The Hukou Divide, Despite Having System Through Multiple Data Sources and Exploring Recent Policy Oorschot

Home , Chinese Dream, Harmonious Society, Social welfare in China

ASIA IN FOCUS Keywords: people’s self-image as adistinct undeserving group. of rural people as lesser citizens, the hukou system consolidates rural stratification of social citizenship. Through thepersistent depiction widespread institutional diversity of social security and sustained the determinant of social citizenship. The hukou system has created become irrelevant in some respects, continues to bean important developments, this paper shows that the hukou divide, despite having system through multiple data sources and exploring recent policy Oorschot. By examining the current state of the Chinese hukou in China to the works of amongst others T.H. Marshall and W. van citizenship perspective, by relating recent social policy developments the reigning perception of the hukou divide is discussed from asocial tangible inequalities between urban and rural residents. In this paper, Previous research on the hukou divide has primarily focused on the Construct? Passé a – Hukou Divide The BIRGITTE EGESKOV JENSEN EGESKOV BIRGITTE China, hukou, welfare, segregation, exclusion, citizenship exclusion, segregation, welfare, hukou, China, 28 ISSUE 5 ------Social citizenship is a core concept concept a is core citizenship Social concept of social citizenship focusing on indi on focusing citizenship social of concept viduals’ worth’ ‘social and economic and social focus by society, in participate fully to ability of duties and rights welfare-related the on sing hukou the of presence The citizenship. social social equal such no is there that means system to the concept of social citizenship. Finally, it it Finally, citizenship. social of concept the to drawing system, the of resilience the discusses theoryon van Oorschot’s (2000) of ‘deserving way a long still is there that argued is It ness’. that and reforms institutional of terms in go to impact an made have may system hukou the Chinese the of heuristics deservingness the on population. The subject of social paper. this throughout citizenship and migration and their changing manifestations in China today’s distinguishes society of members full are who those between hukou the of a result as not, are who those and a from understood often is Citizenship system. one’s civil/legal perspective, emphasising thus How system. electoral the in engage to ability participa meaningful China, of case the in ever, negligible still is system political the within tion 2017). Saich, 2012; & Saich, Hu 2003; (Solinger, Marshall’s others, amongst I follow Instead, Firstly, it assesses the development of inequal of development the assesses it Firstly, in bringing divide, ity the rural/urban across inequality. economic beyond dimensions other divide the hukou discusses it critically Secondly, relat by view, of point citizenship a social from policy social in China ing recent developments 29 ------

This paper contributes to the current dis current the to contributes paper This The hukou system is not simply a manifes simply not is system hukou The

t has often been argued that the decisive decisive the that argued been often t has policymaking social for Chinese challenge is segre which system hukou the abandon to cussion of the hukou system in three ways. ways. three in system hukou the of cussion fied on several occasions, most significantly in a in significantly most occasions, several on fied been adopted since have series of that reforms 2014 (Chen, 2017). ognised by the leadership of the Chinese Com Chinese the of leadership the by ognised modi been has system the and Party, munist that “they appear unable to reverse the ongo the reverse to unable appear “they that (2012, protection” of social ing decentralization rec increasingly been also has This 806). p. regions. Although some attempts have been some attempts Although regions. have made at rural-urban harmonization, Shi argues distributes resources and opportunities (Fei- resources distributes TheLing,2005). rural-urban divide has creat between and within both disparities, ed social tation of citizenship: it permeates all aspects of of aspects all permeates it citizenship: of tation daily life, stratifiesindividuals and regions, and rural-urban divide (Zeuthen, 2012; Gaorural-urban et al., divide (Zeuthen, 2012; 2013). cial proof of residency, determines one’s social social one’s determines proof of residency, cial on a deeper de it also level, rights. However, the sustaining by society in roles citizens’ fines With access to social welfare being determined determined being welfare social to access With offi one’s is which hukou, one’s residency, by 2006; Saich, 2008; Chan & Buckingham, 2008; 2008; & Buckingham, Chan 2008; Saich, 2006; Li, Yang, Gao, 2012; Shi, 2010b; 2010a; Frazier, 2016). & Zhang, Xu Liu, Li, 2016; & Li, Long 2013; gates the population’s social rights according to to according rights social population’s the gates 2003; 1999; Solinger, born are where they (e.g. I ASIA IN FOCUS increases in trade, foreign investment and con mies China in expansion, rapid and experience economicthe Moreover, reforms. urban econo less, has poverty decreased agreat deal since Nonethe agriculture. traditional on based and economy,rural which is shrouded poverty in is often simplified by a dual classification - a several throughout levels China society but of The economic system is highly fragmented on economiesdistinct (Fei-Ling, 2005; Suda, 2017). this day, China is made up of dual societies with (Atinc, areas 1997). rural and urban Totween thised to the spatial inequality that exists be continued World to rise. The has Bank attribut ic growth since the late 1970’s, inequality has rural citizens (Gao et al., 2012). while was meagre it for hukou-holders, urban was relatively welfarethe system generous for and mutual (Wong, relief” 1998, p. 94). such, As generation through mutual production, help on the masses, rely[ing] on the collective, re “rely[ing] by hardship overcome to were izens were taken care of by the government, rural cit to death (Zeuthen, 2012). While citizens urban starved hukou-holders agricultural of millions non-agricultural of whilevival hukou-holders, rationing was put in place to guarantee the sur population. the of needs welfare the for responsibility assumed care etc. The paternalistic Chinese government cess to housing, food, land, education, medical eryone. The hukou was used to standardize ac in 1958-59, where a hukou was assigned to ev system dates back to the Great Leap Forward tration record’. In its current version, the hukou omy, translates loosely into ‘household regis nese socialist ideology and the planned econ The hukou system, deeply embedded in Chi trajectory path-dependent A time. this at worth Despite the phenomenon of econom of Despite phenomenon the When the system was first introduced, a ------30 (Solinger, 2006; Shi, 2012; Chen, 2017). Below, I determined by hukou the system security persistent institutional segregation of social through particularly the barriers, policy and successful integration as aresult of structural segregation un to prone more or experience are migrants rural-to-urban that have shown p. 71; Zhao, Jia &Zhao, 2017, p. 107). Studies welfare urban schemes (Kongshøj,from 2015b, rural hukou, are to avarying degree excluded workers, who are living in urban areas with a migrant million 200 than creates: more it lation’ tem has mainly focused on the ‘floatingpopu world.the tain some of the most advanced industries in higher in urban areas than in rural areas, com areas, rural in than areas urban in higher time, average times disposable income was 3.3 ratio peaked in the period 2006-2009: at that since 1978, we see that the urban-rural income incomecapita households rural and urban of toing residency. the 1990’s, the hukou is still registered accord since abolished been has occupations cultural agri and non-agricultural between distinction of the current hukou system: even though the misconception discourseing a on is founded Kongshøj, 2017). The rationale is that the reign (e.g. Chan &Buckingham, 2008; Zeuthen, 2012; has been called into question in several studies that the hukou system has been abandoned, media, and account academia in standard The inequality of Dimensions heuristics. servingness how such divisions may reproduced as de be a social citizenship perspective and discuss I assess the (remains the hukou of) system from with aspecific focus on hukou reforms. Finally, ondly, consider I developments, recent policy several on divide dimensions inequality. of Sec first assess the development of the rural-urban In recent times, interest in the hukou sys If we compareIf development the per of ------ISSUE 5 - - - -

China Statistical Yearbook Database Statistical China Yearbook

3 rural income ratio income rural -

- Despite improvements in the financing in the financing improvements Despite 2,7 >3 <2,7

rban Legend U ■ ■ ■ Figure 1: Urban-rural household income ratios, by by ratios, income household Urban-rural 1: Figure province, 2015 Source: gap are compared in Figure 1. Firstly, it should should it Firstly, 1. Figure in compared are gap ur of average national the that be mentioned from spans and 2.7 is ratio income ban-rural signifies which Gansu, in 3.4 to Tianjin in 1.8 great regional differences.as shown Secondly, an have provinces 31 the of twelve 1, Figure in ratiobetween expenditure in rural and urban 2000to from significantly declined have areas ex 2014, By remains. gap a considerable 2014, areas urban in higher 2.5 times was penditure (CSYD). Regional differencesin the rural-urbanincome stood at 47%, with more than half the cost cost the half than more with 47%, at stood fami their or patients the by covered being varies rates compensation Furthermore, lies. thecountry; in 2007-2010 across considerably yuan/ 400-1852 approximately from ranged it (2012) al. et Tang p.451). 2015, (Huang, person expenditure after a in private decline note national policies began to replace the old dis start the at system welfare public ease-ridden the in step important – an millennium the of of importance the given universalism of pursuit schemes. welfare universal in tax financing system, aof sizable the healthcare difference inper expenditurebetween capita healthcare the Though persist. does areas urban and rural 31 ------China’s efforts at achieving a universal wel universal a achieving at efforts China’s The 2000 and 2010 censuses (CSYD) do do (CSYD) censuses 2010 and 2000 The Several studies have established that ed that established have studies Several In 2015, 8.6% of the rural population re population rural the of 8.6% 2015, In borne by citizens themselves. In 2011, the av the 2011, In themselves. citizens by borne care for inpatient rate eragereimbursement were covered by a health insurance scheme scheme insurance a health by covered were however, 2012), & Bekedam, Tao (Tang, 2011 in still is expenditure the of share a substantial fare system is above all evident within the field field the within evident all above is system fare population the of 95% almost healthcare: of still a small gap of 2% between rural and urban urban and rural between 2% of gap a small still illiteracy rates in 2010. indicates that the educational system has im has system educational the that indicates was there though scale, on a national proved illiteracy rates between rural and urban areas 2.8by per diminished has gap the that find we This (CSYD). 2010 to 2000 from points centage both rural and urban areas between 2000 and the average when comparing Moreover, 2010. 2017). in decreased have rates illiteracy that show in terms of, among others, expenditure, quali expenditure, others, among of, terms in 2012; Wu, and job prospectsoutcome, (e.g. ty, Suda, 2017; OECD, 2016; China, UNDP 2012; Li, ed, though several studies have established established have studies several though ed, the existence of a rural-urban educational gap income levels (Yue, Sicular, Shi & Gustafsson, & Gustafsson, Shi Sicular, (Yue, levels income in differences rural-urban on data The 2008). educational attainments are highly fragment ucational attainment and allocation of edu and attainment allocation ucational cational resources are highly correlated with in 2007 compared to 102 yuan/person/month yuan/person/month 102 to compared 2007 in 2012). amongst urban counterparts (CDRF, it should be mentioned that the MSLS is con is MSLS the that be mentioned should it aver the areas: rural many in lower siderably 37 yuan/person/month age benefit paidwas compared toonly 2.4% ofthe urban popula Furthermore, 156). p. 2016, China, (UNDP tion by (CSYD). 2015 (MSLS), allowance living the minimum ceived pared to 2.6 in 1978. However, since then, in then, since However, 1978. in 2.6 to pared 2.7 of a ratio to decreased steadily has equality ASIA IN FOCUS (Kongshøj, 2015a; Saich, 2017). This was accom and illness, as well as to reduce inequalities of social risks such as poverty, unemployment this reflects an aim to lessen the consequences nebulousness these terms, of is evident it that basic public services” (Ngok, 2013). Despite the as “putting peopleand first” “equalization of This led to social policy-making being framed goal. official an became society’ ‘harmonious Chinese government, constructing where a The 2000s witnessed adiscursive turn in the developmentsRecent policy cial exclusion (Zeuthen, 2012; Gao et al., 2013). trenchment of social strata as it facilitates so while hukou the continues divide en the to be significant, less becoming is divide rural-urban affluent than some urban areas in the west, the has made some rural areas on the coast more coastal and development out washed being slowly is urban and rural between distinction ‘hukou the and divide’ divide’.ral-urban the As important to distinguish between the ‘ru have prominent. more become is therefore It other divides; instance, regional for divides, relevant termsin economic of principles, than less have might become divide rural-urban the ing. Furthermore, it appears from Figure 1, that shrink slowly is fields these in gap rural-urban the that and China across healthcare and ment vances income in levels, educational attain 1978. market the from since up reforms opening and thermore, these regions are the last to benefit ‘development’. of stages theirand varying Fur the rural areas in proportion to the urban areas gaps in this area could bethe relative size of income urban-rural higher the for planation the western economic zone. One possible ex national average and are almost all located in the above or to equal gap income urban-rural It appears that there have been great ad ------32 ment of the rural economy by retaining and promote ensure and sustainable the develop political discourse” (Gow, 2017, p.102). common-sense meanings western in liberal “most contentious when compared with their conceptualisationthe these principles of is 2017). However, we should keep in mind that equality, freedom and the rule of law (Gow, principles such democracy, to reflect as posed 2017).detz, This new realm of policies is sup populations (Saich, 2017; Carillo, Hood &Ka migrant and rural as such society in groups ble work in China; one that is focused on vulnera comprehensive inclusive and frame policy panied by the formulation of amore coherent, hukou. The proposal distinguishes between urban an for apply can migrants ral-to-urban conditions the which ru upon tions specify plans to relax the hukou system. The sugges Registration System’ in July 2014 and laid out Advancing Household the for of Reform the Statethe Council presented ‘Suggestions the policy strategy on urbanisation. Subsequently, Plan (2014-2020)’, which was the first national Urbanisation National ‘New the is programmes ingham, 2008; Chen, 2017). The largest of these (Chan Buck & migrants rural-to-urban against discrimination reduce to designed initiatives opment, there have been anumber of policy 2002). to order in ensure continued progress (Hongyi, the Western Development Programme in l999 regionalout development by implementing coastal development, China sought to even pursuing of decades two Furthermore, after 2017). Chen, 2009; Schubert, & (Ahlers ture ture and the improvement of rural infrastruc (NRCMS),Scheme promotion the agricul of included the New Rural Cooperative Medical force; initiatives labour rural young a attracting The aim of several policy initiatives was to Along withAlong policies promoting devel rural ------ISSUE 5 ------However, despite the numerous poli the numerous despite However, From the viewpoint of Marshall, indi Marshall, of viewpoint the From cen rather of this the thoughts Following land in their home villages has become unten become has villages home their in land remains population The 2012). & Saich, (Hu able socio-economic different vastly into locked goods public to access of terms in structures and services the system though has and even is citizenship social permeable, more become solution to economic and political inequalities rights social uniform create be to may China in and secure that citizens are granted equal so worth.cial ideology The dominant adopted might 2000s the in leadership central the by a more inclusive towards asuggest movement cit equal of a notion on based system welfare the People’s within living those for all izenship the offer to seem could and China of Republic citizen on built system a welfare for potential oth amongst Marshall by envisioned as ship, ers. cy programmes been that have enacted, we the actual not exaggerate should impact of the system The divide. hukou onreforms the hukou barrier for the primary in remains institutional integrationclusive of rural-to-urban migrants urban progressive more somewhat the into do migrants that notion The system. welfare not need support, welfare them owning to due 2008, pp. 5-6). 5-6). pp. 2008, viduals are equal ifthey areall governed by economic possess and rights social same the definition the in point a key however, equality; also citizenship social that is Taylor-Gooby by capa one’s enhancing of possibility the entails and resources between distinction The bilities. this in make to one important an is capabilities (1985), Sen of thoughts the by Inspired regard. ac can you that feasibility the is capabilities – valu pursue to freedom the have or – cess being as able and functionings, educated such amenities. basic to access having or healthy, tral paradigm within social the citizenship, 33 ------

Others, such as Taylor-Gooby (2008) also also (2008) Taylor-Gooby as such Others, The new policies enacted in 2014-15 guar 2014-15 in enacted policies new The capabilities, and also to guarantee the resourc (Taylor-Gooby, them” finance to necessary es izenship concerns the rights and duties associ duties and rights the concerns izenship services and benefits of provision the with ated designed to meet social needs and enhance emphasize the rights and duties components components and duties the rights emphasize cit “Social it, frames As he citizenship. social of tion, health and quality of life – and thereby, thereby, – and life of quality and health tion, these. attain to right the as citizenship social zenship’. He defines welfare in a rather broad broad rather in a welfare defines He zenship’. work, as such educa things include sense to equality of membership status and ability to to ability and status membership of equality on builds (1992) Roche society. in participate Citi ‘Rethinking book his in work Marshall’s ritory, creating a uniform collective. For Mar For a collective. uniform creating ritory, shall, social in citizenship, general, an involves non-citizens as a prerequisite for inclusive for inclusive non-citizens a as prerequisite be are duties and rights legal as citizenship, ter a state within inhabitants all upon stowed tion citizenship, of sociology the of founder The of exclusion the emphasises (1964), Marshall Social citizenship and civic stratifica civic and citizenship Social tween residents with rural and urban origin. tweenand rural urbanorigin. with residents to a probably longhas Nevertheless,way this go. policies is to further inclusive urbanisation and and urbanisation inclusive further to is policies remove theeventually welfare disparity be tegrating the growing rural-to-urban migrant community urban into welfare structures. It these of purpose the that assumed be only can antee a decent standard of living for China’s China’s for living of standard a decent antee in in step solid a form and population rural little for those residing in the largest cities in in cities largest the in residing those for little China. megacities where access to urban hukous re hukous urban to access where megacities foresee the in Thus, controlled. strictly main do will framework policy new the future, able small cities, where migrants can apply for an and restrictions, no almost with hukou urban ASIA IN FOCUS genuine membership” (Solinger, 1999, p.7). “denied are migrants rural-to-urban while fare, cial citizenship based on their access to wel results citizens urban in enjoying inclusive so wage, welfare, housing” and (2003, p.7). This rank, social opportunities, one’scluding work continues to determine one’s life chances, in ern society would do –to large avery extent muchvery as abadge of citizenship in aWest regions. In the words of Solinger “the hukou – within security social of fragmentation tutional because of the inability to overcome the insti barrier for inclusive social citizenship to evolve tion through the hukou system. This creates a differentia persistent of a reproduction been – quite to the contrary, there has until now does not have access to uniform social rights to citizens” (2016, p. 343). welfare rights “relative the and value accorded distinctions, each contributing to variations in ral/urban distinction is just one of anumber of even more granulated form in China, as the ru man suggests that citizenship has taken an gions and cities (Shi, 2012). Meanwhile, Wood re in citizenship social of form spatial a created aries of social citizenship to localities and thus social protection, this has shifted the bound Coupled with the process of regionalisation of stratification within the Chinese welfare state. differencesou have created tremendoussocial off (ibid.).far entitlementsUnequal along huk remains decisions policy welfare for basis the notion the citizenship and strong of forming remains bias urban the years, recent in ership in the discourse of the Chinese political lead rural areas. Despite the rhetoric of universalism and urban between inequalities creates vast by the hukou system favours urban areas and into the Chinese welfare state and facilitated (Saich, 2017; Woodman &Guo, 2017). still rarely granted to migrants in major cities In other words, the Chinese population The system of resource allocation built ------34 ingness criteria’: control, identity, need, atti 2006).en, Van identifies Oorschot five ‘deserv social benefits (vanOorschot, 2000; 2005;Lars entitledals should should to be not or certain to order in evaluate individu certain whether ness heuristic, which guides opinion formation, describes how individuals consult deserving a 2006; Slothuus, 2007). Deservingness theory gime (e.g. Titmuss, 1974; Pierson, 1994; Larsen, the institutional arrangement of the welfare re for welfareport policies is deeply affected by sup public that have shown studies Several because it results in dual social citizenship. ‘otherization’ Chinese the among population and perceptions negative for explanation al sions. Rural citizens do to some degree, have housing, pen education, care and medical broad range of welfare goods, jobs, subsidized al attainment. Urban citizens have access to a terms of health, and also in terms of education opment and social citizenship status, both in aged from furthering their capability devel 2016,Li, p.1695). discour thus are people Rural as “peasantsfy unworthy of state care” (Long & ceiving themselves as ‘sick citizens’ they identi and internalize this stigma. Rather than per to perceive themselves care as ‘undeserving’ of come subjects rural Many stigmatized. highly also is ‘rural’ being but equality, economic reinforce institutional the division. ingness perceptions that tend to maintain and may thus berecognized as facilitating deserv (Kongshøj, 2017). The hukou system, by nature, as having contributed to common the good as ‘others’ and because they are not perceived ness is low, mainly because they are perceived different as a divide group deserving whose perceives other hukou the the those side of on population urban Chinese The hukou-divide. reciprocity are important in the context of the tude and reciprocity (2000, p. 36); identity and The hukou system is apossible institution Not only does the hukou system impede ------ISSUE 5 ------The last aspect in particular is of great great of is particular in aspect last The Nonetheless, the hukou systemcontin Nonetheless, the hukou ship created have a breeding ground for pro tectionism against outsiders, urban or rural, social local to access from ‘others’ excluding citizen them genuine benefits, denying thus depiction the persistent Through of rural ship. is system hukou the citizens, lesser as people ues to be relevant for how social citizenship is is citizenship social how for relevant be to ues to only not serves it Firstly, China. in granted the stratify to also but population, the register population. it population controls Secondly, under conditional is migration as movements, exclu social to lead often will and system the sion, as rural-to-urban migrant workers are left urban an with those as rights same the without undeserv a distinct as treated are and hukou the divides it definition by Lastly, group. ing populationby creating a dual social citizenship of deservingness perceptions and imposing divisions. the bolster that fragment The paper. this for importance China’s segregates which system, ed welfare and exclusion inclusion through population of certain groups from particular social rights, per The citizenship. social define to continues security social of diversity institutional vasive citizen social of stratification sustained and inforced by perceptions of deservingness that of deservingness that perceptions by inforced re highly divide hukou the make to likely are silient. discussionConcluding carry great to continues system hukou The in status people’s importancefor determining to misleading become has it however, society, not today, China in divide hukou the to refer develop of levels varying the of because least some in result which country, the across ment pros more becoming coast the on areas rural western the in areas urban some than perous rural/ the dilute effectively and China partof urban divide. 35 ------In short, even though the hukou divide divide In short, the hukou though even There are immense barriers to inclusive barriersThere inclusive immense to are Needless rural-to-urban to say, migrants dium-sized cities, it remains a divisive force as as force a divisive remains it cities, dium-sized be re to likely is it and cities, big the regards Li, 2016, p. 1696). 1696). p. 2016, Li, me and small to regards as modified been has terparts are but justify such differences “by re “by differences such justify but are terparts superiority” urban residents’ ferring to & (Long lation similar to that between national citizens and immigrants. Rural citizens are aware that coun urban their than less receiving are they institutional diversity of social security, which which security, social of diversity institutional popu Chinese the in a divide create to tends cause of the lack of trust in people on the other other the on people in trust of lack the of cause logic institutional The wall. hukou the of side widespread system promotes of the hukou overcome the institutional fragmentation of of fragmentation institutional the overcome be and divide, hukou the across security social man, 2016; Chen, 2017; Woodman & Guo, 2017). 2017). & Guo, Woodman 2017; Chen, 2016; man, to inability the of because citizenship social marginalcitizenship status in urban areas, mi grants from rural areas are generally hesitant to (Wood identify urban citizens as themselves care facilities, not to mention their exposure exposure their mention to not facilities, care their of aware Fully system. educational the to high risk of becoming ill or disabled, have lit have disabled, or ill becoming of risk high tle knowledge of and experience medical with care, and limited to urban access have health tional hierarchy, as they carrytional hierarchy, out precarious, dangerous and work. unhealthy They are at age (Cai et al., 2012). 2012). al., et (Cai age occupa the of bottom the at placed often are prospects for moving up the social ladder and and ladder social the up moving for prospects wealth, whichaccumulating especially places old poverty in of risk a greater at elders rural course, rural citizens do not enjoy the same op same the enjoy not do citizens rural course, fewer have they – citizens urban as portunities they do not have access to quality education education quality to access have not do they benefits pension with or employment formal life their During 2016). al., et Li 2012; al., et (Cai access to these community resources, how resources, community these to access their opportunitiesever, are highly limited, as ASIA IN FOCUS Email: inter est is welfare state development in China. research main Her Sciences. of Academy nese stipend from Aalborg University and the Chi Egeskov Birgitte Jensen continues to live on. as aconstruct that controls social citizenship, entitlements. now, for Thus, hukou the divide, citizenship their from disconnected are people is a citizen somewhere, growing numbers of embraceand integration. everyone Though shed its reputation as aforce of segregation fare institutions, the hukou system just might sustained focus on inclusive and holistic wel services. With continued reform impetus and a proach in assessing access to public goods and er shown faint indications of arights-based ap group.themselves undeserving distinctly as a constraining of idea an in hukou-holders rural Recent policy developments haveRecent policy howev [email protected] is currently on aPhD - - - - 36 ISSUE 5

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