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Chapter 1 Memory Memory Chapter 1 Please note: thefollowingmaterial beenentered inanAQAapproval process These pagesare uncorrected proofs andcontain unfinalisedartwork © IlluminatePublishing by CaraFlanagan,Dave Berry, RuthJones,MarkJonesand RobLiddle AQA PsychologyforGCSE Chapter 1from • • • • • cells, andallyourmemories. And holdsabout100billionnerve about thesameas1½bagsofsugar. It justweighsabout3pounds– makes themlackaccuracy? If theyarenotaccurate,what Are memoriesaccurate? some thingsandnotothers? Why doyouthinkremember look likeinthebrain? What dothememoriesactually How arethosememoriesstored? Multiple choicequestions Practice questions,answersandfeedback Revision summary Processes ofmemory Contents

Structures ofmemory

Memory asanactiveprocess

Context Interference Factors affecting theaccuracyofmemory Encoding, storageandretrieval A studyofencoding Different typesofmemory The multi-storemodelofmemory Primacy andrecencyeffects inrecall Barlett’s War oftheGhostsstudy The theoryofreconstructivememory False memories Chapter 1  Contents 36 34 32 12 14 16 18 20 22 28 26 24 30

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Processes of memory: It’s on the tip of my tongue. Encoding, storage and retrieval K LINK A phrase which generally means failing THIN to retrieve a word or name from Memory is an example of a cognitive memory but having some idea what it process. ‘Cognitive’ means knowledge. is and also feeling that any moment the The specification says … Chapter 3 concerns cognitive development word will be recalled. Processes of memory: encoding (input), storage Encoding – looking at how children think and learn. and retrieval (output). You should always be on the lookout for Memory involves three processes: putting information into your brain (encoding), links across the specification. How memories are encoded and stored. storing it there and retrieving it again. To begin we are going to focus on the encoding part. Encoding means changing information so it can be stored in the brain. The form The memory palace of the information is changed. Visual encoding Encode – store – retrieve Some memories are stored visually. For example, if I ask you to count the windows on your house you probably ‘see’ your house in your mind in order to ‘Memory’ describes a whole lot of different things: remembering count the windows. That information is visually encoded. your last birthday, remembering the capital of France, remembering Apply it – concept what you did in your last maths lesson, remembering stuff for Acoustic encoding exams, remembering where you put that necklace, remembering how to ride a bicycle … Ezra revising Some memories are stored in terms of what they sound like. The most obvious example would be your favourite songs. If you think about them, you can hear In all cases, we can describe the process in terms of: Read the item below and then answer the questions that follow. the words and music. 1. Encoding: the information must be translated into a form so Ezra finds that when he revises for his Psychology test, he Another example is learning the alphabet to the tune of Twinkle twinkle little star that it can be held in your brain. remembers more information if he re-writes passages of the – the rhyme is encoded acoustically. 2. Storage: the information is then kept in your brain for a period textbook into his own words as opposed to just staring at the of time – possibly even a lifetime. textbook page or reading the page out loud. Semantic encoding 3. Retrieval: the information has to be located and brought back A friend tests Ezra by asking him to recall what he learned ‘Semantic’ refers to meaning. We all know thousands of words and your semantic out of your brain. memory is the meaning of these words – that is your ability to understand and the previous day. Ezra finds that he remembers most of the You can retrieve memories in several different ways: use words and concepts. information but not all of it. However, when he is given the • Recognition – for example, doing multiple choice questions, you opportunity to look at some key words from his notes he finds For example, you know and understand the word elephant and you can use the are given four possible answers and have to decide which one is that he can remember the rest of the information. word in a sentence. the right answer. Or seeing someone and being able to identify who they are – which is different from trying to recall what Questions Other encoding someone looks like. 1. Identify the different ways in which Ezra learns. Refer to Every year a World Memory Championship is held Tactile encoding is a memory of what things feel like and olfactory memory is • Cued recall – you try to remember a piece of information … it’s the different types of encoding in your answer. [3 marks] where competitors have to memorise long lists of memory for smells. on the tip of your tongue … and then someone gives you a clue or cue (It begins with the letter ‘B’) and you can remember it. 2. Why couldn’t Ezra remember all of his notes the following hundreds of numbers and words. Ben Pridmore, from day? [2 marks] Derby, has won three times and explains how he • Free recall is when you retrieve it without cues. achieves mind boggling feats – it’s called the method of loci or the memory palace. He memorises long lists of numbers by encoding them in meaningful associations. Study tip Ben turns numbers into images and then places Apply it – research them around an environment he knows well – in Don’t lose marks his case it is often his old school, Queen Elizabeth’s Recognition or recall? Make sure you expand enough on your answers. Grammar School in Horncastle, Lincolnchsire. To Meaningful recall the numbers he takes a walk round the school associations … A psychologist conducted a study on memory to see which When explaining key terms in Psychology (see question 3 below), and retrieves them. method of remembering was superior – recognition or recall. it is always good practice to give a relevant example to illustrate In the recall condition, 10 participants studied a list of 20 your point as this further demonstrates your knowledge and You may not be very impressed by this method but All sorts of memory ‘tricks’ rely on making meaningful words. The list was removed and the participants wrote down understanding of a topic (AO1). it is surprisingly effective and used by all memory associations. For example as many words as they could remember. In the recognition champions and stage performers. condition, 10 different participants studied the same list of You can see a great demonstration of this method by ROY G. BIV helps me (Cara) remember the words. After this was removed, they were given a list of 100 Professor Robert Winston here colours of the rainbow (R stands for red, O for orange …) words which included the 20 they had seen previously. They had to select the words they recognised. tinyurl.com/lumdv6f Or you can use each letter to make up a rhyme: 1. Which one of the following terms is a description Richard of York Gave Battle in Vain. Questions of storage? (i) Putting information into your memory. Both of these are well known mnemonic techniques – methods 1. Write a suitable alternative hypothesis for this study. (ii) Recalling information. Check it What is meant by … to improve your recall of lists of things. [2 marks] 2. Apart from ethical issues explain one strength of the Encoding (iii) Learning information in terms of how it sounds. research method used in this study. [2 marks] (iv) Holding information in your memory. [1 mark] DRAFT3. The psychologist used two different groups of participants. Stretch and challenge Identify this experimental design and explain how she 2. Use your knowledge of psychology to explain how could have allocated the participants to the two conditions memories are encoded. Give an example in your Retrieval Test it yourself. Ask people you know about whether they answer. [2 marks] use meaningful associations such as the rhyme above to help of the study. [1 mark + 2 marks] them remember things. What kinds of things do people use 4. The psychologist repeated the study using a matched pairs 3. Explain what is meant by each of the following to help them remember? design. Explain one reason why she did this. [2 marks] terms: storage and retrieval. [4 marks]

Memory Proces ses  of memory: Encoding, s torage and retrieval 13 Chapter 1 12 Processes of memory: A study of encoding Evaluation Apply it – research The specification says… A controlled experiment DTPC and OZVF Processes of memory: How memories are encoded. A study of encoding + Point: One strength is this is a well-controlled A memory researcher wanted to see if Questions Alan Baddeley (1966 a, b) conducted one of the best-known studies of experiment which enhances the validity of the encoding in memory. results. encoding in STM really is acoustic. She selected a sample of 24 participants and 1. The researcher presented each Psychologists distinguish between short-term memories (STMs) and long- Explanation: The study was conducted divided them into two equal groups. participant with five sequences. term memories (LTMs) – sometimes we store information but only rather within a lab where conditions could be carefully Explain how she could have used briefly; for example, if you are phoning someone up you remember their controlled so that no other factors would In Condition A, the participants were randomisation to do this. [2 marks] phone number while dialing it but then the number is forgotten. This is an influence participant’s ability to recall the lists. presented with several sequences of 2. The researcher conducted this example of short-term memories. One important factor that was controlled was similar sounding consonants (‘D’, ‘T’, experiment in a laboratory. Explain Long-term memories are those which last longer, in other words, you can poor hearing, which could be an extraneous ‘P’, ‘C’, etc.) and then asked to recall Ear variable. If participants had poor hearing they one strength and one weakness of retrieve them later on, after hours or days or even years. each sequence. might be less likely to hear similarity in words. this type of study Baddeley did give participants a hearing test. In Condition B participants had to [2 marks + 2 marks] Baddely’s study: Aim Study this! Baddeley aimed to see if there was a difference in the not named in The level of control means we can be more recall sequences of dissimilar sounding 3. Explain one way the researcher specification type of encoding used in short- and long-term memory. confident that the results are due to changes in consonants (‘O’, ‘Z’, ‘V’, ‘F’, etc.). could have chosen a random sample the independent variable (acoustic or semantic of participants. [2 marks] The researcher found that the Method This study is not similarity/dissimilarity). 4. Explain one strength and one named in the participants in Condition B recalled There were four groups of participants: A, B, C, and D. weakness of random sampling. specification and STM may sometimes be visual more sequences on average than Each group was given one of the lists on the left. therefore you cannot [2 marks + 2 marks] Point: One weakness is that Baddeley participants in Condition A. be asked questions – Group A heard 12 sets of five words from List A. For overlooked cases where encoding in STM is specifically about example, one set might be: cab, can, mad, man, max, visual rather than acoustic. another set might be: mat, map, cap, cad, cab. The this study. However List A words were read out at a rate of one per second. you can use the Explanation: Baddeley used quite artificial study as a means of stimuli (word lists). If different stimuli were used Stretch and challenge cat, cab, can, cad, cap, mad, max, mat, man, map After each set of five words the participants were asked answering questions STM may not always be acoustic. In another to immediately recall the five words in the correct order. about how false study Brandimote et al. (1992) found that Maria Brandimonte and colleagues picture. The pictures were displayed List B The participants had a card with all the ten words from memories affect the participants used visual encoding in STM when (1992) showed that STM encoding for 2 seconds. the list; it was the order of recall that mattered. accuracy of memory. processing visual information (see details of was not always acoustic. If pit, few, cow, pen, sup, bar, day, hot, rig, bun Afterwards participants were asked Group B did the same with list B. the study on the right). Normally we ‘translate’ information is presented visually visual images into verbal codes in STM, but this to verbally recall the composite Close your book and try to remember both lists of words in Group C did the same with list C except they waited 20 minutes before then STM is visual. The stimulus may not always be the case – especially if verbal images in any order. Using an the order they were presented. they recalled the words, and the same applied to group D with list D. material used in this study was six rehearsal is prevented. independent groups design, picture pairs, where one picture Which list did you recall better? some participants were given an Results This means that STM is not always acoustic. of each pair was part of the other articulatory suppression task in the List C Baddeley found that participants did worse with list A than list B. picture. Two picture pairs are shown EXTRA: Was it LTM? interval before recall (i.e. they had He also found that they did worse with list C than list D. below. great, large, big, huge, broad, long, tall, fat, wide, high – Point: Another weakness is that Baddeley may to say ‘la la la la’). This was done to not have been testing LTM at all. prevent any verbal rehearsal in the List D Conclusion Explanation: In the study LTM was tested 1. retention interval. good, huge, hot, safe, thin, deep, strong, foul, old, late List A has acoustically similar words (they sound the same) whereas list by waiting for just 20 minutes. There are many This suppression task had no effect B has acoustically dissimilar words (they don’t sound the same). The fact things that we remember for 20 minutes but on performance for images that had Now try to remember lists C and D in the order they were that participants did worse with list A than list B suggests that words are have forgotten by the next day, so recall after presented. encoded acoustically because those were the words that got muddled up 20 minutes may not really be LTM. no name but improved performance so they must have been thinking in terms of the sounds of the words. This for images that could be named (a Which list did you recall better? Any ideas why? applies to short-term memory (STM) because they were asked to recall the Therefore Baddeley may not have actually been 2. verbal activity). This shows that testing what he claimed to be testing. list immediately. storage can be visual. Participants were asked to subtract List C has semantically similar words (they have a similar meaning) whereas This is an interesting study to try list D has semantically dissimilar words (they don’t mean the same thing). the second picture from the first one yourself. The fact that participants did worse with list C than list D suggests that for each pair, producing a ‘reduced’ information is encoded semantically if it isn’t recalled immediately. This What is meant by … applies to long-term memory (LTM) because these lists were recalled after 20 minutes. Encoding Overall this suggests that short-term memories are encoded acoustically and Study tip 1. Research into encoding could be said to lack longer-term memories are encoded semantically. validity. State what is meant by a ‘lack of Understanding the marks validity’. Briefly explain why validity might

or might not be an issue in a study that Check it Long-term memory It is possible that you may be asked to answer a 9-mark question on one study of encoding – consisting of 4 marks description (AO1) and 5 marks investigated encoding. [3 marks] Study tip of evaluation (AO3), as in ‘Check it’ question 3. You can see that the 2. Imagine that you have been asked to question says ‘describe’ and ‘evaluate’ but it doesn’t tell you how many conduct a study to investigate encoding. Conclusions marks for each. DRAFTWrite a hypothesis for this research study. A conclusion is an interpretation of the results – an attempt to Looking at this spread you may wonder – there is more AO1 (description) [2 marks] generalise from the particular research study to wider issues. of the study than AO3 (evaluation). The reason is that we have to spend In this case, making a statement about short-term memory time carefully describing the study so you can understand it. 3. Describe and evaluate one study that has generally, rather than a statement about the participants in the investigated how memories are encoded. study. In addition you may be asked just to describe the method or results of the [9 marks] study (as in Q2) so you need the detail – but you must learn to describe each study succinctly so you have time for the evaluation. Memory Proces ses  of memory: A s tudy of encoding 15 Chapter 1 14 Processes of memory: Different types of memory Evaluation Possibly an episode The specification says… she would prefer to Specific locations in the brain forget. Processes of memory: Different types of memory; Long-term memory (LTM) + Point: One strength of dividing LTM into different types is that episodic memory, semantic memory and procedural If I tell you my phone number will you still remember it in an hour? Tomorrow? brain scans have shown separate locations in the brain for each of memory. Next week? Next year? We remember some things for only a short time and the three types of memory, supporting the idea of different kinds these are called short-term memories. There is no exact time when something of memory. becomes a long-term memory but, in general, short-term memories are ones Explanation: If the three types of memory are different then that disappear within a few hours or days. Long-term memories, as the name each should have a specific location in the brain. People with amnesia usually suggests, stay with us for weeks, months and even a life-time. can remember how to do things, Researchers have found support for this, for example: When psychologists have studied long-term memory, they have identified three such as make scrambled eggs or ride a bicycle, but key types. • Episodic memory is associated with the right prefrontal area. Apply it – research they lose almost all recollection of their past life. • Semantic memory is associated with the left prefrontal area. Episodic memory Participant Age (years) They remember how to speak but can’t remember 1. Episodic memory • Procedural memory is associated with the motor area which Testing episodic score (out of 20) 1 7 62 facts about the world or personal events that Episodic memory is your memory for events (episodes) from your life. It’s controls fine motor skills. happened to them. your memory for the things you have done and experiences you have had. For memory 2 15 22 3 6 68 In other words they appear to lose only certain example, a visit to the dentist, a gig you went to last week, your birthday party Motor area A psychologist wanted to see if episodic 4 19 18 kinds of memory. when you were 10, and so on. memory worsens as people get older. 5 4 73 You recall the time and place of such episodes. You may also remember who He tested the episodic memories of ten 6 18 32 else was there, what happened before and afterwards, and you may also Prefrontal area people of different ages. The results are 7 9 45 remember what you felt about it. So these memories are ‘time-stamped’. given in the table (the higher the score, 8 11 55 2. Semantic memory the better the episodic memory). 9 12 35 10 15 27 Semantic is about ‘meaning’. Your semantic memory is like your own encyclopedia. It is the meaning of everything you know – but specifically it is the Questions knowledge that is shared with other people (whereas episodic memories may be unique to you). For example, Paris is the capital of France, or England won the 1. Use a piece of graph paper to sketch a suitable graph of these World Cup in 1966 are both semantic memories. Amnesic patients results. Label your axes and give the graph a suitable title. [5 marks] Unlike episodic memories, semantic memories are not ‘time-stamped’. We don’t + Point: Another strength is that people who suffer from loss of usually remember when we first learned about Justin Bieber, for example (if you memory due to brain damage lose only certain kinds of memory 2. Identify the type of graph you have sketched and the type of do – then that memory is an episodic one). as described in the case of Clive Wearing (facing page), correlation your graph shows. [1 mark + 1 mark] supporting the idea of different kinds of memory. 3. Calculate the median episodic memory score and the mean age of 3. Procedural memory Explanation: Another famous case of amnesia happened to a the participants. Show your workings for both. Procedural memory is ‘muscle memory’ – remembering how to do things. man known as HM who had severe epilepsy as a young boy. An [2 marks + 2 marks] One famous case was a gifted British musician, We can recall these memories without conscious awareness or a great deal operation to remove his hippocampus (to reduce epilepsy from 4. Give one strength and one weakness of correlations. Clive Wearing. He developed an infection in his of effort. A good example is driving a car. Our ability to do this (eventually) that area) resulted in a catastrophic loss of memory – but not all [2 marks + 2 marks] brain and within a day had lost almost all memory depends on procedural memory. We change gear without having to recall how. his memory. He could recall how to do things but was unable to of his past. He can still play the piano brilliantly We indicate left or right at a junction without even realising we’ve done so. remember events from his past. and conduct a choir but he can’t remember his These are the sorts of skills we might even find quite hard to explain to someone This again shows that there are different kinds of memory. musical education. He can remember some other else. If you try to describe what you are doing as you drive the car, the task may Study tip aspects of his life before the infection, but not well become more difficult. EXTRA: It’s not as simple as it seems others. – Point: One weakness is that, in reality, there isn’t a clear Less is more For example, he knows that he has children but Declarative and non-declarative memories difference between episodic and semantic memories (you may Students find evaluation difficult. Try to take it slowly. You may need already have realised this). cannot remember their names. He recognises his You don’t need to remember the terms declarative and non-declarative but they to come back to these evaluations when you have become more wife, Deborah, and greets her joyously every time provide a good way of summarising the differences between the three types Explanation: Amnesic patients actually retain some of their experienced. of long-term memory. Episodic/semantic memories are grouped together as semantic memories, such as language (you use your semantic they meet, believing he has not seen her in years, One of the key tips is: LESS IS MORE declarative memories because they require conscious recall. Procedural memory memory to recall the vocabulary of any language). And most of even though she may have just left the room for a doesn’t require conscious recall and so is classified as non-declarative. our memories are a fusion of episodic and semantic ones. For You are better off understanding ONE critical point well than knowing few minutes. example, your knowledge (semantic memory) of Justin Bieber is them all superficially. Practise writing one well-elaborated, beautifully closely linked to your experiences of seeing him sing (episodic polished AO3 point. You can read advice about AO3 on page 6. This is what you have learned so far memories). Therefore the idea of three stores may be just too neat and tidy to What is meant by … Basic Memory Processes be true. It is an oversimplification. Episodic memory 1. Which one of these is a description of procedural Check it memory? [1 mark] Encoding Storage Retrieval (i) Your memory for personal events. Code and put Maintain in Recover from Stretch and challenge (ii) Your unconscious memory for skills. Procedural memory into memory memory memory You could investigate people’s episodic memories, in particular, (iii) Your memory for knowledge and facts of the world. DRAFTtheir early memories. Ask people Types of Types of long- Types of what their earliest memory is or ask 2. Outline two criticisms of research into different types of memory. [4 marks] memory codes term memory retrieval them to tell you about happy events • Acoustic • Episodic • Cued recall they recall from their childhood. 3. Explain what is meant by the terms episodic memory, • Semantic • Procedural • Free recall What patterns can you see in the sematic memory and procedural memory. [6 marks] • Visual • Semantic • Recognition things that people recall?

Memory Procese s s  of memory: Different types  of memory 17 Chapter 1 16 Structures of memory: The multi-store model Stretch and challenge Evaluation A memory game The specification says … The model Supporting research Structures of memory: The multi-store model of + Point: One strength is there is evidence for different memory stores. memory; sensory, short term and long term. Richard Atkinson and Richard Shiffrin (1968) developed a model to explain how memory Explanation: A major strength is that the model is supported by works. The model consisted of three kinds of memory and an explanation about how research studies that show that STM and LTM are indeed qualitatively Features of each store: coding, capacity, duration. information moves from one store to the next. different. For example, Baddeley (page 14) found that we tend to mix up words that sound similar when we are using our STMs. But Eyes we mix up words that have similar meanings when we use our LTMs. Ears Prolonged The strength of this study is that it clearly shows that coding in STM

egister Short-term rehearsal Long-term Digit span memory memory is acoustic and in LTM it is semantic. y r Other (STM) (LTM) Here are 5 digits: 4 5 2 9 2 sensory So they are different, and this supports the view that these two

environment stores memory stores are separate and independent. Sensor

Close your eyes and try to repeat them in the same Stimulus from the order. Easy. Further support is given by the study described on the next page on the serial position effect. Now try Maintenance The model is too simple 6 digits: 2 6 1 8 3 4 rehearsal (rehearsal loop) Point: One weakness is that the model is too simple. 7 digits: 8 6 9 2 5 6 1 – Sensory memory Explanation: The multi-store model suggests that we have just 8 digits: 5 2 7 9 6 4 2 7 one STM and one LTM. However, research has shown that each of The beginning of any memory happens when information is received by one of the This game has been called pelmanism or concentration. It these stores has separate parts. STM is divided into separate visual 9 digits: 3 6 2 5 9 7 1 8 2 senses – hence ‘sensory’ memory. When you look at an object, that visual image can be played with ordinary playing cards or a special set and acoustic stores, and LTM is divided into episodic, semantic and is remembered at least for a very short time. When you hear someone’s voice, their with matching figures. All the cards are laid face down at Most people can remember between 5 and 9 items. procedural memory (as discussed on the previous spread). message can be heard for a very short time afterwards. the start of the game. • Coding Sensory memory is a storage place at your eyes or ears or fingertips or This suggests that our memory is far more complex than the multi- Chunking The first player turns over two cards – if they match the nose. These memories are coded (or encoded) in a form appropriate to the sense store model originally proposed. You can increase your digit span by chunking, which – so memories at your eyes are encoded visually and memories at your ears are player keeps the cards. If they don’t match the player is how we remember phone numbers. It is easier to encoded acoustically. EXTRA: Artificial materials turns them back again and both players try to remember remember 020 7329 6438 than 02073296438. • Capacity All the information from your world passes through your five senses. For – Point: Another weakness is that research studies in the 1950s and what the cards are and where they are. 60s tended to use artificial memory tasks. It’s also easier to remember list B below rather than list example, the retina in your eyes (which record visual input) contains millions of cells. The second player turns over one card and then a second Therefore, we say that sensory memory has a very high capacity. A: Explanation: The studies often required participants to recall word one – if they match the player keeps the cards and so on. List A: F Y I B B C F A Q I T V K G U S A A T M • Duration Information remains in your sensory memory only very briefly – less than lists or nonsense syllables such as PRQ or SDF. half a second for visual sensory memory – unless you pay attention to it. At the end, the player with the most cards wins. List B: FYI BBC FAQ ITV KG USA ATM This means that the results would not illustrate all the different ways If you pay attention to the information from your sensory memory, this information we use memory but instead tended to focus on verbal learning. ------It’s all about looking for associations again, as discussed is transferred to another area of your brain, which is referred to as your short-term on page 12. memory. Obviously the game is a test of memory – but is it short- term memory or long-term memory? Short-term memory (STM) STM is known as a limited capacity store, because it can only contain a certain number Apply it – concept of ‘things’ at any one time. If you try to squeeze any more into it, this won’t work – old information is overwritten or pushed out. This is what happens when you try the digit Study tip What is meant by … span test on the left – there is only so much space to hold information (you can practise Zachary’s phone number and increase it). Read the item below and then answer the questions that follow. What is evaluation? • Coding tends to be acoustic i.e. in terms of ‘sounds’. • Capacity is, on average, between 5 and 9 items or chunks of information. Zachary has been given a phone number that he needs to remember but does Questions may ask you to evaluate a topic or may Coding not have anything to write it down with. He keeps repeating the number ask you to give one criticism – evaluation is the • Duration is less than 30 seconds unless it is rehearsed. For example, if you tested same as criticism. Both are ways of assessing your memory for 5 digits after 30 seconds you wouldn’t remember them – unless to himself over and over again until he finds a pen to make a note of it. The following day he finds to his surprise that he can still remember it. the value of something – that’s why we say you had rehearsed them. If you repeat the digits verbally over and over they will stay ‘eVALUate’. in your STM. Questions Strengths and weaknesses are all ways of giving Role of rehearsal Use the multi-store model of memory to explain: evaluation – a positive criticism is still a criticism. In fact, if you kept silently repeating – or rehearsing – the digits, they will go in your 1. Why he needed to repeat the number to himself whilst looking for a long-term memory and you will recall them tomorrow or even next week and possibly pen. [2 marks] even next year if you rehearse them enough. This is called maintenance rehearsal. 2. Why he was able to remember the number the following day. [1 mark] Long-term memory (LTM) • Coding tends to be semantic rather than acoustic. Check it 1. Identify three features of short-term • Capacity is potentially unlimited because of the way our brains evolved – the brain is memory (STM). Refer to encoding, capacity constantly weeding out unneeded information so that we do always appear to have and duration in your answer. [3 marks] more room. DRAFT • Duration is potentially up to a lifetime. 2. Explain how the multi-store model has increased our understanding of memory. [4 marks]

Write your name in the air with a sparkler 3. Outline and evaluate the multi-store model How does this work? It is called persistence of vision and it works of memory. [9 marks] because of sensory memory. The afterimage of the sparkler persists in the eye for a very short time after the sparkler has moved on – therefore we see the path of the sparkler. Memory Structures  of memory: The multi-s tore model 19 Chapter 1 1818 Structures of memory: Primacy and recency effects in recall You are only as good as your last record – a Evaluation recency effect. The specification says … Named study in specification A controlled laboratory study It is said that people Structures of memory: Primary and recency Murdock’s serial best remember the + Point: One strength is that this study was conducted effects in recall; the effects of serial position. position curve study in very controlled conditions which means we can thing someone did trust the results. more recently. So if you Murdock’s serial position curve study. Bennet B. Murdock Junior conducted a similar investigation to the one described are a recording artist, Explanation: When we are studying cause and you may have had a on the left. effect relationships it is important that we control string of hits records everything carefully to isolate the variables we are but if your latest one is Aim interested in. In this study the: Be a scientist Murdock (1962) set out to see if memory for words was affected by the number of a flop, then everyone • Independent variable (IV) was the position of a says ‘What a loser’. words a person had to remember. word in the list. • Dependent variable (DV) was the probability that Another common Method the word was recalled. observation is that To create his word lists Murdock randomly selected words from the 4,000 most The researcher controlled the familiarity of the first impressions count common words in English. words, the speed they were read at and ensured – which is a primacy 103 students on a Psychology course took part in the study and were tested in that practice had no effect on performance (the effect. groups over a number of different sessions. participants might have got better at recalling lists In each session, the participants listened to 20 word lists, each containing different the more they did it). Therefore, none of these things words. The words lists varied in length from 10 words to 40 words. would have affected the DV. After each list the participants had to recall the words they had just heard. Artificial task Results – Point: One weakness is that, in this study, memory was investigated by using lists of words that only Murdock found that the likelihood of recall was related to the position of the word represent a small part of what we do with our in the list, as shown in the graph below for a 20-word list. memories. 1.00 Explanation: The problem is that this research No we are not going to look at bean sprouts but we are only tells us about one aspect of memory – how call .80 we deal with memorising words. But we do a lot of going to use a magnifying glass, so to speak. We are Apply it – concept other things with our memories such as remember going to look up close at some memory processes. .60 how to play basketball or remember whether we like someone or not. The Generation Game 1. Working in a group, write a list of 20 words. Each .40

word should be four letters in length. Try to avoid very obability of re So this way of studying memory is really rather Read the item below and then answer the question that follows.

unusual words. Pr .20 artificial. It does relate to some aspects of life (like The Generation Game was an 80s TV show which featured a particularly 2. Each student in the group should test at least one learning for an exam) but not to many other aspects .00 of life. novel way for contestants to win prizes. They had to watch a number of items participant. Read the 20 words out to your participant 0 5 10 15 20 go past them on a conveyer belt and had to remember as many of those items (always use the same word order). When you have Serial position EXTRA: Supporting research as they could – they were allowed to take home anything they remembered. finished ask your participant to write down as many Point: One strength of this study is research with words as they can. A similar graph was produced no matter what the length of the list – in every case + There were usually 20 items and each contestant saw each item for a amnesiacs supports the conclusions. few seconds before it disappeared out of their view. Contestants often 3. For each word, you need to record whether recall was participants had: Explanation: Research has shown that people who remembered the first and last prizes that they saw. correct or not – you should ignore spelling mistakes. • Higher recall for the first few words on the list than those in the middle of the list. This is called a primacy effect because primacy means ‘first’. have amnesia and can’t store long-term memories 4. Your group should pool their results and count how also do not show a primacy effect but they do show Question • Highest recall for the final few words on the list. This is called a recency effect a recency effect (Carlesimo et al. 1996). many people remembered the 1st word correctly, and because these words were most recent. Explain why the contestants tended to remember the first and last prizes that the 2nd word correctly and so on. This confirms that the primacy effect is related to they saw. Refer to the primacy and recency effect in your answer. [4 marks] Now try to draw a graph of your group results. Conclusions long-term memory. These results demonstrate a serial position effect – the position of a word Check it determines the likelihood of its recall. Recency effects are strongest. 1. Outline what is meant by the following terms: What is meant by … The results support the multi-store model because they fit the predictions of the (i) Primacy effect. model. The first words are well remembered because they have been rehearsed (ii) Recency effect. [4 marks] Primacy effect longest and are therefore long-term memories. The more recent words are well remembered because they are still in the short-term memory store. So the study Study tip 2. You have been asked to conduct an experiment illustrates the action of short- and long-term memory as described by the multi- to investigate the effects of serial position when store model. Describing a research study learning a list of words. Describe how you would This spread looks at a research study. You can see that it has conduct this experiment. been divided into aim, method, results and conclusions. This is In your answer, you need to include: one way to examine a research study in detail. Primacy effect Recency effect ⦁⦁ The experimental design you would choose, and

membering Aim – this tells us what the researcher was trying to why this would be suitable. DRAFTinvestigate. ⦁⦁ The task participants would be required to do Serial position effect Method – a description of what the researcher actually did, so and the data that you would collect. anyone can repeat the study if they want to check the results. ⦁⦁ The results you would expect to find from your

obability of re Results – gives us details of what data was produced in the experiment. [6 marks] Pr study. A graph provides an easy way to ‘eyeball’ the data. Beginning End 3. Describe and evaluate Murdock’s serial position curve study. [9 marks] Position of the item in the list Conclusions – an analysis of the results to consider the implications of the study. Memory Structures  of memory: Primacy and recency effects  in recall 21 Chapter 1 20

Check it 23 [1 mark] [2 marks] [2 marks] [2 marks] [3 marks] [3 marks] [1 mark + 2 marks] [1 mark [2 marks + 2 marks] [2 marks  War of the Ghos ts  s tudy War s (1932), which included Remembering: A Study in Describe the method used by Bartlett in the War of Bartlett in the War the Describe the method used by Ghosts study. of criticised Bartlett’s War have the Ghosts Researchers unusual. Outline one study because the story used was other criticism of Bartlett’s study. of Bartlett’s War Explain what the Ghosts study shows about memory being reconstructed. 1. 2. 3. Bartlett’ s s : proce Memory as  an active : Are the data collected in this study qualitative or quantitative? Give Are the data collected in this study qualitative one reason for your answer. Identify the sampling method used by the student. Identify the sampling method used by the Explain one weakness of this sampling method. Identify an alternative sampling method the student could have used the student could have Identify an alternative sampling method in question 3 and give one to overcome the weakness you identified reason for your choice. Give one strength and one weakness of correlations. Reproduction 7 containing for seals, fishing a boat when were Momapan Indians from young upon a time two Once thehelp us fight ‘and warriors, of the with one said us’, ‘Come warriorscame down the five river. furtherwarriors on.’ to not if I were grieve sorely would she and home, at a mother Indians, the ‘I have of one said ‘I cannot’, warrior. the replied boat’, in the some have ‘I weapons’. no said, ‘I have simply Indian The other return.’ fight. the to off all they and boat rowed the into stepped Indian the Whereupon Momapan. ‘Take said, ‘to he wounded. me home’, mortally was Indian the battle the of course the In made he this request, whom to warrior, said the no’, ‘On die.’ to – I am going from I came That is where will‘you live’. the boat hisstopped and Indian spirit fled.Theydied, the conflict the of clear got boat the before But dead. was do because he so, unable to lift tried him out,and to were they but 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. A psychology student wanted to find out if memory is reconstructive. wanted to find out if memory is reconstructive. A psychology student to be in the school canteen at He recruited ten students who happened them story and gave the time. He presented them with an unfamiliar and the participants to read it. He then took the story away two minutes from what they could had to write down their own version of it collected the participants’ responses. student then The remember. Questions Apply it – research Apply it – Canteen questions his War ofhis War the Ghosts study. The book his studies) (and changed the view psychologists had of memory. His theory of reconstructive memory discussed is on the next spread. Bartlett was also pioneer a in experimental psychology, setting a lab up at the University of Cambridge in 1912. He was knighted just after the Second because World War of his work with the Royal Air Force. Sir FredericBartlett (1886–1969) Bartlett regarded is as one of the ‘great’ psychologists. mainHis work was a book called Experimental and Social Psychology : The story was unusual was story : The Evaluation Lacks control rather is the study was conducted Point: One weakness and how people about where set standards with no casually, the information. recalled not given very specific were The participants Explanation: about what they should do. Another instructions at the outset accurate when more was much study found that recall that accurate the beginning, told, from participants were Stephenson1967). However, was important (Gauld and recall errors. participants did still make than accurate more is probably This suggests that recall Bartlett suggested. biased were results The own beliefs may Bartlett’s Point: Another weakness is that the data. the way he interpreted have affected on how you interpret Explanation: The conclusions depend and had Bartlett analysed each example of recall the results. and what didn’t. to decide what counted as accurate recall by cultural would be affected Since he believed that recall likely to see this kind of expectations, he may have been more in the results. effect of his study. This means that we cannot fully trust the results EXTRA Point: One weakness is that the story was unusual and everyday memory processes. may not reflect therefore Explanation: Most of the time we use memory to deal with memories are quite everyday experiences. In such cases our may by cultural expectations and we therefore not affected things quite accurately. recall this study may tell us very little about everyday Therefore, memory Reproduction 3 in engaged day were they One Egulac. at lived Indians who This young two of is story the sound the washeard fog the Suddenly through seal-fishing,foggy. but being the calm day one of five men, were canoe first In the view. into emerged canoes paddles, five soon of and beyond’. live who with us, people the fight and Indians, young ‘Come the to called whom no arrows’. we have for fight, to come cannot ‘we two, the replied ‘Nay’, tarry and not’. so come, canoe, in the arrows are ‘there ‘That warrior, said the matter’, does not me, will of be had need who parents, my for come, Indians, the ‘I cannot Then of said one grieved’. sorely miss me’. to is none there for said, ‘I will with you, one come other the But at fight Kalama, to fighting went set very they the sail and And and lasting long, both of many you for home, ‘Go Indian, young the last At said to sides warrior being the killed wounded. and pain’. no I feel be, for cannot that ‘Nay, replied, Indian the But wounded’. sore are great the of people the told he Egulac, where to returned he him, and urged warrior Still the sick.not felt yet at fighting and Kalama,waswounded he how and sunrise until pain day, next no the felt and well, continued all he And night day that until people the when trying on and of hiswhen, mouth, rise,out thing flew black to a great dead. was he not, for could him, they raise him to approached What people remembered . . . remembered people What – – –

Named study

in specification

a ‘protocol’ was the Culture What is meant by … What is meant DRAFT The story was shortened, mainly by omissions. The story was shortened, mainly by omissions. the participant’s from changed to language and concepts The phrases used were For example, using ‘boats’ instead of ‘canoe’. own culture. recalled there each time it was version soon became very fixed, though The recalled slight variations. were Can you find examples of words that were changed? Can you find examples of where the meaning was kept the same but some elements were changed from the original? Can you find examples where cultural elements were changed? • • • Results they parts of story and that different Bartlett found that participants remembered cultural (social and the story within their own frames of reference interpreted You can see two examples of fit. expectations), changing the facts to make them original story was on the facing page that show how the what people remembered transformed. that occurred: Bartlett made several observations about the transformations Conclusions of making the material easier to remember. All of these transformations had the effect fragments and use our knowledge of social details, we remember remember don’t We the meaning and tried to Individuals remembered memory. situations to reconstruct sketch out the story using invented details. becomes our and therefore version of events is simpler to remember This reconstructed memory for the event. The study memories are of studies to show that conducted a series Bartlett (1932) Frederic was given was that if a person . His hypothesis reconstruction formed through of over a period the story or picture recall and then asked to remember something to would be endlessly transformed (i.e. changed). weeks or years, the recollection unfamiliar and/or is somewhat if the information to be remembered In particular, the story more their own familiar expectations and make unusual, people will impose based on social and cultural knowledge. expectations are familiar over time. Such Aim investigate how memory is reconstructed To something asked to recall when people are and months. over a period of weeks repeatedly from aim was to use a story Bartlett’s to see how cultural culture a different memory. expectations affect Method of the Ghosts study . In the War Bartlett used a technique he called serial reproductions it shortly asked them to reproduce he showed participants the story on the left and the new version to another person and after (e.g. 15 minutes later), then he showed this with further participants. and repeated it a short time later, asked them to recall from that was very different of the story was that it belonged to a culture A key feature people at his university in the UK participants were that of the participants – Bartlett’s (students, friends and colleagues). (a protocol). None of the participants knew of successive recall Bartlett kept a record the purpose of the study. • • • Stretch and challenge Consider the protocols* on the facing page (* term Bartlett used for the record of recall). Identify some key differences between them and the original. For example: Bartlett’s War of the Ghosts study Ghosts of the War Bartlett’s Memory

Chapter 1

One night two young men from Egulac went down One night two young men from it there the river to hunt seals, and while they were war-cries, became foggy and calm. Then they heard They and they thought: ‘Maybe this is a war-party’. and hid behind a log. Now escaped to the shore the noise of paddles, canoes came up, and they heard were and saw one canoe coming up to them. There five men in the canoe, and they said: wish to take you along. do you think? We ‘What going up the river to make war on the are We people.’ One of the young men said: ‘I have no arrows.’ in the canoe,’ they said. are ‘Arrows relatives ‘I will not go along. I might get killed. My I have gone. But you,’ he said, do not know where them.’ ‘may go with turning to the other, So one of the young men went, but the other home. returned went up on the river to a town on And the warriors the other side of Kalama. The people came down to and they began to fight, and many were the water, one of the the young man heard killed. But presently ‘Quick, let us go home: that Indian has say: warriors ghosts.’ He been hit.’ Now he thought: ‘Oh, they are did not feel sick, but they said he had been shot. So the canoes went back to Egulac, and the young And to his house, and made a fire. man went ashore and said: ‘Behold I accompanied he told everybody the ghosts, and we went to fight. Many of our fellows killed, and many of those who attacked us were were killed. They said I was hit and I did not feel sick.’ the sun He told it all and then became quiet. When he fell down. Something black came out of rose his mouth. His face became contorted. The people jumped up and cried. He was dead. Read this story close and then as the book and write down remember. can as you much The specification says… The specification Memory as an active process: Bartlett’s of War the Ghosts study. Memory process: active an as 22 THINK LINK

Memory as an active process: The theory of reconstructive memory THINK LINK Understanding individual, social and cultural diversity The specification says… The theory Barlett’s research offers insights into cultural and social differences. The way people see the world is profoundly Memory as an active process: The Theory of Frederic Bartlett (1932) conducted the War of the Ghosts study to support his affected by their social/cultural environment. Reconstructive Memory, including the concept of theory of reconstructive memory. We looked at this study on the previous ‘effort after meaning’. spread and it showed how people tend to remember the overall meaning of You will learn more about this in Chapter 6 on Language, the events and reconstruct the story from this overall meaning. This shows thought and communication (see pages 000–000). that memory is an active process – people don’t behave like a passive memory machine, recording everything that happened. They actively reconstruct a memory. Bartlett also used images to show how cultural expectations Memory is inaccurate Evaluation affected memory. In this example he showed a participant Many people believe that they have a very exact recall for events that have More realistic research an Egyptian ‘mulak’ (an owl) and asked them to memorise happened in their past. It is quite likely that you have argued with a friend about the drawing and produce their reproduction of it. This was something in the past. Your friend’s memory and your memory don’t match + Point: One strength is that Bartlett’s way of investigating memory reflects then shown to another person who also then produced their and you feel very sure that you are right. Your memory may seem very real and how we actually use memory in our everyday lives, which is more realistic redrawing. People formed a memory that the drawing was accurate. than research using word lists to be remembered. cat-like and the meaning then generated the image that over Psychologists too believed that memory was simply an act of reproduction – Explanation: Before Bartlett’s work, psychologists investigated memory time became more and more cat-like. Image to come that we store information about an event and recall it later without altering the using rather artificial materials to be learned such as nonsense syllables and record in any way. word lists (e.g. RTC and KLO). These are ‘artificial’ because we rarely use our memories to deal with such things. (The reason to use them in research is However, Bartlett challenged this and proposed that memory was an active because then any difficulties with memory are not related to the complexity Stretch and challenge process. We store fragments of information and when we need to recall of the material to-be-remembered. It is a kind of control in research.) something we build these fragments into a meaningful whole. The result is that Research on eyewitness testimony is discussed elements are missing and memories are not an accurate representation of what This means that the social origins of memory were obscured in such artificial in the real-world application (below left). One of happened. research. Bartlett’s findings are more relevant to real-life memory processes. the key studies on eyewitness testimony was Reconstruction (It is worth mentioning that for many years Bartlett’s work was regarded conducted by Loftus and Palmer (1974). They In one study participants were shown a picture similar by psychologists as rather untrustworthy because it lacked careful controls. showed participants a film involving a car accident to the one above of two men (one white and one black) According to Bartlett the information we store in our long-term memories has More recently psychologists have again started using more qualitative and afterwards asked them the following question methods similar to those used by Bartlett.) arguing on a subway train. been changed before it is ‘recorded’. We ‘record’ small pieces of information and later, when recalling the event, we recombine the pieces to tell the whole story. ‘About how fast were the cars going when they hit When later asked to describe the picture, participants Each time you retell the story the elements are combined slightly differently. Some memories are accurate each other?’. invariably remembered the open razor (the preferred – Point: One weakness is that it is wrong to suggest that all memories are Not all participants had the same question – other mugging weapon in those days) as being in the hand of Social and cultural influences inaccurate or affected by social expectations. participants were asked ‘‘About how fast were the the black man, whereas in fact it had been held by the A key part of Bartlett’s theory is that the way we store and later recombine the Explanation: Other studies have shown that memory can be very cars going when they bumped into each other?’ or white man. ‘small pieces’ can be related to social and cultural expectations. In the picture on accurate. For example, in situations that are personally important or ‘About how fast were the cars going when they This study was conducted by Allport and Postman in the left, the way participants remembered the picture was influenced by what distinctive, we do remember considerable and accurate detail. There are they expected to be true – that a black person is more likely to be the attacker. smashed into each other?’. 1947 and illustrates how our expectations influence examples of this in the War of the Ghosts – participants often recalled what we ‘see’ and recall. In the War of the Ghosts study, people transformed those parts of the story that ‘Something black came out of his mouth’ because it was quite a distinctive If the question contained the word ‘smashed’ then didn’t fit their own cultural expectations; for example, in the actual story the phrase. people gave a higher speed estimate than when ‘hit’ young men were hunting seals – this was often misremembered as going fishing, This shows that people do not always actively reconstruct memories and or ‘bumped’ were used. a more common activity for British young men. shows that some memories are accurate. Loftus later demonstrated that these ‘leading Social/cultural expectations may influence storage and/or recall. Bartlett called his questions’ actually changed the way that people work ‘the social psychology of remembering’. Real-world application What is meant by … remembered the accident. It seems that our + Point: Another strength of this theory is that it can explain problems with memories can be changed relatively easily. Effort after meaning eyewitness testimony. In the War of the Ghosts what people recalled was the general meaning of the Explanation: Eyewitness testimony used to be regarded as very important events rather than specific details (though they did remember some of these and reliable evidence in court cases. Such testimony was relied on to too). Bartlett used the phrase ‘effort after meaning’ to describe this. What he give an accurate picture of what actually happened when a crime was meant was: committed. For example, an eyewitness might swear on oath that they had 1. Outline two criticisms of the theory of Check it 1. We focus on the meaning of events. seen a particular person present at the crime scene whereas later evidence reconstructive memory. [4 marks] 2. Afterwards we make an effort to interpret the meaning in more familiar challenged this. 2. Explain how effort after meaning can be used to Apply it – concept terms. In other words, we try to make sense of the ‘fragments’. Bartlett’s research showed that memory isn’t always accurate and can be explain how people reconstruct their memories. affected by our expectations of what happened (as in the picture of the two [3 marks] Memory in the office… men and the razor). Research on eyewitness testimony has subsequently shown that people do not always recall what they see or hear accurately Read the item below and then answer the question that follows. 3. Ann and Martyn were at the bank when a person (see Stretch and challenge on right). This shoews that Bartlett’s research has attempted to rob it. Later, when they were at the Brewer and Treyens (1981) The researchers found that Question had important consequences police station, they gave different accounts of did a study where they had office-related items like a Explain how this study the incident. Ann said the incident happened in a different order than Martyn recalled. She also participants wait in an office desk and a chair were far shows that memory is for 35 seconds (see picture of more likely to be recalled Study tip remembered the robber wearing different clothes DRAFTan active process. Refer and saying different things to the people at the office on right). Participants than non-office items like a to Bartlett’s study in Real–world application bank than Martyn recalled. were then asked told to go picnic basket or a skull. In your answer. [3 marks] in another room and recall addition to this, a number of One of the key aims of science is to produce knowledge that can be Use your knowledge of the theory of reconstructive everything that they had just participants recalled seeing used to improve our world. In psychology, we therefore look for ‘real- memory to explain why Ann and Martyn have seen. paper even though there was world applications’ of research. If a study or theory can produce such different memories of the same event. [6 marks] applications this is a strength of the study/theory (as is the case in none in the room. the ‘real-world application’ above). Memory Memory as  an active proces s: The theory of recons tructive memory 25 Chapter 1 24 Factors affecting the accuracy of memory: Interference

The specification says … Evaluation Factors affecting the accuracy of memory, Interference Controlled research including interference. One of the things that memory researchers are concerned with is … forgetting. You actually + Point: One strength is that the researchers in this study used a number may be more interested in the question ‘why do I forget things’ instead of ‘why do I of techniques to ensure that their test of memory was unbiased. remember things’ – especially when you are thinking about exams. Explanation: One of the techniques they used was counterbalancing. If One explanation for forgetting is called interference. Forgetting may occur if two memories all participants had the intervening word lists in the same order this might compete with each other. This is especially likely if the two memories are quite similar. This explain why they did worst with synonyms and best with no new list. was investigated by John McGeoch and William McDonald (1931). To control for the effect of order they gave the participants the lists in different orders – some participants were shown list 1 first whereas for McGeoch and McDonald’s study: Aim Study others it was second, third, etc. not named in If you learn a list of words and then do a second activity, and then try to specification recall the original words – does the second activity interfere with recall Good control is a strength of this research and laboratory studies in of the original words? Does it matter what this second activity is? general. Elizabethan lovers This means you She made the mistake of calling her new This study aimed to see what effect the second activity has on the cannot be asked Artificial task boyfriend by her old boyfriend’s name. A very accuracy of memory. questions specifically Point: One weakness is that in this study interference was tested using about this study. – unfortunate example of proactive interference. word lists, which does not reflect real-life memory activity. Method However you can Twelve participants had to learn a list of ten words until they could use the study as a Explanation: In our everyday lives we don’t often have to remember remember them with 100% accuracy. They then were shown a new list. means of answering lists of words and we don’t often have to remember very similar things. questions about how Therefore, this study only tells us about one aspect of memory – when we There were five different kinds of lists that were shown to the participants: interference affects try to remember two things that are quite similar. Apply it – concept • List 1: synonyms – words with the same meaning as the originals. the accuracy of Interference as an explanation for the accuracy of memory is therefore memory. • List 2: antonyms – words with the opposite meaning to the originals. limited to some very specific conditions. Sally’s social science setback • List 3: words unrelated to the original ones. Read the item below and then answer the question that follows. • List 4: nonsense syllables. EXTRA: Not really forgetting • List 5: three-digit numbers. – Point: Another weakness is that interference may not be an explanation Social influence is a topic in Psychology which is very similar • Control condition: no new list – the participants were just retested. of forgetting. to Sociology. Sally is studying both GCSE Psychology and Explanation: It is possible that interference effects are just temporary Sociology and has a test in both subjects in the same week. Even Results and that information is not actually forgotten. If participants are given a though she enjoys both subjects she did not perform well on When the participants were then asked to recall the original list of words, their performance cued recall test (given pointers to aid recall) they recall many of the items her assessments. Sally is upset as she usually does well on her Clarisse used to keep her socks in the top right- depended on the nature of the second list. The most similar material (synonyms) produced the that were apparently forgotten (Tulving and Psotka 1971). assignments but felt more confused when doing the tests even hand drawer but decided to move them to the least accurate recall. All the results are shown in the graph below. This shows that the information is stored in memory but simply not though she prepared well for both of them. top left. Graph showing results of the study by McGeoch and McDonald accessible. Questions Now, everytime she goes to get her socks she opens the top right hand drawer – she gets very 5 Use your knowledge of research into interference to explain why frustrated. Sally underperformed on her tests in both subjects. [3 marks] 4 An old memory is interfering with a new one. Has something like that ever happened to you? 3 Annoying, isn’t it? 2 Apply it – research Study tip 1 Word lists

Mean number of items recalled Two researchers recruited 20 participants for a study into Explaining your criticism What is meant by … 0 Synonyms Antonyms Unrelated Nonsense Numbers None memory. You might notice that similar evaluations keep cropping up such Interference adjectives syllables as ‘control’ or ‘artificial tasks’. And that’s the way it is. Many Task A: the participants had two minutes to learn a list of 50 Type of interfering material evaluations are very similar – however, if you just say ‘artificial words (List 1). They were then asked to recall the list. tasks’ without explaining the specific task and why it was Conclusion Task B: the same participants were given a list of 50 different artificial in the specific situation, you have explained very little. The results show that interference is strongest when an intervening activity is similar. In other words (List 2) to learn in two minutes. This was taken away and It is the explanation part of the evaluation that is most important words forgetting is more likely to happen if you try do something else quite similar afterwards. they were given another list of 50 different words (List 3). The to your answer. Read more about doing evaluation on page 6. participants studied this list for another two minutes. List 3 was removed and the participants had to write down as many words Stretch and challenge from List 2 as they could remember. 1. A teacher struggles to remember the names of Check it tive int Questions Interference can actually work both ways. Here is an example: Proac erference her new students because she has taught so You are learning to speak both French and Spanish. One night you do 1. What was the dependent variable in this study? [1 mark] many students before. Use your knowledge of your French vocabulary practice followed by your Spanish vocabulary practice. psychology to explain why this would occur. DRAFT2. Identify the experimental design the researchers used and [3 marks] explain one strength of this design. [1 mark + 2 marks] Proactive interference: Español If you try to recall the Spanish words the French ones pop into your head. 3. The researchers knew they would have to use 2. Explain how interference can be used to explain counterbalancing in this experiment. Explain what is meant by accuracy in memory. [4 marks] Retroactive interference: counterbalancing. [2 marks] If you try to recall the French words the Spanish ones pop into your head. 3. Explain why interference studies may lack validity. 4. Give one reason why the researchers should use [3 marks] R etroactive interference counterbalancing in this study. [2 marks] Memory Factors  affecting the accuracy of memory: Interference 27 Chapter 1 26 Factors affecting the accuracy of memory: Context

The specification says… Evaluation Factors affecting the accuracy of memory, including Context Artificial task context. Certain triggers (cues) can be encoded in memory at the time of learning. – Point: One weakness is that word lists were used to test For example, if you think about one of your primary school classrooms, it memory, which is not a ‘natural’ way to investigate may trigger a memory of something that you learned in that classroom. recall. Research shows that, in this way, context can increase the accuracy of Explanation: This is a field experiment so the memory. One such study was conducted by Duncan Godden and Alan environment is ‘natural’ – but the task isn’t ‘natural’. The Sometimes when you feel sad, you feel that Baddeley (1975). A friend of theirs had been in charge of a team of divers aim of the study was to look at whether divers could everything is going wrong – you have no money, too who had to record how many fish entered or escaped from trawl nets. The remember information better in the same environment much work to do, no friends… divers appeared unable to remember their totals when they returned to land where they learned it – but the learning involved observing what fish did, not learning word lists. Being sad acts like a trigger and links to all your (it’s quite hard to record information underwater). It was only when they had to record their observations while underwater that they produced an other memories that make you feel sad. The word-learning task was a very simple one. accurate record. Subsequent research has found that tasks involving Smells can trigger memories. Participants were asked to answer a ‘The environment you are in (context) can also act complex materials don’t show strong context effects. questionnaire about the contents of the as a trigger to recalling memory. Godden and Baddeley’s study: Aim The picture shows a ‘Viking’ couple Study This shows that the findings can’t be applied in all museum. When participants did this not named in preparing dinner at the Jorvik Viking surrounded by some of the smells from This led Godden and Baddeley to see if they could specification situations. demonstrate that recall for things learned underwater Centre in York, where smells are very the museum their recall was much more is more accurate if recall is also underwater, i.e. does Recall was short term much a feature of the display. accurate than if there were other smells context does improve recall? This means you while completing the questionnaire. cannot be asked – Point:: Another weakness is that participants had to Aggleton and Waskett (1999) used this Method questions specifically recall the words almost immediately, which is a very smelly museum to test recall in people In this study smell acted as a context about this study. specific effect. who had visited the museum up to three effect. Can you think of a smell that Eighteen participants were recruited who were all However you can years previously. members of a diving club. The divers had to listen to a Explanation: If we want to generalise context effects triggers a memory for you? Can we change this graph please use the study as a to other situations, then a short time gap may be list of 36 unrelated words either on the beach (dry), or means of answering under about 10 feet of water (wet). unrealistic. For example, if we wanted to suggest that questions about how these results had implications for exam study then we 1st column is 13.5 label Group 1: The divers were tested after about 4 minutes to see interference affects would want to know if context effects applied to long how many words they could recall. They were tested the accuracy of gaps between original learning and much later recall. DD either on the beach or underwater. memory. Therefore this research only tells us about a very specific Apply it – concept 2nd column is 11.4 label Group 4: There were four groups of participants set of circumstances – short-term recall. WW • Group 1: Learned on beach, tested on beach: dry Hamza’s Exam dry (DD) EXTRA: Similar context space Read the item below and then answer the question that follows. • Group 2: Learned underwater, tested on beach: wet dry (WD). – Point: Another weakness is that the effect really only 3rd column is 8.4 label Group 2: • Group 3: Learned on beach, tested underwater: dry wet (DW). applies to very similar situations. Hamza has an exam phobia and as a result is allowed to take his WD • Group 4: Learned underwater, tested underwater: wet wet (WW). Explanation: Context only acts as a cue for recall if psychology exam in his psychology classroom rather than the What is meant by … exam hall. Even though all information relevant to the exam is 2nd column is 8.6 label Group 3: In two of these conditions the environmental contexts of learning and the context at the time of learning is very similar to the Context recall matched, whereas in the other two they did not. Groups 1 and 4 are context at the time of recall. In reality most information, taken down from the walls, Hamza still finds that he performs DW matching – the environments where the words were learned might trigger such as learning material to be tested in an exam, is not better than the other students who did their exam elsewhere. their recall. For groups 3 and 4 the context could not act as a cue. affected by context because the initial learning takes place in multiple contexts (Smith 1982). Question Graph showing results from Godden and Baddeley’s study No key Therefore context effects do not affect the accuracy of Use your knowledge of psychology to explain how context could Stretch and challenge 16 recall in many situations. have affected the accuracy of Hamza’s memory. [3 marks] Under x axis label 1st 2 columns 14 You could try it yourself – but not 13.5 necessarily learning‘Matching lists of words contex t’ 12 11.4 underwater. There2nd are 2 manycolumns other ‘Not matching 10 Check it 1. Imagine that you are a psychologist and you are interested to see ways to test context effects. context’ 8 Study tip if changing the context of learning and recall affects a person’s For example, everyone in your memory. Use your knowledge of psychology to describe: 6 8.6 class could learn a list of 16 words. 8.4 Revision • How the study would be carried out. 4 Your teacher should read the You can use context effects to help you revise. • How you would measure the effect of changing the context. Try to revise in the same place every time you words out (Godden and Baddeley 2 are revising. Put revision notes on your wall • The results that you would expect to find in line with the results read the word list out twice). MEan No. of Words Recalled 0 of your bedroom so that you are constantly of past research into context. [5 marks] Then the class should leave the Group 1 Group 4 Group 2 Group 3 reminded about what you need to know when One of the original classroom. Half of the students DD WW WD DW revising. 2. A teacher has two history classes. She decides to do an experiment participants in the Godden should move to a different room Matching context Not matching context where she takes one of her classes into the exam hall to revise for and Baddeley study. When you are tested in class and are having their end of year exam and she revises in the classroom with her and half return to the original Diver no. 6 if I remember Results difficulty remembering something, imagine other class. She finds that the class she takes to the exam hall to classroom. rightly ... being back in your room so that you can revise do better in their exam than the class she revises with in their The environment youDRAFT are in (context) can also act as a trigger to recalling visualise where the information is on your classroom. Participants should be given memory. memory wall. The recreation of this context two minutes to write down as within your mind will help trigger the recall of Explain how being able to recall information can be affected by many words as possible. Conclusion the information you need. context. Refer to the example above in your answer. [4 marks] Which group recalled more words? This suggests that the context of learning acts as a trigger or cue when trying to remember the information – in other words context enhances the 3. Describe and evaluate a study that investigated how context affects accuracy of memory. the accuracy of memory. [6 marks]

Memory Factors  affecting the accuracy of memory: Context 29 Chapter 1 28 Factors affecting the accuracy of memory: False memories Evaluation Apply it – research The specification says… Mousetrap Factors affecting the accuracy of memory, False memories Artificial task including false memories. A psychologist recruited eight children (all 11 years old). She created a list of You have already learned about reconstructive memories and how this can be – Point: One weakness of the study is that the events that had happened to the children when they were younger but added one false memory event (lost in a mall) is not of the applied to eyewitness testimony – people who are witness to a crime do not event that never happened – visiting hospital after getting their finger caught in a same traumatic kind that might be recovered by record the scene passively but are likely to reconstruct what happened based on mousetrap. The psychologist discussed the events in the list with each child once fragments of what they remember and, most importantly, their expectations. a therapist. Elizabeth Loftus has been one of the most vocal psychologists in questioning the a week for five weeks. She recorded how many children believed the mousetrap Man arrested Explanation:: It may well be that relatively event had really happened. The results were: accuracy of eyewitness recall. harmless events (such as being lost in a mall) can Loftus argues that eyewitnesses reconstruct their memories but the same may be implanted quite easily but this does not mean Week 1 Week 5 happen during therapy – when people seek help with psychological problems. that the same would be true of something much Number of children believing more traumatic and memorable. 2 6 Some therapists aim to ‘recover’ memories in their patients – in other words mousetrap event happened they help their patients remember things that the patient had forgotten. In some Therefore, the conclusions that can be drawn cases, these ‘recovered memories’ turn out to be false. from this study are limited. Questions Elizabeth Loftus and Jacqueline Pickrell (1995) investigated such false memories 1. Explain why the data collected in this study is primary data. [2 marks] in a study which is referred to as the ‘Lost in the Mall’ study. Ethical issues Point: Another weakness is that participants 2. Describe how the psychologist could have used systematic sampling to recruit – the children. [2 marks] Loftus and Pickrell’s study: Aim Study may be left with the implanted false memories. Can we form a memory of something that never happened? not named in 3. Calculate the fraction of children who believed the mousetrap event really specification Explanation: At the end of Loftus and Pickrell’s The aim of this study was to see if false memories could be study the participants were debriefed. They were happened for week 1 and week 5. Show your workings. [2 marks] created in participants through suggestion in order to test told that the lost in the mall story was false. 4. Express these fractions as percentages. Give your answers to two significant the existence of repressed and false memories. This study is not However, it is possible that even knowing this, figures. [2 marks] In 1975 Australian psychologist Donald Thomson named in the participants were still left with a lingering sense specification and was visiting the US and was horrified when he was Method of it having happened. therefore you cannot arrested for committing an assault and rape. The The study included 24 participants (3 males and 21 females) victim identified him as her rapist and later picked be asked questions This means that such research raises ethical Stretch and challenge ranging in age from 18 to 53. For each participant, a relative specifically about issues of whether this research is of sufficient him out in a line-up. was also contacted. this study. However importance to manipulate people in this way. Elizabeth Loftus has conducted a number of other studies He had an alibi – at the time the attack occurred The participants were given four short stories about you can use the to show how false memories can be implanted. In one he had been appearing live on a TV programme. childhood events that had been obtained from their study as a means of EXTRA: Real-world application study, she looked at a positive application (Laney et al. answering questions The police at first did not believe this but later the relatives. Three of the stories were true and one was false. Point: One strength of this research is that it has 2008). In this study participants were exposed to the about how false + victim admitted she had been watching the show important implications for eyewitness testimony. The false story was about getting lost in a shopping mall in memories affect the suggestion that they loved to eat asparagus as children. before she was attacked. their childhood and being rescued by an elderly woman. The accuracy of memory. Explanation: After a crime has been These false memories led to an increased general liking of What had happened was that a false memory had false story was crafted from information given by the relative committed, eyewitnesses are interviewed (e.g. the relative said what the child’s favourite store was, asparagus compared to controls. For example, participants been created. In her mind she had substituted the by police. The police may unconsciously ask who usually went on shopping trips with the child, etc.). This questions in such a way that they may implant a were more likely to choose asparagus in a restaurant and rapist’s face with the face on TV. The memory was meant that the false story sounded realistic. were willing to pay more. totally real to her – but a false one. false memory. For example, they might ask ‘Did Each participant was asked to read each story and then write down what they you see a gun in his hand’ instead of ‘Was there This suggests that false memories can be created which This was an example of a reconstructed memory. remembered about each event. anything in his hand?’. Loftus has shown in many different studies that such questions can create are good for people. A week or two later each participant was interviewed about the stories and false memories (e.g. Loftus and Palmer 1974, see asked to recall as much as they could. Each participant was also interviewed How ethical is this? page 25 ‘Stretch and challenge’). a second time and then they were debriefed – they were told that one of the Why not have a debate in class about: Such research has changed the way courts dal Elizabeth Loftus (1944 – ) stories was false and asked to guess which one. with eyewitness testimony – it is no longer • The ethics of conducting research on false memory. In a review of 20th-century psychologists Elizabeth was Results regarded as reliable evidence. • Whether therapists can actually create false memories, the top-ranked woman on the list. In total there were 72 true episodes to be remembered and participants or are they just recovering real memories? She is Distinguished Professor at remembered 68% of these. the University of California, Six of the participants (25%) recalled the false story fully or partially. One

Irvine. Originally, she had participant thought she recalled it and then changed her mind and the others Check it planned to be a maths had no memory of the false event. 1. Outline one criticism of research into how false memory teacher but discovered Study tip 19 out of the 24 participants correctly chose the lost in the mall memory as false. affects the accuracy of memory. [2 marks] psychology at university Balanced view and has since made an Conclusions 2. Describe the results and conclusion of one study that enormous contribution When considering ethical issues in research, investigated false memory. [4 marks] This research suggests that the mere act of imagining an event has the potential to understanding students often just explain the psychological harm of creating and implanting a false memory in a person. 3. Mark, a full-time clothes model was arrested for stealing a how memory works, experienced by participants (such as deception or the absence of a debriefing). woman’s handbag from a café. The victim, called Debbie, especially related to This shows that false memories are an example of reduced accuracy in memory, based on the idea of reconstructive memory. identified him as stealing her handbag and picked him out eyewitness testimony. You could also consider the benefit that the research from a line-up. Loftus has been an expert has given to wider society so that you are putting witness in hundreds across both sides of the debate. He had an alibi and couldn’t have done it as he was out of the DRAFTcountry working. The victim admitted she had seen a picture of cases, explaining the Ultimately an ethical issue is a dilemma of Mark in a magazine she was reading before her handbag unreliability of memory to a psychologists face when carrying out research was stolen. jury, including Michael Jackson’s What is meant by … which involves balancing the protection of participants versus gaining valid results. It is Outline what is meant by false memory and how it affected trial. She explains in court that A false memory memories can be implanted or created in the mind. important to put across both sides of the argument the accuracy of Debbie’s memory of the theft of her handbag. when describing how these issues affect research. [4 marks]

Memory Factors  affecting the accuracy of memory: Fals e memories  31 Chapter 1 30 Summary Proces ses  of memory Memory as  an active proces s

Encoding experiences, storing them in long-term memory and being able to remember them later. Fragments of memory are reassembled during recall. Encoding A study of encoding Different types of LTM The theory of reconstructive memory Bartlett’s War of the Ghosts study Named study Study in specification Encoding Baddeley’s study: Aim not named in Episodic memory Bartlett’s study: Aim The theory specification Changing information into a form so it can be held in the brain. To see if there was a difference in the Memory for events from your life. To see how memory is reconstructed when recalling an unfamiliar story. People rebuild memory as an active process. type of encoding used in STM and LTM. Visual encoding Semantic memory Method Memory is inaccurate Changing information by how it looks so it can be stored. Method Memory of what things mean (your own The War of the Ghosts story was read by one participant and recalled after Memory is not a process of exact reproduction of experiences. Participants learned words similar or dissimilar sounding encyclopedia). 15 minutes, then read by another participant and recalled and so on. Reconstruction Acoustic encoding (e.g. cat, cab, can, or pit, few, cow). Immediate recall. Changing information by how it sounds so it can be stored. Results Record pieces of information, recombine to tell the whole story. Learned words with similar or dissimilar meanings. Recall Procedural memory Memory of how to do things. Participants changed the story to fit cultural expectations, leaving out Semantic encoding after 20 minutes. unfamiliar information. Social and cultural influences Expectations come from the world/culture we live in, and affect storage Changing information by its meaning so it can be stored. Declarative and non-declarative Results Conclusions and recall. Declarative = episodic and semantic. Similar sounding words poorly recalled in STM, words with We use our knowledge of social situations to reconstruct memory. Other encoding Effort after meaning Tactile encoding: memory of what things feel like to touch. similar meanings (e.g. great, large, big, or good, huge, hot) poorly recalled in LTM. Evaluation We focus on the meaning of events and make an effort afterwards to Olfactory encoding: memory for smell. Evaluation make sense of fragments of memory. Conclusion Specific locations in the brain Lacks control Storage This shows STM is encoded by sound and LTM by meaning. Brain scans show different types of LTM relate to different brain locations e.g. procedural Participants were not told accurate recall was important, which could have Evaluation affected results. Storage memory associated with motor area. More realistic research Holding information in memory so that it can be retrieved later. Evaluation Amnesic patients Results were biased Reflects how we use memory in everyday life because it uses a story not Controlled experiment Amnesiacs like Clive Wearing support LTM Bartlett analysed the recollections himself, so we cannot fully trust the word lists. Retrieval It is well controlled as extraneous variables like types as most of his procedural but not conclusion. participants’ hearing were controlled by a hearing test. Some memories are accurate episodic memories were intact. Extra: Story was unusual Not all recall is reconstructed as some memories of the story are accurate. Retrieval The story was unusual so may not reflect everyday memory processes. Locating and bringing back information into mind . STM is sometimes visual Extra: It’s not that simple Extra: Real-world application Encoding in STM does not always involve sound Distinctive types of LTM are difficult to It explains problems with eyewitness testimony as people do not always Types of retrieval (Brandimote et al.). separate so it may be an oversimplification. recall accurately. 1. Recognition = identifying from options. Extra: LTM may not have been tested 2. Cued recall = locating information with a clue. LTM may not be tested as they only waited 20 minutes 3. Free recall = without cues. before recall, so conclusion lacks validity. Factors  affecting the accuracy of memory

Memory may become more or less accurate.

Structures  of memory Interference Context False memories Study Explaining how memory is arranged. McGeoch and McDonald’s study: Aim Godden and Baddeley’s study: Aim Loftus and Pickrell’s study: Aim not named in Primacy and recency effects in recall Study specification To see the effect of doing two Study To see if context improved recall. not named in To see if false memories could be activities on accuracy of memory. not named in specification created in participants through suggestion. Multi-store model of memory Primacy and recency effect specification Method Words at beginning are remembered more (rehearsed, so in LTM). Method Divers listened to and recalled words in the same or Method Multi-store model Words at end are remembered more (heard recently, so in STM). Learned a list of 10 words and then another list of different settings on the beach and underwater. Four stories about childhood events were read where Three memory stores: different coding, capacity and duration. varying types, e.g. synonyms and antonyms. three were true and one was false (shopping mall). Murdock’s study: Aim Named study Results Information moves through attention and verbal rehearsal. in specification To see if memory of words is affected location in a list. Results Recall was highest in the same environment for Results Sensory memory Memory was affected by the second list, most of all if learning and recall. 6 out of 24 (25%) of participants recalled the false Method Very short duration, large capacity. second list had similar meaning (synonyms). story fully or partially. Participants listened to 20 word lists with 10–40 words on them, recalled words Conclusions Attention transfers information to STM. after each list. Conclusions Context of learning acts as a trigger or cue, Conclusions STM Shows interference affects accuracy of memory and improving the accuracy of memory. Imagining an event can implant a false memory in a Results Limited duration (30 seconds) and capacity (5–9 items), acoustic coding. is strongest when you try remember two similar person, reducing accuracy of memory. Recall related to position of words. Higher recall for the first words (primacy effect) things. Role of rehearsal and last words (recency effect) than in middle. Evaluation Rehearsal keeps information in STM. Evaluation Conclusion Evaluation Artificial task Repeat rehearsal transfers STM into LTM. Shows the serial position effect and supports the MSM stores. Lists of words were used. When more complex Artificial task Controlled research materials were used, better recall was found. Harmless events could be implanted easily but LTM High control e.g. counterbalancing was used to traumatic events may not, so conclusions are limited. Semantic coding, unlimited capacity and stored up to a lifetime. Evaluation reduce bias. Recall was short term Participants recalled the words almost immediately, Ethical issues Controlled lab study Artificial task unlike in everyday life. Participants may be left with implanted false Evaluation There was a high level of control so it could be concluded position of words It does not reflect real-life memory as we don’t often memories which lingered after the study, causing determined recall. Supporting research have to remember very similar words. Extra: Similar context distress. DRAFTContext only acts as a cue if context at learning and Encoding research (Baddeley) shows qualitative differences between STM and LTM. Artificial task Extra: Not really forgetting recall are very similar, which rarely happens (Smith). Extra: Real-world application Word lists were used which is only one type of memory, so the study lacks validity. Simple model It may be information is not forgotten but just Research has implications for eyewitness testimony Having one STM and LTM store is too simplistic, e.g. more than one LTM store. Extra: Supporting research cannot be accessed, so isn’t actually forgotten as police questioning could accidentally implant false (Tulving and Psotka). memories. Extra: Artificial materials Some amnesiacs can’t store LTM, which shows the primacy effect is related to LTM Research uses word lists or nonsense syllables so the model lacks validity. (Carlesimo et al.).

32 Chapter 1 Memory Summary 33 Practice questions and answers and feedback Question 4. Ellen had a motorcycle accident that left her partially brain-damaged. She can still remember facts and information such as who the current prime minister is. She is also able to perform certain automatic skills like riding a bike. However, she struggles to Question 1. Outline what is meant by the term encoding. [2 marks] remember personal events that happened to her before the accident, which is particularly distressing to her friends and family as she just turned 21 the previous month but has no recollection of her wonderful birthday. Amanda’s answer Use your knowledge of different types of long-term memory to explain Ellen’s’ behaviour. [6 marks] Encoding is when information changes form when it goes into memory. Description of encoding is full with detail. The concept For example, reading your revision notes out loud would be an example of is clearly defined and a relevant example is used to show Amanda’s answer acoustic encoding as you are using sound to remember something. understanding of the term. Ellen has got problems with episodic memory as she has no recollection of Amanda’s response is accurate and detailed: she explains personal events like her 21st birthday. Her other types of LTM seem to be working the three different types of memory very well and uses Jay’s answer as she can ride a bike and so can still perform skills which link to procedural terminology in a confident manner. She applies her knowledge Encoding involves the different ways you put information into your memory. The definition of encoding is accurate but a little too brief memory ability. Her semantic memory also appears to be fine as she can very effectively by making clear links between psychological as there is only a partial description of the memory process remember facts and information like who the prime minister is and so still can concepts and examples of Ellen’s behaviour. here. access her knowledge about the world. Selema’s answer Jay’s answer Encoding is the process of storing information in your memory for either a There is no relevant content here as storage not encoding Ellen has memory problems as her episodic memory is damaged. The other parts Jay has produced a basic response. His answer shows short or long amount of time. has been described. of her memory are OK though as she has semantic memory ability and also has knowledge of the different memory types and some analysis of nothing wrong with the procedural part of her brain. the case study as he has correctly identified which part of LTM Question 2. Describe the multi-store model of memory. [4 marks] is damaged. Relevant terminology is sometimes used as the names of the different memory types are mentioned. However, Amanda’s answer more links need to be made between the types of LTM and The model suggests that information from the environment goes into Amanda’s answer is an accurate and detailed account which examples given in the stem. our sensory memory, which relates to our different senses like hearing shows relevant knowledge and understanding of the multi- store of memory (MSM). Although she has not included Selema’s answer and vision. Information we pay attention to goes into our STM where it Selema’s response is also basic in the sense that, although she will remain for up to 30 seconds if it is not rehearsed. STM has a limited all the details about each store, what she has written is Ellen can’t recall what happened to her in the past so her memory for personal sufficient to answer the question. events is affected. She does have good general knowledge and can remember the has displayed a greater amount of application than Jay to the capacity of between 5 and 9 items and encodes information acoustically. case study, her knowledge and understanding of the different If we rehearse something for long enough then it goes into our LTM, this is Prime Minister and also can still perform skills like riding a bike so this part of her memory is also OK. types of memory is not as evident as she has not used the known as maintenance rehearsal. Our LTM has an unlimited capacity and correct terminology to identify them. Her answer would also once information is there it stays there for up to a lifetime so it has a very have benefitted by greater detail when explaining the different long duration as well. types of memory. Jay’s answer This theory relates to how we remember things in our memory. It says that Jay’s answer displays some knowledge of the MSM but Question 5. Describe and evaluate Murdock’s study on the serial position curve. In your answer include the method used, the results obtained we have a short-term memory and a long-term memory and in order to this account of the model is inaccurate and also lacks detail and the conclusion drawn. [9 marks] in places. For example, he has not explained the role of remember things we must repeat them. Short-term memory can last up to a Amanda’s answer day whereas long term memory has an unlimited duration. The model states attention and also failed to include some key information such as describing the sensory store. Murdock wanted to see if the position of a word on a list affected how well it Amanda’s answer starts off by giving an accurate and detailed that we also learn through paying attention. would be recalled. He got psychology students to listen to lists of words that outline of Murdock’s study that clearly identifies the aim, varied from 10 to 40 words and after each list they had to recall the words they method, findings and conclusion of the study in order to show Selema’s answer could remember. Murdock found that the students were better at remembering a clear understanding of the research. This answer is accurate but lacks detail. There is an The model suggests that memory has three main stores and we rehearse the words at the start and end of the lists but less good at remembering those in information in order to remember it. We receive information through our overview of the structure of the model and the roles Relevant evaluation is mentioned and each judgement is made of rehearsal but there is a notable omission in that the the middle. He called this the serial position effect as the position of the words in senses that goes into sensory memory and if we pay attention to it then it the list affected how well they were remembered. in a thorough manner with elaboration that displays a depth of will go to our STM. Rehearsal can be used to transfer information to LTM characteristics of the stores are not identified. analysis. and keep information in STM so we don’t forget it. A problem with this study was that memory was only tested through having participants recalling word lists. In the real world we use our memory in lots Terminology is used confidently and effectively throughout and the answer is clear and coherent. Question 3. Outline one criticism of Bartlett’s War of the Ghosts study. [2 marks] of different ways such as playing basketball or remembering something that happened to us. This makes the results of this study lack validity as they don’t Amanda’s answer relate to how we use our memories in other areas of our lives. Overall, this answer describes and evaluates the study in a thorough and accurate manner.’ Bartlett’s research lacked control as he did not specify things like how The criticism is thoroughly outlined by Amanda. The point The investigation was also well controlled. Other things that could have affected and where participants needed to recall the story they had learned. This is clearly identified and features elaboration to justify why the DV, like the speed that the words were read to the participants and the means that his results may have lacked validity as other factors could have the point stated is a weakness of Bartlett’s research. familiarity of the words, were kept the same. This would have given the study’s affected participants’ recall. findings greater validity into how our memory works. Jay’s answer Jay’s answer The criticism is outlined, although would benefit from a His study had a high amount of extraneous variables as his participants Jay’s outline of the study is clear and accurate but the were not told the same thing every time they did it. little more elaboration. Murdock carried out a study where he presented psychology students lists of words of different lengths. He found that they recalled the words at the start and description is basic because very little actual detail has been given for the method, findings and conclusion. For example, Selema’s answer end better than those in the middle due to the primacy and recency effects. He called this the serial position effect. the different types of word lists could have been described. His study lacked control which meant that any results found would lack The criticism is not linked to the study. When evaluating, The terminology, on the other hand, is reasonable. validity. it is important to link the criticism to what goes on in A problem with his study was that he only used psychology students so the results the study. For example, giving examples from his study wouldn’t be valid. However, his evaluation is much more basic. Although he of how it lacked control by not having any standardised identifies some relevant points and offers some elaboration, it instructions. The study had good levels of control as the words were read to the participants at is not linked to the actual study. DRAFTthe same speed. However, we don’t always use our memory in this way in the real world so the Evaluation counts for a lot in an essay so this affects the quality of the answer. study lacks validity. Overall, this is a basic answer.

Memory Practice ques tions  and ans wers  and feedback 35 Chapter 1 34 Multiple choice questions Processes of memory: Processes of memory: Structures of memory: Memory as an active process: Factors affecting accuracy of memory: Encoding, storage and retrieval Different types of memory Primacy and recency effects in recall The theory of reconstructive memory Context 1. Some memories are stored in terms of their 1. The three types of LTM are: 1. The dependent variable in Murdock’s study 1. Reconstruction shows that memory is: 1. Godden and Baddeley studied: meaning. Which type of encoding is this? (a) Episodic, acoustic, semantic. was the: (a) Consistent over time. (a) Fishermen. (a) Visual. (b) Visual, semantic, procedural. (a) Position of a word in the list. (b) Almost always accurate. (b) Diving club members. (b) Acoustic. (c) Recognition, acoustic, episodic. (b) Probability of a word being correctly recalled. (c) Acoustically encoded. (c) Rugby players. (c) Semantic. (d) Episodic, semantic, procedural. (c) Total number of words correctly recalled. (d) An active process. (d) Swimmers. (d) Tactile. (d) Primacy and recency effects. 2. Remembering how to perform actions is an 2. A major influence on reconstructive memory is: 2. The best recall in this study happened when 2. Learning something by putting it to music is an example of: 2. Being able to recall the words at the start of a (a) The time it takes to recall something. words were learned: example of: (a) Episodic memory. list refers to the: (b) Our level of intelligence. (a) Underwater and recalled on the beach. (a) Retrieval. (b) Procedural memory. (a) Recency effect. (c) Our social and cultural expectations. (b) Underwater and recalled underwater. (b) Acoustic encoding. (c) Semantic memory. (b) Primacy effect. (d) The position of events in a story. (c) On the beach and recalled underwater. (c) Tactile encoding. (d) Declarative memory. (c) Serial position curve. (d) On the beach and recalled on the beach. (d) Visual encoding. (d) Dependent variable of the study. 3. Bartlett called our attempt to make sense of 3. In brain scans, which part of the brain is memory fragments: 3. Godden and Baddeley concluded that 3. The three stages of the memory process (in the associated with semantic memory? 3. How does Murdock’s study support the multi- (a) Effort after meaning. environmental context is: correct order) are: (a) Left prefrontal cortex. store model? (b) The serial position effect. (a) A cue that triggers accurate recall. (a) Encoding, retrieval, storage. (b) Right prefrontal cortex. (a) Primacy effect shows LTM and recency effect (c) The multi-store model. (b) Of no help in remembering information. shows STM. (b) Visual encoding, acoustic encoding, retrieval. (c) Premotor area. (d) Memory deconstruction. (c) Very useful for improving swimming. (c) Encoding, storage, retrieval. (d) Motor cortex. (b) Primacy effect shows STM and recency effect (d) More useful in the lab than in the real world. (d) Encoding, recognition, retrieval. shows LTM. 4. A significant strength of Bartlett’s theory is that it: 4. Which part of HM’s brain was removed? (c) The serial position curve involves sensory (a) Ignores the individual’s social and cultural beliefs. 4. A serious weakness of Godden and Baddeley’s 4. Answering a multiple choice question in an (a) Prefrontal cortex. memory. (b) Can explain why memories are so accurate. study is: exam is an example of: (b) Hippocampus. (d) It doesn’t support the multi-store model. (c) Is based on well-controlled research. (a) It doesn’t tell us about memories over days and (a) Recognition. weeks. (c) Motor cortex. (d) Can help us understand eyewitness testimony. (b) Free recall. 4. Murdock used lists of words, which means that (b) The participants were all professional divers. (d) Hypothalamus. the study: (c) Acoustic encoding. (c) The gap between learning and recall was very (a) Was a laboratory experiment. Factors affecting accuracy of memory: (d) Semantic encoding. long. Structures of memory: (b) Was not very well controlled. Interference Multi-store model of memory (d) It was conducted in an artificial lab. Processes of memory: (c) Tested a wide range of memory skills. 1. Interference causes: A study of encoding 1. Coding is mostly acoustic and capacity is (d) It only tells us about some of the ways that (a) Retrieval. Factors affecting accuracy of memory: memory is used in everyday life. between five and nine items. Which memory (b) Memory capacity. False memories 1. Baddeley’s main aim was to find out: store is being described? (c) Forgetting. (a) Which words are semantically similar. (a) Short-term memory. Memory as an active process: 1. In Loftus and Pickrell’s study, participants were (d) Hunger (b) How long information is stored for in STM. (b) Sensory memory. Bartlett’s War of the Ghosts study falsely told that as children they had: In the study by McGeoch and McDonald (a) Become lost in a shopping mall. (c) If STM and LTM use different types of (c) Visual memory. 1. Bartlett believed that memory is: 2. encoding. participants had to learn word lists which had (b) Fallen out of bed. (d) Declarative memory. (a) Acoustic. (d) Where memory is in the brain. how many words in them? (c) Bitten the dentist. 2. An example of sensory memory in action is: (b) Procedural. (a) 5 (d) Kicked Santa Claus. 2. Which of the following is an acoustically similar (a) Recognising a friend in the street. (c) Reconstructive. (b) 10 word list? 2. The proportion of participants In Loftus and (b) Repeating someone’s phone number to (d) Declarative. (c) 15 (a) Pit, few, cow. Pickrell’s study who recalled the false story fully yourself. (d) 20 (b) Great, large, big. 2. The participants in Bartlett’s study transformed or partially was: (c) Seeing your name written in the air with a the story to make it: (c) Good, huge, hot. sparkler. 3. McGeoch and McDonald concluded that the (a) 25%. (a) Interesting. (d) Cat, cab, can. (d) Remembering the answer to an exam question. factor making interference strongest is: (b) 50%. (b) More complex. (a) Similarity. (c) 75%. 3. In Baddeley’s study, the type of encoding used 3. Information gets into LTM through: (c) More familiar. (b) The number of words on the original list. (d) 100%. in STM was: (a) Attention. (d) Longer. (c) The size of short-term memory. 1a, 2a, 3d, 4b (a) Visual. 3. False memories are based on the concept of:

(b) Declarative memory. 3a,1c, 4c 2b, 3. Bartlett used the method of: (d) The number of items on the second list. (b) Semantic. (c) Rehearsal. (a) Repeated reproductions.

(a) Recognition. 3a, 2d, 4a1b, (c) Tactile. (d) Visual encoding. 4. A criticism of interference is that the effect is just (b) The serial position effect. (d) Acoustic. (b) Serial position effect. temporary and disappears if: (c) Acoustic encoding. 4. An important weakness of the multi-store (c) Cued recall. (a) Counterbalancing is used. (d) Reconstructive memory.

4. Baddeley’s experiment was well controlled. An model is: 1d, 3a, 2c, 4d (d) Serial reproductions. (b) The participants concentrate more. 3a, 4d 2b, 1b, example of this was: 4. A weakness of Loftus and Pickrell’s study is:

(a) It oversimplifies STM and LTM. 1c, 3d, 2c, 4b 4. Bartlett concluded that we remember: (c) Recall is triggered by a cue. (a) Calculating how many words the participants (b) It can’t explain how information gets into LTM. (a) It has applications in the real world. 3c,1c, 2b, 4a (d) Experiments are better controlled. 1a, 3c, 2c, 4a got wrong. (c) It has no application to everyday life. (a) Lots of detail of an event or story. (b) It raises ethical issues. 1d, 2b, 3a, 4b1d, 2b, (b) Using lists of similar and dissimilar words. (d) There is no evidence to support it. (b) The overall meaning of something. (c) It uses realistic materials. (c) Explaining to the participants what the study (c) The start and end of a story better than the (d) It investigates severely traumatic false memories. was about afterwards. middle. 1c, 3d, 2d, 4d (d) Giving participants a hearing test beforehand. DRAFT(d) All aspects of a story equally well. MCQ answers MCQ Encoding, storage and retrieval A study of encoding Different types of memory Multi-store model of memory Primacy and recency effects in recall Bartlett’s War of the Ghosts study The theory of reconstructive memory Factors affecting accuracy of memory: Interference Factors affecting accuracy of memory: Context Factors affecting accuracy of memory: False memories

Memory Multiple choice ques tions  37 Chapter 1 36