o map. Boulevard! I noticed large moundsof seagrasswrack and The beaches on both sides of Bear Cut are oScially sand there a quite permanent loss of sand trom the system. 242 Living with the East Florida shore

closedto swimming. Strong tidal currents and sharp drop- spit of Miami Beachwas severed with the dredgingof oH'scause numerous drownings each year. GovernmentCut. As jettieswere extended seaward of the The city of Miami hasacquired much of the shorelineof cut to preventit from beingfilled by thelongshore drift Virginia Keyand is developingit asa waterfrontpark area. of beach sand from Miami Beach, the areas to the south Much of the area is presentlyclosed except on weekends. became sediment-starved.The granite rubble jetties are visibleextending seaward from FisherIsland and Miami Turnright on "SewerBeach Road." This city of Miami, >59 Beach.The northern jetty extendsabout t mile seawardof Virginia Key Park is presently open from 8 A.M.to 8 p,M, the beach. This,together with thename of theroad, is likely tochange. Since about i9t2 essentially no beach sand has come The area along the left sideof the road wasa major south past GovernmentCut, Prior to that time about countydump and landfill until the late t97os, It is now i oo,ooocubic yards of sandper yearwere probably drifting being colonized by Australian pines. south. That means the beaches south of Government Cut t7-4 Turn right carefully! on the dirt road that leadsto the havebeen deprived of about7 million cubicyards of sand beach, Stop at the shore. over the last 7o years. This sediment starvation has had a Stop 5. Virgin aKey Beach. In t 952the raw sewagethat was severenegative impact on the shorelinesof FisherIsland, seriouslydamaging was abruptly diverted Virginia Key,and northernKey Biscayne fig. D 6!. througha newsewage treatment plant on Virginia Keyand During thedevelopment boom in the tgzosCarl Fisher then released at an outfall about t mile seaward. The large placedextensive fill on the back sideof his FisherIsland greenstructure just to the north is a pumpingstation. The propertywith the dreamthat it would becomethe deep outfa!l pipehas recently been extended to beyondthe shelf waterport of Miami. That dreamdied with the hurricane edgeand sewageis nowreleased in the Straitsof Florida. of t926, The original naturalbeach on the seawardside is Prior to the hurricane of t 835, the island of Virginia Key completelyeroded away, and the beachis cotnposedof Carl was connected to Miami Beach to the north. After forma- Fisher's rubble fill, tion, the inlet Norris Cut! remained narrow and shallov, Norris Cut has been a!most completely flushed of sand, through the mid-i 9605. muchof it being sweptinto deep-dredgechannels within To thenorth you can see Fisher Island and Miami Beach. the bay or onto the shallowflats behind northern Virginia Fisher Island was created in t9o5 when the narrow southern Key. Appendix D. Field guide 243

An area of shallow, littoral sand seaward of the beach at this stop was once extensivelycarpeted with seagrasses. Sediment starvation caused the loss of most of this seagrass- covered bottotn, resulted in rapid deepening of the offshore area, and left the beach exposed to greater wave energy "g D 7!. As a result, the beach on northern Virginia Key has eroded by more than 3oo t'eet. The granite groins visible here were installed in t 973prior to a major renourishment programon z. t milesof beach.This innovative projecttook fossil quartz beach sand being dredged as a part of a Government Cut deepeningproject and placedit along the northern and central portions of Virginia Key, completely burying the groins. This was innovative because it killed two birds with one stone. The channel was dredged, and the beachwas replaced,both in the sameoperation. At that time the shoreline along this entire portion had cut back essentiallyto the treeline. As you can seeat the northern and souther~ ends, the sand is again essentially gone. Some sand remains in the central area. As the offshore sand reservoir and protection has been largely depleted, the future of Virginia Key's beach is not bright, Though not a developedshoreline, this is of special concern becausethe major sewagetreatment facility lies Fig. D-6. Shoreline changes of southern Miami Beach, Fisher Island, and only a few hundred yards inland. northern Virginia Key between 1848 and 1972, This view was taken before The north end of Virginia Key, in from the shore edge, beach fill was added to Virginia Key or Miami Beach. has received several episodes of fill during Government 244 Living with the East Florida shore

miles

Fig.D-7. Maps showing theloss of seagrass black incolor! on the shallow shelf seaward ofthe beach on Virginia Key. Percentage ofcover with respectto1945 conditions isnoted, This loss is caused bythe cutting off of the sand supply by jetties at Government Cut. Appendix D. Field guide 245

Cut deepeningprograms. Though someof this fill has been some of the older islands has coinpacted, and becauseof truckedto other sites, this area has the highest land eleva- the leeward elevationsthese islands are partially inundated tionsin Dade County. by exceptionalspring tides. Returnto the Rickenbacker Causeway. Just to the right of the roadway is Government Cui. It was recently dredgedto a depth of 42 lect to accommodate t9,2 Turn right west! on the Rickenbacker Causeway.Con- the cruise ship SS Norway, tinue otf the causeway.Stay in the right lane to follow the As you cross the bridge at the east end of the causeway, exit to I-95 North. you can see Fisher Island to the right. The red-tile roofed zr.g Exit to 1-95 North. buildings are the old U.S. Quarantine Station, now usedas 24.2 Take right exit to 1-395 to Miami Beach. a marine geology station by the .

>55 MacArthur Causeway;continue. 28.9 Come on to Miami Beach.Continue east on 5th Street. After crossingthe drawbridge,you are on WatsonIsland, 29.5 Turn right south on Ocean Drive!, a fill island.Chalks International Airline, the world's oldest commercialairline, operatesseaplanes to the Bahamasfrom 3o.o At the end of the road, park and walk out to the beach south of the pier. here. To the right is , Miami's port and the port Stop 6. South Ntaml Seech anrt Government Cut. Walk for a number of cruise ships. south to the jetty at the north side of Government Cut. On To the left is , the oldest causeway the way down you may seethe sign: across Biscayne Bay. During the 1926 hurricane the winds Beach Erosion Control and suddenly went calm, and many people drove out the cause- Hurricane Protection Project way to see the damage to Miami Beach. As the calm eye of Protection Jetty Sand Tightening Project the storm passed, more than ioo people were trapped and BeachErosion Control Project drowned on the causewayby rising water. U.S. Army Corps of Engineers All of the causeways and residential and industrial is- lands in the Bay are artificial, Most were filled in the early Though a wide, renourished beach provides protection 1920s,However, the easternpart of DodgeIsland wasfilled from total beach erosion during a hurricane, it does not to its present configuration in the early i98os. The fill on provide protection from flooding. A common misconcep- 24II Living with the East Florida shore

tion is that beachrenourishment will provide completepro- tectionfrom hurricanes. As we will see, the big artificial berm the ridgeon the innerbeach! may actuallycause increasedRooding, The "protectionjetty sandtightening project"means that the spaces between the rubble making up thejetty arebeing filled with sandand rubble so sand cannotwash through into GovernmentCut. Thereis a sinalldune near the jetty, westof the newfill, whereone can seewhat the old, natural beachmaterial looked like, lt is a tannish sand composedof quartz and polishedshell fragments, quite coarse. GovernmentCut was cut in 19ogand hadto be dredged repeatedlyto removesand that wasfilling it in, This re- placedCape Florida channel as the inain access to Biscayne Bay.Government Cut wasgenerally useless until i9i2 whenjetties were completed on thenorth and south sides of the cut. Severalphases of redredging,deepening, and extendingthe jetties have brought Government Cut to its Rg.D-8. Oblique aerial view E1972! looking south across south Miami final form. Beach,Government Cut, FisherIsland, Norris Cut, VirginiaKey, Bear Thecut and jetties have formed a nearlycomplete block Gut,and a partof KeyBiscayne top left!.Note the sandbuildup against to the southerndrift of shoresand since igiz. Muchof this the jetty at Miami Beach, southward-driftingsand backed up against the north jetty, producinga broadbeach that extended north to about1 3th fill retreatingat severalfeet per year. To the south,you can Street figs. D-8 andD-9!. Somesand was diverted sea- seeVirginia Key and Key Biscayne. Note the erosional off- ward,shallowing the offshorezone in this area. set of Fisherisland and VirginiaKey. Rememberthat From the jetty you canlook southto FisherIsland, As FisherIsland once formed a continuous,straight-hne beach notedearlier, the presentbeach on FisherIsland is rubble with Miami Beach fig. D-6!. Beyondyou cansee the three Appendix D, Field guide 24'

sections of Key Biscayne This southernend of Miami Beachhas received2 phases of beach fill. The first took place as a part of the Govern- rnent Cut deepening program. This sand contained an abundance of limestone and coral rubble. The contract for filling stipulated that all grains larger than za imhes across were to be screened out! This minor project has been overshadowedby the rnas- sive$68 million project that widened the beach some 3oo feet for the entire length of Miami Beach fig. D-to!, In- cludedin this project is an artificial berm about i i feet in elevation along the inner portion of the beach fill. This project was begun in i 979 and completedin i 98i, working from north to south. This project is, thus, only recently finished, and the waves are now "adjusting" the beach profile. As there was no suitable volume of natural beach sand for this project, an offshoresediment was selected.In froin the edgeof the platform, the fossil liinestone forins a series of submergedlinear ridges paralleling the shore.The lime- stone surface dips down to more than 5o feet below sea level betweenthese ridges, and theseelongated depressions are largely filled with a calcareoussand. This sand between the ridges was dredged for the beachfill. Though approved as a beach sand, this sediment con- Fig. D-9. Oblique aerial view north from the south end of Miami Beach in tains very few characteristics of a natural beach sand. More 1978, prior to the major beach widening project. than 3o percent of the sand is suScientiy fine-grained that 248 Living with the East Florida shore

it tends to readily movein suspension.Many of the coarser grains that werepresumed suitable for a beachenviron- ment are either very porous and have a very low effective density in water or are thin, platy grains that move much more easilythan the robust shell and sphericalquartz grains of the preexisting beach. Much of the larger calcareous material is delicateand highly susceptibLeto fracture break- agewhen placed in the surf zone. If there is an onshore wind and waves, the water will probablyappear quite murky, a problemrarely observed before nourishment.This fine calcareousmud in suspension was partly in the beach fill and is partly produced by the rapid breakageof the coarsergrains in the surf zone. Near the jetty you may see some large piles of coral rubble. The beach fill contained significant amounts of limestone rubble either as coral heads scattered through the sands or as limestone pieces sucked in when the dredge slippeda bit. Initial reprofilingand erosion of the beachfill by natural processesconcentrated these in the swashzone. A rock removal and crushing program costing more than $t million, thus, had to be added. The need for beach nourishment in the southern por- tion of Miami Beach began with the hurricane of r9z6. In the early i9zos Miami and Miami Beachwere rapidly Fig, 0-10. Oblique aerial view north along Miami Beach in May 1980, developing, Resorts were built too near the water's edge. just after the major beach fill. Note the murky water just seawardof the Then the storm struck. The following description is from new beach. P. W. Harlem, Aerial Photographic Interpretation of the Appendix D. Field guide 249

Hisrorical Changes in 1VorrhernBr'scayne Bay, Florida: Beach, a tidal surge in the wrecked large 1925 ro 1976 University of Miami Sea Grant Technical numbers of boats put there for safe anchorage. The Bulletin 40, r 976!. storm tide in the Miami Canal at Hialeah reached 3 m ro feet!, Storm tides of 2.3 m .5 feet! occurred The r 9z6hurricane of September r4-22 advancedon north of MacArthur Causeway, 3.6 m r 1.7 feet! at the at a rate of over t8 miles per hour until Miami River mouth and 3.3 m Io.6 feet! at Miami the t7thwhenitcrossed thecoastat Miamiandslowed Beach,both south of the causeway. down to t t miles per hour Mitchell, I927!. The eyeof the storm passedover Miami and Homesteadat 6:45 This marked the end of the first developmentboom of on the morning of the r 8th, passingjust to the south Miami and Miami Beach.Though there was severe dam- of Little River. Winds, reported by the local weather age, some of the shorefront hotels survived. The beach, bureau, were 8 miles per hour the evening before, 57 however, had eroded, leaving some of the hotels partly miles per hour at t:5o a,m. on the t8th, and had in the water and many with waveswashing against their peaked at about t l 5 miles per hour indicated! from walls. Wooden groins were constructed in an attempt to the northeast at 5:oo a.m. when the instrument was bring someof the sandback to the beach. blown into the street. An hour and one-half later, as Though Miami Beach got off' to a poor start because the eye passed,the wind was variableat to miles per structures were built too near the beach,there has really hour. Most of the 242 deathsattributed to this storm been very little subsequenterosion. The massivebeach occurred after the eye passedas people were caught nourishment projectjust completedwas, for the southern unprotected on the streets and causeways, At least one portion of Miami Beach,an attempt to solve a problem hundred million dollars of property damage was in- created 55 yearsearlier. The problem is the sameone we curred in a period of hours, Between Ft, Lauderdale seedeveloping in many areasof South Florida today and Miami 4,725 homes were destroyedand another construction too close to the beach. 9, too damaged. The highest storm tide along Miami As you walk back to your vehicle, note the old South and Miami Beachbayshores coincided with the second Beach"fishing pier" now in r 984 at least! mostly extend- phase of the storm, after the eye passed,as the t2o ing across the new beach fill. miles per hour plus wind changeddirection to the east Drive northon OceanDrive, As you drive from the south and southeast. Besidesinundating the city of Miami to the north end of Miami Beach,you will progressfrom 250 Living with the East Florida shore

the earliest developmentsto areas built up only in the late t970s.

3e4 Public park. At lith Street there was no beach prior to renourish- ment, and for several blocks north and south the shore consistedof vertical seawalls fig. D-t t!. Incoming waves reflected back offshore, creating a permanent offshore bar inhibiting shorewardrnovernent of sand.

3<3 Jog left one block at tCth Street and continue north on . Following major hurricanes,Collins Avenue and the first floor of manyhotels were commonly filled with sand. This was bulldozed back to the beach. There have been no hur- ricanes since t 966 none since beach nourishment!, so the responseof the newbeach fill has not yetbeen tested.

32.0 Public accessand parking at z tst Street. At 24th Street we join Indian Creek, the remnant of a tidal inlet that openednear 70th streetin the mid-l8oos. Fig.D-lt. Obliqueaerial photograph of BakersHaulover Cut following The inlet migrates south becauseof southward-drifting the 1926 hurricane. The cut had been opened only the year before. A longshoresand transport, It was sealedoff by naturalproc- portionof the bridgesurvived; the restof thecut andthe accessroadway esses in t8zo. weredestroyed. In the foregroundnote the flattenedmangrove trees at Public accessand parking at 34th Street. the north end of Miami Beach.Near the top of the phOtographthe rnan- 3> 9 grovetrees are upright but defoliated. Source: Peter W. Harlem, Aerial 33o Public accessand promenadeat 35th Street. PhotographicInterpretation of the Historicai Changes in NorthernBis- 33 5 Jog left around the Fontainebleau Hotel, You are again cayneBay, Florida: 1925-1976, University of MiamiSea Grant Technical riding along Indian Creek. Bulletin No. 40 979!. Appendix D. Field guide 251

33.8 Public accessand parking. the brownish quartz and calcareoussand of the old natural As the road moves away from Indian Creek and into a beach, The quartz is medium to fine in grain; the grain canyon of condominiums, one can consider some of the of the rounded, calcareous shell fragments is tnedium to alternatives for Miami Beach. This area was only recently coarse, developed. There was a significant beach here prior to Beyond is the new beach, Standing here shortly after the beach fill. new fill had beenadded, I heard a proud, elderly gentlemen There is presentlya lot of very wide beach.If this beach proclaim to his out-of-town visitors, "Isn't it wonderful is washedaway in the future, is it worth renourishing for but my God it is hard on the feet!" recreational or economic reasons? Who should bear the In October r983 there was a total width of 3oo feet of cost? Should nourishment projects be small but with good- new beach fill here, 85 feet of which was the wave-swash quality sand, or large with mediocre fill such as this one!? zone of the beach. This section of beach is about 3 years What would happen when an area with this extent of de- older than that seen at the south end of Miami Beach. It velopment is not nourished to prevent undertnining? As has had a bit more time to reprofile and erode, more and more beach areas in Florida lose their beaches, Laboratory analysesof the fill by the author suggestthat v here will all the money come for replenishment at $t only about 3o percent of the fill is suitable for beach sand. million to $6 inillion per mile? The sheer volume of sediment, however, will take time to rework. 357 Public accessand parking. As you walk across the new beach to the water, note the 36.4 Public access at North Shore Community Center, Parking "hurricane" berm. As mentioned earlier, aspects of beach is across the street. nourishmentprojects are commonly advertisedas providing 36.8 Between 79th and 87th streets is a section of shoreline that protection against hurricanes, The one protection that is was converted from private homes to a public park as a provided is volumes of sand between a structure and most part of the recent beachnourishment program. wave action, Stop 7. Park to the left in the lot or along the street at 8 [st The t t-foot-high berm is commonly noted as a hurricane or Hznd streets. Walk across CoBins Avenue and over one protection element. Yes, so long as it is preserved,it will of the boardwalks to the beach. prevent moderate storms, waves, and surges from over- Near the foot of the boardwalk you may be able to see topping it from the seaward side. No, it will not prevent 252 Living with the East Florida shore

flooding on the bay side of the berm. In fact, it may even major constituentof theoriginal naturalbeach, make up causeworse flooding on the island.Water pushed north in only a smallportion of the newbeach. BiscayneBay by a stormwill havenowhere to exit except This presentlybroad beach has only existedfor a few BakersHaulover. Water may build up in northern Biscayne years.You might wonderwhat will happento this broad Bay,seriously flooding the island.In otherwords, the berm back-beach area in the future. Will it become covered with may act like a damfor the storm waterstrying to escape vegetation sea oats, sand spurs!? Will rainwateracting on from the bay. the surface cause the calcareous material of the broad back In the Great Labor Day Hurricaneof t 935, Elliot Key,a beach to dissolve or become cemented? coral limestoneisland forming the southernseaward bound- Note that the lifeguard stands are on skids so they can ary to BiscayneBay, was severely flooded for morethan be moved to adjustfor future erosion. 5 hoursby waterspiled up in southernBiscayne Bay, The Returnto your car;continue north on CollinsAvenue, elongatedMarathon Key, in the middleFlorida Keys, also 384 96th Street,Bal HarborShopping Center; continue north. is commonlyflooded by hurricanesurges piled up on i side Bakers Haulover Bridge. Bakers Haulover prior to t925 of the island. In contrast, smallPigeon Key just to the west 39.o was a narrow zone of the beach where small fishing boats is generallynot floodedby hurricanes.Water easily flows could be pulled acrossinto and out of northernBiscayne around it. Bay.There were no inletsfor a considerabledistance to the This problemmay be compoundedin hurricaneswith north or south. Bakers Haulover wascut through in 1925.It strongrainfall whichwill increasethe volume of waterthat is unclearwhether it wascut to relievepollution in northern mustescape the bay. Along most of the U.S. EastCoast, BiscayneBay or to provideboat accessbetween the bay evidence that indicates that inlets are formed and main- andoffshore, A bridgeacross the cut alsowas put in at this tained by waterrushing back to the seaafter a stormhas time. passed.The openingof NorrisCut in t835, for example, As shownin the photograph fig, D t i!, the hurricane appearsto havebeen from the bayside. Freshwater build- of i 9z6had devastatingeffects on this area,leaving a por- up inay be important. tion of the bridge but washing out the roadway accesses At this location the coarser sandyou seeat the surface and severelyeroding the shorelineadjacent to the inlet. of the fill is what has been concentrated by the action of Much of the sand was swept into the bay. the wind in removing the finer grains, Quartz grains, the Appendix D. Field guide 253

Following the hurricane, the bridge was rebuilt and a series of groins were installed on the beach north of Bakers Haulover. This inlet is hke most of the other inlets along Florida's east coast, which are artificially created or artificially main- tained, Longshore-drifting sand sucked into the inlets by flood tides fig. D-i z! or sweptseaward by ebb tidesis the major cause for loss of beach sand and hence accentuated beach erosion. Just bayward of Bakers Haulover is the . Repeated dredging is necessaryto keep the growing flood-tidal delta the body of sand swept into the bay by flood tide! from blocking the waterway. 39.6 Just north of the bridge, turn right to Haulover Beachand park in the lot there may be a $t,oo fee!. Walk to the beach. Stop 8, HautotrerBeach. This beach has been renourished several times since tg26. In some cases the sand has been derivedfrom the dredging that maintains the Intracoastal Waterway; in others, more costly offshore material was Flg. D-12. Oblique aerial photograph of Bakers Haulover Cut in August 1935 showing the beach sand that has been swept into Biscayne Bay used. through the inlet to form a fan-shaped tidal delta. Active lobes of sand Nonetheless,the sizeand composition of the sandon the light in color! are encroaching into the dredged Intercoastal Waterway, beach is similar to that which naturally occurred on both Darker areas arrows! are areas of staiiization by seagrasses and algae. this beach and Miami Beach. Source: Peter W. Harlem, Aerial Photographic Interpretation of the His- During the winter season you may see the waves break- torical Changes in Northern Biscayne Bay, Florida: 1925-197s, University ing on an offshorebar. This bar is seasonaland forms as of Miami Sea Grant Technical Bulletin No. 40 I1979!, 254 Living with the East Florida shore

the strongerwaves from winter stormstransfer some sand communityin a hurricane! remainsto be seen, In other areas from the shore seaward. This sand will move back to the Fisher Island, Virginia Key, northern Key Biscayne!the resultant beachduring smaller wave conditions of the latespring and problemsalong the shorelinehave not reallybeen addressed. summer. This annual beach cycle including an apparent The next zo yearswill be a time during which the citizensof narrowingof the beachduring thewinter is an important, DadeCounty will haveto makesome hard choices,especially if natural part of beachdynamics, Too often, development recent predictions of rising sea level are realized. activities have ignored the natural dynamics of beaches when building in the shore zone. If you havea maskand snorkel, the beachnorth of the fishingpier is usuallyan excellentspot to enjoyfirst-hand the dynamic shore zone. Endof trip. We hopeit wasboth enjoyable and enlight- ening. In summary, the beachesof Dade County vary from extremely intensedevelopment all of Miami Beachand the centralpart of KeyBiscayne! to undevelopedshorelines that aresites of moderate to intense recreational activity. Historical erosion ratesare very minor. Had it not been for man's activities, there would be only minor shoreerosion problems today. Unfortunately, man's mis- guidedinfluences on the shore,such as constructionof wallsand groinsand thedredging of channels,have increased over the years to the point that nearlythe entire shoresystem is beingadversely afl'ected,ln an attemptto counteractthe resultingproblems, minor to massivebeach renourishment programs havebeen carried out. The successof the massive Miami Beachprogram that is, how long will the beachstay in plaix;,and will it help or hinderthe Index accessroads, 25. Seealso evacuationand Hoods rocky, z3 high-risc,45, 60-62, 67, 120, [SI, 20[, 200 203 aerial photographs,obtaining, zog shapes,z6-28, 37, 46. [07, 139 mobile homes,155, 172-73, [78, 197, t9S-2oo Amelia Island, zz, 60, 66-68, 70 storin response.26 28 modular, 173,203-04 Amelia Island Plantation, 66, 6g, 70 widening,2S pole or stilt, [84-88 American Beach,66, 69, 70 Beachand ShorePreservation Act, 169 strengthening,195 96 AnastasiaIsland, lg, 78, 86 Bear Cut, r4S,232, 241, 246 bulkheads,46, 4g Seealso couniy-by-countyanalyses, Anus asiaState Park. 86 berm, 4o, z51-5z chap. 4 anchoring,house. See construction Beverly Beach,So, go, i43 But!er Beach,76, 87 archeologicsites, 2 t2-13 Bil! BaggsCape Florida State Park, 230, 232, 236 Ash Wednesdaystorm i 962!. Seenortheaster BiscayneBay, 22, 151,230 54 passim canals.See Anger canals Atlantic Beach,72, 74 Blowing Rock, 23 Canova Beach,toz, io6 Australia[i pines,59, I I [, 120, [25, 132, 146,199, 232, Boca Chia, 6o CapeCanaveral, 3i, 93, 94, ioz 235-36 Boca Raton, 124, 133, 4, t35-36 CapeCanaveral National Seashore,94, iot Boca Raton Inle[, l25, 133, [35, 13S Cape Florida, 232, 234, 236- 37 back-barrierHats, z3 Boynton Beach,6o, 132 Cape May, New Jersey,49, 5[ 52 BahamaBanks, z3 BrevardCounty, 93" 95, 102 6, 109 capes,22, 93 Bahia Honda State Park, 149,150 bridges.See also county-by-countyanalyses, chap. 4 Cape San Blas, 93 BakersHaulover Cut, 139, 143-44, 250,252 54 draw-bridges,59 Card Sound, 15[ Bal Harbor, [39 Axed-span,79 channels,z t, 49. Seealso dredging Ballard Pines, log obtaining information on, zio Civil Defense,6o, [55 Barkers!s!and, t07 BrowardCounty, t33, i36-43 CoastalBarrier ResourceAct [982!, [57-58, t65 BarnsSound, 15t builders, 200,202, 203 Coasts!Construction Control Line CCCL!, t75, See barometric pressure,tz5, igz building codes,t71 72, 177, t79, 187 88, zoo, zoz, a/socounty-by-county analyses, chap, 4 barrier islands, tz-z5, 45, 64-65, 67, 7o-7i, 76 78, 210 [1, 2[2 Cocoa Beach,35. 94, 103, 106 80- 8[, 84, 93 95, [07, I [4, 115![24 25! 132,133, nations!, t71 ComprehensiveEmergency Management Plan, 164-65 [39, 146 obtaining information on, Z[O-I I Conch !stand, 77, 86 barrier reefs, [49 53 requirements,177, 179, 187-88, 193,202 condominiums.See buildings, high-rise beach es!.See also county-by-countyanalyses, chap. 4 South Florida, 177, [79 Conservationand Recrcationa!Land Program, 165 artificial, 31, 149,See also replenishment standard,177, 179 conservatiOn,shOreline, 5[-52, [65 composition,22, 80, 107,247 48 buildings. Seea/so construction construction.See also county-by-countyana!yses, dynamicequilibrium, 25-z6 emergencyrefuge, 195 chap. 4 ridges,2 [-22 evaluationof existing. 188-98 anchoring,19[, tg7-99 256 Living with the East Florida shore

design, 179 98 passim Eau Gal!ie,67, 70-75 Departmentof EnvironmentalRegulation DER!, masonry,1gz elevations,58-59, 70. 155, 159 r66 piles, iS4 endangeredspecies, 173 74. Seealso turtles Departmentof Natural Resources DNR!, 168, pOICor stilt, 184-88 engineenng.See shoreline engineering and structural 170 71 posts, i84-85 engineering Departmentof Health and RehabilitativeServices roof!i, 182,191 Environmenta!Protection Agency, t6 DHRS!, 167 shape,191 erosion.See also county-by-countyanalyses, chap. 4 !egislationon coastalmanagement, 164-74 s!abs,z02 causes.29-31, 52-55, 106 Floridana Beach,94, 106, 109 walls, 19' 193>195 informatiOnOn, ZO9- lo forests,maritime, 25. Seealso county-by-county coniinenta!shelf, 29, 37-38 rates,61, 132, 133 analyses,chap. 4 coquinas,77, 94. Seealso shells estuaries.See marsh Fort Clinch State Park, 68 Coquina Gables,77 evacuation,59 60, r63, 213. Seealso !!nodsand tides Fort GeorgeInlet, 70, 72 coral, 37-39, i49 152-53 from specigccounties,67, 75,79, ro6, » t, t14 Fort Lauderdale,22, 35, 37, 249 Corps of Engineers.See United States,Army Corps 132,137-38, 144, 146, 153-55 Fort PierceInlet. 114, 117-18 of Engineers Everg!adcsNational Park, 15r Fort PierCeState ReCreatiOnArea, t17 Crandon Park, 235 Frank, Neil, 4 CrescentBeach. 76, 78, 87 FederalEmergency Management Agency FEMA!, 4, currents. longshore,28, 4z, 46 95, 158-63, 177 geologyof the shoreline FernandinaBeach, 14, 22, 35, 64, 67-68 Anastasiaformation, 77 Dade County, 139. 143 49, 230-54 passim finger canals,62-64, 107.See also county-by-county cuspatefore!ands, 93 Dania, r4z analyses,chap. 4 Irey Largo limestone 149 Davis Shores,86 Fisher Island, 148,235, 242-43, 245, 246, 254 Miami OOlite,149 DaytonaBeach, zz, z3, zg, 35, 88, 94, 98 t!ood insurance r!uartz. 22 Daytona BeachShores, S4, 98 eligibility, i 62 Go!den Beach,139, 143 Decrfre!dBeach, t33 ineligible areas,157 GovernmentCut, t39, 148,245-52 De!ray Beach,zz, iz4, iz6, 132 34 information on, 225 Great White Heron Wildlife Refuge, t5o deltas,zi Nationa! Flood InsuranceProgram, 158-63 groins, 20, 42, 43 45. Seealso county-by-county disasierassistance, i64, zi3 policiesin elect, r60 ana/yses,chap. 4 DisasterPreparedness Act Florida!, 164 !oodsand !!coding, 32, 48, 78, 95, 155,158 63, 181. groundwater,64, 168 DisasterRelief Act 974, Federal!, 164 Seealso evacuation;storm surge..and tides Guano ls!aud, 70 dredgingand fil!ing, 21, 45, 114, 133,247 48 , t5i, 153 Dry TortugaS,149 F!orida Halifax Estates,84, 99 dunes,z5, 60, 70, 1lo, 233. Seealso county-by-county Air and Water Pollution Control Act, r66 HallandaleBeach, 49, 133 analyses,chap. 4 Environmenta!Land and Water ManagementAct harnmoCk,trOpiCal, 153 Duval County,67, 70-75 972!, 165 66 Harbor Heights, t4o-4t Index 257

Hsulover Beach,[43, 230, 253 54 of '945. [39 Key B[scayne,35, 146,r48, z31-42 passim hazard mitigation, i64-65 of [947, 114.125, 139 Key Largo, 149, [5[ HigsboroBeach, 35, 133,138 Of 1948,[39 Keys, Horida, r49-55 HigsboroInlet, [33, 137 of [949, 1[4, »5, 132 index map of, [50-5[ Hobe Sound,3 [, 41, 115, I [9-22, [25. [27 hurricane s! Hobe Sound National Wildlife Refuge,[26 defined,3r Lake Worth, 129, [30, 131,132 Hollywood Beach,i36, [4z forces, [79 82 , 45, 124,129 hotel s!. Seealso buildings, high-rise frequenCy,jl, 77, Br, g5, 107,[[5 125 land in Key Biscayne,237 39 history, 66-67, 77 78, 8[, g5, [08, 1 [5,125 purchaseand sales,[65, z[4- I 5 in Miami Beach,250 origin! 32 34 planning and use, t63-64, zi4 Marco Polo Sunny Isle!, 46 precautions,205 8 preservation,r65, 2[5 Marnott Fort Lauderdale!,[38-39 probability and rank, 34 land-useregulation, 156 76 passim Hurricane tracks, 8 Lantana, 132 Alicia, 48 Hu[ChinSOnIsland, 25, 53, 118, 119,120, 122 Lauderdale-by-the-Sea,r 40 Beisv,8, [39 Hu chinsonIsland Nuclear Power Plant, tr4, r rg legislation,coastal Camille,48, tgz, rgB federal, r57-63 Cleo, 8. 66. i39 india!antic, 94, 105,106 Florida state, r64 74 David, 8, 74 indian Harbour Beach,94, io5 limestoneislands, i 49-55 Donna, 8. 154.155 County, [o7-13, 1[6-17 Little Talbo[ Island, 6g-jo Dora, 8, 66, 67 Indian River ShOreS,[07 Lincoln's Birthday Storm, Seenortheaster Etoisc,200, 202 inlets,zo-z 1,45-46, i z4.See also county-by-county LoCalGOvernment ColnprehenSiVe Planning AC[ Frederic,198 analyses,chap, 4 r975!, [69 Gerda,8 insurance,information on, zi3-i4. Seealso flood local 0%c[sls! 163,195 Isabell, 8, t t4, » 5 insurance local ordinances,See building codes "King," 8, 66, r 39 IntracoastalWaterway, 77, 90, 96, 133,[37 of [846, [55 mangroveswamps, 22, 24, [49, [52, 153,24[ of igg8, 66 JacksonvilleBeach, 35, 39, 73, 74, 75 Manhattan Beach,72 of ig00,48 jetties, 20, 42, 44-46, 49, 67, 71, 133 Marathon Key, 149,252 Of [903, 139 John Lloyd Sia e RecreationArea, [42 Marineland, 80, 89 of 1906,139 John PennekampReef State Park, [49, 151 marsh, zi, z3, 76. Seealso county-by-countyanalyses, Of [926, [25, [39, 248-49, 250 Juno Beach.9, 34, 124,rz8, [32 chap. 4 Of [929, [39 Jupiter Inlet Colony, rz4, rz6, [27-28, [3z Martin County, 1 t5,! 20, 122 23,126 27 of 1933,[ [4, 115 Jupiter Island Beach,25, 35, 37, 4[, 47 MatanzasInlet, 77, 86, 8 7,88 of [935 Great Labor Day storm!, 39, [55, 252 Jupiter ReefCondO, [24 Mayport Naval Station, 72, 74 of [94i, i39 MacDonatd,John D., 6z of i944, 66 KennedySpace Center, g4 Melbourne,95 258 Living with the East Florida shore

Melbourne Beach.g4, [o5, [o6, [08 Painter Hill, Bo,90 Guana, 83 Miami Beach,6. 8. 35, 37, 39, 40 4z, 44 45, 49, [39, , io6 Hahfax 97 99 Indian, 93, 100, [04, 108, [[4, [[6, 1[8, 123 [45-47, 245 54 Palm Beach,35, 36, 37, 45, r24, 125, t30, 132 Miami Harbor, zo, z45 Palm BeachCOunty, 9, [Z[, 124 25, [27, 34, 138 Loxahatchee,I z5 Micklers Landing, Bz Palm BeachShores,[z4, [zg Ma[auras, Sg mobi!ehomes. See buildings PanamaCity, zoz St. Johns,70, 72, 74 Monroe County, [49-55 pass.See inlet Tolomato,77, 85 rocks and rock outcrops,77 ,g3 Patrick Air Force Base,95, 104 PelicanPoint, 71 The Rocks,Bo NassauCounty, 66 -6g permits, 157-58 National Academyof Sciences,5, 15 construction, [61, [6g -7[ safety,64-65, 178 HurricaneCenter, 4, z[3 dredge-and-!ill 168-69 Sacr-Simpson scale,34 Oceanicand AtmosphericAdministration, 34 information on, zt t tz St. Augustine,6, 79 Nations! Flood !nsuranceAct [968!. [58 pilings, 6z St AugustineBeach, 35, 76, 78-79, 86 National Flood InsurancePmgram NFIP!, 158-63 pole or stilt construction, 184-88 St. AugustineInlet, 7o, 77, 84 St GeorgeInlet 66 67 NeptuneBeach, 47, 72, 74 politics of the shoreline,35, 39, 56, 65 St. Lucle COuntV,[11, 114 I [5, [ [7-119, 122 Ne'wJerseyization, 31, 32, 41, 48, 49, 5[ -52, 53-54, pollution, 63-64, [53, 166-68 St. facie Inlet, 20, 115,[[9, [23 55. 74 PompanoBeach, 35, 38, 41-42, 136, 14o New Smyrna Beach,S i, 88, 93, Ioo Poncede Leon, Juan, 6 St. Mary's Entrance,67, 68 sand. Seealso county-by-countyanalyses, chap, 4 No Name Harbor, 236 37 Poncede Leon inlet, Bo, 88, 99 Norris Cut, i48, 242 43, 246, 252 PoncePark, 81 bypassing45 northeaster Ponte Vedra Beach,73, 77, 78 loss, [32 movement httora! driit!, 94 95. Seealso beach, of !925, 74, [15 posts, i 84-85 coinposition;currents of 1932,66, 74, 115 power failures, zo[ supply, [z, 20, 22, 26 28, 47 of 1947,66, 74, 1[5 of [962 Ash WednesdayStorm!. 32. 62, 74. 77 78 Red CrossEmergency shelters, [55 seawalls 110,114, 115 reefs,coral, [49, 152 53 costs,35 of i973 Lincoln's Birthday!. 32. 67, I [0 replenishment nourishment!, 31, 35, 37 42, 7[, 74, lawsagainst, 5o, 6z of [g81-82, 67, 74, 114,115 120 2[, 132,133, 233 34. Seealso COunty-by- negativeeffects, zo, 46 50, i2[, t49 of [983, 67, 115 county analyses,chap. 4 Sebastianln!et State RecreationArea, 94, 107, [09, northeasters,3[ reve[ments,46, 49 112 RickenbackerCauseway, z3o-32 SeminoleShores z3 OceanRidge Beach,48, [32, 134 ndge-and-runne!system. See sand, supply septic tank systems,[53, 2i z. Seealso pollution Ormond Beach,80, S7,97 risk, balanced,[78-79 setbackregulations, 62, Bt, [75. Seealso building Ormond-by-the-Sea,92, 97 rivers codes overwash,zi, zz, 25 Banana,93 she!!fish,64 Index 259 shells,16, 18,29, 8o taxes,67, to7 velOCityronetv 159,16t 62 shorelineengineering, 35 55 passlni tides Vero Beach,22, 35, io7, iio ii, »6 costsand economics.4o-42, 74-75 annual ranges,23, 81, 94, to7 Virginia Key, 148,230, 232, 242 43, 246, 254 questionsto ask. 5O-5t. 251 spring, 32 34, 81, 94, 107 Vitano Beach,65, 85 "truths of the shoreline,"52, 55. Seea/so county-by- too-yearlevels, 78, 95, 155,181 VolusiaCounty. 8o, 8 t, 84, 88, 93, 97 1oI county analyses,chap. 4 Titusville, 95 Silver Lake, 8o, 9o turtles, Sea,42-43 WabassoBeach, to7, 1i3 , 124,129 Typhoon Tracy, 193 wastedisposal. 167 68 site-selection,56-65 Waveland,122 Soldier Key,235 United States wave s! South Hole Cove, 1o7 Army Corps of Engineers,31, 42, 46, 78, 84, io6, averageheights, 8 1 , 124,13o 31, 132 »4, 132, 168 effects.i 82 South Palm Beach,48 EnvironmentalProtection Agency. 16 energy,46 47 South Ponte VedraBeach, 48 Departmentof Housingand Urban Development, and geology.93 spits, i3, 14. Seealso barrier islands 215 prevailingdirectionS, 23. Seealso storm surge storm surge,58, 59, 125,181 Fish and Wildlife Service, 173 74 Wilbur-by-the-Sea,56. 84. 92, 99 Straits of F!orida, 233 Office of Oceanand CoastalResource Management winds structural engineering,178 79 Coastal Zone !v anagement!,i64 prevailing, 23, 81. t25 SummerHaven, 76, 78-79, 88 Universityof Florida, Coasta!and Oceanographic velOCEty,179 8 i, 201. gee also ilurncanes Sunny Isle, 46, 139,143 Laboratory,84, 1o6 Surfside,139, 146 Universityof Miami,marine geology station, 245 "Yankee" storm i 935!, 137 Usina Beach,85 zoning. gee building codes