Bibliography

This bibliography on the ongms of digital computers covers the period from the first mechanical aids to digital calculation until the first practical stored program electronic com• puter was put into operation in 1949. Particular attention is paid to the period following BABBAGE, and to papers shedding light on the extent to which the various pioneers were influenced by each other. All the items listed have been inspected (sometimes rather cursorily) by the editor. The bibliography is listed in alphabetical order by author, anonymous papers and reports being listed last. In order to facilitate the use of the index, in the case that more than one publication is listed for a given author, the name of the author is followed by the year of publication in parentheses. If there is more than one publication in one year, the year is followed by a, b, ...

AIKEN, H. H.: Proposed automatic calculating machine (previously unpublished memorandum). IEEE Spectrum, 62-69 (Aug. 1964). Reprinted in full on pages 191-197.

AIKEN, H. H., HOPPER, G. M.: The Automatic Sequence Controlled Calculator. Electrical Engineering 65, 384-391, 449-454,522-528 (1946). Reprinted in full on pages 199-218.

AIKEN, H. H., and the staff of the Computation Laboratory: A manual of opera• tion for the Automatic Sequence Controlled Calculator. In: Annals of the Computation Laboratory of Harvard University, Vol. 1. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press 1946. The first chapter 'Historical Introduction' is a very useful account of the development of calculating machines, difference engines, and BABBAGE'S work. It includes mention of MULLER and TORRES.

ALT, F. L. (1948): A Bell Telephone Laboratories' computing machine. M.T.A.C. 3,1-13,69-84 (1948). Reprinted in full on pages 257-286. ALT, F. L. (1972): Archaeology of computers - reminiscences, 1945-1947. Commun. ACM 15, no. 7,693-694 (1972). Anecdotes concerning the use of ENIAC, including a description of the-technique of set• ting-up programs on the function tables. ANDREWS, E. G. (1949): The Bell Computer, Model VI. Proceedings of a 2nd Symposium on Large Scale Digital Calculating Machinery, 13-16 Sept. 1949. In: Annals of the Computation Laboratory of Harvard University, Vol. 26, pp. 20-31. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press 1951. Well-illustrated general description of the Model VI.

403 ANDREWS, E. G. (1951): A review of the Bell Laboratories digital computer developments. In: Review of Electronic Digital Computers. Joint AIEE-IRE Computer Conference, 10-12 Dec., 1951, pp. 101-105. New York: American Institute of Electrical EngiIloors 1952. A useful, well-illustrated account of the series of Bell Laboratory calculators.

ANDREWS, E. G. (1963): Telephone switching and the early Bell Laboratories com• puters. Bell System techno J. 42, 341-353 (1963). An account of the historical development of the Bell Laboratory relay computers, and of the basic facilities of each model.

ANDREWS, E. G., Box, H. W.: Use of relay digital computer. Electrical Engineer• ing 69,158-163 (1950). A description of some of the problems solved using the Bell Laboratories Model V com• puter, including a brief description of how the computer was programmed.

ApRAXINE, N.: Machine a cal euler mue electriquement. Compt. Rend. Acad. Sci. Paris 195, 857-858 (Nov. 1932). Brief general account of an accumulator, with multiple decimal digits, composed of electromechanical relays.

ARCHIBALD, R. C. (1947 a): P. G. Scheutz, publicist, author, scientific mechanician, and Edvard Scheutz, engineer - biography and bibliography. M.T.A.C. 2, 238-245 (1947). -. Brief biography of GEORGE SCHEUTZ and his son, and a very good annotated bibliography.

ARCHIBALD, R. C. (1947 b): Martin Wiberg, his tables and his difference engine. M.T.A.C. 2, 371-373 (1947). Brief biography of WIBERG, and discussion of the mathematical tables he produced using his difference engine. ARCHIBALD, R. C. (1948): Mathematical table makers. In: Scripta Mathematica, Vol. 3. New York: Yeshiva University 1948. Bio-bibliographical notes on 53 compilers of mathematical tables, including BABBAGE, BURGI, COMRIE and NAPIER. ARKIN, H.: Development and principles of the punched card method. In: Practical Applications of the Punched Card Method in Colleges and Universities (ed. G. W. BAEHNE), pp. 1-20. New York: Columbia University Press 1935. Very brief account of the development of punched card machinery. Includes an illustrated survey of the currentrIollerith equipment.

ATANASOFF, l V.: Computing machine for the solution of large systems of linear algebraic equations (unpublished memorandum). Ames, Iowa: Iowa State College, Aug. 1940. Reprinted in full on pages 305-325.

ATANASOFF, J. V., BRANDT, A. E.: Application of punched card equipment to the analysis of complex spectra. J. Optical Society of America 26, no. 2, 83-88 (Feb. 1936). Detailed description of the use of a tabulator, to which a home-made 'cross-connecting board' was attached, on which numerical values could be set up.

404 BABBAGE, B. H.: Babbage's calculating machine; or difference engine. London: Science and Art Department, South Kensington Museum 1872. A description of the Difference Engine constructed by BABBAGE in 1833, now on exhibition in the Science Museum. BABBAGE, C. (1822): A note respecting the application of machinery to the cal• culation of astronomical tables. Mem. Astronomical Soc. 1,309 (June 1822). The first publication on the Difference Engine. Very brief, ending: "from the experiments I have already made, I feel great confidence in the complete success of the plans I have proposed". BABBAGE, C. (1835): Letter to M. Quetelet. Bulletins de l'Academie Royale des Sciences et Belles-Lettres de Bruxelles 2, no. 5, 124-125 (May 1835). Indicates that BABBAGE had been working for six months on a new machine, and implies that the machine had the ability to execute sequences of arithmetic operations. BABBAGE, C. (1837 a): The ninth Bridgewater Treatise: A fragment. London: John Murray 1837. Makes numerous references to his work on calculating engines, and includes a short appendix describing the history of his efforts to produce first a difference and then an analytical engine. BABBAGE, C. (1837 b): On the mathematical powers of the calculating engine (un• published manuscript, Dec. 1837). Oxford: Buxton MS7, Museum of the History of Science. Reprinted in full on pages 17-52. BABBAGE, C. (1851): The exposition of 1851; or, views of t"he industry, the science and the government of England. London: John Murray 185l. Contains one chapter 'Calculating Engines' (reprinted in H. P. BABBAGE: 1889, and P. and E. MORRISON: 1961), describing the then-current state of development of the Analytical Engine, and including a description of the method used for parallel assimilation of carry in the adder, and a chapter 'Intrigues of Science' which includes material on his dealings with the government regarding the calculating machines. BABBAGE, C. (1855): Note sur la machine suedoise de MM. Scheutz pour calculer les tables mathematiques par la methode des differences et en imprimer les resultats sur les planches stereotypes. Compt. Rend. Acad. Sci. Paris 41, 557-560 (8 Oct. 1855),42,798-800 (28 April 1856). The first part is a description by CHARLES BABBAGE of the drawings made by his son, using the 'Mechanical Notation', of the Scheutz Engine. The second part consists of further correspondence regarding the engine. BABBAGE, C. (1864): Passages from the life of a philosopher. London: Longman, Green, Longman, Roberts and Green 1864. Reprinted by Augustus M. Kelley, New York 1969. Contains several chapters relating to the Difference Engine and the Analytical Engine (which have been reprinted in H. P. BABBAGE: 1889; and P. MORRISON and E. MORRISON: 1961). A fascinating book, which throws much light on the strange character of CHARLES BABBAGE. BABBAGE, H. P. (1855): On mechanical notation, as exemplified in the Swedish calculating machine of Messrs. Scheutz. Report of the British Association for the Advancement of Science 1855,203-205. Describes the mechanical notation, but does not include the charts that it states were made of the Scheutz difference engine by BABBAGE using the notation.

405 BABBAGE, H. P. (1888): On the mechanical arrangements of the analytical engine of the late Charles Babbage F. R. S. Report of the British Association for the Ad• vancement of Science 616-617, (1888). Abstract of a paper given by Major General H. P. BABBAGE, which described BABBAGE'S anticipating carriage, counting apparatus, and mechanical notation.

BABBAGE, H. P. (ed.) (1889): Babbage's calculating engines: Being a collection of papers relating to them, their history, and construction. London: E. and F. N. Spon 1889. A reprinting of the writings of BABBAGE and others, on both difference and analytic engines, edited by his son. Much of the material has been reprinted in P. MORRISON and E. MORRISON (1961).

BABBAGE, H. P. (1910): Babbage's analytical engine. Monthly Not. roy. astron. Soc. 70,517-526,645 (1910). Reprinted in full on pages 65-69. BABBAGE, R: H.: The work of Charles Babbage. Proceedings of a Symposium on Large Scale Digital Calculating Machinery, 7-10 Jan. 1947. In: Annals of the Com• putation Laboratory of Harvard University, Vol. 16, pp. 13-22. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press 1948. Consists almost entirely of quotations from BABBAGE'S writings (including 'The Ninth Bridgewater Treatise', and 'The Exposition of 1851') and from LARDNER'S article. Some of the quotations concern the Difference Engine, but most concern the Analytical Engine. It in• cludes, from the 'Exposition', a description of the 'carry mechanism' that BABBAGE invented. BAILY, F.: On Mr. Babbage's new machine for calculating and printing mathe• matical and astronomical tables. Phil. Mag. 63, 355-367 (May 1824). Mainly concerned with surveying the various types of mathematical tables for which the Difference Engine would be useful. At the end it includes the comment "It would not be very complicated to place three such machines by the side of each other, and cause them to transfer their results to a common axis, with which the printing apparatus might be connected" BALLOT, c.: L'Introduction du machinisme dans l'industrie Francaise. Lille: o. Marquandt 1923. Contains a very detailed historical account of the developments by BOUCHON, FALCON DE VAUCANSON, and JACQUARD of the punched card controlled loom. BARLOW, A.: History and principles of weaving by hand and power. London: S. Low, Marsten, Searle and Rivington 1878. Includes a discussion of the work of BOUCHON, FALCON, DE VAUCANSON and JACQUARD, and of BONELLI, BOLMIDA, and VICENZIA, who during the 1850's worked on the use of electro• magnetic techniques for reading the patterns, and controlling the loom. BAUER, F. L., WOSSNER, H.: The "Plankalkiil" of Konrad Zuse: A forerunner of today's programming languages. Commun. ACM 15, no. 7,678-685 (1972). A fairly detailed account of the language, and an analysis of it compared to modern programming languages. BAXANDALL, D. (1926): Calculating machines and instruments. In: Catalogue of the Collections in the Science Museum. London: H.M.S.O. 1926. A valuable descriptive catalogue of the extensive collections in the Science Museum, in• cluding many examples of early calculating machines, BABBAGE'S and SCHEUTZ'S difference engines, and portions of BABBAGE'S Analytical Engine.

406 BAXANDALL, D. (1929): Calculating machines. In Encyclopaedia Britannica, 14th edition, pp. 545-553, 1929. Partly abridged from BAXANDALL (1926). Covers, inter alia, NAPIER, PASCAL, LEIBNIZ, THOMAS, ODHNER, FELT, BOLLEE, HOLLERITH, BABBAGE, and SCHEUTZ. BEEVERS, C. A.: A machine for the rapid summation of Fourier series. Proc. Physi• cal Soc. (London) 51, no. 4, 660-663 (1939). Describes a small special purpose calculator incorporating sixteen electro-mechanical count• ing mechanisms.

BELDEN, T. G., BELDEN, M. R.: The lengthening shadow: The life of Thomas J. Watson. Boston: Little, Brown and Co. 1962. An official biography of WATSON, useful for its information about the growth of IBM, but with comparatiye/y few technical details.

BERGER, R.: Die Lochkartenmaschine. Z. VDI 72, 1799-1807 (1928). Includes a brief account of the development of punched card machinery, and illustrated descriptions of various items of Hollerith and Powers punched card equipment, including Powers and Hollerith card punches coupled to typewriters, and a Hollerith hand punch connected to a calculating machine.

BERKELEY, E. c.: Giant brains or machines that think. New York: John Wiley 1949. A popular book on the design of computers, which includes descriptions of the Harvard Mark 1 and ENIAC. Extensive references.

BERRY, C. E.: Design of electrical data recording and reading mechanism. Ames, Iowa: M. Sc. Thesis, Iowa State College, 1941. Description of the card reading and punching mechanisms, which perforated and sensed holes in cards by electrical discharges, designed "in conjunction with the deyelopment of a high-speed computing machine" - the Atanasoff-Berry machine.

BERTILLON, J.: La statistique a la machine. La Nature, 218-222 (1. Sept. 1894). A well-illustrated detailed descripton of the machines invented by HOLLERITH and used in the 1890 U.S. Census. States that the system was also being used in Canada, Austria, and being tried out in Italy, France and Germany.

BILLINGS, J. S. (1887): On some forms of tables of vital statIstICS, with special reference to the needs of the health department of a city. Public Health Papers and Reports, American Public Health Assoc. 13,203-221 (1887). Describes form and punched card layout conventions. Includes the comment "I have watched with great interest the progress in developing and perfecting this machine, because seven years ago I became satisfied that some such system was possible and desirable, and advised Mr. HOLLERITH, who was then engaged on census work, to take the matter up and devise such a machine ... ". BILLINGS, J. S. (1891): Mechanical methods used in compiling data of the eleventh U.S. census, with exhibition of a machine. Proceedings of the American Association for the Advancement of Science, 40th Meeting, Washington 1891, pp. 407-409. Salem, Mass.: 1892. "That the data ... might be recorded on a single card or slip by punching small holes in different parts of it, and that these cards might then be assorted and counted by mech• anical means according to any selected grouping of these perforations, was first suggested by Dr. BILLINGS in 1880. This suggestion was taken up by Mr. HERMAN HOLLERITH ...".

407 BLOCK, R. M.: Mark I Calculator. Proceedings of a Symposium on Large Scale Digital Calculating Machinery, 7-10 Jan. 1947. In: Annals of the Computation La• boratory of Harvard University, Vol. 16, pp. 23-30. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press 1948. Brief description of the Harvard Mark 1 and some of its applications, and of the sub• sidiary sequencing unit that had been added. BLODGETT, J. H.: Hollerith: The first breakthrough. Philadelphia, Pa.: Term Paper, Drexel Inst. of Technology, Dec. 1966. An account, based on primary sources, of HOLLERITH and his development of electrical tabulating machines. BLODGETT, J. H., SCHULTZ, C. K.: Herman Hollerith: Data processing pioneer. American Documentation 20, no. 3, 221-226 Guly 1969). This article is in the main taken from an M.Sc. Thesis on HOLLERITH by the first author. It contains few technical details of HOLLERITH'S tabulating machines, but instead concentrates on the progress of his career, incorporating hitherto unpublished information obtained from HOLLERITH'S family. BOLLEE, L.: Sur une nouvelle machine a calculer. Compt. Rend. Acad. Sci. Paris 109,737-739 (1889). Brief written description of the Bollee machine, in particular of the method of direct multiplication. BOOTH, A. D.: Review of Charles Babbage and his calculating engines (eds. P. and E. MORRISON). J. roy. statist. Soc. Ser. A 125, no. 3,491-492 (1962). Contains the comment "CHARLES BABBAGE is nowadays recognised as the pioneer of modern automatic digital computing machines. It came as a surprise to many of the early workers in electronic computing to find that the structure which they had built up on purely logical grounds for a digital computer was in fact precisely what had been derived by BlOlBAGE over a century before". BOOTH, A. D., BOOTH, K. H. V.: Automatic digital calculators, 2nd edition. Lon• don: Butterworths 1956. Contains a brief but interesting account of the origins of computers. On arithmetical machines, mentions PASCAL, LEIBNIZ, MORLAND, STANHOPE, THOMAS DE COLMAR, ODHNER, ROTH and BALDWIN. (States these latter two p~edated OHDNER'S variable toothed wheel.) BOOTH, A. D., BRITTEN, K. H. V.: Principles and progress in the construction of high speed digital computers. Quart. J. Mech. appl. Math. 2, 182-197 (1949). General discussion of the basic components of computers, and a surveJ' of then current' American developments. _ BOWDEN, B. V. (ed.) (1953): Faster than thought. London: Sir Isaac Pitman and Sons 1953. Contains much material on BABBAGE, including a reprint of the Lady LOVELACE translation of MENABREA'S article. The major part of the book consists of chapters on the then current British computing machine projects. BOWDEN, B. V. (1960): He invented the computer - before its time. Think 28-32 Guly 1960). An account of the author's search for information about Lady LOVELACE, and a bio• graphical sketch of CHARLES BABBAGE. BoYs, C. V.: A new analytical engine. Nature 81, no. 2070, 14-15 (1 July 1909). Review of LUDGATE (1909).

408 BRAINERD, J. G.: Review of Charles Babbage (1792-1871). Compo Reviews 6, no. 5,284 (1965). BRAINERD was in charge of the ENIAC development. In this review he states that devel• opment of ENIAC took place in ignorance of BABBAGE'S work on the Analytical Engine. BRAINERD, J. G., SHARPLESS, T. K.: The ENIAC. Electrical Engineering 67, no. 2, 163-172 (Feb. 1948). An account of the history and the development of ENIAC, and of its principles of op• eration. BRENNAN, J. F.: The IBM Watson Laboratory at Columbia University: A history. Armonk, N.Y.: IBM Corporation 1971. A 68-page account of the work of the Watson Laboratory, based on the laboratory's archives, and on tape-recorded interviews. Includes material on the early punched card in• stallation, on the device for controlling groups of punched card machines, and on the small electronic computer built by JOHN LENTZ in 1948, which became the prototype of the IBM 610 Autopoint Computer eight years later. BREWSTER, D.: Mr. Babbage's calculating engine. Letters on natural magic, ad• dressed to Sir Walter Scott, Bart. (new edition), pp. 340-345. London: William Tegg 1868. A brief account, first published in 1832, of BABBAGE'S Difference Engine, stating "the greater part of the calculating machine is already constructed, and exhibits workmanship of such extraordinary skill and beauty that nothing approaching it has been witnessed". A demonstration by BABBAGE of the speed and accuracy of a small trial difference engine is also described. BUCHNER, A.: Mechanical musical instruments. London: Batchworth Press 1950. Contains illustrated descriptions of the mechanisms used in "automatophonic" instruments, such as barrel organs, pianolas, and musical boxes. BURKS, A. W.: Electronic computing circuits of the ENIAC. Proc. 1. R. E. 35, 756-767 (1947). Detailed account of the electronic design of ENIAC. BURKS, A. W., GOLDSTINE, H. H., VON NEUMANN, J.: Preliminary discussion of the logical design of an electronic computing instrument, Part 1, Vol. 1. Princeton: Institute for Advanced Study (28 June 1946, 2nd edition 2 Sept. 1947). Reprinted in John von Neumann: Collected Works (ed. A. H. TAUB), Vol. 5, pp. 34-79. Ox• ford: Pergamclll 1963. Extracts reprinted on pages 371-385.

BUSH, V.: Instrumental analysis. Bull. Amer. Math. Soc. 42, 649-669 (1936). A survey of calculating machines, both digital and analogue. Proposes a mechanical control device joined to standard punched card machinery which "would be a close approxi• mation to BABBAGE'S large conception". BUXTON, H. W.: Memoir of the life and labours of the late Charles Babbage Esq., F.R.S., formerly Lucasian Professor of Mathematics in the University of Cambridge: comprising a descriptive and historical account of his analytical and difference engines derived principally from his posthumous MSS and papers. Unpublished manuscrip~, in two volumes (undated). Oxford: Buxton MSS 16 and 17, Museum of the History of Science. Extremely valuable for the very extensive quotations from BABBAGE'S unpublished writings on his calculating engines and Mechanical Notation.

409 BUXTON, L. H. D.: Babbage and his Difference Engine. Trans. Newcomen Soc. 14,43-65, plate IV (1934). Fairly extensive discussion of the Difference Engine - virtually no mention of the Ana• lytical Engine. Includes much biographical material from the unpublished biography of BABBAGE by H. W. BUXTON. In the discussion, COMRIE describes difference techniques using then current machines, including the National, and using punched card machinery. CALEY, D. H. N.: Electricity and the 'Tote'. The Electrician 103, no. 3 and 4, 71-73,108-109 (19 and 26 July, 1929). Surveys the various rival automatic totalisator systems being developed for use at race courses in the U. K. Three basic systems, in which merely the total bets on each horse are calculated, are described. An advanced system, in which the changing odds on each horse are continuously recalculated is also described. CAMPBELL, R. V. D.: Mark II Calculator. Proceedings of a Symposium on Large Scale Digital Calculating Machinery, 7-10 Jan. 1947. In: Annals of the Computation Laboratory of Harvard University, Vol. 16, pp. 13-22. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press 1958. Describes the Mark 2 Calculator, which was a paper tape controlled calculator - it had four tape readers and could be switched automatically from one tape controller to another. The store could hold about 100 ten decimal digit floating point numbers.

CAMPOS, F. P.: Applications mecano-comptables des machines a totalisateurs multiples. Paris: Etienne Chi ron 1944. Detailed description of 18 examples of the use of the Logabax book-keeping machine. The examples are in general from accountancy and banking, but examples are given of the use of the Logabax for harmonic analysis and the solution of simultaneous linear equations. CESAREO, 0.: The Relay Interpolator. Bell Laboratories Record 23, 457-460 (1946). Reprinted in full on pages 247-250.

CHAPIN, N.: An introduction to automatic computers. Princeton, N.J.: Van Nostrand 1955. Contains a chapter 'Computer Fundamentals' which covers the development of calculators, and, in considerable detail, American computer developments during the late 1940's and early 1950's. CHAPMAN, S.: Blaise Pascal (1623-1662): Tercentenary of the calculating ma• chine. Nature 150, 508-509 (31 Oct. 1942). Gives a fairly detailed biography of PASCAL. CHAPUIS, A., DRoz, E.: Les automates, figures artificielles d'hommes et d'animaux; histoire et technique. Neuchatel: Griffon 1949. Describes and illustrates many mechanical automata, mostly controlled by a rotating pegged cylinder. The earliest such automaton described was constructed by DE CAUS (1576 to 1626). The last chapter describes the workings of the chess-player built by TORRES y QUEVEDO, who is described as the first to build an automaton which could accept inputs from its en• vironment, and alter its further behaviour accordingly. CHASE, G. c.: History of mechanical computing machinery. Proc. ACM, Pitts• burgh 2-3 May 1952, pp. 1-28. Transcript, together with reproductions of some 60 slides, of a lecture, giving a very valuable survey of calculating machinery from the abacus, to the Harvard Mark 1. Contains much material not readily available elsewhere on American pioneers such as BALDWIN, MON-

410 ROE, AVERY, FRIDEN, HOPKINS, GRANT, BURROUGHS, DALTON, SUNDSTRAND, ELLIS and FELT. Also discusses the relationship of the Baldwin and Odhner developments, SELLING'S machine, the Rechnitzer Autarith, TORRES Y QUEVEDO, partial product multiplying machines by BAR• BOUR, VEREA and BOLLEE, STEIGER, HAMANN, BABBAGE, SCHEUTZ, HOLLERITH, and AIKEN. COLLIER, B.: The little machines that could've: The calculating machines of Charles Babbage. Cambridge, Mass.: Ph. D. Thesis, Harvard University, Aug. 1970. A valuable detailed study of BABBAGE'S machines, and of the circumstances surrounding their development. Based on the Babbage Correspondence in the British Museum, the Babbage sketchbooks and drawings in the Science Museum, and the Buxton collection of Babbage manuscripts in the Museum of the History of Science at Oxford University. COMRIE, L. J. (1927): Computing by calculating machines. Accountants J. 45, 42-51. (1927). An account of various calculating techniques, such as 'shortcutting', and a lengthy 'Con• sumers Association-style' report on all the calculating machines then available on the British market. COMRIE, L. J. (1928): On the application of the Brunsviga-Dupla calculating machine to double summation with finite differences. Monthly Not. roy. astron. Soc. 88, no. 5,447-459 (March 1928). Starts with a description of the technique of using finite differences, and with a brief survey of the history of developments of difference engines (BABBAGE, SCHEUTZ, WIBERG, HAMANN and the Burroughs-built H. M. Nautical Almanac Office Anti-Differencing Ma• chine), and then gives a detailed account of the features of the Brunsviga-Dupla manual calculating machine and its use for differencing. COMRIE, L. J. (1932): The application of the Hollerith tabulating machine to Brown's tables of the moon. Monthly Not. roy. astron. Soc. 92, no. 7, 694-707 (1932). Describes the facilities and operation of then current punches, tabulators and sorters, and the use of these for calculating BROWN'S Tables of the Moon. States that Hollerith equipment was first used at the Nautical Almanac Office in 1929. COMRIE, L. J. (1933): The Hollerith and Powers tabulating machines. Edinburgh: Privately printed by Neill and Co. 1933. An excellent 44-page comparative analysis of the facilities and the mechanisms of the then-current Hollerith and Powers card punches, sorters, tabulators, etc.

COMRIE, L. J. (1934): Mechanical computing. In: Plane and Geodetic Surveying, vol. 11, 2nd edition (ed. D. CLARK), pp. 284-294. London: Constable 1934. Brief account of the use of Ohdner-wheel type calculating machines.

COMRIE, L. J. (1938): Calculating machines. Appendix III 111 'L. R. CONNOR: Statistics in Theory and Practice', 3rd edition, pp. 349-371. London: Pitman 1938. An account of the main calculating devices then in current use - adding and listing machines, desk calculating machines, and punched card sorting and tabulating machines. Con• centrates on the facilities provided, and operational characteristics, rather than the workings of the various mechanisms. COMRIE, L. J. (1944): Recent progress in scientific computing. J. Sci. Instruments 21,129-135 (Aug. 1944). A survey of calculating instruments and their use for scientific calculations, including differential analysers, the National accounting machine, electrical and manual desk calcu• lators, and punched card machinery.

411 COMRIE, L. J. (1946a): The application of commercial calculating machines to scientific computing. M.T.A.C. 2, 149-159 (1946). Extended survey of the use of desk calculators, adding machines and punched card machinery, for scientific calculations. COMRIE, L. J. (1946b): Babbage's dream comes true. Nature 158, 567-568 (1946). Review of 'A Manual of Operation for the Automatic Sequence Controlled Calculator'. COSTELLO, J.: The little known creators of the computer. Nation's Business 59, no. 12,56-62 (Dec. 1971). Reminiscences by ECKERT and MAUCHLY about the origins and development of ENIAC. COUFFIGNAL, L. (1930): Sur une nouvelle machine a calculer. Compt. Rend. Acad. Sci. Paris 191,924-926 (1930). Brief description, followe,.d by commentary by D'OCAGNE, of a machine that could perform the four basic operations, and permit the chaining of sequences of such operations. The possibility of connecting it to a typewriter or to a card punch is discussed. No details are given of the mechanisms used. COUFFIGNAL, L. (1933): Les machines a calculer, leurs principes, leur evolution. Paris: Gauthier-Villars 1933. Extracts reprinted on pages 141-150. COUFFIGNAL, L. (1936): Calcul mecanique: Sur l'emploi de la numeration binaire dans les machines a calculer et les instruments nomomecaniques. Compt. Rend. Acad. Sci. Paris 202, 1970-1972 (1936). Argues the utility of representing numbers by binary notation in computers, and discusses the design of electrical calculators. COUFFIGNAL, L. (1938 a): Sur un probleme d'analyse mecanique abstraite. Compt. Rend. Acad. Sci. Paris 206, 1336-1338 (1938). On the mechanical, or rather electrical, evaluation of logical expressions. COUFFIGNAL, L. (1938b): Sur l'analyse mecanique: Application aux machines a calculer et aux calculs de la mecanique celeste. Theses presentees a la Faculte des Sciences de Paris. Serie A 1772. Paris: Gauthier-Villars 1938. Extracts reprinted on pages 119-123.

COUFFIGNAL, L. (1949): Traits caracteristiques de la calculatrice de la machine a calculer universelle de l'Institut Blaise Pascal. Proceedings of a 2nd Symposium on Large Scale Digital Calculating Machinery, 13-16 Sept. 1949. In: Annals of the Computation Laboratory of Harvard University, Vol. 26, pp. 374-386. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press 1951. Description of the binary arithmetic unit, and general discussion of the Institut Blaise Pascal Computer. COUFFIGNAL, L. (1950): Report on the machine of the Institut Blaise Pascal. M.T.A.C. 4, no. 32,225-229 (1950). Concentrates mainly on the hardware design of this experimental parallel binary com• puter. COUFFIGNAL, L. (1952): Les machines a penser. Paris: Les Editions de Minuit 1952.

412 Includes brief accounts of calculators (Pascal, Felt, Burroughs), punched card machinery, BABBAGE'S Analytical Engine, Harvard Mark 1, ENIAC, and the computer developed at the Institute Blaise Pascal.

CREW, E. W.: Calculating machines. The Engineer 172, 438-441 (Dec. 1941). (Reprinted from The Student's Quarterly Journal of the Institute of Electrical Engi• neering.) Clear descriptions of the principles of operation of NAPIER'S rods, the Leibniz and Odhner wheels, the rocking segment, and the Millionaire machine.

CURTISS, J. H.: A review of government requirements and activities in the field of automatic digital computing machinery. Theory and Techniques for the Design of Electronic Digital Computers: Lectures delivered 8 July-31 Aug. 1946 (ed. C. C. CHAMBERS), pp. 29.1-29.32. Philadelphia, Pa.: Moore School of Electrical En• gineering, University of Pennsylvania 1948. Extensive survey of then current calculating needs, and of existing and planned relay and electronic computers.

CZAPLA, V. P.: The inventor of the first desk calculator. Computers and Auto• mation 10, no. 6, 6 (Sept. 1961). Based on paper by Baron VON FREYTAG LORINGHOFF (1958).

D'AuRIA, L., RONDINELLA, L. F., LECLERE, F., CRAWLEY, E. S.: The Hollerith electric tabulating system. Journal of the Franklin Institute 129, no. 4, 300-306 (April 1890). The report of the committee that awarded HOLLERITH "the highest award in the gift of the Franklin Institute" - the Elliot Cresson Medal. The report gives a very clear description of the tabulator and sorter invented by HOLLERITH, and of the results of the study of the census commission which chose these devices for use in the 1890 U.S. Census.

DE BEAUCLAIR, W. (1960): Hermann Hollerith. VDI-Nachrichten, p. 6 (27 Feb. 1960). A brief biography of HERMANN HOLLERITH. DE BEAUCLAIR, W. (1967): Geschichte Entwicklung. Taschenbuch der Nachrichten Verarbeitung, 2. iiberarbeitete Auflage (Hrsg. K. STEINBUCH), pp. 1-39. Berlin• Heidelberg-New York: Springer Verlag 1967. A brief account of the origins of digital computers, and a more detailed account of their development until approximately 1960, accompanied by an extensive bibliography.

DE BEAUCLAIR, W. (1968): Rechnen mit Maschinen: Eine Bildgeschichte der Re• chentechnik. Braunschweig: Friedr. Vieweg und Sohn 1968. A 300-page detailed factual and lavishly illustrated account of the origins of digital com• puters, and of their development up until the early 1960's. Contains valuable chapters on the development of the various technologies, such as electronic components, magnetic record• ing devices, and input/output equipment. Contains brief tabulated data on hundreds of differ• ent computers.

DELAUNAY, C. E.: Rapport sur la machine a calculer presentee par M. Wiberg. Compt. Rend. Acad. Sci. Paris 56, 330-339 (1863). Describes the method of finite differences, and the workings of the Wiberg machine. Briefly compares it with the work of BABBAGE and SCHEUTZ and concludes by praising the machine strongly.

413 DESMONDE, W. H., BERKLING, K. J.: The Zuse Z3. Datamation 12, no. 9, 30-31 (1966). Brief description of ZUSE'S work. States that the Z3, a program-controlled computer, was in use at a German aeronautical research centre in 1941. Brief mention of the Z1 and Z2; more on the Z3 and its successors. DEVEAUX, P.: Present status of calculating machines. Revue Industrielle 56,113 to 117,166-171 (1926). Survey of the then available calculating machines, briefly describing their functional capa• bilities, and a somewhat more detailed survey of Hollerith and Powers punched card equip• ment, including key-punches, tabulators and sorters. Well illustrated. DIDEROT, D.: Arithmetique (machine). Encyclopedie, ou Dictionnaire Raisonne des Sciences, des Arts et des Metiers 1, 680-684 plus Plate 2 of 'Algebre et Arith• metique' in the accompanying Recueil de planches. Paris: (1751). Gives what TATON (1963) describes as the first satisfactory description of the mechanism of PASCAL'S machine, and in particular of the carry mechanism. D'OCAGNE, M. (1905): Le calcul simplifie, 2nd edition. Paris: Gauthier-Villars 1905. Contains much material on calculating machines, slide rules, nomograms, quite a bit on difference engines, and a brief history of BABBAGE'S work. Chapter II on 'Arithmetical Ma• chines' (pp. 24-95) describes many machines, in particular those of PASCAL, BURROUGHS, FELT, LEIBNIZ, MULLER, THOMAS, MAUREL, TCHEBICHEF, ODHNER, SELLING, BOLLEE, and SCHEUTZ. D'OCAGNE, M. (1915): On the origin of machines of direct multiplication. In: C. G. KNOTT: Napier Tercentenary Memorial Volume, pp. 283-285. London: Longman, Green and Co. 1915. Brief description of what is c4imed to be the first direct multiplication mechanism, ex• hibited by BOLLEE in 1887. Gives brief details of BOLLEE'S life. Mentions THOMAS DE COLMAR'S Arithmometer and STEIGER'S Millionaire. D'OCAGNE, M. (1920): Histoire des machines a calculer. Bull. de la Soc. d'En• couragement pour l'Industrie Nationale 132, 554~569 (Sept.-Oct. 1920). Transcription of a speech by D'OCAGNE at the opening of a public exhibition of calculating machines held from 5-13 June 1920 at the headquarters of the Society. General survey, dwelling particularly on PASCAL, LEIBNIZ, THOMAS and TORRES. D'OCAGNE, M. (1922): Vue d'ensemble sur les machines a calculer. Bull. des Sciences Mathern., 2e serie, 46,102-144 (1922). A detailed survey of the development of calculating machines, covering, among others, PASCAL, TCHEBICHEF, FELT, LEIBNIZ, THOMAS, MAUREL, ODHNER, BURROUGHS, BOLLEE, SCHEUTZ, BABBAGE and TORRES. D'OCAGNE, M. (1928): Le calcul simplifie, 3rd edition. Paris: Gauthier-Villars 1928. Contains an entirely rewritten and slightly shortened version of the account of the devel• opment of calculating machines given in the second edition (1905). The main addition is a description of TORRES' electromechanical arithmometer. D'OCAGNE, M. (1937): Torres-Quevedo. Larousse Mensuel 364, 727-728 Oune 1937). An obituary. Describes the work by TORRES on radio control, mechanical analogue com• puters, aeronautics, aerial cableways, automata, and 'analytical engines'.

414 DODGE, N. S.: Charles Babbage. Annual Report, Smithsonian Institution, pp. 162-197 (1873). An excellent summary of the life and work of CHARLES BABBAGE with many extracts from his writings, and from an obituary notice written by QUETELET. DOYON, A., LrAIGRE, L.: Jacques Vaucanson, mecanicien de genie. Paris: Presses Universitaires de France 1966. A massively detailed scholarly biography of VAUCANSON, with much information on his work on mechanical automata, and on an automatic draw-loom. DREYER, H.-J., WALTHER, A. (1946a): Der Rechenautomat IPM. Entwicklung Mathematische Instrumente in Deutschland 1939 bis 1945, Bericht A3, pp. 11-15. Darmstadt: Institut fur Praktische Mathematik, Technische Hochschule, 19. Aug. 1946. Reprinted in full on pages 151-153. DREYER, H.-J., WALTHER, A. (1946b): Das Rechengerat von Zuse. Entwicklung Mathematische Instrumente in Deutschland 1939 bis 1945, Bericht A3, pp. 4-10. Darmstadt: Institut fur Praktische Mathematik, Technische Hochschule, 19. Aug. 1946. A brief account of the programmed calculators developed by ZUSE, and the applications that had been made of them, during 1939 to 1945. DUBBEY, J. M.: The mathematical work of Charles Babbage. London: Ph. D. Thesis, University of London, 1968. A detailed and scholarly survey of BABBAGE'S published and unpublished mathematical writings, together with one chapter (pp. 266-337) on his calculating machines, incorporating many quotations from his published accounts of the machines. DYCK, W.: Katalog Mathematische usw. Instrumente. Munich: Wolf und Sohn 1892. Pages 146-154, and 5-6 of the supplement, list various calculating machines, in some cases (notably MEYER, MULLER, EDMO!,;DSON, BUTTNER, BRUNSVIGA and SELLING) giving some• what brief illustrated descriptions of the machines. ECCLES, W. H., JORDAN, F. W.: A trigger relay utilising three-electrode thermionic vacuum tubes. The Radio Review 1,143-146 (1919). An historic paper, describing "a one-stroke relay which when operated by a small trigger• ing electrical impulse undergoes great changes in regard to its electrical equilibrium, and then remains in the new condition until re-set".

ECKERT, J. P. (1946): A preview of a digital computing machine. Theory and Techniques for the Design of Electronic Digital Computers: Lectures delivered 8 July to 31 Aug. 1946 (ed. C. C. CHAMBERS), pp. 10.1-10.26. Philadelphia, Pa.: Moore School of Electrical Engineering, University of Pennsylvania 1947. An account of the plans for EDVAC, and a description of its intended order code. Dis• cusses how the decision to provide a single common memory for constants, variables and instructions led to the concept of a stored program, and the implications of this concept on computer design. ECKERT, J. P. (1970): In the beginning and to what end. Computers and Their Future, pp. 3/4-3/24. Llandudno: Richard Williams and Partners 1970. Describes the work with MAUCHLY on what became ENIAC, and then on its successors. "We have been asked, many times, if we knew of LOVELACE, or BABBAGE, and their work.

415 At the time, I did not know of their work. When we started on the ENIAC, we did not know of the work on the Mark 1." Includes a full discussion of the thoughts that led to stored pro• grams and EDVAC.

ECKERT,J. P., MAUCHLY,J. W., GOLDSTINE, H. E., BRAINERD,J. G.: Descript~on of the ENIAC and comments on electronic digital computing machines. Contract W 670 ORD 4926. Philadelphia, Pa.: Moore School of Electrical Engineering, Uni• versity of Pennsylvania, 30 Nov. i 945. The description of ENIAC contains detailed information on the arithmetic operations, on programming the machine, and on reliability considerations. Chapter 4 is on 'Design Prin• ciples for High Speed Computing Machines' and concerns plans for EDVAC. It concentrates on the question of serialism versus parallelism, and on the stored program concept.

ECKERT, W. J. (1940): Punched card methods in scientific computation. New York: Thomas J. Watson Astronomical Computing Bureau, Columbia University 1940. The major part of the book describes various mathematical applications of punched card equipment. However detailed descriptions are given of various standard machines including tabulators, sorters, and multiplying punches as well as a 'calculation control switch'.

ECKERT, W. J. (1948 a): The IBM Pluggable Sequence Relay Calculator. M.T.A.C. 3,149-161 (1948). Fairly detailed description, from a programmer's viewpoint, of the relay calculator. "The first two machines of this type, were built during the war for the Aberdeen proving ground, were delivered in December 1944, and were in operation during the last eight months of the war ... for comparison with the IBM Sequence Controlled Calculator at Harvard this ma• chine is limited in internal storage capacity, number of significant figures, and flexibility of sequencing; on the other hand, multiplying speed is about twenty times as great."

ECKERT, W. J. (1948b): Electrons and computation. The Scientific Monthly 67, no. 5, 315-323 (Nov. 1948). Reprinted in full on pages 219-228.

ECKERT, W. J. (1948 c): Electronic and electromagnetic measuring, computing and recording devices. Harvard Observatory Monographs 7, 169-178 (1948). "The purpose of this paper is to outline briefly the electronic and electromagnetic meas• uring, computing and recording devices now in use on extensive astronomical projects and to point out some of the developments which will materialize in a short time." Mentions that a machine incorporating an electronic adding unit had been in operation in the IBM engi• neering laboratory before the war, and that it had led to the Type 603.

ECKERT, W. J. (1950): The role of the punched card in scientific computation. Proc. Industrial Computation Seminar, Sept. 1950, pp. 13-17. New York: IBM Corporation 1951. Contains a good account of the scientific calculations performed using punched card machinery, mainly at the Columbia University Statistical Bureau, from 1928 onwards.

EDMONDSON, J.: Summary of lecture on calculating machines, delivered before the Physical Society of London, March 28, 1885. Phil. Mag., 5th series, 20, 15-18 Quly-Dec.1885). Brief discussion of difference engines, mention of MORLAND, and Viscont MAHON (after• wards Earl of STANHOPE), the inventor of three machines 1775 (using a stepped reckoner), 1777 and 1780 (on the lines of MORLAND'S instrument). There follows a somewhat more detailed discussion of the Thomas arithmometer, and of the method of carry assimilation, and

416 mention of G. B. GRANT'S machine ("somewhat on the lines of the Stanhope machine of 1777"). Ends by talking of the advantages of a machine with a circular form, permitting "an endless slide". EDWARDS, D. B. G.: Computer developments in Great Britain. Computers and their Future, pp. 1/1-1121. Llandudno: Richard Williams and Partners 1970. Despite its title, concerns computer developments solely at Manchester, starting with a brief discussion of the Williams tube memory, and the first Manchester machine. ELLIOTT, W. S.: The present position of automatic computing machine devel• opment in England. Proceedings of a 2nd Symposium on Large Scale Digital Calcu• lating Machinery, 13-16 Sept. 1949. In: Annals of the Computation Laboratory of Harvard University, Vol. 26, pp. 74-80. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press 1951. Survey of English machines, including the comment that ED SAC was working. EYMARD, P.: Historique du metier Jacquard. Annales des Sciences Physiques et Naturelles (Societe d' Agriculture, d'Histoire Naturelle, et des Arts Utiles de Lyon), 3rd series, 7, 34-56 (1863). Detailed account of the relative contributions of BOUCHON, FALCON, VAUCANSON, JACQUARD and others to the development of the Jacquard loom. FEGLEY, M. F.: J. W. Mauchly, co-inventor of the first electronic computer: A historical sketch. Philadelphia, Pa.: Term Paper, Drexel Inst. of Technology, Dec. 1967. A brief account, based in part on an interview with MAUCHLY, which includes a descrip• tion of his career prior to 1942. FELT, D. E.: Mechanical arithmetic or the history of the counting machine. Chi• cago, Ill.: Washington Inst. 1916. An original account of the development of mechanical calculating machines, with forth• right comments on the practicality of several of the famous early machines, by the inventor of the Comptometer. FISHER, A. M.: The Hollerith devices. New York: 1913. An 18-page account of the design and usage of the Hollerith key-punch, gang-punch, sorter, and tabulator. The sorter described is a 250 card/minute vertical sorter, the tabulator a 150 card/minute non-printing tabulator. FLAD, J. P.: L'horloge a calcul de l'astronome W. Schickard semble avoir ete la premiere machine a calcul a engrenages propre aux 4 operations. Chiffres 1, 143-148 (1958). A good account of the discovery of SCHICRARD'S work, and of the principles of his calcu• lating machine, the first to embody a mechanism for carry assimilation. GALLE, A.: Mathematische Instrumente. Leipzig: B. G. Teubner 1912. Pages 23-48, on "Calculating Machines" cover PASCAL, LEIBNIZ, THOMAS, the Mercedes• Euklid machine, ODHNER, the "Gauss" circular machine by HAMANN, SELLING, STEIGER'S "Mil• lionaire" machine, and, in a short section on difference machines, one by HAMANN, which was used in 1910 to produce a set of arithmetic tables. A photograph, and detailed drawing of this difference machine are included. GARDNER, M. (1952): Logic machines. Scientific American 183,68-73 (March 1952). Discusses the evolution of machines for evaluating logical expressions. Covers the work of LULL (13th century), STANHOPE, JEVONS, and KALIN and BURKHART, among others.

417 GARDNER, M. (1958): Logic machines and diagrams. New York: McGraw-Hill 1958. A very readable account of the development of mechanical aids to reasoning and to solv• ing problems in formal logic. It describes MARQUAND as the first to design an electrical logic machine (1885) and BURACK as the first to actually build one (1936). GARWIG, P. L.: Charles Babbage (1792-1871). American Documentation 20, no. 4, 320-324 (Oct. 1959). A brief but well-written biography of CHARLES BABBAGE. GENAILLE, H. (1878): Sur une nouvelle machine a cal euler par Genaille. Assoc. Fr. Avanc. de Science, 181-182 (1878). Extremely brief account of a lecture by GENAILLE, and the ensueing discussion, on the system of rods which were a development of NAPIER'S rods, but which avoided the need to compute the carry from one position to another. GENAILLE, H. (1891): Piano arithmetique pour la verification des grands nombres premiers. Assoc. Fr. Avanc. de Science 20, no. 1,159 (1891). A one-paragraph account of a 'piano arithmetique', designed to verify whether certain types of numbers were prime. "Cette machine, qui peut arriver a faire automatiquement des calculs de la plus grande importance, realisera un jour la solution d'une machine a calculer faisant seule les operations arithmetiques." GERSTEN, C. L.: The description and use of an arithmetical machine invented by Christian-Ludovicus Gersten, FRS, Professor of Mathematics in the University of Giessen. Philosophical Transactions 39, no. 738, 79-97 plus 1 plate (July-Sept. 1735). After a brief survey of the work of MORELAND, LEIBNIZ, POLENI, LEUPOLD, and PASCAL, GERSTEN states that his work was motivated by the Leibniz machine, but was developed independently of both the mechanisms of LEIBNIZ and PASCAL. Then gives an extremely detailed description of his machine, its inner mechanism, and method of use. GINSBURG, J.: Napier on the Napier rods. In: A Source Book in Mathematics (ed. D. E. SMITH), pp. 182-185. New York: McGraw-Hill 1929. Translated selection from 'Rabdologiae sev numerationis per virgulas libri duo, Edinburgh (1617)', in which the use of the rods to assist in the process of multiplication is explained. GLUCK, S. E.: The Electronic Discrete Variable Computer. Electrical Engineering 72,159-162 (1953). Very brief description, giving most attention to number format. States machine was delivered to the Ordnance Dept in the fall of 1949. After modifications, in March 1952 it was considered to be a working machine. GODDARD, D.: Eminent engineers: Brief biographies of thirty-two of the inventors and engineers who did most to further mechanical progress. New York: Derry-Collard 1906. Pages 240-254 contain a few biographical details about BABBAGE, and very good general accounts of the Difference Engine and the Analytical Engine, including reprints of the General Plan of the Analytical Engine, and a 'program' for the engine originally given by MENABREA. "The Analytical Engine was no dream of a crank. It was the ultimate result of the life-long thinking of the greatest genius for this sort of thing the world has ever seen." GOLD SCHEIDER, P., ZEMANEK, H.: Computer: Werkzeug der Information. Berlin• Heidelberg-New York: Springer Verlag 1971. A popular account of computers, but with many details about early mechanical automata.

418 GOLDSTINE, H. H. (1970): Early electronic computers. Computers and their Role in the Physical Sciences (eds. S. FERNBACH and A. H. TAUB), pp. 51-102. New York: Gordon and Breach 1970. A detailed account of the ENIAC, EDVAC and lAS projects, by one of the main prota• gonists. Much background material is included, and many original documents are quoted, in this account, which tends to concentrate on the role played by VON NEUMANN.

GOLDSTINE, H. H. (1972): The computer from Pascal to von Neumann. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press 1972. The first part of this book discusses the history of digital and analogue calculating devices, and concurrent developments in mathematics. However the main purpose of the book is to give an extensive account, from the viewpoint of a particular participant, of the ENIAC, EDVAC and lAS projects. The account makes available for the first time a wealth of ma• terial, culled from contemporary documents. Particular attention is paid to the work of VON NEUMANN, and to his role in the EDVAC and lAS projects.

GOLDSTINE, H. H., GOLDSTINE, A.: The Electronic Numerical Integrator and Computer (ENIAC) M.T.A.C. 2, no. 15,97-110 (1946). Reprinted in full on pages 333-347.

GOLDSTINE, H. H., VON NEUMANN, J. (1947): Planning and coding of problems for an electronic computing instrument, Part 2, Vol. 1. Princeton: Institute for Ad• vanced Study (1 April 1947). Reprinted in John von Neumann: Collected Works (ed. A. H. TAUB), Vol. 5, pp. 80-151. Oxford: Pergamon 1963. An extensive account of the methods of coding, and of the philosophy behind, the pro• gramming of the lAS computer, followed by a set of detailed examples of programs.

GOLDSTINE, H. H., VON NEUMANN, J. (1948): Planning and coding of problems for an electronic computing instrument, Part 2, Vol. 2. Princeton: Institute for Ad• vanced Study (15 April 1948) ..Reprinted in John von Neumann: Collected Works (ed. A. H. TAUB), Vol. 5, pp. 152-214. Oxford: Pergamon 1963. A continuation of GOLDSTINE and VON NEUMANN (1947), giving further detailed examples.

GOLDSTINE, H. H., VON NEUMANN, J. (1948 b): Planning and coding of problems for an electronic computing instrument, Part 2, Vol. 3. Princeton: Institute for Ad• vanced Study (16 Aug. 1948). Reprinted in John von Neumann: Collected Works (ed. A. H. TAUB), Vol. 5, pp. 215-235. Oxford: Pergamon 1963. Continuation of GOLDSTINE and VON NEUMANN (1948), giving a discussion of the concept of a subroutine, and some detailed examples.

GOLDSTINE, H. H., VON NEUMANN, J. (1963): On the principles of large scale computing machines. John von Neumann: Collected Works (ed. A. H. TAUB), Vol. 5, pp. 1-32. Oxford: Pergamon 1963. This paper (previously unpublished) contains material from various lectures given by VON NEUMANN, in particular one on 15 May 1946. It contains a general disc}lssion of the concepts of electronic digital computers, and of the importance of the 'stored-program' concept. GOOD, 1. J.: Some future social repercussions of computers. Intern. J. Environ• mental Studies 1,67-79 (1970). Contains a brief history of the development of computers, which is however notable for the detail it gives of a secret electronic computer built in Britain in 1943, and with which TURING was associated.

419 GRANT, G. B. (1871): On a new difference engine. American Journal of Science, 3rd series, 1, no. 8, 113-118 (Aug. 1871). Contains a brief but fairly detail&! Ge~rip~ion of the mechanism that GRANT had demon• strated on a small model of a difference engine, and that he was using in the design for a full capacity engine.

GRANT, G. B. (1874): A new calculating machine. American Journal of Science, 3rd series, 4, no. 8,277-284 (1874). After a brief description of the essentials of the Pascal and Thomas machines, gives a reasonably detailed description of GRANT'S machine, in which a digit was represented by the displacement of a single pin around a cylinder rather than by the stepped reckoner or Odhner wheel method. The article ends "The problem of the calculating machine is an exceedingly difficult one, as anyone acquainted with the immense labours of PASCAL, LEIBNIZ, BABBAGE and SCHEUTZ will acknowledge. The machine described above for the first time is the result of nearly four years of study and labour".

GRAY, H. J.: Digital computer engineering. Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall 1963. Contains one chapter on ENIAC and EDVAC. After discussing the difficulties of setting• up problems on the ENIAC states that "JOHN VON NEUMANN urged that all the machine units be connected ... so that the machine could be used as a computer of the Babbage type (provisions for this mode of operation had been made in its design). This was done and ENIAC was operated in this fashion until it was retired."

HALACY, D.: Charles Babbage, father of the computer. New York: Crowell• Collier 1970. A popular account, based for the main part on BABBAGE'S 'Passages from the Life of a Philosopher' .

HAGA, E. J. (1963): More about difference engines. J. Bus. Education 39, no. 3, 120-121 (Dec. 1963). Discussion of the two Scheutz difference engines, and their use for the calculation and printing of the English life tables. Includes an extensive bibliography relating to difference engines by BABBAGE, SCHEUTZ and GRANT.

HAGA, E. J. (1965): Understanding automation. Elmhurst, Ill.: The Business Press 1965. The first chapter 'Historical Perspective' is an unusually detailed account of the origins of computers. Especially detailed coverage is given of the efforts following LEIBNIZ to make a commercially viable desk calculator, of American developments following PARMA LEE in 1850, of difference engines (including details of work by GRANT) and of punched card machinery. However virtually no references are given.

HALSBURY, Earl of: Ten years of computer development. Compo J. 1, no. 4, 15~-159 (1959). An account of computer development, mainly in Britain, starting with the work at Man• chester and Cambridge. Suggests that one of the most important events in the developments which led to the concept of a computer was a meeting of TURING and VON NEUMANN during the war, and that "computers are the peace-time legacy of war-time radar".

HAMANN, CH.: Uber Elektrische Rechenmaschinen. Neu-Babelsberg: Privately Printed (ca. 1932). A 32-page booklet describing various electromechanical calculating devices, mainly various forms of multipliers, but also including a device for solving sets of linear equations, with data input from paper tape.

420 HARRISON, J. 0., JR.: The preparation of problems for the Mark I Calculator. Proceedings of a Symposium on Large Scale Digital Calculating Machinery, 7-10 Jan. 1947. In: Annals of the Computation Laboratory of Harvard University Vol. 16, pp. 208-210. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press 1948. Brief description of the successive stages involved in preparing sequence-control tapes for the Mark 1, ending with the comment "one of the most important problems now facing us is to achieve a reduction in preparation and set-up time proportionate to that already achieved in actual computation time." HARTREE, D. R. (1946a): The ENIAC, an electronic calculating engine. Nature 157,527 (20 April 1946). Brief description starting "The news has recently been released of a major advance in the development of equipment for extensive numerical calculations, in the successful com• pletion of a large calculating machine based on the use of electronic counting circuits". HARTREE, D. R. (1946 b): The EN lAC, an electronic computing machine. Nature 158,500-506 (12 Oct. 1946). Description of ENIAC, written after the author had returned from a visit during which he worked on the machine. HARTREE, D. R. (1947): Calculating machines - Recent and prospective devel• opments. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press 1947. Inaugural lecture, mainly about ENIAC. HARTREE, D. R. (1948): A historical survey of digital computing machines. Pro". roy. Soc. London A 195, 265-271 (1948). General brief description of BABBAGE'S Analytical Engine, the Harvard Mark 1, and ENIAC. HARTREE, D. R. (1949): Calculating instruments and machines. University of Illinois Press 1949. Includes fairly extensive discussion of BABBAGE'S work, the Harvard Mark 1, ENIAC and the IBM Selective Sequence Electronic Calculator. HARTREE, D. R. (1950): Automatic calculating machines. The Mathematical Gazette 34, no. 310,241-252 (Dec. 1950). General discussion, and then more detailed description of the programming of ED SAC. HEATH, F. G.: Pioneers of binary coding. J. Inst. of Electr. Eng. London 7, no. 81, 539-541 (1961). Brief description of work of Sir FRANCIS BACON, GRAY, and BAUDOT. HENNEMAN, A.: Die Technische Entwicklung der Rechenmaschine. Aachen: Ver• lag Peter Basten 1953. A detailed, well illustrated, account of the development of mechanical calculating and book-keeping machines. Includes brief accounts of punched card equipment and of early relay and electronic computers. Inventors whose work is covered include LEIBNIZ, POLEN I, ROTH, ODHNER, BALDWIN, HAHN, MULLER, THOMAS, BURKHARDT, HAMANN, BOLLEE, STEIGER, and BURROUGHS. HILTON, A. M.: Logic, computing machines, and automation. Cleveland, Ohio: Meridian 1963. Contains a section 'Historical Review' (pp. 215-233) which in the main concentrates on the history of the development of logic machines. HOFFLEIT, D.: A comparison of various computing machines used in the reduction of Doppler observations. M.T.A.C. 3, 373-377 (1949).

421 Gives interesting data on the rela.tive performance and reliability of the IBM Relay Calculator, ENIAC, and the Bell Laboratories Computing Machine. HOFFMAN, W.: Entwicklungsbericht und Literaturzusammenstellung tiber Zif• fern - Rechenautomaten. Digitale Informationswandler (Hrsg. W. HOFFMAN), pp. 650-717. Braunschweig: Vieweg 1962. (Also published as 'Digital Information Processors', Wiley, New York.) A very valuable survey, well-referenced, of computers and their origins. HOLLCROFT, T. R.: The summer meeting in Hanover. Amer. Math. Soc. Bull. 46, 861 (1940). "The Bell Telephone Laboratories exhibited a machine for computing with complex num• bers. The recording instrument at Hanover was connected by telegraph with the computing mechanism in New York. This machine was available to members from llam to 2pm each day of the meetings". (The meetings were held at Dartmouth College, Hanover, New Ham• shire from Tuesday to Thursday, 10-12 Sept. 1940.)

HOLLERITH, H. (1889): An electric tabulating system. School of Mines Quarterly (Columbia University) 10, no. 3,238-255 (April 1889). Extracts reprinted on pages 129-139. HOLLERITH, H. (1894): The electrical tabulating machine. J. roy. statist. Soc. 57, no. 4, 678-682 (1894). Brief but fascinating article, which describes the way in which tabulators and sorters were used on the more than 100 million cards containing the records of the 1890 U.S. Census.

HOLLERITH, V.: Biographical sketch of Herman Hollerith. Isis 62, no. 1,69-78 (1971). A brief biography of HOLLERITH, written by one of his daughters. It briefly describes how he developed the first version of his tabulating system, and describes in rather more detail his travels during the next few years in Europe as the Hollerith system came into wide use. HOLLINGDALE, S. H., TOOTILL, G. C.: Electronic computers. Harmondsworth, Middlesex: Penguin Books 1965. Contains a quite good survey of the origins of computers, starting with the abacus.

HOPPER, G. M.: Computer software. Computers and Their Future, pp. 7/3-7/26. Llandudno: Richard Williams and Partners 1970. "Almost the first day I met a computer [in 1944], I met BABBAGE. Commander AIKEN had a copy of BABBAGE'S book, and at intervals advised us to read sections of it. I did not meet LOVELACE'S work until ten or fifteen years later." Describes the development of pro• gramming techniques, such as (in 1944), what were later called 'relocatable subroutines'.

HORSBURGH, E.M. (1920): Calculating machines. Glasgow Institution of Engin• eers and Shipbuilders in Scotland 63, 117-162 (1920). An extensive discussion of the history and of the design of calculating machines. Govers the abacus, NAPIER'S rods, PASCAL, LEIBNIZ, and mentions MORLAND, STANHOPE and others. Some detail given on THOMAS, and on difference engines. The sections on then modern machines include detailed descriptions of the operation of arithmometers, Odhner-wheel machines, key driven adding machines, and the Millionaire. HORSBURGH, E. M. (1923): Calculating machines. Glazebrook's Dictionary of Applied Physics, Vol. 3, pp. 193-201 (1923).

422 Covers the abacus, NAPIER'S rods, PASCAL, THOMAS, BABBAGE'S Difference and Analytical Engines, adding and listing machines, the Millionaire machine, and others. A very good, some• what condensed account, both of facilities, and of principles of construction. HORSBURGH, E. M. (ed.) (1914): Napier tercentenary celebration: Handbook of the exhibition. Edinburgh: Royal Society of Edinburgh 1914. (Also published as 'Modern Instruments and Methods of Calculation. A Handbook of the Napier Tercen• tenary Celebration Exhibition'. London: G. Bell and Sons 1914.) Contains, in addition to the Ludgate article on an 'Automatic Calculating Machines', good descriptions of various then current calculating instruments and machines: Archimedes, COLT'S Calculator, Brical Calculator, Brunsviga, Burroughs Adding and Listing machine, Comptometer, LAYTON'S Arithmometer, Mercedes-Euklid Arithometer, Millionaire and the Thomas Arithmometer. HOYAU, L. A. D.: Description d'une machine a calculer nommee arithmometre de I'invention de M. Ie chevalier Thomas, de Colmar. Bull. de la SOC. d'Encouragement pour l'Industrie Nationale, pp. 355-365 (Nov. 1822). Reprinted in Vol. 132, pp. 662-670 (1920). A description of the original version of the Thomas arithmometer, described by MEHMKE and D'OCAGNE (1908) as perhaps inferior to those of HAHN, MULLER, and even LEIBNIZ, but which was gradually improyed until the perfected machine (SEBERT 1879) was produced, and became very successful. HUDSON, T. c.: H. M. Nautical Almanac Office Antidifferencing Machine, pp. 127-131. In: E. M. HORSBURGH (ed.) 1914. Illustrated description of a 'difference engine' based on a Burroughs Adding Machine. HURD, C. c.: The IBM Card Programmed Calculator. Proceedings of the Seminar on Scientific Computation, Nov. 1949, pp. 37-41. New York: IBM Corporation 1950. A brief description of the c.P.c. and of some of the applications for which it had been used. HUSKEY, H. D. (1949): Electronic digital computing in the United States. Report of a Conference on High Speed Automatic Calculating Machines, 22-25 June 1949, pp. 109-111. Cambridge: University Mathematical Laboratory, Jan. 1950. "In summary, the ENIAC and IBM electronic calculator are both in operation at the present time. The BINAC (SOO-word memory) is going through final checkout at the Eckert Mauchly Computer Corporation while the Mark III is scheduled for unveiling at Harvard University in September. As far as large scale electronic automatic sequenced digital com• puters are concerned, it seems as if EDVAC will be the first of these to be put into operation". HUSKEY, H. D. (1972): The development of automatic computing. Paper presented at the USA-Japan Computer Conference, Tokyo, 3-5 October 1972. A general survey, concentrating on electronic computers developed prior to 1950, and in particular on ENIAC and EDVAC. Mentions the ENIAC converter code, a scheme for controlling ENIAC from punched cards, which was put into operation in late 1949. JACOB, L.: Le calcul mecanique. Encyclopedie Scientifique: Bibliotheque des Mathematiques Appliquees. Paris: Octave Doin et Fils 1911. Basically similar coverage to that of D'OCAGNE (1905), but with quite a lot of material on difference engines, including SCHEUTZ and particularly WIBERG. Not much discussion of BABBAGE'S Analytical Engine - rather more on the work of TORRES Y QUEVEDO. JEVONS, W. S.: On the mechanical performance of logical inference. Philos. Trans. roy. Soc. London 160, no. 2, 497-518, and plates 32-34 (1870).

423 Detailed description of a mechanical device for evaluation of boolean expressions In• volving up to four terms. JOHNS, V.: On the mechanical handling of statistics. Amer. math. Monthly 33, 494-502 (1926). An illustrated account of the evolution of punched card machinery. Describes the intro• duction first of mechanical key punches, and then electrical key punches (1923), to replace the pantograph punch, of vertical and then horizontal electrical sorting machines, and of tabulating and listing machines. JOHNSON, L. R.: System structure in data, programs, and computers. Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall 1970. Contains a fairly detailed description of the EDVAC, and quotes in full the sections entitled 'Historical Introduction' and 'Contrast of the EDVAC with the ENIAC' of a report written by ECKERT and MAUCHLY in September, 1945, on plans for the EDVAC. JULEY, J.: The Ballistic Computer. Bell Laboratories Record 24, 5-9 (1947). Reprinted in full on pages 251-255.

KEMPF, K.: Electronic computers within the Ordnance Corps. Aberdeen, Md.: U.S. Army Ordnance, Aberdeen Proving Ground, Nov. 1961. Contains lengthy accounts of the development of ENIAC, EDVAC, ORDVAC, and BRLESC, based mainly on information obtained from personnel of the Ballistic Research Laboratories.

KERN, J. L.: The development of computer science at Iowa State University. Report ERI-342. Ames, Iowa: Engineering Research Institute, Iowa State University, Dec. 1968. The first four pages contain a description of the pioneering use of punched card equip• ment for statistical computations, which started at Iowa in 1923, and of ATANASOPP'S special purpose electronic computer, intended for the solution of simultaneous equations.

KLIPSTEIN, PH.-E.: Beschreibung einer neu erfundenen Rechenmaschine. Frank• furt: Barrentrapp Sohn und Wenner 1786. The last chapter describes MULLER'S proposed difference engine, and is in the form of a plea for funds to carry out the project. The machine was to be used for the generation, and printing, of mathematical tables.

KNOTT, C. G.: The calculating machine of the east: The abacus, pp. 136-154. In: E. M. HORSBURGH (ed.) 1914. Account of the history of the abacus, and detailed explanation of its use for the operations of multiplication, division, square root and cube root.

KNUTH, D. E.: Von Neumann's first computer program. Computing Surveys 2, no. 4, 247-260 (1970). A fascinating detailed analysis of a sorting program written by VON NEUMANN in 1945 in order to evaluate the proposed order code for what later became the EDVAC. Contains a brief, but valuable, account of the developments which led to ENIAC and EDVAC, and of their consequences.

KORMES, M.: Leibniz on his calculating machine. A Source Book in Mathematics (ed. D. E. SMITH), pp. 173-181. New York: McGraw-Hill 1929. Translation of the manuscript "Machina arithmetica in qua nun additio tantum et sub• tractio sed et multiplicatio nullo, divisio vero paene nullo animi labore peragantur (1685)", describing the first machine for performing the four basic arithmetic operations.

424 KOSTEN, L.: Fictitious traffic machines. Report of a Conference on High Speed Automatic Calculating Machines, 22-25 June 1949, pp. 114-115. Cambridge: Uni• versity Mathematical Laboratory, Jan. 1950. Describes a special purpose digital calculator, built in 1941 at The Hague Local Telephone Administration's Laboratory, to simulate part of a telephone exchange, in order to evaluate its probable performance. KREILING, F. c.: Leibniz. Scientific American 218, no. 5, 94-100 (May 1968). A biography, including a brief illustrated description of his calculating machine. LARDNER, D.: Babbage's calculating engines. Edinburgh Review 120 Quly 1834). Reprinted by H. P. BABBAGE: 1889; and P. and E. MORRISON: 1961. Extensive discussions on mathematical tables, followed by a very extensive discussion of the mechanism of the Difference Engine. LEHMER, D. H. (1933): A photo-electric number sieve. Amer. math. Monthly 40, no. 7,401-406 (Aug.-Sept. 1933). A delightful description of a device, involving a set of coaxial gear wheels, with holes opposite each tooth, together with a photo-electric cell controlling a brake. Selected holes are left unplugged so that a given factorising problem can be solved rapidly by rotating the wheels at high speed, and using the photo-electric cell to detect when the holes are in con• junction so letting a light beam pass through them. LEHMER, D. H. (1951): Leslie John Comrie (1863-1950). M.T.A.C. 5,108- 109(1951). An obituary. LEIBNIZ, G. W.: De progressione dyadica - Pars I (Manuscript dated 15 Mar. 1679, in the collection of the Niedersachsische Landesbibliothek, Hannover). Re• printed, with an accompanying German translation, in Herrn von Leibniz' 'Rechnung mit Null und Einz', pp. 42-47. Berlin: Siemens Aktiengesellschaft 1966. A discussion of binary representations and arithmetic, which includes a brief discussion of the possibility of designing a mechanical binary calculator which would use moving balls to represent binary digits.

LENZ, K.: Die Rechen- und Buchungsmachinen. Leipzig: B. G. Teubner 1932. Lengthy account of the mechanical principles, and of the methods of use, of all the major then-current calculating and bookkeeping machines. Very little on the history of their devel• opment, and no references.

LEWIS, W. B.: A "Scale of Two" high-speed counter using hard vacuum triodes. Proc. Cambridge philos. Soc. 33, 549-558 (1937). Describes a binary counter with greater reliability and speed than the original Wynn• Williams thyratron-based counter. LI, SHU-T'IEN: Origin and development of the Chinese abacus. J. ACM 6, no. 1, 102-110 (1959). Detailed discussion of the history of the abacus. It is claimed that "the Chinese abacus as a physical device can be traced as far back as circa 1100 B.C.. .. [It J was originated and developed independently of all others". LIFSCHUTZ, H., LAWSON, J. L.: A triode vacuum tube scale-of-two circuit. Rev. Sci. Instr. 9, 83-89 (March 1938). Describes a binary counter that was approximately thirty times faster than previous counters based on thyratrons.

425 LILLEY, S.: Machinery in mathematics: An historical survey of calculating ma• chines. Discovery 6, no. 5 and 6,150-156,182-185 (1945). The two parts of the article concern digital and analogue calculators, respectively. The section on digital calculators covers the work of PASCAL, BABBAGE, THOMAS, ROTH and others, and is notable for its attempt to relate their work to the prevailing conditions, and mathe• matical attitudes, of their day. LOCKE, L. L. (1924): The history of modern calculating machines, an American contribution. Amer. math. Monthly 31, 422-429 (1924). Gives a useful discussion of terminology, and a classification of calculating machines, and describes the work of BARBOUR and ODHNER on what is now often called an "Odhner-wheel". However evidence is presented to show that this device originated with BARBOUR'S work in 1872. LOCKE, L. L. (1929): Pascal on his calculating machine. A Source Book in Mathe• matics (ed. D. E. SMITH), pp. 165-172. New York: McGraw-Hill 1929. Translation of an account written by PASCAL subsequent to being granted a Privilege in 1649. This was in essence an "advertisement", rather than a technical account of the machine. LOTKIN, M.: Remarks on the IBM Relay Calculator. Proceedings of the Compu• tation Seminar, Dec. 1949, pp. 154-157. New York: IBM Corporation 1951. Describes the interconnecting of two IBM Pluggable Sequence Relay Calculators, one being used as extra storage for the other. LOVELACE, AUGUSTA ADA, Countess of: Sketch of the Analytical Engine invented by Charles Babbage, by L.F. Menabrea of Turi;, officer of the Military Engineers, with notes upon the memoir by the translator. Taylor's Scientific Memoirs 3, Article 29, 666-731 (1843). (Reprinted in BOWDEN 1953, P. MORRISON and E. MORRISON: 1961; and H. P. BABBAGE: 1889.) The single most important paper on BABBAGE'S Analytical Engine. Lady LOVELACE'S notes are more lengthy than the original Menabrea paper, which is itself a good description of the basic principles of the Analytical Engine. LUDGATE, P. E. (1909): On a proposed analytical machine. Sci. Proc. roy. Dublin Soc. 12, no. 9, 77-91 (1909). Reprinted in full on pages 71-85. LUDGATE, P. E. (1914): Automatic calculating engines, pp. 124-127. In: E. M. HORSBURGH (ed.), 1914. Brief description of the Babbage Analytical Engine, followed by comments on his own work on difference, and analytical engines: "I have myself designed an analytical machine, on different lines from BABBAGE'S ... Complete descriptive drawings of the machine exist as well as a description in manuscript, but I have not been able to take any steps to have the machine constructed." LYNDON, R. c.: The Zuse computer. M.T.A.C. 2, no. 20, 355-359 (1947). Describes the then incomplete Z4 computer. At this date the memory held 16 numbers - the projected size being 1024. MAcEWAN, D., BEEVERS, C. A.: A machine for the rapid summation of Fourier series.]. Sci. Instr.19, 150-156 (Oct. 1942). A very detailed description of a special purpose device, based on uniselectors, for perform• ing calculations involved in the use of Fqurier Synthesis for crystallography. MALASSIS, L., LEMAIRE, E., GRELET, R.: Bibliographie relative a l'arithmetique, au calcul simplifie et aux instruments a calculer. Bull. de la Soc. d'Encouragement pour l'Industrie Nationale 132, 739-757 (Sept.-Oct. 1920).

426 A valuable bibliography (over 300 items), on calculating machines, slide rules, etc., mainly but not exclusively of books and articles in French. MARTIN, E.: Die Rechenmaschinen und ihre Entwicklungsgeschichte. Pappen• heim 1925. The first part of this book is a general survey of the various types of calculating ma• chines that have been developed, and their basic principles of operation. The rest of the book (well over 250 pages) lists, in chronological order, over 200 different calculators, often with illustrations, and in many cases with detailed, well illustrated, accounts of their mechanisms. The listing starts PASCAL (1642), MORLAND (1666), LEIBNIZ (1672-1712), GRILLET (1678), POLENI (1709), LEPINE (1725), LEUPOLD (1727), POETIUS (1728), HILLERAN DE BOISTISSANDAU (1730), GERSTEN (1735), PEREIRE (1750), HAHN (1774), MAHON (1775), MULLER (1783), etc. MARTIN, T. c.: Counting a nation by electricity. Electrical Engineer 12, no. 184, 521-530 (11. Nov. 1891). A very readable popular account describing the machines built by HOLLERITH for the 1890 U.S. Census, and of the experience of their use. Very well illustrated. MAUCHLY, J. W. (1941): Notes on electrical calculating devices (unpublished memorandum, 15 Aug. 1941). Disusses the distinction between analogue and digital devices and the possibility of using vacuum tubes for digital calculation. "At present it may not be possible to build a commercial competitor for the desk-type mechanical computer, but larger machines for more involved, more lengthy, or more specialized jobs are practical". MAUCHLY, J. W. (1942): The use of high speed vacuum tube devices for calcu• lating (Privately circulated memorandum). Philadelphia, Pa.: Moore School of Elec• trical Engineering, University of Pennsylvania, Aug. 1942. Reprinted in full on pages 329-332.

MAUCHLY, J. W. (1947): Preparation of problems for EDVAC-type machines. Proceedings of a Symposium on Large Scale Digital Calculating Machinery, 7-10 Jan. 1947. In: Annals of the Computation Labora tory of Harvard University, Vol. 16, pp. 203-207. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press 1948. Reprinted in full on pages 365-369. MAUL, M.: Die Elektrischen Lochkarten-Maschinen. Elektrotechnische Zeitschrift 48,1789-1794 (1927). Includes an account of the evolution of punched card machinery since the original equip• ment of 1890, and a description of the mechanism of card punches and verifiers.

MAYs, W.: First circuit for an electrical logic machine. Science 118, 281-282 (4 Sept. 1953). An account of a circuit diagram, prepared in about 1885 by ALAN MARQUAND, for an electrical relay machine for performing logical inference. MCCARTHY, J.: Information. Scientific American 215, no. 3, 65-72 (1966). Contains a very brief account of the development of computers, including, however, the statement "As early as 1943 a British group had an electronic computer working on a war• time assignment". MCPHERSON, J. c.: Mathematical operations with punched cards. J. Amer. statist. Assoc. 37, no. 218,275-281 (June 1942). Describes the use of punched card equipment for synthesis and analysis of harmonic functions, for evaluating multiple correlations, determinants, etc.

427 MEHMKE, R., D'OCAGNE, M.: Calculs numenques. Encyclopedie des Sciences Mathematiques Pures et Appliquees. Edition Fran~aise. Tome 1, Vol. 4, Fascicule 2, pp. 196-320 (1908). The section 'Calculs rigoureux a I'aide de Machines a calcul propres a I'execution de calculs simples' (pp. 236-267) is a very good detailed account of the historical development of calculating machines, covering many different machines in more than the usual amount of detail, including PASCAL, FELT, LEIBNIZ, HAMANN, THOMAS, MAUREL, BOLLEE and STEIGER. The following section (pp. 267-270) gives quite a lot of detail on the history of difference engines, and rather less on analytical engines. The whole account is supplemented by detailed references. MENABREA, L. F.: Sur la machine analytique de Charles Babbage. Compt. Rend. Acad. Sci. Paris, 179-182 (28 July 1884). Brief description of BABBAGE'S Analytical Engine; includes a reprint of the letter sent by BABBAGE to MENABREA. disclosing that the mysterious AAL, translator and annotator of MENABREA'S article, was AUGUSTA ADA, Countess of LOVELACE. MENZLER, F. A. A.: William Phillips. J. lnst. Actuaries 94/2, no. 398,269-271 (1968). Obituary notice for WILLIAM PHILLIPS. States that he and JOHN WOMERSLEY of the National Physical Laboratory had started to design ACE in 1943. MERRIAM, W. R.: The evolution of modern census taking. Century Magazine, pp. 831-842 (April 1903). Contains illustrated descriptions of the Seaton device for aiding tabulation, used in the 1880 U.S. Census, and of the automatic tabulator used in the 1900 U.S. Census. MERRIFIELD, C. W.: Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor CAYLEY, Dr. FARR, Mr. J. W. L. GLAISHER, Dr. POLE, Professor FULLER, Professor A. B. W. KENNEDY, Professor CLIFFORD and Mr. C. W. MERRIFIELD, appointed to consider the advisability and to estimate the expense of constructing Mr. Babbage's Analytical Machine, and of printing tables by its means. Report of the British Association for the Advancement of Science, Dublin, Aug. 1878, pp. 92-102. London: John Murray 1879. Reprinted in full on pages 53-63.

MEYER ZUR CAPELLEN, W.: Mathematische lnstrumente. 3. Auflage. Leipzig: Akademische Verlagsgesellschaft 1949. Pages 53-122 give detailed descriptions of the mechanisms used in contemporary cal• culating and adding machines. In an appendix a brief account is given of German, British and American developments, including the work of ZUSE, and at Darmstadt, and the Harvard Mark 1, ENIAC, and ACE. The Russian language edition, published in 1950, has an extensive bibliography on East European developments, compiled by N. E. KOBRINSKIY.

MICHIE, D.: Machines that play and plan. Science Journal, 83-88 (Oct. 1968). Contains a brief reference to the author's wartime work. "During the war I was a member of MAx NEWMAN'S group at Bletchley, working on prototypes of what we now call the elec• tronic digital computer. One of the people I came most in contact with was ALAN TURING, a founder of the mathematical theory of computation ... "

MORRISON, P., MORRISON, E. (1952): Strange life of Charles Babbage. Scientific American 186,66-73 (April 1952). Largely biographical, drawn from such sources as 'Passages from the Life of a Philosopher'. Very brief discussions on the Difference and Analytical Engines.

428 MORRISON, P., MORRISON, E. (eds.) (1961): Charles Babbage and his calculating engines: Selected writings by Charles Babbage and others. New York: Dover Publi• cations 1961. A valuable selection of material on BABBAGE'S Engines, taken mainly from 'Passages from the Life of a Philosopher' and from 'Babbage's Calculating Engines'. MOSELEY, M.: Irascible genius: A life of Charles Babbage, inventor. London: Hutchinson 1964. A biography of BABBAGE, but without much material on his technical achievements. MURPHY, L. J.: Herman Hollerith and his electric data tabulating system. Cleve• land, Ohio: M.A. Thesis, Case Inst. of Technology, June 1968. A valuable and well-documented account of the life and work of HERMAN HOLLERITH. It includes detailed coverage of the patents issued to HOLLERITH, including those that relate to the evolution of the tabulating system up to 1914. MURRAY, F. J. (1948): The theory of mathematical machines, 2nd edition. New York: King's Crown Press 1948. Contains a very good description of the workings of mechanical calculating machines, which is very readable and well illustrated (15 pages), and a somewhat shorter description of the fundamentals of electronic computers. MURRAY, F. J. (1961): Mathematical machines, Vol. 1: Digital computers. New York: Columbia University Press 1961. Contains a valuable account of punched card mechanisms. NAGLER, J. W.: In memoriam Gustav Tauschek. Blatter fur Technikgeschichte 26, 1-14. Wien: Springer 1966. An account of the life and work of GUSTAV TAUSCHEK, including his work on book-keep• ing machines, punched card mechanisms, and character recognition devices. NEWMAN, M. H. A. (1948): General principles of the design of all-purpose com• puting machines. Proc. roy. Soc. London A 195, 271-274 (1948). Brief discussion of the importance of the concepts of a stored-program, and of conditional branching. NEWMAN, M. H. A. (1955): Alan Mathison Turing 1912-1954. Biographical Memoirs of Fellows of the Royal Society 1,253-263 (1955). An obituary. NICOLADZE, c.: Arithmometre it multiplication directe purement electrique. Compt. Rend. Acad. Sci, Paris 186, 123-124 (1928). Brief description, followed by a remark by D'OCAGNE, of a machine which was based on the idea of GENAILLE'S numbering rods, but was entirely electro-mechanical, using relays and commutators. D'OCAGNE describes it as being of most interest because of its difference from the Torres y Quevedo machine.

NUDDs, D.: Charles Babbage (1791-1871). Mid-Nineteenth Century Scientists (ed. J. NORTH), pp. 1-34. Oxford: Pergamon Press 19&9. A very competent popular account of BABBAGE'S life and work.

OETTINGER, A. G.: Howard Aiken. Commun. ACM 5, no. 6, 298-299, 359 (1962). A brief biography of AIKEN, written on the occasion of his retirement from Harvard University.

429 PANTAGES, A.: Computing's early years. Datamation 13, no. 10,60-65 (1967). Brief account of the 'Historical Session' at the 1967 Nat. ACM Conference - an occasion at which many early pioneers reminisced on their experiences in the development of com• puters. PAYEN, J.: Les exemplaires conserves de la machme de Pascal. Revue d'Histoire des Sciences et de leurs Applications 16, no. 2, 161-178 (April-June 1963). Detailed descriptions, and accounts of the provenance of, eight copies of PASCAL'S cal• culating machine. PERES,J., BRILLOUIN, L., COUFFIGNAL, L.: Les grandes machines mathematiques. Ann. Telecommun. 2, no. 11 and 12,329-346,376-385 (1948). Part 1, by PERES and BRILLOUIN, covers VANNEVAR BUSH'S differential analyzer, the Harvard Mark 1, 2 and 3, and Et-UAC. Part 2, by COUFFIGNAL, describes the plans for the computer then being built at the Institute Blaise Pascal, stressing that, in contrast to the various American machines, it was designed as a highly parallel machine, utilising multiple arithmetic units. PHELPS, B. E.: The beginnings of electronic computation. Report TR 00.2259. Poughkeepsie, N. Y.: Systems Dev. Div., IBM Corporation (9 Dec. 1971). "This report puts the early contributions to computer development into proper per• spective, giving credit to those pioneers of the formative years. The emphasis is on IBM engineering development efforts and contributions covering the period up to the announcement of the 701." PHILLIPS, E. W. (1936): Binary calculation. J. Inst. Actuaries 67, 187-221 (1936). Extracts reprinted on pages 293-304. PHILLIPS, E. W. (1962): Babbage, electronic computers and scales of notation. The Post Insurance Magazine and Insurance Monitor 123, no. 49, 1735-1737 (6 Dec. 1962). Reprinted in Compo B. 6, no. 4, 128-130 (1963). Makes somewhat obscure references to the fact that the author ("propounder of the idea of an electronic computer in 1936") was highly conversant with BABBAGE'S work. PHILLIPS, E. W. (1963): A note on the history of the electronic computer (un• published memorandum, 1963. A two page memorandum, regarding the claims by PHILLIPS to have started work on the design of ACE with WOMERSLEY in 1943, when they occupied war-time offices opposite each other, in Baker Street, London. It is stated that WOMERSLEY had started to design a decimal telephone relay computer in 1937, with the assistance of G. L. NORFOLK from 1938. PHILLIPS, E. W. (1964): Presentation of institute gold medals to Mr. Wilfred Perks and Mr. William Phillips, 23 Nov. 1964. J. Inst. Actuaries 9111, no. 388, 19-21 (1965). In his reply, PHILLIPS states that his 1936 paper had been based on a memorandum that had been prepared for the Dept. of Scientific Research, that the government had insisted on patents being filed, and that references to thermionic valves had been deleted from the paper. He also stated that WOMERSLEY learned of the paper in 1943. PHILLIPS, E. W. (1965a): Irascible genius (Letter to the Editor). Computer J. 8,56 (1965). States that work started on the design of Pilot ACE in January 1943, and that TURING did not join the team until the autumn of 1945. PHILLIPS, E. W. (1965 b): Birth of the computer (Letter to the Editor). Sunday Times, 10 (5 Sept. 1965).

430 Describes how he had been interested in BABBAGE'S Analytical Engine since boyhood, and that having learnt about ECCLES and JORDAN, and about WYNN-WILLIAMS, conceived a plan of a binary electronic computer in 1934. PORTER, R. P.: The eleventh census. J. Amer. Stat. Soc. 2, no. 15,321-379 (1891). Contains a lengthy description of the machine tabulation techniques used. PULLAN, J. M.: The history of the abacus. London: Hutchinson 1968. A very readable account of the origins of arithmetic, of the Greek, Roman and Mediaeval abacus, and of jettons. RANDELL, B. (1971): Ludgate's analytical machine of 1909. Computer J. 14, no. 3, 317-326 (1971). Discusses LUDGATE'S career, and his planned' analytical machine. Includes reprints of LUDGATE (1909) and Boys (1914). RANDELL, B. (1972): On Alan Turing and the origins of digital computers. Ma• chine Intelligence 7 (eds. B. MELTZER and D. MICHIE), pp. 3-20. Edinburgh: Edin• burgh University Press 1972. A record of an investigation into the wartime work of ALAN TURING, and of its signifi• cance to the development of computers. REX, F. J.: Herman Hollerith, the first 'Statistical Engineer'. Computers and Automation 10, no. 8, 10-13 (Aug. 1961). Despite its brevity, a very useful account of HOLLERITH'S life and work, based on original sources, and providing an unusually extensive bibliography. RICHARDS, R. K. (1957): Digital computer components and circuits. Princeton, N.J.: Van Nostrand 1957. The first chapter contains an account of the development of electronic components and circuits. RICHARDS, R. K. (1966): Electronic digital systems. New York: Wiley 1966. The first chapter contains a valuable account of the development of electronic computers, starting with the Atanasoff-Berry machine. RODGERS, W.: Think: A biography of the Watsons and IBM. New York: Stein and Day 1969. A racy account of the history of IBM, which includes extensive anecdotal material on the use of punched card machinery for scientific calculations, and on the development of the Harvard Mark 1, SSEC, etc.

ROSENBERG, J. M.: The computer prophets. New York: Macmillan 1969. A readable, but not always reliable, account of the lives of various pioneers. Has chapters on PASCAL, LEIBNIZ, BABBAGE, GRANT, FELT/BuRROUGHS, HOLLERITH, WATSON, MAUCHLY/ ECKERT/VON NEUMANN, TURING and FANO. Lists SEBERT, MAGNUS, and LEONARDO DA VINCI as contributing to the invention of mechanical calculators.

RUTISHAUSER, H., SPEISER, A., STIEFEL, E.: Programmgesteuerte digitale Rechen• gerate (Elektronische Rechenmaschinen). Mitt. aus dem Inst. f. Angewandte Mathe• matik an der E.T.H. Zi.irich 2 (1951). A detailed account of the design and programming of digital computers. Extensive refer• ences. SCHELBERG, W. V.: Development of the computer industry and patents. Pro• ceedings of the LA.P.LP. International Conference on Correlation between the

431 Protection of Industrial Property and Industrial Development, Hungary 28 Sept.- 2 Oct., 1970 (ed. E. TAKATS), pp. 201-208. O.M.K.D.K. 1971. Discusses the landmark patents relating to the origins and development of digital com• puters. SCHREYER, H. (1939): Technische Rechenmaschine (unpublished memorandum, 15 Oct. 1939). Reprinted in full on pages 167-169. SCHREYER, H. (1941): Das Rohrenrelais und seine Schaltungstechnik. Dissertation, Techn. Hochschule Berlin, 20 Aug. 1941. Contains a lengthy discussion of electronic valves and their use in switching circuits, but has only a brief reference to computers in a section on possible applications. SEBERT, H. (1879): Rapport fait par M. Sebert, au nom du Co mite des Arts Economiques, sur la machine a calculer, dit arithmometre, inventee par M. Thomas (de Colmar) et perfectionee par M. Thomas de Bojano, 44, rue de Chateaudur, a Paris. Bull. de la Soc. d'Encouragement pour l'lndustrie Nationale, 393-425 (Aug. 1879). Reprinted in Vol. 132,694-720 (1920). Detailed illustrated description of the arithmometer, evolved from the original invented by THOMAS DE COLMAR, by his son THOMAS DE BOJANO. SEBERT, H. (1895): Rapport fait par M. Ie General Sebert, au nom du Comite des Art Economiques, sur les machines a calculer de M. Leon Bollee, du Mans. Bull. de la Soc. d'Encouragement pour l'lndustrie Nationale, 977-996 (1895). Reprinted in Vol. 132,723-738 (1920). Descriptions of BOLLER'S "Tableau multiplicateur-diviseur", "Petit appareil multipli• cateur", "Arithmographe", and two versions of his famous calculating machine, incorporating a mechanism for direct multiplication. SERREL, R., ASTRAHAN, M. M., PATTERSON. G. M., PYNE, I. E.: The evolution of computing machines and systems. Proc. IRE 50,1039-1058 (May 1962). A well illustrated comprehensive account of the development of computers in Amenca, prefaced by short accounts of the history of desk calculators, and BABBAGE'S work. It gives much background information - dates of first delivery, numbers delivered, etc. SHANNON, C. E.: A symbolic analysis of relay and switching circuits. Trans. Amer. Inst. Elect. Eng. 57, 713-723 (1938). Shows how symbolic logic can be used in the design of complex circuits. One of the examples given is a circuit for the addition of two binary numbers. SHARPLESS, T. K.: Mercury delay lines as a memory unit. Proceedings of a Sym• posium on Large Scale Digital Calculating Machinery, 7-10 Jan. 1947. In: Annal~ of the Computation Laboratory of Harvard University, Vol. 16, pp. 103-109. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press 1948. Ends with the comment "The mercury delay memory tank described appears to be such a promising device that the Moore School's plans for a future large scale digital computer envisage the use of this memory means. It is hoped that within the year such a machine may be an actuality - a machine which will have a high-speed number storage equivalent to 1000 ten-digit numbers, computing speeds somewhat faster than ENIAC, and consisting of only 3000 tubes." SHELDON, J. W., TATUM,-L.: The IBM card-programmed electronic calculator. Review of Electronic Digital Computers. Joint AlEE - IRE Computer Conference,

432 10-12 Dec. 1951, pp. ,,0-36. New York: Amer. Inst. of Electrical Engineers 1952. Reprinted in full on pages 229-235. SINGER, c., et al. (eds.): History of technology, Vols. 2-5. Oxford: Clarendon Press 1955-58. The article on spinning and weaving in Vol. 3 describes, and has pictures of, BOUCHON'S and DE VAUCANSON'S looms. SMILES, S.: Industrial biography: Iron workers and tool makers. London: John Murray 1908. The book, which was first published in 1863, has a chapter on JOSEPH CLEMENT, which describes his work for BABBAGE, and a brief appendix containing an account by BABBAGE of his association with CLEMENT. SMITH, D. E.: History of mathematics (2 Vols.). New York: Dover Publications 1958. Extensive discussion of the abacus and its variants, and of finger reckoning. Very short account of NAPIER'S rods, and of desk calculators. SMITH, T. M.: Some perspectives on the early history of computers. Perspectives on the Computer Revolution (ed. Z. W. PYLYSHYN), pp. 7-15. Englewood Cliffs, N.].: Prentice-Hall 1970. Discusses the work of many pioneers such as PASCAL, LEIBNIZ, BABBAGE, BUSH, and argues against a simplistic view of the development of computers as progressing linearly from achievement to achievement, and instead views the development as involving many concurrent activities, until ideas match requirements and technological possibilities. SNEDECOR, C. W.: Uses of punched card equipment in mathematics. Amer. math. Monthly 35,161-169 (1928). Brief description of the use of sorters and tabulators for various statistical calculations. SPRAGUE, R. E.: A western view of computer history. Commun. ACM 15, no. 7, 686-692 (1972). Personal anecdotes concerning computer developments at Northrup, with brief mention of BINAC and the forerunner to the IBM CPe. STIBITZ, G. R. (1940): Computer (unpublished memorandum). New York: Bell Telephone Laboratories 1940. Reprinted in full on pages 241-245. STIBITZ, G. R. (1946): Introduction to the course on electronic computers. Theory and Techniques for the Design of Electronic Digital Computers: Lectures delivered 8 July - 31 Aug. 1946 (ed. C. C. CHAMBERS), pp. 1.1-1.19. Philadelphia, Pa.: Moore School of Electrical Engineering, University of Pennsylvania 1947. A broad informal discussion of the history of computing, and of the influences of tech• nological developments, and of wartime attitudes and requirements. STIBITZ, G. R. (1947): The organization of large scale calculating machinery. Pro• ceedings of a Symposium on Large Scale Digital Calculating Machinery, 7-10 Jan. 1947. In: Annals of the Computation Laboratory of Harvard University, Vol. 16, pp. 91-100. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press 1948. Discusses, inter alia, the need for what we would now call index registers, and for more convenient forms of program specification, such as allowing parenthesised expressions. STIBITZ, G. R. (1967): The relay computers at Bell Laboratories. Datamation 13, nos. 4 and 5, 35-44 and 45-49 (April and May 1967).

433 An informal but detailed account of STIBITZ'S work on the Bell Laboratories Series of relay calculators and computers. STIBITZ, G. R., LARRIVEE, J. A.: Mathematics and computers. New York: McGraw• Hill 1957. Has a short survey on desk calculators, and on BABBAGE'S work. More detail is given of the development, in parallel with AIKEN'S work, ot the Bell Laboratories Series of relay com• puters. STIEFEL, E.: La machine a calculer arithmetique Z4 de l'ecole Polytechnique Federale a Zurich. Les Machines a Calculer et la Pensee Humaine. Colloq. Int. du C.N.R.S. Paris, 8-13 Jan. 1951, pp. 33-40. Paris: Editions du C.N.R.S. 1953. Includes a description of the Zuse Z4. States that it has been in operation ten hours a day since the end of August, 1950. STIFLER, W. W. (ed.): High-speed computing devices. New York: McGraw-Hill 1950. This book, prepared by the staff of Engineering Research Associates Inc., evolved from a report written for the Office of Naval Research. It is concerned almost exclusively with the detailed design of computers, and their electronic and electromechanical components. It has very extensive lists of references. Subjects covered include desk calculators, punched card systems, and the then current relay and electronic digital computers. STUCKEN, H.: Programmgesteuerte Rechenmaschinen in Deutschland. Phys. Blat• ter 6, 166-170 (1950). Discussion of ZUSE'S work on program controlled computers. TABOR, L. P.: Brief description and operating characteristics of the ENIAC. Pro• ceedings of a Symposium on Large Scale Digital Calculating Machinery, 7-10 Jan. 1947. In: Annals of the Computation Laboratory of Harvard University, Vol. 16, pp. 31-39. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University 1948. Brief description of ENIAC, and mention of the length of time that was spent plugging programs, and hence the desire for EDVAC. TATON, R. (1963): Sur l'invention de la machine arithmetique. Revue d'Histoire des Sciences et de leurs Applications 16, 139-160 (1963). A detailed account of PASCAL'S development of his calculating machine. A short account of SCHICKARO'S prior work is included. TATON, R. (1969): Histoire du calcul, 5th edition. Paris: Presses Universitaires de France 1969. An account of the development of mathematics, and in particular arithmetic, from the earliest times to the first mechanical aids to calculation. TATON, R., FLAD, J. P.: Le calcul mecanique, 2nd edition. Paris: Presses Uni• versitaires de France 1963. A valuable account of the development of aids to calculation, from the abacus to me• chanical desk calculators, with a brief account of the early developments of digital computers. TAUSCHEK, G.: Die Lochkarten-Buchhaltungsmaschinen meines Systems. Vienna: Nov. 1930. Gives a detailed description of an automatic book-keeping system based on specially designed card punches, sorters, collators and tabulators. The tabulator, which produced both printed and punched output, was controlled by a plugboard and by codes punched into special cards inserted amongst sequences of data cards, and included optional multiplication and division mechanisms.

434 THOMAS, S.: Computers: Their history, present applications and future. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston 1964. Contains a wealth of anecdotal material on the development of computers in the U.S.A. TODD, J.: John von Neumann and the National Accounting Machine (draft manu• script, undated). A description of a 'program' for a National Accounting Machine, devised in 1943 by TODD and VON NEUMANN, on the occasion of a visit by the latter to the Nautical Almanac Office. TODD,J., SADLER, D. H.: Admiralty computing service. M.T.A.C. 2, no. 19,289 to 297 (July 1947). Contains a summary of a description, written in July 1944, of a 'Rangefinder Perform• ance Computer'. This device calculated the mean error and root mean square error made by the rangefinder operator, using a mechanism built from uniselectors and relays. TORRES-QUEVEDO, G. (1951 a): Les travaux de l'ecole Espagnole sur l'automa• tisme. Les machines a calculer et la pensee humaine. Colloq. Int. C.N.R.S. Paris 8-13 Jan. 1 ?51, pp. 361-381. Paris: Editions du C.N.R.S. 1953. Extended description of the life and work of his father, including details of his plans for an electromechanical analytical machine, and the machine which he actually constructed along these lines, which permitted simple arithmetic operations to be entered, and the result calculated and printed on a typewriter. This machine was exhibited in Paris in 1914. TORRES-QUEVEDO, G. (1951 b): Presentation des appareils de Leonardo Torres y Quevedo. Les machines a calculer et la pensee humaine. Colloq. Int. C.N.R.S. Paris 8-13 Jan. 1951, pp. 383-406. Paris: Editions du C.N.R.S. 1953. Describes the machines invented by TORRES Y QUEVEDO for playing chess, and for remote control of a boat, (both electromechanical), and a mechanical analogue device.

TORRES Y QUEVEDO, L. (1914): Essais sur l'automatique. Sa definition. Etendue theorique de ses applications. Revue de I' Academie des Sciences de Madrid (1914). Also Revue Generale des Sciences Pures et Appliquees, 601-611 (15 Nov. 1915). Reprinted in full on pages 87 -1 05.

TORRES Y QUEVEDO, L. (1920): Arithmomhre electromecanique. Bulletin de la Soc. d'Encouragement pour l'Industrie Nationale 119,588-599 (Sept.-Oct. 1920). Reprinted in full on pages 107 -118. TOUlPN, P.: Les machines a calculer et leurs applications dans I'organisation de I'industrie et du commerce. Bull. de la Soc. d'Encouragement pour l'Industrie Natio• nale 132,570-584 (Sept.-Oct. 1920). Description of the various machines on exhibition at the Society's premises, including the Thomas arithmometer, Madas, Millionaire, Comptometer, Burroughs, Torres. TRASK, M.: The story of cybernetics. London: Studio Vista 1971. A popular account, based on a display produced by IBM at the Institute for Contemporary Arts. Contains unusual photos of ENIAC and early Hollerith equipment. TRAVIS, 1.: The history of computing devices. Theory and Techniques for the Design of Electronic Digital Computers: Lectures delivered 8 July - 31 Aug. 1946 (ed. C. C. CHAMBERS), pp. 2.1-2.8. Philadelphia, Pa.: Moore School of Electrical Engineering, University of Pennsylvania 1947. A very brief account of calculating techniques, and of the development of analogue and digital calculating devices.

435 TRUESDELL, L. E.: The development of punch card tabulation in the Bureau of the Census 1890-1940. Washington, D.C.: Dept. of Commerce, Bureau of the Census 1965. The major source for information about the origins and early development of punched card machinery. Provides a detailed account of the respective contributions of BILLINGS and HOLLERITH, indicating that, in all probability, the basic idea of using punched cards came from BILLINGS. TUCKER, R. L.: A matrix multiplier. Psychometrika 5,289-294 (1940). Describes a device, based on an IBM test storing machine, for aiding the multiplication of matrices. The individual rows of one matrix are represented by electrically conducting marks on test sheets (in binary notation), and the column of the other matrix is wired into a plug• board. A set of analogue multiplying devices are then used, two figure accuracy being claimed. TURCK, J. A. V.: Origin of modern calculating machines. Chicago: The Western Society of Engineers 1921. Concentrates on key-driven adding machines, and on their printing mechanisms, based on the American patent literature. It covers developments by PARMALEE, FELT, BARBOUR, BALD• WIN, LUDLUM and BURROUGHS. The last chapter concerns direct multiplication mechanisms. TURING, A. M. (1936): On computable numbers, with an application to the Ent• scheidungsproblem. Proc. London math. Soc. (2),42,230-267 (1936). The famous paper which introduced the concept of a "universal" computing machine. TURING, A. M. (1945): Proposals for development in the Mathematics Division of an automatic computing engine (A.C.E.). Report E.882. Teddington, Middlesex: Executive Committee, National Physical Laboratory [1945]. A report, which also carries the title 'Proposed Electronic Calcu1ator', giving detailed plans for the ACE, known to have been written some time during 1945. TURING, S.: Alan M. Turing. Cambridge: W. Heffer and Sons 1959. Biography of ALAN TURING, by his mother. States that TURING submitted a proposal to the British Government for the construction of a computer, and that it was on the basis of this that he joined NPL in Oct. 1945. "Before the war he had already begun to build a com• puter of his own with wider scope, he hoped, than those then in operation". He visited America during the war and "probably saw something of the progress of computing machinery in the States". ULAM, S.: John von Neumann 1903-1957. Bull. Amer. math. Soc. 64,1-49 (May 1958). A lengthy biography, concentrating on VON NEUMANN'S mathematical achievements, but including a brief discussion of his work on the design and use of electronic computers. USHER, A. P.: A history of mechanical inventions, 2nd revised edition. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press 1954. Contains (pp. 254-261) a quite detailed account of the work of BOUCHON, FALCON, VAUCANSON, and JACQUARD, on tape and card controlled looms. VALTAT, R. L. A.: Cal cuI mecanique: Machine a calculer fondee sur l'emploi de la numeration binaire. Compt. Rend. Acad. Sci. Paris 202,1745-1748 (1936). Brief description of a proposed calculating machine which transforms its input into binary, before doing any calculation. Points out that binary digits could be represented by mechanical or electrical means. Followed by a comment by D'OCAGNE, stating that he knew of no previous proposal for a binary machine. VERRIJN STUART, A. A.: Lezen en Schrijven. Inaugural Lecture, University of Leiden,5 Mar. 1971. Gronigen: Wolters-Noordhoff NV 1971.

436 Includes a discussion of BABBAGE'S work and its implications for the future, and of his personality. VIGNERON, H. (1914): Les automates. La Nature, 56-61 (13 June 1914). A good general discussion of the work of TORRES Y QUEVEDO, including a detailed de• scription of his chess automaton, an electro-mechanical device for a chess end game of one king versus one king and one rook. VIGNERON, H. (1920): L'arithmometre de M. Torres y Quevedo. La Nature 2418, 89-93 (7 Aug. 1920). An illustrated description of the electromechanical devices used in TORRES' typewriter• controlled arithmometer. VON FREYTAG LORINGHOFF, B. (1957): Eine Tubinger Rechenmaschine aus dem Jahre 1623. Heimatkundliche Blatter fur den Kreis Tubingen 11, no. 3, 25-28 (July 1957). A detailed account of SCHICKARD and his machine with extensive quotations from his let• ters to KEPLER, describing the machine. VON FREYTAG, LORINGHOFF, B. (1958): Uber die erste Rechenmaschine. Physikal Blatter 14, no. 8,361-365 (1958). An account of the descriptions of SCHICKARD'S machine that had been recently discovered. VON FREYTAG LORINGHOFF, B. (1960): Wiederentdeckung und Rekonstruktion der Altesten Neuzeitlichen Rechenmaschine. VDI-Nachrichten 14, no. 39,4 (21 Dec. 1960). A one-page illustrated account of SCHICKARD'S machine, and of its reconstruction. VON NEUMANN, J.: First draft of a report on the EDVAC. Contract No. W-670- ORD-4926. Philadelphia, Pa.: Moore School of Electrical Engineering, University of Pennsylvania, 30 June 1945. Extracts reprinted on pages 355-364. WALTHER, A., DREYER, H.-J. (1946): Gerate fur beliebige Rechenzwecke. Ent• wicklung Mathematische Instrumente in Deutschland 1939-1945, Bericht A3, Darm• stadt: Institut fur Praktische Mathematik, 19 Aug. 1946. A summary of the work by ZUSE on mechanical and electromechanical programmed cal• culators, and the work on a paper tape controlled array of punched card equipment at the Institute for Practical Mathematics, Darmstadt, between 1939-1945. WALTHER, A., DREYER, H.-J. (1948): Mathematische Maschinen und Instrumente. Instrumentelle Verfahren (Mathematical machines and instruments. Instrumental methods.) F. I. A. T. Review of German Science 1939-1946. Applied Mathematics, Part 1, pp. 129-165. Wiesbaden: Office of Military Government for Germany, Field Information Agency, Technical 1948. Just one page on automatic calculating machines, in which the work of ZUSE and of DREYER is described. WEIK, M. H.: The ENIAC story. Ordnance. J. of the American Ordnance Assoc., 3-7 (Jan.-Feb. 1961). A description of the growth of the Ballistics Research Laboratory, and of the development and use of ENlAC and EDVAC. WELD, C. R.: History of the Royal Society with memoirs of the presidents, 2 vols. London: J. W. Parker 1848.

437 Chapter 9 consists of an account ofBABBAGE'S dealings with the Royal Society and the Govern• ment over his first Difference Engine and the Analytical Engine. and includes quotes from many of the original documents in the Society's files. WEYGANDT, A.: Die elektro-mechanische Determinanten-Maschine. Z. Instrumen• tenkunde. 53, 114-121 (1933). A very detailed description of a machine, built from electromagnetic relays, for evaluating 3 X 3 determinants. WIENER, N.: Cybernetics, or control and communication in the animal and the machine. New York: Wiley 1948. Refers to a report that the author had submitted to VANNEVAR BUSH in 1940, recommend• ing the development of a program-controlled electronic binary computing machine. WILKES, M. V. (1948): The design of a practical high-speed computing machine. Proc. roy. Soc. London A 195,274-279 (1948). Short description of the plans for EDSAC. WILKES, M. Y. (1949): Programme design for a high-speed automatic calculating machine. J. Sci. Instr. 26,217-220 Qune 1949). A description of the programming of ED SAC, including discussion of subroutines, in• struction modification, and loading. WILKES, M. Y. (1951 a): Automatic calculating machines. J. roy. Soc. of Arts 4862, Vol. C, 56-90 (1951). Detailed discussion of BABBAGE'S Analytical Engine and in particular of the control facilities. WILKES, M. Y. (1951 b): The EDSAC computer. Review of Electronic Digital Computers. Joint AlEE-IRE Computer Conference, 10-12 Dec. 1951, pp. 79-83. New York: American Institute of Electrical Engineers 1952. Concentrates on describing the experiences obtained in working with the machine - its serviceability, diagnostic programs, etc.

WILKES, M. Y. (1956): Automatic digital calculators. London: Methuen 1956. Contains one of best surveys, and detailed discussion, of the origins of computers. After a detailed discussion of the Babbage Analytical Engine, LUDGATE is mentioned, and TORRES Y QUEVEDO'S work is described very briefly. It then gives quite a lot of detail on the Harvard Mark 1, ENIAC, EDVAC; the Bell Laboratories Computer Models V and VI and the Harvard Mark 2. (The early part of the book is based on the Cantor lectures given by WILKES in 1951 (WILKES: 1951a».

WILKES, M. V. (1968): Computers, then and nGw. J. ACM 15, no. 1, 1-7 (1968). Contains a brief discussion of the 1946 Moore School Lectures. WILKES, M. Y. (1971): Babbage as a computer pioneer. Report of Proceedings, Babbage Memorial Meeting, London, 18 Oct. 1971. London: British Computer So• ciety 1971. I Contains many previously unpublished details about BABBAGE'S plans for his Analytical Engine, gleaned from a detailed study of his notebooks. WILKES, M. Y., RENWICK, W. (1949a): The EDSAC. Report of a Conference on High Speed Automatic Calculating Machines, 22-25 June 1949, pp. 9-11. Cam• bridge: University Mathematical Laboratory, Jan. 1950. Reprinted in full on pages 383-393.

438 WILKES, M. V., RENWICK, W. (1949b): The EDSAC, an electronic calculating machine. J. Sci. Instr. 26, 385-391 (Dec. 1949). A good description of the logical design of EDSAC. WILKES, M. V., RENWICK, W. (1950): The EDSAC (Electronic Delay Storage Automatic Calculator). M.T.A.C. 4, 61-65 (1950). Short description of the EDSAC, listing its order code, and describing its logical design. (A slightly revised version of WILKES and RENWICK: 1949 a.) WILKINSON, J. H.: The automatic computing engine at the National Physical Laboratory. Proc. roy. Soc. London A 195, 285-286 (1948). Concentrates on the advantages of optimum coding for reducing the delays caused by delay-line storage, and of the importance of building up a library of parameterised subroutines. WILLCOX, W. F. (1926): John Shaw Billings and federal vital statistics. J. Amer. statist. Assoc. 21, 257-266 (1926). Contains but a single paragraph on 'Mechanical Methods of Tabulation', in which BILLINGS is quoted as having suggested to HOLLERITH "there ought to be some mechanic.al way of doing this job, something on the principle of the Jacquard loom, perhaps, whereby holes on a card regulate the pattern to be woven". WILLCOX, W. F. (1948): Herman Hollerith. M.T.A.C. 3, 62-63 (1948). Re• printed from The Dictionary of American Biography, Vol. 21, pp. 415-416. New York: 1944. Describes the genesis and development of HOLLERITH'S ideas for punched card machinery. WILLERS, F. A. (1951): Mathematische Maschinen und Instrumente. Berlin: Aka• demie-Verlag 1951. Pages 5-91 consist of chapters on calculating machines and on computers. The former contains a lengthy historical introduction and extremely detailed descriptions of the workings of then current machines, notably Brunsviga, stepped-reckoner machines (such as Rheinmetall, Archimedes, Curta), Hamann, Mercedes-Euklid and Millionaire. The latter surveys relay and electronic computers (Zuse, Harvard Mark 1 and 2, ENIAC, EDSAC, etc.), and describes their basic principles. Has a very extensive bibliography. WILLERS, F. A. (1952): Aus der Fruhzeit der Rechenmaschinen. Wiss. Z. techno Hochschule Dresden 2, no. 2, 151-158 (1952-53). An account of the evolution of calculating machines, concentrating on the work of PASCAL, GERSTEN, LEIBNIZ, POLENI, LEOPOLD, HAHN and MULLER. WILLIAMS, F. c., KILBURN, T.: Electronic digital computers. Nature 162, 487 (Sept. 1948). Reprinted in full on pages 387-388. WILLIAMS, N.: Les machines a calculer et a classer Hollerith et leur emploi dans la comptabilite des Chemins de Fer. Genie Civil 61, 57 (18 May 1912). Account of an article by WILLIAMS in Zeit. des Ver. Deutscher Eisenbahnr., (14-17 Feb.)' describing the use of Hollerith machines by American railroads. Describes the use of a 250 card per minute sorter, and a tabulating machine. WILLIAMS, S. B. (1947 a): Bell Telephone Laboratories' relay computing system. Proceedings of a Symposium on Large Scale Digital Calculating Machinery, 7-10 Jan. 1947. In: Annals of the Computation Laboratory of Harvard University, Vol. 16, pp. 40-68. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press 1948. Well-illustrated detailed description of the Model V machine.

439 WILLIAMS, S. B. (1947b): A relay computer for general application. Bell Labora• tories Record 25, 49-54 (Feb. 1947). A well-illustrated general account of the Bell Laboratories Model V computer. WITTKE, H.: Die Rechenmaschine und ihre Rechentechnik. Berlin-Grunewald: 1943. Contains a brief account of the mechanisms of the Leibniz wheel, Ohdner wheel, the Mercedes-Euclid, and the Millionaire machines. WOLF, A.: Calculating machines. A History of Science, Technology, and Philo• sophy in the Eighteenth Century, pp. 654-660. London: George Allen and Unwin 1938. Despite its brevity this section gives unusually detailed descriptions of several calculators, notably those by PEREIRE, LEUPOLD, and STANHOPE. WOMERSLEY, J. R.: Scientific computing in Great Britain. M.T.A.C. 2, 110-117 (1946). Describes use of commercial machines in scientific computing, with many references to COMRIE'S work, and analogue machines. WOODBURY, W. W.: The 603-405 computer. Proceedings of a 2nd Symposium on Large Scale Digital Calculating Machinery, 13-16 Sept. 1949. In: Annals ot the .Computation Laboratory of Harvard University, Vol. 26, pp. 316-320. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press 1951. Brief description of a machine consisting of an interconnected 405 printer, 603 electronic multiplier and 517 summary punch, and of the applications for which it had been used. WOODRUFF, L. F.: A system of electric remote-control accounting. Trans. A.I.E.E. 57,78-87 (Feb. 1938). Describes an experimental system, installed in a department store, involving terminals connected over telephone lines to a set of tabulators and on-line typewriters. WORLTON, W. J.: Pre-electronic aids to digital computation. Computers and their Role in the Physical Sciences (eds. S. FERNBACH and A. H. TAUB), pp. 11-50. New York: Gordon and Breach 1970. Covers developments from the earliest manual techniques of calculating, to the electro• mechanical calculators of the 1940's, and includes a fairly detailed discussion of the various different types of abacus. WORSLEY, B. H.: The ED SAC demonstration. Report of a Conference on High Speed Automatic Calculating Machines, 22-25 June, pp. 12-16. Cambridge: Uni• versity Mathematical Laboratory, Jan. 1950. Reprinted in full on pages 395-40l. WYNN-WILLIAMS, C. E. (1931): The use of thyratrons for high speed automatic counting of physical phenomena. Proc. roy. Soc. London A 132,295-310 (1931). Describes various schemes for using thyratrons as recording instruments and as unary counters, in association with mechanical counting mechanisms, and suggests an entirely elec• tronic counting apparatus, using multiple rings of thyratrons, with carry propagation from one ring to its neighbour. WYNN- WILLIAMS, C. E. (1932): A thyratron "Scale of Two" automatic counter. Proc. roy. Soc. London A 136, 312-324 (1932). Gives a detailed description of a working binary counter, capable of counting events separated by as little as 1I1250th of a second.

440 ZEMANEK, H.: Otto Schaffler, Wiener Pionier der Lochkartentechnik. Elektroni• sche Rechenanlagen 12, no. 3, 133-134 (1970). A brief account of the iife and work of SCHAFFLER who in 1895 patented a plugboard device, patterned after a telephone switchboard, for controlling the operation of punched card equipment. ZUSE, K. (1936): Verfahren zur selbsttatigen Durchfiihrung von Rechnungen mit Hilfe von Rechenmaschinen. German patent application Z23624 (11 Apr. 1936). Extracts reprinted on pages 159-166. ZUSE, K. (1949): Die Mathematischen Voraussetzungen fiir die Entwicklung logi• stisch-kombinativer Rechenmaschinen. Z. angew. Math. Mech. 29, 36-37 (1949). A brief discussion of his machines and ideas on programming languages. ZUSE, K. (1950): Programmgesteuerte Rechenmaschinen in Deutschland. Z. angew. Math. Mech. 30, 292-293 (1950). After mentioning BABBAGE, gives a brief description of the various Zuse machines. ZUSE, K. (1953): Uber Programmgesteuerte Rechengerate fiir Industrielle Verwen• dung. Probleme der Entwicklung Programmgesteuerter Rechengerate und Integrier• anlagen, pp. 55-75. Aachen: Mathematisches Institut, Technische Hochschule 1953. A description of the various Zuse computers. ZUSE, K. (1962): Entwicklungslinien einer Rechengerate - Entwicklung von der Mechanik zur Elektronik. Digitale Informationswandler (Hrsg. W. HOFFMAN), pp. 508-532. Braunschweig: Vieweg 1962. Extracts reprinted on pages 171-186. ZUSE, K. (1969): Rechengerate fiir Fliigelvermessung (unpublished memorandum, 10 Sept. 1969). A three page description, with ten drawings, of the special purpose electromechanical computer that processed flying bomb wing dimension data. The data was obtained on-line, using a form of analogue-to-digital converter, with calculations being carried out in binary under the control of a fixed program. ZUSE, K. (1970a): German computer activities. Computers and Their Future, pp. 6/3-6/17. Llandudno: Richard Williams and Partners 1970. Informal discussion of work by ZUSE, SCHREYER, and DIRKS in Germany during the period 1935-1945. ZUSE, K. (1970b): Der Computer - Mein Lebenswerk. Munich: Verlag Moderne Industrie 1970. An autobiography, with many technical details about his work, starting in 1934, on the design of program controlled calculators. The work of his collaborator SCHREYER, who in• vestigated the design of an electronic versions of the Z3, and of DIRKS, who developed a mag• netic drum store, is also covered. ANON (1843): Addition to the memoir of M. Menabrea on the Analytical Engine. Phil. Mag. 23, 235-239 (Sept. 1843). Brief account of BABBAGE'S dealings with the government, and of the current state of progress of work on the Analytical Engine. ANON (1855): New calculating machine. Illustrated London News 26, 661 (30 June 1855). Short account of the difference engine invented by GEORGE and EDVARD SCHEUTZ. in• cluding an engraving of a general view of the machine, and of a model of part of the mech-

441 anism and reproductions of plates produced by the machine of mathematical tables. Gives a very good idea of the working of the machine. ANON (1866): The Swedish tabulating machine of G. and E. Scheutz. Annals of the Dudley Observatory 1, 116-126. Albany, N. Y.: 1866. Contains a brief account of the history of the machine, and of the principles of difference engines, followed by a good description of the design of the Scheutz machine. ANON (1870): Calculating by machinery. Manufacturer and Builder 2, no. 8, 225-227 (Aug. 1870). Mainly concerned with difference engines. Describes the method of finite differences, and the history of BABBAGE'S efforts, and then gives an extensive description of the mechanism of the Scheutz difference engine. ANON (1871): Charles Babbage. Nature 5, no. 106,28-29 (9 Nov. 1871). An obituary notice, starting "There is no fear that the work of the late CHARLES BABBAGE will be over-estimated by this or any generation". ANON (1902): The electrical tabulating machine applied to cost accounting. American Machinist 25,1073-1075 (16 Aug. 1902). Describes the key punch and tabulator developed by HOLLERITH for recording and summing decimal integers expressed in a columnar encoding on punched cards, using a Leibniz stepped reckoner-like mechanism. ANON (1907): The Burroughs Adding and Listing-Machine. Engineering 83, 580-581 (3 May 1907). A well illustrated, detailed account of the mechanism. ANON (1915): Torres and his remarkable automatic devices. Scientific American Supplement 80, no. 2079,296-298 (6 Nov. 1915). A well illustrated article, concentrating on the chess player developed by TORRES, and describing its strategy, and the mechanisms used. ANON (1930): The Thirsk totalisator. The Electrical Review 106, no. 2724, 268- 269 (7 Feb. 1930). Description of the mobile totalisator demonstrated at Thirsk racecourse on 28 Jan. 1930. ANON (1936): Development of International Business Machines Corporation. Form AM-I-I. New York: IBM Corporation 1936. A 13-page account, commencing with the work of HOLLERITH on tabulating machines, BUNDY and DEY on time recorders, and PITRAP on computing scares. The emphasis is on the growth of IBM as a corporation, and comparatively few technical details are given. ANON (1942): Instruments et machines a calculer. Cat. du Musee, Section A. Paris: Conservatoire National des Arts et Metiers 1942 .. Catalogue of a very large collection of calculating machines and calculating aids. Many illustrations, and brief descriptions of the major machines. ANON (1943): Report on an electronic difference analyzer. Philadelphia, Pa.: Moore School of Electrical Engineering, University of Pennsylvania, 8 April 1943. This 36-page report was submitted to the Ballistics Research Laboratory, Aberdeen Prov• ing Ground, and includes a reconstructed version of MAUCHLY'S original 1942 memorandum. The report contains detailed descriptions of the various functional units, and worked out examples of the use of analyzer for the solution of problems in baHistics. ANON (1946): Calculations and electronics: Automatic computator [sic] designed by the National Physical Laboratory. Electrician 137, 1279-1280 (1946).

442 Short article, taken mainly from a statement published by the Dept. of Scientific and Industrial Research, on the history of calculating machines and on the work then in progress at the National Physical Laboratory. ANON (1948): IBM Selective Sequence Electronic Calculator. M.T.A.C. 3, 216- 217(1948). Brief notice of the dedication ceremony held 27 and 28 Jan. 1948. ANON (1949): Bibliography on automatic digital calculating machines. Report of a Conference on High Speed Automatic Calculating Machines, 22-25 June 1949, pp. 134-141. Cambridge: University Mathematical Laboratory, Jan. 1950. A bibliography of over a hundred items, mainly from the period 1946-1949. ANON (1960 a): IBM computers - The story of their development. Data Pro• cessing (London) 2, no. 2, 90-101, (1960). "Towards the end of the war IBM built a machine called the Automatic Sequence Con• trolled Calculator (sometimes referred to as the Harvard Mark 1)." Also covers the S.S.E.C. (1948), the Type 603 mUltiplier (1946), the c.P.c., the Type 628 (1958), and the Tape Processing Machine (1950), as well as later developments. ANON (1960b): New methods for knowing. Form 500-0002. New York: IBM Corporation, Jan. 1960. An illustrated brochure, with sections on the origins and development of tabulating ma• chinery, and on early IBM electric calculators. ANON (1963): Herman Hollerith. Systems and Procedures J. 14, no. 6,18-24 (Nov.-Dec. 1963). An illustrated account of HOLLERITH'S first tabulating system, and its use for the 1890 U.S. Census, and of the origins of the IBM Corporation. ANON (1964): An historical event - ENIAC. Data Systems Design 1, no. 3, 26-27 (March 1964). Includes a brief extract from the historic ENIAC patent. ANON (1971a): Charles B. Tomkins dies in Los Angeles. Datamation 17, no. 4, 57,61 (1971). "Dr. TOMPKINS was one of the group of former Navy officer specialists who, in 1946, formed Engineering Research Associates of St. Paul, Minn., ... ERA, under contract to the Navy, produced one of the world's first three computers, a powerful top-secret intelligence computer known as Machine 13". ANON (1971 b): The birth of the computer. London: 3M Company 1971. A set of six lavishly illustrated brochures, providing a very useful history of the devel• opment of calculating machines and computers, starting with NAPIER'S rods, and ending with the first generation of electronic computers. ANON (1971 c): Highlights of IBM history. Form G520-1580-5. Armonk, N. Y.: IBM Corporation 1971. A brief account, written in 'telegraphese', useful for its data regarding first deliveries of various punched card machines. ANON (1971 d): A quarter century view. New York: Association for Computing Machinery 1971. The main section of this booklet consists of a reprint of an article by ROSEN on the development of electronic computers mainly in the U.S.A., which contains very little material on the earliest such computers. However the booklet is lavishly illustrated, and includes facsi• mile reproductions of articles in the N.Y. Times and the Illustrated London News on ENIAC.

443 ANON (1972): Charles Babbage computer pioneer 1791-1871. London: External Affairs Division, IBM United Kingdom 1972. A wall chart which contains previously unpublished material about the development of the Analytical Engine, including facsimile reproductions of the earliest general plan (1834) and of an entirely different later version (1856). ANON (?): The story of the American Totalisator. Towson, Maryland: American Totalisator Co. (undated). A brochure (apparently issued during or after 1961) describing the development of the Totalisator.

444 Index to Bibliography

Abacus Bell Laboratories Computers Knott 1914, Shu T'ien Li 1959, Pullan Andrews 1951, 1963, Hoffliet 1949, 1968, Smith (D. E.) 1958, Worlton 1970. Stibitz 1967, Stibitz and LarriYee 1957. ACE Bell Laboratories Computers: Model I Phillips 1963, 1965 a, Turing (A. M.) ?, Hollcroft 1940, Stibitz 1940. Anon 1946. Bell Laboratories Computers: Model II ACE: programming of Cesareo 1946. Wilkinson 1948. Bell Laboratories Computers: Model III Aiken, H.H. Juley 1947. Oettinger 1962. Bell Laboratories Computers: Model V Arithmetic: dewlopment of Alt 1948, Andrews and Box 1950, Williams Taton 1969. (S.B.) 1947a, 1947b. Atanasoff-Berry Machine Bell Laboratories Computers: Model VI Atanasoff 1940, Berry 1941, Kern 1968, Andrews 1949. Richards 1966. Bibliographies Archibald 1948, Berkeley 1949, Babbage, C. de Beauclair 1967, Haga 1963, Malassis Archibald 1948, Bowden 1953, 1 %0, et al 1920, Mehmke and d'Ocagne 1908, Buxton (H. W.)?, Buxton (L. H. D.) 1934, Meyer Zur Capellen 1949, Stifler 1950, Collier 1970, Comrie 1946, Dodge 1873, Willers 1951, Anon 1949. Dubbey 1968, Garwig 1969, Goddard Billings, C 1906, Halacy 1970, Menabrea 1884, Mor• (See also Punched Card Machinery: rison and Morrison 1952, Moseley 1964, Origins) Nudds 1969, Smiles 1908, Verrijn Stuart Truesdell 1965, Willcox 1926. 1971, Anon 1871, 1972. Binary Arithmetic Babbage: Analytical Engine Couffignal 1936, Heath 1961, Leibniz Babbage (C.) 1837a, 1837b, 1851, 1864, 1679, Phillips 1936, 1962, Tucker 1940, Babbage (H.P.) 1888, 1889, 1910, Babbage Val tat 1936. (R. H.) 1947, Bowden 1953, Buxton (H. W.) Bollee: calculator ?, Collier 1970, Lovelace 1843, Merrifield Bollee 1889, d'Ocagne 1920, Sebert 1895. 1879, Morrison and Morrison 1961, Weld Burgi, 1848, Wilkes 1951, 1971, Anon 1843. J. Archibald 1948, Travis 1947. Babbage: Difference Engine Burroughs: calculator Babbage (B. H.) 1872, Babbage (C.) 1822, Anon 1907. 1864, Babbage (H. P.) 1889, Babbage Calculating Machines (R. H.) 1947, Bailey 1824, Brewster 1868, (See also Burroughs, Bollee, Gersten, Buxton (L. H. D.) 1934, Collier 1970, Grant, Leibniz, Logabax, Ohdner, Schick• Lardner 1834, Morrison and Morrison ard, Thomas, Torres) 1961, Weld 1848, Anon 1870. Calculating Machines: descriptive catalogues Babbage: influence of Baxandall 1926, Comrie 1938, Dyck 1892, Booth 1962, Brainerd 1965, Bush 1936, Horsburgh 1914, Toulon 1920, Anon 1942. Couffignal 1933, Eckert a. P.) 1970, Calculating Machines: design Hopper 1970, Torres 1914, 1920. Crew 1941, Horsburgh 1920, 1923, Lenz Babbage: mechanical notation 1932, Meyer Zur Capellen 1949, Murray Babbage (C.) 1855, Babbage (H. P.) 1885, 1948, Turck 1921, Willers 1951, Wittke Buxton (H. W.) ? 1943.

445 Calculating Machines: development of Computers: stored program concept Baxandall 1929, Booth and Booth 1956, Eckert (J.P.) 1946, 1970, Eckert et a11945, Chase 1952, d'Ocagne 1905, 1920, 1922, Goldstine and von Neumann 1963, Gray Edmundson 1885, Felt 1916, Galle 1912, 1963, Johnson 1970, Mauchly 1947, New• Haga 1965, Henneman 1953, Horsburgh man 1948, Turing (A. M.) 1936, von Neu• 1920, Jacob 1911, Lilley 1945, Martin (E.) mann 1945. 1925, Mehmke and d'Ocagne 1908, Taton Comrie, L.J. and Flad 1963, Travis 1946, Turck 1921, Archibald 1948, Lehmer 1951, Womersley Willers 1951, 1952, Wolf 1938, Worlton 1946. 1970, Anon 1971 b. Couffignal: program-controlled calculator Calculating Machines: direct multiplication Couffignal 1938 b. Bollee 1889, Chase 1952, d'Ocagne 1915, Nicoladze 1928, Randell 1971, Turck 1921 Darmstadt machine Dreyer and Walther 1946, Walther and Calculating Machines: usage Dreyer 1946, 194.8. Comrie 1927, 1934, 1944, 1946 a, Hors• Difference Engines burgh 1923, Lenz 1932, Womersley 1946. (See also Babbage, Grant, Hamann, Calculators: special purpose Muller, Scheutz, Wiberg) (See also Atanasoff-Berry Computer, Comrie 1928, Haga 1963, Hudson 1914, Totalisator) Jacob 1911, Ludgate 1909, Mehmke and Beevers 1939, Kosten 1949, Todd and d'Ocagne 1908. Sadler 1947, Tucker 1940, Weygandt 1933. Eckert, J. P. and Mauchly, J. W. Computers Costello 1971, Fegley 1967, Johnson 1970, (See also ACE, Bell Laboratories, Couffi• Knuth 1970. gnal, Darmstadt, ED SAC, EDVAC, EDSAC ENIAC, lAS, IBM, Institut Blaise Pascal, Hartree 1950, Wilkes 1948, 1951 b. Harvard, Machine 13, Manchester, Zuse) EDSAC: design of Computers: design Wilkes and Renwick 1949 a, 1949 b, 1950. Rutishauser et al 1951, Stifler 1950, Wilkes EDSAC: programming of 1951. Hartree 1950, Wilkes 1949, Worsley 1949. Computers: development of EDVAC de Beauclair 1967, 1968, Hoffman 1962, Burks et al 1946, Eckert 0. P.) 1946, 1970, Hollingdale and Tootill 1965, Meyer Zur Eckert et al 1945, Gluck 1953, Goldstine Capellen 1949, Pantages 1967, Richards 1970,1972, Johnsohn 1970, Kempf 1961, 1966, Rosenberg 1969, Schelberg 1970, Knuth 1970, Mauchly 1947, Sharpless Smith 1970, Stibitz 1946, Trask 1971, 1947. Wilkes 1956, Willers 1951, Anon 1971 b. Electromechanical Devices (See also Torres, Totalisators) Computers, American: development of Apraxine 1932, Barlow 1878, Beevers Booth and Britten 1949, Curtiss 1946, 1939, Couffignal1938a, Hamann 1932, Goldstine 1970, Gray 1963, Huskey 1949, MacEwan and Beevers 1942, Nicoladze Peres et al 1948, Serrell et al 1962, Sprague 1928, Shannon 1938, Todd and Sadler 1972, Thomas 1964, Wiener 1948, Wilkes 1947, Weygandt 1933. 1956, Anon 1971 d. Electronic Devices Computers, British: development of (See also Atanasoff) Bowden 1953, Edwards 1970, Elliott 1949, Eccles and Jordan 1919, Lehmer 1933, Good 1970, Halsbury 1959, McCarthy Lewis 1937, Lifschutz and Lawson 1938, 1966, Michie 1968, Randell 1972. Mauchly 1941, Phillips 1936, Randell Computers, German: development of 1972, Richards 1957, Schreyer 1939, 1941, Meyer Zur Capellen 1949, Walther and Wynn-Williams 1931, 1932, Zuse 1970. Dreyer 1946, 1948, Zuse 1970. ENlAC Computers: programming of Alt 1972, Chapin 1955, Eckert 0. P.) 1970, Goldstine and von Neumann 1947, 1948a, Eckert et al 1945, Goldstine 1970, 1972, 1948 b, Hopper 1970, Knuth 1970, Hartree 1946 a, 1946 b, 1947, Hoffleit Mauchly 1947, Neumann 1948, Rutis• 1949, Johnson 1970, Kempf 1961, Knuth hauser et al 1951, Stibitz 1948, von Neu• 1970, Mauchly 1942, Tabor 1947, Weik mann 1945, Zuse 1949. 1961, Anon 1943, 1964.

446 ENlAC: detailed descriptions Leibniz, G. W. Berkeley 1949, Brainerd and Sharpless Kreiling 1968. 1948, Burks 1947, Goldstine and Gold• Leibniz: calculating machines stine 1946. Kormes 1929, Leibniz 1679. Genaille: numbering rods Logabax: book-keeping machine Genaille 1878, Nicoladze 1928. Campos 1944. Genaille: piano arithmetique Logical Expression Evaluation Genaille 1 891. Couffignal1938a, Gardner 1952, 1958, Gersten: arithmetical machine Hilton 1963, Jevons 1870, Mays 1953. Gersten 1735. Ludgate, P. E. Grant: calculating machine Randell 1971. Grant 1874. Ludgate: analytical engine Grant: difference engine Boys 1909, Ludgate 1909, 1914, Randell Grant 1871, Haga 1965. 1971. Hamann: difference engine Machine 13 Galle 1912. Anon 1971 a. Harvard Mark 1 Manchester Computer Aiken 1937, Block 1947, Chapin 1955, Edwards 1970, Williams and Kilburn 1948. Comrie 1946, Harrison 1947, Rodgers Mechanical Automata 1969. Buchner 1950, Chapuis and Droz 1949, Harvard Mark 1: detailed descriptions Goldscheider and Zemanek 1971. Aiken 1946, Aiken and Hopper 1946, Moore School Lectures Berkeley 1949. Curtiss 1946, Eckert O. P.) 1946, Stibitz Harvard Mark 2 1946, Travis 1946, Wilkes 1968. Campbell 1947. Hollerith, H. Muller: difference engine (See also Punched Card Machinery: Klipstein 1785, Stibitz and Larrivee 1957. origins) Napier, J. Blodgett 1966, Blodgett and Schultz 1969, Archibald 1948. de Beauclair 1960, Hollerith (V.) 1971, Napier's Rods Murphy 1968, Rex 1961, Truesdell 1965, Genaille 1878, Ginsburg 1929, von Freytag Willcox 1948, Anon 1963. Liiringhoff 1957. lAS Odhner-Wheel Calculators Burks et al 1946, Goldstine 1972, Gold• Comrie 1927, 1932, Horsburgh 1920, stine and von Neumann 1947, 1948 a, Locke 1924. 1948 b, 1963. Pascal, B. IBM Chapman 1942. Belden and Belden 1962, Brennan 1971, Pascal: calculating machine Phelps 1971, Rodgers 1969, Anon 1936, Diderot 1751, Locke 1929, Payen 1963, 1960a, 1960b, 1963, 1971c. Taton 1963. IBM: Card Programmed Calculator Phillips, E. W. Hurd 1949, Sheldon and Tatum 1951. Menzler 1968, Phillips 1962. IBM: Relay Calculator Eckert (W.J.) 1948a, Hoffleit 1949, Lotkin Phillips: binary multiplier 1949. Phillips 1936, 1964, 1965 b. IBM: Selective Sequence Electronic Calcu• Punched Card Machinery: interconnection lator Berger 1928, Brennan 1971, Bush 1936, Eckert (W.J.) 1948 b, Anon 1948. Couffignal 1930, 1933, Dreyer and Walther IBM: 603-405 Computer 1946 a, Eckert (W.J.) 1940, 1948 c, Wood• Woodbury 1949. bury 1949, Woodruff 1938. Institut Blaise Pascal Computer Punched Card Machinery: later developments Couffignal 1949, 1950, 1952, Peres et al Arkin 1935, Berger 1928, Comrie 1933, 1948. Deveaux 1926, Fisher 1913, Johns 1926, Jacquard Loom Maul 1927, Murray 1961, Nagler 1966, Ballot 1923, Barlow 1878, Eymard 1863, Tauschek 1930, Williams (N.) 1912, Anon Singer et al 1955, Usher 1954. 1902.

447 Punched Card Machinery: origins Quevedo 1951 a, Torres y Quevedo 1920, Bertillon 1894, Billings 1887, 1891, Vigneron 1920. d' Auria et al 1890, Hollerith (H.) 1889, Torres y Quevedo: other machines 1894, Martin (T.C.)·1891, Merriam 1903, Chapuis and Droz 1949, Torres-Quevedo Murphy 1968, Porter 1891, Truesdell 1965, 1951 b, Torres y Quevedo 1914, Vigneron Willcox 1948. 1914, Anon 1915. Punched Card Machinery: usage Totalisators Atanasoff and Brandt 1936, Comrie 1932, Caley 1929, Eckert Q. P.) 1970, Anon 1930. Eckert (W.J.) 1940, 1948 c, 1950, Kern Anon ? 1968, McPherson 1942, Snedecor 1928. Turing, A.M. Scheutz, P. G. and E. Halsbury 1959, Newman 1955, Randell Archibald 1947 a. 1972, Turing (S.) 1959, Anon 1946. Scheutz: difference engine Vaucanson, J. Babbage (C.) 1855, Haga 1963, Anon 1855, Doyon and Liaigre 1966. 1866, 1870. von Neumann, J. Schickard, W. Halsbury 1959, Johnson 1970, Knuth 1970, von Freytag Liiringhoff 1957. Todd ?, Ulam 1958. Schickard: calculator Wiberg, M. Czapla 1961, Flad 1958, Taton 1963, von Archibald 1947b. Freytag Liiringhoff 1958, 1960. Wiberg: difference engine Thomas: arithmometer Delaunay 1863, Jacob 1911. Hoyau 1822, Sebert 1879. Zuse, K. Tomkins, C. B. Bauer and Wiissner 1972, Zuse 1970 b. Anon 1971 a. Zuse: computers Torres y Quevedo, L. Desmonde and Berkling 1966, Dreyer and d'Ocagne 1937, Torres-Quevedo 1951 a, Walther 1946 b, Lyndon 1947, Schreyer Anon 1915. 1939, Stiefel 1951, Stucken 1950, Walther Torres y Quevedo: arithmometer and Dreyer 1946, 1948, Zuse 1936, 1949, d'Ocagne 1928, Jacob 1911, Torres- 1950,1953, 1962, 196~ 1970L

448 Subject Index

This subject index, compiled by Mrs. J. Horning, covers the text of all the chapters of the book, although the technical descriptions of machines that are given in the reprinted papers are not indexed in great detail. The bibliography is not covered, but references to the terms listed in the index to the bibliography are included in this subject index. The page numbers of the reprinted papers are given in bold face under the names of their authors.

A History of England under the Anglo-Saxon Aiken-Code (binary-coded decimal system) Kings (Lappenberg) 295 182 "A logical calculus of the ideas immanent in Algebraic machine 107 nervous activity," Bull. Math. Bio• Alt, F. L. 239,257-286 physics (Pitts and MacCulloch) 360 American Mathematical Society, Hanover, Abacus 191,199,308-310,445 New Hampshire meeting 238 Aberdeen Proving Ground, Maryland 188, American Totalisator Company 237, 240n2 257 Ampere, A. M. 107 Academy of Sciences of Madrid 13 Analogue calculation 329 Accounting machines 4,127,145, Analogue computers 288,289 149-150, see also Burroughs typewriter Analytical engine 14,91, see also Babbage, accounting machine; Logabax book• Charles: Analytical Engine; Ludgate, keeping machine; National Cash Register Percy E.: analytical machine Accounting Machine; Punched card -, planned by Womersley 354 electro-mechanical accounting machine; -, power and scope of 84 Underwood typing-accounting machine Analytical Society 3 ACE 289, 328,350, 353n5, 445 Andrews, E. G. 238, 240n9, 258 Actuaries, profession of 287,301,303 Annals of the Computation Laboratory, Adams, J. C. 196 Harvard University 199n,201 Adder: electromagnetic 164, fig. 3 (p. 166), Antilogarithms, calcul~tion of 194, 197, 238,243-244,248 209,276 -, electromechanical 119,202-203, Arago, D. F. J. 57 260-262 Archimedes machine 302-303 -, electronic 291n8,331 Arithmetic, development of 293-295, -, -, binary 310, fig. 2 (p. 313), 362 445 -, -, decimal 338-339 Arithmetic, floating point. see Floating point -, mechanical 27-28 arithmetic. Adding machine 2, 291n8, 302-303, see Arithmetic overflow, detection of 11, 18 also Astra multi-register Arithmometers 296,297,301, see also adding machine; Electronic adding Thomas' Arithmometer; Torres y machine; Gersten, C. L.: arithmetical Quevedo, Leonardo: arithmometer machine Arlington Park 237 Ahmes 293,294-295,296 Assemblers 349 -, Directions for obtaining knowledge of all Astra multi-register adding machine dark things 293 302-303 Aiken, Howard H. 1,2,15,172,187-188, Atanasoff, John V. 287 -289,305-325 191-218,257,258,260,289,363,365, Atanasoff-Berry Machine 288,289, 291n7, 445 fig. 12 (p. 325), 445 -, knowledge of Babbage 15, 187, 189n2 --:-' abacus elements 308, fig. 8 (p. 321)

449 Atanasoff-Berry Machine Babbage, Charles: Analytical Engine -, addition-subtraction mechanism 310. -, -, division mechanism 7,11,39-42 fig. 2 (p.313), fig. 9 (p. 322) -, -, drawings of fig. 1 (p. 9), fig. 2 -, applications of 305-306 (p. 10), 50, 59, 65 -, base-two card mechanism 314-316 -, -, durability of 59, 62-63 -, binary notation 307-308 -, -, expansion of formulae 47,349 -, binary-decimal conversion 317-319 -, -, Figure Axes 7,8, fig. 2 (p.l0), -, budget 324-325 22-24 -, counter abacus 310 -, -, formulae printing mechanism 46 -, keyboard abacus 310 -, -, hoarding carriage 7,29,50 -, origins of 306-307 -, -, Jacquard cards 5,8, fig. 2 (p.l0), -, solution of linear equations 310-311, 20,49,57,59,61,73,173,200, 319-320 349 -, state of progress 320 -, -, later knowledge of 128,155,287, -,store 311-312,fig.l {p.312),fig. 8 289 (p. 321), fig. 10 (p.323) -, -, Mill 7,8, fig. 1 (p.9), 12, 17-21, Automatic Calculator IPM, see Darmstadt 50,56,65-66, fig. (p.68), 200 Machine -, -, multiple precision arithmetic 7,11, Automatic card handling mechanism 126 47-48 Automatic Sequence Controlled Calculator, -, -, multiplication mechanism 7,11, see Harvard Mark 1 33-34 Automatic sequencing, see Sequence control -, -, multiplication speed 37-39 -, -, Number Cards 24, 45 -, -, number length 47,100n7 -, -, operating speed 35,48,51 -, -, Operation Cards 11,20-21,43,45, Babbage, Charles 1,3, 5n9, 7-14, 17-52, 57,200,349 71-72,91nl, 101, 112n, 148, 149, 155, -, -, operation sequencing 43,57,349 156,171-172,173,187,191-192, -, -, operations 20-21,27 289,349-350,445 -, -, printing mechanisms 8,12,25,45, -, Analytical Engine 1,3,5,14,143,144, 66, fig. (p. 68), 69 148,174,187,192,200-201, -, -, prism 20, 44 349,445 -, -, punching of formulae 349 -, -, accidental sign 31 -, -, reducing apparatus fig. 2 (p.l0), -, -, addition mechanism 27-28, 20, fig. 3 (p. 55), 55 31-32 -, -, repetition of operations 21 -, -, addition speed 29,32-33,35 -, -, Running up 11,18,31,33,39-41 -, -, analogy with human mind 29n -,-, Selecting Apparatus 19,34,37-38 -, -, anticipating carriage 7,12,29,58 -, -, sign calculation 30-32 -, -, arithmetic radix 50 -, -, square root operation 42-43 -, -, arithmetic rounding 36 -, -, Stepping down 18 -, -, arrangement of formulae 42,51 -, -, Stepping up 18, 34 -,-, barrels 7,8, fig. 2 (p.l0), 19-20, -, -, Store 8, fig. 1 (p. 9),21-26, 44,49 44-45,50,57,59,200 -, -, capabilities of 47-48,60 -, -, symbol manipulation 349 -, -, card punching apparatus 8, 25 -, -, Table Figure Axes 18,34 -, -, Carriage Axes 18 -, -, tentative processes 41,56,58,60, -, -, carriage mechanism 28,50 61 -, -, Combinatorial Cards 11,21,47 -, -, trial calculations 46 -, -, comparison with Difference Engine -, -, Variable Cards 23,43-44,57,200, 60-61 349 -, -, conditional branching 8, 41 -, -, verification of formulae 45 -, -, cost of 59,62-63 -, -, verification of numbers 45 -, -, curve drawing apparatus 8,25-26 -, concept of program control 155, -, -, design principles 35 171-172,173,349-350 -, -, development of 7-12, 15n2, 101 -, Difference Engine 3, 5n9, 7,28,65, -, -, digit counting apparatus 19, 34, 41 101,192,196,200,303-304,445

450 Babbage, Charles: Difference Engine Bell Telephone Laboratories Series of Relay -, -, comparison with Analytical Engine Computers: Model I 60-61 -, -, subtraction 245 -, Essay towards the Calculus of Functions -, Model II 239, fig. (p. 247),247 -250, 65 fig. (p.249), 257, 445 -, History of the Analytic Machine (pro• -, Model III 239,250,251-255, fig. jected) 101 (p.255), 257, 445 -, influence of 3,12,13,14-15,72,187, -,ModeIIV 239 287,445 -, Model V 239,257-260, fig. (p.266), -, Mechanical Notation 59,66,101,445 352,445 -, notebooks 349-350, 353n2 -, -, addition 260-262 -, On the Economy of Manufactures and -, -, carry assimilation 260-261 Machinery 13 -, -, computation of instructions 263 -, Passages from the Life of a Philosopher -, -, configuration 277 53, 58, 72, 80 -, -, discrimination 274-275 -, will 65 -, -, input/output 263-265 Babbage, Henry P. (son of Charles Babbage) -, -, instruction formats 271-272 12, 15nl0, 53, 58,65-69,101,200 -, -, interpolation 268 -, Mechanical Notation applied to Scheutz -, -, multiplier 262-263 difference engine 66 -, -, operating spead 263 -264, -, work on the Analytical Engine Mill and 281-282 Printing mechanism 12,66-69 -, -, operations 271-276 -, work on Difference Engine 65-66 -, -, Position Connectors 277 -, Babbage's Calculating Engines 66 -, -, problem tapes 239,265,269-270 Babbage, R. H. (great grandson of Charles -, -, programming of 272-273 Babbage) 189n2 -, -, reliability 278-280 Babbage's Calculating Engines (Babbage, -, -, routine tapes 265, 267 H. P., ed.) 66 -, -, sign registers 276 "Babbage's dream come true" 187 -, -, storage tapes 265, 269 Babbage's problem 143,150,287,303-304 -, -, subtraction 260-262 Ballistic Computer, see Bell Telephone -, -, table register 267 Laboratories Series of Relay Computers: -, -, table tapes 265,267-269 Model III -, -, tape-reading 264 Ballistic Research Laboratory, Ordnance -, Model VI 239, 445 Department, U.S. Army, Aberdeen, Mary• Berlin Exhibition, 1931 302 land 239,289,291,352 Berlin Exhibition, 1934 302,303 Ballistics calculations 238,289 Bernoulli numbers 11, 61 Ballot, C. 6n21 Berry, Clifford E. 288,325 Baltimore, Md. 237 Bessel functions 192-193,205 Barrel organ 95 Bhaskara (Hindu mathematician) 294 Base-ten recording system, see Decimal Bilbao 117 system Billings, John Shaw 125,445 Base-two recording system, see Binary system BINAC 352 Batch processing operating system 239 "Binary Calculation." J. Inst. of Actuaries Bell Laboratories Record 238, 250n (Phillips) 287 Bell Telephone Laboratories 290 Binary mechanical arithmetic 155 Bell Telephone Laboratories Series of Relay Binary system 163,172,174,287,288,445 Computers 1,172,188,227,238-239, -, advantages of 307-308,361-363, 240n9, 365, 445 377-378 -, Model I 238,257,445 -, description of 243,294-298 -, -, addition 243-244 Binary-coded decimal system 221,238,244, -, -, applications of 242-243 258 -, -, binary-coded decimal system 238, Binary-decimal conversion 163,167,228, 244 238,297,317-319,362 -, -, demonstration of 238 Binomial distribution 284 -, -, operations 242 Bi-quinary system 247-248,252-253, -, -, reliability 245 258-259

451 Bletchley machines, see Cryptanalytic Calculating machines machines machine; Odhner calculating machine; Bloch, R. M. 218 Pascal, Blaise: calculating machine; Board of Health, New York City 133 Reading-writing-calculating machine; Bollee, Leon 3, 192, 445 Relay calculators; Rheinmetall machine; Bolmida (experimented with electrical version Sanders calculating machine; Schickard, of Jacquard mechnism) 5 Wilhelm: calculating clock; Special pur• Bonelli (experimented with electrical version pose calculators; Synchro-Madas calcula• of Jacquard mechanism) 5 tor; Type-writer controlled calculating Book keeping, mechanical 4 machine Bouchon, Basile 4-5 -, binary 2 Boutet (constructed first Synchro-Madas) -, classification of 141 149 -, descriptions of 5n17 Brainerd, J. G. 290 -, descriptive catalogues 445 Breisemeister, R. E. 235 -, design 445 Breton (assisted J. M. Jacquard) 5 -, development of 1,2-4, 5n17, British Association for the Advancement 191-192,199-201,300-303, of Science 3, 12,63,66, 101 446 British Association for the Advancement of -, direct multiplication type 446 Science, report on Babbage's Analytical -, electromagnetic 238 Engine 53-63,72, 84-85 -, electronic digital, earliest attempt at 287 British Automatic Totalisator Co. 237 -, first commercial success 3 British electronic code breaking machines, -, general principles of 53 see Cryptanalytic machines -, influence on development of computers British Museum 293 4,289,353 British Thompson Houston 237 -, usage 4,446 Broadbent, S. W. 327 Calculating punch 183 Brown,John 191 Calculation errors 102, 141 Brownell, T. F. 295 Calculation, mechanical aids to 1,155,238, Brunsviga machine 301 see also Abacus; Genaille's Rods; Napier's Bryce, J. W. 126, 187,287, 291nl Rods; Slide rule Bull punched card machinery 147 -14 8 Caley, D. H. N. 240nl Bull tabulator fig. 4 (p.148) Cambridge Calculator, see EDSAC Bureau of Ordnance, u.S. Navy 199n, 218 Cambridge University 3,287,291,353 Bureau of Ships, u.S. Navy 218 Campbell, R. V. D. 218 Burgi, J. 445 Campos machine, see Logabax book-keeping Burks, Arthur W. 371-385 machine Burroughs calculator 445 Carry assimilation 4,29,80,135,164, Burroughs typewriter accounting machine 260-261,300,363 302 Cavendish Laboratory, Cambridge University Bush, Vannevar 15,128,288,289 287 Business machines, electronic 287 Cayley, A. 53 Buxton, H. W.: Memoir ofthe Li/eand Labours Celestial mechanics 119 of the Late Charles Babbage (unpublished Cesareo, O. 239,247-250 biography) 8 Chandler, W. 327,328 Buxton Manuscript Collection, Museum of Chess-playing automata 13,108 the History of Science, Oxford University Ciphers, digital computer for 289 8, 15n2 Clement, Joseph 3, 7, 15n4, 66 Byrnes, W. P. 235 Clifford, W. K. 53 Byron, George Gordon, 6th Baron 11 Closed series 195 Code-breaking machines, see Cryptanalytic Calculating clock 2 machines Calculating machines 1-4,80, 100n6, Coggeshall (one of the developers of the slide 445, see also Adding machines; Archi• rule) 191 medes machine; Arithmometers; Leibmz, Collier, B. 5n9, 11, 15n2 Gottfried: calculating machine; Magnetic Colmar, Thomas de 107,108,109, see also calculating machine; Monroe calculating Thomas' Arithmbmeter

452 Colossi electronic machines 288-289,327, Cora system, see Binary system 328 Cordt (Leipzig engineer) 302-303 Columbia University 125,127,187, 219n Couffignal, Louis 14,119-123,127, Compilers 349 128n14, 141-150,172 Complex arithmetic 238,241-243 -, binary calculator 14,446 Complex Computer, see Bell Telephone -, -, adder 119 Laboratories Series of Relay Computers: -, -, Addition Triangle 119, fig. 2 (p.120) Model I -, -, binary-decimal translator 122 Complex Number Computer, see Bell -, -, capabilities of 122-123 Telephone Laboratories Series of Relay -, -, iteration 122 Computers: Model I -, -, multiplication rhombus 120, fig. 3 Complex numbers, see Complex arithmetic (p.12!) Computation Laboratory, Harvard University -, -, multiplier 120 189n2,200,218 -, -, numerical function table 122 Computation of instructions 47,221 -, -, operation sequencing 122 Computers 446, see also ACE; Bell -, -, overdraft 120 Telephone Series of Relay Computers; -, -, register 119 BINAC; EDSAC; EDVAC, ENIAC; lAS -, -, sign calculator 120, fig. 4 (p.122) Computer; IBM Corporation; Machine 13; -, influenced by Babbage 14 Manchester computer; MOSAIC, S. M. 1 Counter: binary 287,309 Computer; Stored program computers; -, electromechanical 135 UNIVAC; X-66744 Computer; Zuse, -, electronic 287,330,337-338,354,361 Konrad -, -, bi-quinary 327 -, American development of 1,6, 172, 182, Cramers's solution 306 187-189,237-239,287-291, Crawford, P. O. 351,381 350-352,446 Cryptanalysis 238 -, analogue 288,289 Cryptanalytic machines 288-289, -, British development of 182,287, 327-328,350,352,353 288-289,350,352-353,446 Cunnington, S.: The Story of Arithmetic -, design of 446 294,296 -, development of 1,4,5 n 1,239,288,339, 446 -, electronic, planned by Wiener 288 Dahlgren Mark 2, see Harvard Mark 2 -, German development of 155 -156, 172, Darmstadt 184 182, 188,288,446 Darmstadt Machine fig. 1 (p. 152), 446 -, instruction formats 271 -, Calculating Device 151 ---=-, programming of 214-216,226,280, -, Control Device 152 351,352,395,446 -, Function Generators 153 -, set-up times 285 -, operating speed 153 -, special-purpose 352 -, Printing Mechanism 153 -, stored program concept 1,155-156, -, Transfer Device 152 162,171-184,221,234,239, Data representation 24,125,129-130, 349-353,356-357,365,446, see 144, 155 also Sequence control: stored program Davies, D. W. 353n3 Computing-Tabulating-Recording Company Dawes, Chester L. 218 126, see also IBM Corporation Dayger, J. E. 235 Comrie, L. J. 15, 127, 187, 287, 301-304, De Caus, S. 4 446 Decimal system 294,307 -308,362, Conditional branching 8,14,116-118, 377-379 155-156, 157n4, 181, 183, 187, 189, Decoding table 381 239,290,344,347,374 Denary system, see Decimal system -, methods for 41,98-99,274-275, Department of Communications, British 383,390 Foreign Office 327 Consolidated Engineering, Pasadena, Cali• Descartes, R.: Discours sur la Methode fornia 288 90-91 Convolution integrals, computation of 284 Desch, Joseph R. 291n8 Coombs, A. W. M. 327,328 Determinant evaluation 62,63

453 Determinant evaluator, prototype 238 EDSAC: store 389 Deutsches Museum of Science and Technology, -, test routines 395 Munich 156 -, uniselectors 392 Diadic system, see Binary system EDVAC 1,289,291,350,351-352,353, D-day 328 365,376,446 Difference engines 3-4,12,66,192,200, -, addition speed 362 303-304,446, see also Babbage, Charles: -, analogy with neurons 360-361 Difference Engine; Grant, G. B.: difference -, applications of 357 engine; Hamann, c.: difference engine; -, arithmetic unit 361-364 Ludgate, Percy E.: difference engine; -, binary-decimal conversion 362 Scheutz difference engine; Wibert, Martin: -, carry assimilation 363 difference engine -, central control 356 Difference formulae 196 -, development of 351-352, 354n8 Differential analysers 227,283,289-290, -, elements 359-360 332,353 -, flip-flop 361 Differential calculus 53 -, input/output 357-358 Differential equations 196,201,227,239, -, instruction modification 366 283,329 -, instructions 355 Digital differential analyser 7 -, logical control 351,355 Digital electronic circuits, used in calculating -, memory 357,365 devices 287-288 -, multiplication speed 362 Direct multiplication calculating machines -, operation sequencing 355, 356 446 -, operations 356 Directions for obtaining knowledge of all -, reliability 355-356 dark things (Ahmes) 293 -, representation of instructions 355 Dirks, G. 156, 172 -, storage requirements 356,358 Discours sur la Methode (Descartes) 90-91 -, stored program concept 356-357, 365 Divider: electromagnetic 238 -, telescoping 363 -, electromechanical 110-116 EDVAC-type machines, see Stored program -, electronic 341-342 computers -, mechanical 39-42, 80-82 Electric Control Company, see Eckert- d'Ocagne, M. 14, 15n13, 107, 141 Mauchly Computer Corporation Draft Report on EDVAC (von Neumann) Electrical Review 240n2 350,351 Electromechanical accounting machine 127 Draw looms, automatic 4-5,6n21 Electromechanical devices 102, 446 Dreyer, H.-J. 128,151-153 Electronic adding machine 291n8 Durfee, B. M. 187,188, 199n Electronic code-breaking machines, see Cryptanalytic machines Electronic computing machine, planned by Eccles, E. H. 287,288 Phillips 287 Eckert, J. Presper 172,290,351,446 Electronic devices 290,331,446 Eckert, Wallace J. 127,187,188,219-228 Electronic Difference Analyzer, see ENIAC Eckert-Mauchly Computer Corporation Electronic digital circuit, earliest 287 237,352 Electronic Discrete Variable Arithmetic EDSAC 1,353,446 Computer, see EDVAC -, conditional order 390 Elliptic functions 192 -1 93 -, control sequence 390-392 End around carry 199 -, demonstration of 395-396 Endicott, N. Y. 187-189, 199 -, design of 446 ENIAC 1,156,172,188,227,239,258, -, initial orders 353,392-393,395 260, 283, 285, 286, 289, 290-291, fig. 1 -, input/output 390, 395 (p.334), fig. 2 (p.343), 350, 351, 365, -, instruction format 396 446 -, operating speed 395 -, accumulators 338,340-341,350 -, order code 389-390 -, addition 338-339 -, order interpreter 391-392 -, addition time 335 -, programming of 446 -, conditional branching 290,344,347 -, sequence control tank 390 -, constant transmitter 333-335

454 ENIAC: construction 333 Geiger-Muller Counter 330 -, counters 337-338 Geiger-Muller tubes 287 -, cycling unit 335 Genaille, H.: piano arithmetique 447 -, detailed descriptions 447 Genaille's rods 238. 447 -, digit trunks 342 German Aeronautical Research Institute -, divider 341-342 (DL V), Berlin-Adlershof 179 -, flip-flop 337-338,339-340 German Military Intelligence 156 -, function tables 291,333-335,350 Gersten, C. L.: arithmetical machine 447 -, initiating unit 335 Gillon, Paul N. 290 -, input/output 263-267,333 Glaisher, J. W. L. 53 -, master programmer 344 Goldstine, Adele 333-347 -, multiplier 341-342 Goldstine, H. H. 172,290,333-347,351, -, operation sequencing 291,342, 371-385 343-344 Good, 1. J. 327-328,353 -, operations 333 Gottingen 184 -, program controls 290,339-340 Grant, G. B. 447 -, program switches 335 -, difference engine 3, 192,447 -, program trunks 342 Grillet (calculating machines) 2 -, programming memory 335, 339 Gun director, anti-aircraft 251 -, repetition 344 Gun sights, computing 22 -, square rooter 341-342 -, storage 333-335 -, stored program concept 350 Hahn, M. 2 -, synchronization 335-336 Hamann, C. 238 Eymard, P. 6n21 -, difference engine 3,447 Essais sur I'Automatique (Torres y Quevedo) Hamilton, F. E. 187,188,189, 199n 13 Hamilton Totalisator 237 Essays towards the Calculus of Functions Hannum, Lynn 288 (Babbage) 65 Hanover, N. H. 238 Everard (one of the developers of the slide Harmonic analysis 239 rule) 191 Harmonic analyzer 289 Hartree, D. R. 291 Harvard College Observatory 187 Falcon draw loom 4-5 Harvard Mark 1 1,156,172,187-188, Farr, W. 53 fig. (p.193), 199n, 227, 239, 258, 260, Federal Technical University, Zurich 180, 269,271,281,285, 286n, 289, 352, 365, 183 447 Ferrand, W. A. 235 -, adding-storage registers 197, 201, fig. 2 Filter networks, design of 238 (p. 201),204-205 Finite differences, method of 3 -, addition mechanism 202-203 Fire control problems 239 -, applications of 218 Flip-flop 223,232,287,337-340,361, -, constant registers 197,201 375 -, detailed description 447 Floating point arithmetic: binary 155. -, error checking 215 - 216 163-164,174,379 -, function tables 201 -, bi-quinary 239,259-260 -, initial plans for 196-197 -, decimal 100,229,379 -, input/output 197,212-214, fig. 1 Flowers, T. H. 327 (p. 214),263 Flute player, automatic 5 -, interpolator units 201-202,211-212 Fohi (twenty-third century B. C.) 296 -, logarithm unit 208-209, fig. 3 Formulae, evalutation of 195 (p. 21 0) Fourier series 194 -1 95, 284 -, master control panel 197 Fry, T. C. 238 -, multiply-divide counter 201, fig. 2 Fuller, F. 53 (p.201), 206-208, fig. 1 (p.208), fig. 2 (p.209) Gauss, C. F. 196 -, operating instructions 216-218 Gear train 2,53-54 -,operatingspeed 197,213-214

455 Harvard Mark 1 Hollerith punched card machinery -, operation sequencing 193, 196 125-126, 146-148, 151-153, 192, -, planned operation repertoire 193 -196 200,302 -, reliability 215 Hollerith Tabulating Machine 153 -, sequence control mechanism 201-202, Hollerith Tabulator fig. 4 (p.147) 203-204, fig. 5 (p.204) Hopferau, Bavaria 156 -, sequence control tape 213, fig. 5 Hopper, Grace M. 187, 199n, 199-218 (p.218) Horace 295 -, sine unit 21 0-211, fig. 4 (p.21l) Horner's solution 58 -, store 197 Human errors, introduction of 141, -, subsidiary sequence control mechanism 215-216 187 Human factor, importance of in mechanised -, switchboard 196, 201 computing 141 -, typewriter 201, fig. 2 (p.20l) Hunter, G. T. 235 -, value tape 212 Hyperbolic functions 195,211 Harvard Mark 2 188,239,258,260,285, 286,365,447 Harvard Mark 3 188 lAS Computer 189,352,447 Harvard Mark 4 188 -, arithmetic organ 377-380 Harvard University 187-188, 189n2, -, backing storage 376 199n, 218, 227, 257, 271 -, binary system 377-378 Heath Robinson machine 327 -, clock 384 Henschel Aircraft Works 181 -, conditional transfer order 374,383 H. M. Nautical Almanac Office 127, 301 -, control 371,380-385 Hero of Alexander 2 -, control counter 383 Hierarchical storage 374,377 -, control register 383 High-speed cinematographic camera 299 -, decimal system 377-379 History of the Analytic Machine (Babbage) -, decoding table 381 (projected) 101 -, division 380 Hollerith, Herman 1,5,125-126, -, floating decimal point 379 129-140,144,447 -, function table register 383 -, competition between his systems and two -, instruction formats 382 rival systems 125 -, memory 371-373 -, influenced by Babbage 144 -, memory hierarchy 374,377 -, knowledge of Jacquard loom 5 -, operation sequence 380-381 -, patents 125, 126 -, operations 373,379-380 -, Ph. D. thesis 126 -, parallel operation 376 -, tabulating system 125, fig. 2 (p.133) -, recording function table 382 -,-, accuracy 125,139 -, reliability 384-385 -, -, adding mechanism 126 -, repetition 374 -,-,cardsorting 135-136 -, select ron register 377 -, -, carrying device 135 -, square root 380 -, -, combination counting 137 -, storage devices 375 -, -, gang punch (machine with inter- -, subroutines 374 changeable punches) 131 IBM Corporation 1,126,127,187-189, -, -, item counting 134-135 192, 193, 196, 199n, 219, 227, 286n, 287, -, -, keyboard punch 131 288,447 -, -, mechanical counters 135 -, Automatic Sequence Controlled Calculat• -, -, pantograph punch 126 or, see Harvard Mark 1 -, -, press fig. 4 (p. 134) -, Card Programmed Calculator 189, fig. 6 -, -, record cards 129 (p. 232),447 -, -, sorting box fig. 6 (p.137) -, -, applications of 229,234-235 -,-,speedof 125,138-139 -, -, arithmetic unit 229-232 -, -, ticket punches 130 -, -, auxiliary memory unit 233 -, -, see also Punched card machinery -, -, operation sequencing 232, 234 Hollerith Company (Germany) 151 -, -, operations 230 Hollerith Keypunch fig. 1 (p. 144) -, -, parallel sequencing 234

456 IBM Corporation: Card Programmed Interpolation 284 Calculator Interpolation, programming of 351 -, -, pluggable control panel 229 Ionoscope tube 375 -, -, reliability 235 Iowa State College (became Iowa State Uni• -, -, repetition 230 versity) 287,288,289 -, -, storage units 230-231 IPM automatic calculator, see Darmstadt -, cross-footing keypunch 189 Machine -, Department of Pure Science 219 Iteration 8,11,122,234,275,374 -, electronic calculators 189 Iterative methods 194,208,283-284,329, -, Endicott Development Laboratories 372,380 187,188,189,199 Isomorphic theory of matrices and deter• -, 402-417 electric accounting machine minants 306 189,233 -, patents 126,189, 291n8 -, Pluggable Sequence Relay Calculator Jacquard, J. M. 5, 148 188,447 Jacquard cards 5,73,125, see also Babbage, -, Relay Calculator 447 Charles: Analytical Engine: Jacquard -, Relay Multipliers 258,260,285,362 cards -, Selective Sequence Electronic Calculator Jacquard loom 5,73,213,447 188-189, fig. 1 (p.220), 352, 447 -, electrical version 5, 12 -, -, applications of 225-226 -, use by Babbage 8,20,57, 173, 192 -, -, arithmetic operations 188, 225 Jordon, F. W. 287,288 -, -, binary-coded decimal system 221 Juley, Joseph 239,251-255 -, -, computation of instructions 221 -, -, dedication ceremony 189,219 -, -, faked photograph fig. 1 (p.220) Kennedy, A. B. W. 53 -, -, input/output 221, fig. 2 (p. 221), Kepler, Johannes 2 223-225 Kilburn, T. 352-353,387-388 -, -, instruction card 224, fig. 8 (p. 225) Kinematics 87-88 -,-, memory units 219-221,224 Kniess, H. E. 291n8 -, -, operating speed 219 - 221, 222, Knuth, D. E. 351 224-225 Kormes, M. 5n6 -, -, operation sequencing 221 Kraus, M. H. 235 -, -, repetition 221 -, -, subroutines 226 -, -, tape-reading unit 224-225 Lagrange, J. L.: Mecanique analytique 107 -, 701 programming group 189 Lagrangean interpolation 284 -,731 electronic computer 189,352 Lake,C.D. 187,188, 199n -,600 series of multiplying punches 189 Laplace's equation 288 -, 603 electronic calculator 189,229 Laplaciometer 288 -,603-405 computer 229,447 Lappenberg, J. M.: A History of England -, 604 electronic calculator 189, 229, fig. 1 under the Anglo-Saxon Kings 295 (p. 229), fig. 4 (p. 232), 233 Least Squares, method of 61, 62 -,650 computer 189 Leibniz, Gottfried 2,296,447 -, World Headquarters Building 219 -, binary mechanical arithmetic 2, 155, Index registers 349 163 Indirect addressing 349 -, calculating machine 2, 5n6, 191, 200, Industrial Revolution 2 447 Infinite series 192,195,197,201,284 -, notation for differential calculus 3 Input errors 142 -, pin wheel 191 Input/Output, efficiency of 188 -, stepped reckoner 2,126,191,200 Institut Blaise Pascal 14,447 Leipzig 302 Institute for Advanced Study, Princeton Leitz Optical Factory, Wetzlar 183 350,351 Library routines 368-369 Internal storage 188,350-351,365 Light-ray machine 298-300 International Business Machines Corporation, Lighting Totalisator 237 see IBM Corporation Lilley, S. 5n1

457 Linear equation solvers 62-63, 238, see Manchester University 327,328,352-353, also Atanasoff-Berry Machine 387 Linear equations, solution of 238,283,287, "Manual of Operation of the Automatic 288,305 Sequence Controlled Calculator", Annals Linkage errors 142 of the Computation Laboratory, Harvard Loader 353 University, vol. 1 199n Logabax Company 14 Manufacturers Life Insurance Company 293 Logabax book-keeping machine 14,127, Marionette 88 128nI4,143-144,447 Mark 2 Colossi, see Colossi electronic machi- Logarithms, calculation of 61, 82, 194, 197, nes 208-209,276 Martin, E. 5n 17 Logic circuits 288 Massachusetts, census of 129 Logical design 362 Massachusetts Institute of Technology 227, Logical expression evaluation 447 351,366 London 3 Mathematical logic 172, 174 Looms, automatic 4-5,6n21 Mathematical tables, calculation of 3 Los Alamos 351 Mauchly,J. W. 172,238,289,290, Lovelace, Augusta Ada, Countess of 11,53, 329-332,351,365-369,446 72,84,187,349 -, "Preparation of Problems for EDVAC• Ludgate, Percy E. 3,12-13, 15nll, Type Machines" (paper presented at 71-85,155,447 Harvard University) 351 -, analytical machine 12,447 -, The Use of High Speed Vacuum Tube -, -, capabilities of 73, 84 Devices for Calculating (privately -, -, carriage mechanism 80 circulated memorandum) 290 -, -, dividing cylinder 82 Maya 295 -, -, division mechanism 80-82 Mecanique analytique (Lagrange) 107 -, -, drawings of 73 Mechanical analyses 329 -, -, formula-paper 74, 78 Mechanical automata 5,447 -, -, index 74 Mechanical notation 59,66, 101 -, -, index numbers 75-78 Mechanical piano 95 -, -, Jacquard card system 73 Memoir of the Life and Labours of the Late -, -,.key-board control 83 Charles Babbage (unpublished biography -, -, logarithmic cylinder 82 by Buxton) 8 -,-,mill 74 Memory, see Storage devices -, -, multiplication mechanism 78-79 Menabrea, L. F. 11,53,349 -, -, number-paper 82 Merrifield, C. W. 53-63,101 -, -, operating speed 84 Michie, D. 327-328 -, -, operation sequencing 73,78 Microprogramming 176, fig. 4 (p. 177), -, -, shuttle 74 188,353 -, difference engine 13, 192 Molina (devised system for translating dialled -, influenced by Babbage 12,71-72 numbers) 237 -, storage adressing 155 Monroe calculating machine 301,309 Lyndon, R. C. 156 Moore School Lectures 351,353,447 Lyons 4 Moore School of Electrical Engineering, Uni- versity of Pennsylvania 289-291,333, 351,352,375 Morland, Samuel 2, 191, 200 M-9 gun director 247 Mortality statistics 125, 133 MacCulioch, W. S. 360 MOSAIC 289,328 Machine 13 447 Moseley, M. 5 n 9 MacLauren's theorem 195, 196, 197 Muller, I. H. 2,3 Madas machine 112n -, difference engine 200,447 Magnetic calculating machine 351 Multiplier: electromagnetic 238, 253-254 Manchester computer 289,352-353, -, electromechanical 92-93, fig. 4 387-388,447 (p.l04), 120, 262-263 -, operating speed 387 -, -, binary 120 -, order code 387 -, electronic 331, 341-342

458 Multiplier: electronic Operating systems 239, 349 -, -, binary 298-300 Ordnance Department, U.S. Army 257, -, mechanical 33-34,78-79 276,278,289,290,333,352,375 -, -, binary 298,300 Oughtred, W. 191 Multiprocessing system 239 Munich 184 Munro, R. W. 66 Pacioli, L. 294 Museum of the History of Science, Oxford 8 Palmer, R. L. 189 Music box, sequence-control of 4 Pannke, Kurt 155 Musical automata 7 Pantograph punch 126 Parallel binary machines 352,376 Pari-mutuel betting 237 Napier, John 1,191,447 Paris 3,143 Napier's Bones, see Napier'S Rods Pascal, Blaise 1, 2, 171, 447 Napier's Rods 2.191. 23R, 447 -, calculating machine 2, 5n4, 191, 199, National Advisory Committee on Aeronautics. 200,447 Langley Field, Virginia 239,257 Passages from the Life of a Philosopher National Cash Register Accounting Machine (Babbage) 53, 58, 72, 80n 304,351 Patents: electromagnetic devices 238,240n8 National Cash Register Company 291n8, -, electronic devices 189,291 n8 304 -, IBM 189 National Defense Research Committee 239, -, Phillips, E. W. 287,291n4 247,250 -, tabulating machines 125, 126 National Physical Laboratory 289,328, -, Zuse, K. 155,156 350 Pegged cylinder 4, 7, 19 Naval Ordnance Laboratory 288 Performance, system 188, 239 Naval Research Laboratory, Washington, Peter Robinson machine 327 D. C. 250 Phillips, E. William 287, 293-304, 353n5, Network Analyzers 227 447 Network design 238,242 -, "Binary Calculation." J. Inst. of Actuaries New York Central Railroad 126 287 New York City 133,188,219.238 -, binary multiplier 287,298-300,447 Newman, M. H. A. 327,351-353 -, influenced by Babbage 15,287 Newton, Isaac 3 -, multiplication "diamond" 287,298 Newton's laws 225-226 -, patent applications 287,291n4 Newton-Raphson rule 208 Photo-electric cell 287 Nicoladze, C. 237-238 Picard, C. E. 283 Nim, gam of 14 Pipe organ, sequence-control of 4 Normandy, Administrator of 141 Pitts, W. 360 Northrop Aircraft Company 189,352 Pittsburg, Pa. 127 Number representation 155 Plana, Giovanni 11 Number systems, relative merits of Planimeter 227 258-259, see also Binary system; Bi• Plankalkiil 157n4, 181 quinary system; Decimal system; Octonal Pole, W. 53 system; Quinary system Poleni, G. 2 Numerical analysis 201,203 Post Office Research Station 327, 328 Numerical differentiation 196, 197 Power series 284 Numerical integration 192, 196, 197,201 Powers, James 126 Numerical weather prediction 184 -, patents 126 -, punched card machinery 126,146-148, fig. 6 (p. 149),302 Octonal system 287, 293, 295 Powers sorter fig. 2 (p.145) Odhner calculating machine 143 Powers tabulator fig. 3 (p. 146) Odhner-Wheel calculator 447 "Preparation of Problems for EDVAC-Type Ohlinger, L. A. 235 Machines" (Paper given by Mauchly at On the Economy of Manufactures and Harvard University) 351 Machinery (Babbage) 13 Princeton, N. J. 350,352

459 Probability functions 192-193 Relay Interpolator, see Bell Telephone Labo• Program control, see Sequence-control ratories Series of Relay Computers: Program-controlled calculating machines Model II 1, 14 Reliability: electromechanical 102,188, Program loops 189 215,235 Programming aids 349 -, electronic 188,290,384-385 Propositional calculus 178, 181 -, of Bell Telephone Laboratories Series of Punched card electro-mechanical accounting Relay Computers 239,245,250, machine 126 255,278-280 Punched card machinery 5, 8, 14, 172, -, mechanical 237 306-307, see also Hollerith, Herman: Remington Rand 126,237, see also Tabulating System Remington Rand Division, Sperry Rand -, automatic card feed mechanism 144 Corporation -, binary punch and reader 288,307, Remington Rand Division, Sperry Rand Cor- 314-316 poration 352 -, commercial usage 126,127 Remote-Control Accounting system 127 -, connection box 146 Renwick, W. 389-393,395 -, decimal manual keypunch 126 Research Laboratory, St. Louis 180 -, government usage 125-126 Rheinische Metall- und Maschinenfabrik -, interconnection of 127-128, 126 149-150,152,196,447 Rheinmetall machine 303 -, Keypunch 144, fig. 1 (p. 144) Rhind papyrus 293 -, later developments 126-128,447 Ring registers 328 -, listing 145,147 Robinson and Cleaver machine 327 -, multiplier 303 Robinson machines 327 -, operation speed 146 Roman numerals 294 -, origins 1,125-126,448 Roots of equations 195-196,242-243, -, scientific applications 127,192-193 283-284 -, selector 148 Roots of polynomials 239,242-243 -, sorter 144, fig. 1 (p. 144) Rounding-off error 369 -, statistical applications 127,288 Royal Academy of Sciences, Brussels 7 -, tabulating 145,147 Royal Astronomical Society 3,12 -, tabulator 145, fig. 2 (p. 145), 153 Royal Society 3 -, usage 125-127,130,192-193,287, Royal Society Computing Machine Labora• 303,448 tory, Electrical Engineering Department, Punched cards, use of 130 University of Manchester 387 Runge-Kutta method 196

Quadratures 284 Quetelet, M. 7 Quinary systems 294 S. M. 1 Computer 183-184 St. Louis, Mo. 302 Samas punched card machinery 146-148 Racecourse Betting Control Board 237 Samas tabulator fig. 3 (p. 146) Radio Corporation of America, patent Sanders calculating machine 143 applications 291 n8 Santander 12 Radio Corporation of America, Princeton Scale-of-two counter, see Counter: binary Laboratories 375 Schaffler, O. 126 Radar development 353 Schardin, H. 180 Railway ticket, punched 125 Scheutz, Edvard 3,447 Rajchman, J. 381 Scheutz difference engine 3,12,66,192, Raman effect 305 304,448 Reading-writing-calculating machine Scheutz, George 3, 192,447 126-127 Schickard, Wilhelm 2, 448 Recursive formulae 284 -, Calculating clock 2 Recursive processes 284 Schreyer, Helmut 156,167-169,172, Relay calculators 239 178,288

460 Science Museum, South Kensington 3, 15n2 Stibitz-Code (binary-coded decimal system) and 10,65, 66, 101, 192,200,287 182, 183.238,244,258 Scientific Computing Service 127 Storage addressing 26,74,143,155, Scientific Memoirs (Taylor) 53, 72 159-161, fig. 6 (p.166), 173,381 Seaton machine 125 Storage devices Secondary storage 367-377 -, circulating 351 Seeber, R. R. 189 -, core 291 Seifers, H. 183 -, delay line 227-228,351,375 Sekundal system, see Binary system -, -, binary 353,389 Selectron storage tube 375 -, electromagnetic 165, fig. 6 (p.166), 224 Selenium photo-electric cell 295,298, 303 -, electromechanical 151,233 Self-checking arithmetic 239 -, electronic 188,224,229,289,333,375 Self-operating machine 287 -,-,binary 311-312,fig.1(p.312), Semi-logarithmic notation, see Floating point fig. 8 (p.321) arithmetic -, electrostatic 227-228,352,375 Sequence control 1,4-5,128 -, -, binary 377 -, electromechanical 95 -, magnetic 156 -, electronic 329 -, magnetic drum 188,227-228 -, function table 291 -, magnetic tape 227-228 -, pegged cylinder 4, 7 - 8, 19 -, mechanical 128n14, 155, 156, 168 -, perforated cylinder 5, 82 -, -, binary 177-178, fig. 6 (p. 178) -, perforated tape 4-5,13,73,78,152, -, -, decimal 204-205 159, 162, 173, 196, fig. 5 (p. 204),226, -, perforated tape 224 252,327,358 -, photographic film 227-228 -, plug board 173,234,290,342 -,relay:binary 178 -, punched card 5,11,20-21,122,148, Storage hierarchy 374, 377 223,234,358 Stored program computers, see also EDSAC, -, stored program 358,371,377,380-381, EDVAC, lAS Computer, Manchester 390-392 Computer Serial Principle 182 -, characteristics 365 Shapley, H. 187 -, instruction code 365-366 Sheldon, J. W. 229-235 -, programming of 365 Shift register 188 -, sub-routines 367-369 Shorter Oxford English Dictionary 296 Stored program concept, see Computers: Silk-weaving industry 4 stored program concept Silver dancing figure, automatic 7 Strowger switch 237 Simpson, T. 196 Subprogram facilities 156,157n4 Slide rule 75,191,227 Subroutines 367-369,374 Smith, T. M. 5n1 Super Robinson machine 327 Societe d'Encouragement pour l'lndustrie Switching theory 174 Nationale 107 Synchro-Madas calculator 127, 149 Sorting 125,351 Synchronized alternating-current clock 299 South Kensington Museum, see Science Synchronized machines 149 Museum, South Kensington Special purpose calculators 289,446 Square rooter, electronic 341-342 Stanhope, 3rd earl 2 Table look-up, automatic 239 Staple Inn 304 Tabulating Machine Company (became Statistical Calculator 127 Computing-Tabulating-Recording Statistical machines, see Punched card Company) 126 machinery Taton, R. 5n4 Statute of Shrewsbury 294 Tatum, Liston 229-235 Steel balls, used in automatic totalisator Tauschek, Gustav 126 237 Taylor, N. H. 235 Stepping switch 127 Taylor, R.: Scientific Memoirs 53, 72 Stibitz, George R. 238-239,241-245, Taylor's series 211 247,257.258,289,290 Technical University of Berlin 172

461 Technische Hochschule, Berlin-Charlotten• Torres y Quevedo, Leonardo: automatics burg 155 -, -, automaton 13-14,87 Teichmann, Professor 179 -, -, definition of 13~ 14,88,107 Telecommunications Research Establishment, -, -, discernment 88 Great Malvern 327,388 -, -, electromechanical method 13, 89, Telephone exchange 126,237 101-102,111 Telephone relay equipment, used in digital -, -, limbs 88 calculating devices 237-239,257 -, -, mechanical method 101-102 Teletype control 238 -, -, pattern of behaviour 88,90 The Story of Arithmetic (Cunnington) 294, -, -, power supplies 88 296 -, -, reasoning 90-91 The Use of High Speed Vacuum Tube Devices -, -, remotely-controlled boat 117 for Calculating (privately circulated -, -, self-propelled torpedo 13, 87, 116 memorandum by Mauchly) 290 -, -, sense organs 88 Thermionic valve 192, 287 -, -, telekinetic devices 102 Thirsk Racecourse 237 -, -, theoretical capabilities of 89 Thomas' Arithmometer 3,54-55,107,108, -, chess-playing automata 13,108 109,110,448 -, Essais sur l' Automatique 13 -, influenced by Babbage 14,91nl Thomas J. Watson Astronomical Computing Totalisators 237, 240nl and 2, 448 Bureau, Columbia University, see Watson Toulon, A. P. 107 Astronomical Computing Bureau, Colum• Transcendental functions 192-193,195, bia University 197,201,211 Thorpe, Benjamin: Lappenberg's A History oj Trask, M. 353n2 England under the Anglo-Saxon Kings Trigger circuit, see Flip-flop (translator) 295 Trigger relay 287 Thyraton counting circuits 287 Trigonometric functions 192-193, Time-shared transatlantic multi-channel-voice 194-195,197,211,276 communication cable system 327 Tropp, H. S. 291n7 Todd,John 350-351 Trowbridge, William 125 Torpedo, self-propelled 13,87,116 Truncation error 369 Torres y Quevedo, Leonardo 13 -14, Turing, A. M. 172, 327, 328, 350, 353, 15n13, 87-118,155,448 353n3 and 5, 448 -, arithmetic automaton Turing machine 172, 350 -, barrel organ 95 Type-writer controlled calculating machine -, -, comparison device 92, fig. 5 (104) 240n8 -, -, conditional branching 97,98-99 -, -, decimal notation 99 -, -, drum 95, fig. 7 (105) Unary-coded decimal systems 291 -, -, floating point notation 100 Underwood typing-accounting machine 149 -, -, formula calculation 94 Uniselectors 354,392 -, -, mechanical piano 95 U. K. Foreign Office 327 -, -, multiplication device 92-93, fig. 4 U. K. Post Office Research Station 327,328 (104 ) U. K. Registrar-General 304 -, -, operation sequencing 95-98 U. K. Telecommunications Research -, -, register 92 Establishment 327,388 -, -, typewriter 93 United machine 302 -, arithmometer 143,149,448 U.S.A., Office of the Surgeon-General 133 -, -, comparison device 112-115, fig. 4 U.S. Bureau of the Census 352, see also (p. 113), fig. 5 (p. 114) U.S. National Census -, -, demonstration apparatus 107, U.S. Department of Defense 229 fig. 1 (p. 109) U.S. National Census 1,125-126,129, -, -, division method 110-116 see also U.S. Bureau of the Census -, -, operation of 108-109 U.S. Naval Research Laboratory 239 -, -, type-writer 108 U.S. Naval Proving Ground, Dahlgren, -, automatics 13-14 Virginia 188 -, -, analytical machine 14,91 U.S. Navy 187.218

462 U.S. Office of Naval Research 156 World War II 1,14,128,151,153,155,156, U.S. Office of Scientific Research and Devel• 171,172,178,179,181,182,238,239, opment 128 257,288,328,353 UNIVAC 352 Worsley, B. H. 395-401 UNIVAC Division, Remington Rand Division, Wynn-Williams, C. E. 287,327 Sperry Rand Corporation 352 Universal automaton 350 Universal machine tools 60 X-66744 Computer 250 University Mathematical Laboratory, Cam- bridge University 353 University of Manchester 387 "Yes or no" game 243 University of Michigan 290 University of Pennsylvania 227,289-291, 333,351,352,375 Zero, symbol for 295 Usher, A. P. 6n21 Zuse, Konrad 1,12,155-156, 157nl and 4, 159-166,168,171-186,288,350,448 -, array processor 184 Vacuum tube counters, see Counters: electronic -, development of program-controlled com- Vacuum tubes 188 puters 155-156,171-184 Valtat, R. 172,297 -, knowledge of other developments 156 Vaucanson,J. 5,448 -, patents 155,156 Verzuh, F. M. 235 -, Plankalkiil 157n4,181 Vibbard, E. L. 239 -, planned electronic computer 156,288 Vicenzia (experimented with electrical version -, -, applications of 168 -169 of Jacquard mechanism) 5 -, -, binary arithmetic unit 178 Vital statistics 125 -, -, components 178 von Neumann, John 182, 189,258,291, -, -, operating speed 168, 178 350-351,352,355-364,371-385, -, -, state of progress 168, 178 448 -, special purpose computers 172, 181, -, Collected Works 351 183-184 -, Draft Report on EDVAC 350,351 -, ZI computer 155-156,172, fig. 3 von Neumann machines 352 (p. 176), 177, fig. 5 (177) -, -, arithmetic unit 161, 167 -, -, basic control 161 Wallis, J. 195 -, -, binary addition scheme 164, fig. 3 Walther, A. 128,151-153 (p.166) Watson Astronomical Computing Bureau, -, -, carry assimilation 164 Columbia University 127n -, -, computation plan 159,161,167 Watson Scientific Computing Laboratory, -, -, distributor 161 Columbia University 188,216n -, -, formula 159 Watson, ThomasJ. 126,187, 199n, 219 -, -, mechanical switching element 175 Weaving industry 4-5 -, -, memory device 159,161 Weddle, T. 196 -, -, microprogrammed control 176 Weiner, B. 240n8 -, -, operation sequencing 159 Weiner, Norbert 238,288 -, -, reconstructed version 156 Western Electric Company 250n -, -, trigonometric functions 168 Weygandt, A. 238 -, -, selector mechanism 159,161, fig. 2 Wibert, Martin 448 (p.166) -, difference engine 3, 192, 448 -, -, semi-logarithmic notation Wilkes, M. V. 7,11,349,353,389-393, 163-164,174 396 -, -, sequence control 159, 162, 173 Wilkinson, (nephew of Joseph Clement) 66 -, -, storage of computation plan 162 Williams, F. C. 352-353,387-388 -, -, store 165, fig. 6 (p.166) Williams, S. B. 238,243,245,258, 290 -, -, trigonometric functions 168 Williams-tube electrostatic store 352 -, -, variable control 161 Wireless telegraphy 102 -, Z 2 computer 172, 177 Womersley, J. 354 -, -, arithmetic unit 179

463 Zuse, Konrad: Z2 computer Zuse, Konrad -, -, operation sequencing 179 -, Z4 computer 156,172,179-180, fig. 8 -, -, state of progress 168 (p.180),183 -, Z3 computer 156,172, fig. (p.180) -, Z5 computer 183 -, -, arithmetic unit 179 -, Zll Relay Computer 183 -184 -, -, operation sequencing 173, 179 -, Z22 computer 189 -, -, store 179 -, Z23 computer 184 -, -, technical details 179 -, Z 31 computer 184

464