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Thespis Thespis
14 14
mythmakers mythmakers
and and
attested attested even even
IS IS tl tl
discourse. discourse.
Antigone, Antigone,
tragedians), tragedians), the the than than
know know history history playwrights playwrights
Euripides' Euripides'
tragedians.U tragedians.U known known
12 12 Choerilus, Choerilus, playwrights playwrights Telephus; Telephus; impression impression
(at (at
in in
Against Against
1 1 Thus, Thus, recasts recasts
more more
Antigone Antigone
tradition tradition
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belong belong
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Including Including
Cleophon, Cleophon,
Unless, Unless, possible possible
ably ably
but but
playwrights playwrights
Choerilus: Choerilus: Pratinas, Pratinas, (Euripides), (Euripides), p. p.
third third
fifth-century fifth-century
hasten hasten
least least
known known
24-
Kamerbeek Kamerbeek
Euripides), Euripides),
speaking, speaking,
Sophocles Sophocles
one one
they they
the the
that that
belief belief
century), century),
for for
to to
the the
of of
to to
a a
plays plays
that that
six six
Thebes. Thebes.
to to
same same
to to
hundred hundred
(or (or
tides tides
the the
need need
example, example, satyr satyr
the the
appears appears
and and
five five
numerous numerous
line line
Bacchae. Bacchae.
subject subject
fourth fourth
A/ope A/ope
Greek Greek
point point
Euripides Euripides tragic tragic
that that
be be than than
Phrynichus, Phrynichus,
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from from
to to
elsewhere) elsewhere)
eight eight
handling handling is, is,
of of
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entered entered
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subject subject
audience, audience,
(1978) (1978)
sure sure
may may
not not
Aristarchus); Aristarchus);
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plays. plays.
have have
taken taken
give give
Tantalus Tantalus
however, however,
Athens. Athens.
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cannot cannot
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they they
It It
out out
a a
and and
century), century),
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there there
of of
the the
there. there.
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all all
poets, poets,
seems seems
well well that that
plays plays
of of
tragedy tragedy
to to
the the
Aeschylus' Aeschylus'
(Aristias). (Aristias).
plays plays
accepts accepts
that that
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are are
5 5
The The
as as
of of
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have have
Euripides Euripides
close close
and and
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the the
went went
dramatic dramatic
are are the the
plays plays
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hide hide
was was
fifth fifth
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nowadays nowadays
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bearing bearing
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lists lists
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to to
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century, century,
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Pentheus, Pentheus,
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Pratinas, Pratinas,
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Phrynichus' Phrynichus'
appear appear
PETER PETER
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to to
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Carcinus, Carcinus,
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Sophocles, Sophocles, 'even 'even
are are
write write
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of of
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tragedies tragedies
as as
fixed fixed
14 14
Medea Medea
body body
in in
Actaeon Actaeon
there there
lxion, lxion,
dozen dozen
of of
including including
meaningful meaningful
original original BURIAN BURIAN
titles titles
Achilles Achilles
an an plot plot
In In
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title title
continuously continuously
twice twice if if
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titles titles
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the the
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credited credited
material material Thebes). Thebes).
of of
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presumably presumably
the the
tragedies tragedies
an an
an important important an
all all
fourth fourth
known, known,
Alcmaeon, Alcmaeon,
as as
literary literary
Daughters Daughters actually actually
(including (including
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was was
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nucleus nucleus
way way
works
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and and
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as as
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lore lore
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received received
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become become
with, with,
Aeschylus' Aeschylus'
century); century);
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only only
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of of
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on on
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form. form.
final final
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and and
may may
point point
13 13
Iophon, Iophon, share share
of of
the the
I I
contemporaries contemporaries
literary literary
mythological mythological
waiting waiting
contemporary contemporary
titles titles
of of
to to want
we we in in
Euripides' Euripides'
episodes. episodes.
Orestes. Orestes.
in in
attributed attributed
the the
scenes scenes
fable fable
an an
on on
recasting recasting
. .
Danaus Danaus plays plays
ending ending
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A A
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in in
call call
may may
legendary legendary its its
in in
canonical, canonical,
Euripides, Euripides,
Prarinas: Prarinas:
sense, sense,
that that
equal equal
brief, brief,
story story
the the
of of
being being
Greek Greek
exemplary exemplary
the the
son son
Philoctetes, Philoctetes,
was was
definitive definitive
which which
all all
older older
of of
safely safely
precedents.
a a
nearly nearly
view view
certainly certainly
patiently patiently
entitled entitled
of of
On On
avoid avoid
(Aeschylus), (Aeschylus),
number number
Phoenician Phoenician
the the works works
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system system was was
of of
All All
to to
three three
Tragedy'. Tragedy'.
poets poets
Aeschylus' Aeschylus'
events, events,
Perseus Perseus
the the
by by
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Septem Septem
the the
and and
that that state
Aristias, Aristias, Sophocles, Sophocles,
competitors, competitors,
'orthodoxy' 'orthodoxy'
of of
in in
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Sophocles' Sophocles'
half half
title title
Sophocles Sophocles giving giving
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or or
other other
of of
first). first).
Lycophron, Lycophron,
surviving surviving
. . all, all,
form: form:
plot, plot,
were were
Oedipus Oedipus
of of
discussion discussion
of of
see see
heroine heroine
already already
probably probably
Bacchae, Bacchae,
for for
(presum· (presum·
deserves deserves
15 15
It It
and and
as as
Women Women
Alcestis Alcestis
of of
tragic tragic
in in
son son
to to
more more
to to
Ch. Ch.
in in Seven Seven
is is
hand, hand,
later later
Yet, Yet,
well. well.
epic epic
and and
Six Six the the
the the
the the
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we we
not not
the the
the the all all
as as
of of
I, I,
a a
19 19
18 18
17 17
16 16
'fictional' 'fictional'
deduce deduce
literary literary
this this
a a
3). 3).
Aristotle's Aristotle's
happenings happenings
framework framework both both
of of
But But
banquets', banquets',
Orestes' Orestes'
Euripidean Euripidean
Libation-Bearers; Libation-Bearers;
conscious conscious
to to
tion, tion,
and and
triumphed triumphed within within
kill kill
Evidently, Evidently,
the the
the the
tragedies tragedies
typical. typical. survived survived
machina. machina.
Athenaeus, Athenaeus,
earlier earlier
Schiller's Schiller's
indispensable indispensable Sophocles' Sophocles'
On On
Euripides' Euripides' process process
Sophocles' Sophocles'
We We
firm firm
This This
the the Aristotle, Aristotle,
invention, invention,
late late
his his
with with
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impulse impulse
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on on
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know know
received received
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father father
transformation transformation
treatments. treatments.
foothold. foothold.
of of
traditions traditions
invention invention
fifth-century fifth-century
recent recent
As As
murder murder
also also
Maid Maid
plot plot
few few
But But
to to
that that
adaptation adaptation
material material
Poetics Poetics
as as Helen, Helen,
highlighting highlighting
Philoctetes, Philoctetes,
Antigone, Antigone,
Deipnosophistae Deipnosophistae
it it limits limits
at at
were were
both both of of
Electra's Electra's
regards regards
although although
marry marry
that that
man man
history history
Aeschylus Aeschylus
would would
in in
to to
of of
appear appear
most most
and and exceptions, exceptions,
but but
Waterloo.
retell retell
history history
the the
mythical mythical
Orleans, Orleans,
such such
whose whose
made made
of of
the the
of of
vary vary
not not
Poets Poets
fifth-century fifth-century
d. d.
to to
The The
not not
Myth Myth marry marry
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Hypothesis Hypothesis that that
continues continues
legendary legendary
was was
is is
obviously obviously
Haemon Haemon
and and
a a
his his
make make
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Agathon's Agathon's
going going
crucial crucial
innovator, innovator,
p. p.
features features
at at
never never
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living, living,
heroine heroine
urging urging
familiar familiar
can can
to to
and and
and and
up, up,
in in
latter latter
criticism criticism
is is
mother mother
of of 196 196
a a into into
dramatised dramatised
actual actual
18 18
vm vm
inform inform
his his
which which
complete complete
tradition tradition
disadvantage. disadvantage.
extend, extend,
reported reported
the the
to to
the the
simply simply
also also
no no
and and
on on
That That
deviation deviation
of of
muthos: muthos:
347e. 347e.
reshape reshape
civic civic
Troy, Troy,
below) below)
mother mother
1 1
fluid, fluid,
never never
conclusion conclusion
course course
and and
poets poets
and and
as as
more more tradition, tradition,
class class
tragic tragic
joan joan
entirely entirely in in
play play
of of
tragedians tragedians
story story
structures structures
of of
Antheus, Antheus,
[which] [which]
and and
admits admits
overturned, overturned,
location location
the the
is is
myth myth
schol. schol.
the the
functions functions
is is
went went
bear bear
in in
the the
of of
intensely intensely
to to
with with
to to
of of
to to
(e.g. (e.g.
rSs rSs
overturn, overturn,
and and
'corrected' 'corrected'
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sense sense
is is
than than
his his
poets poets
Arc Arc
in in
our our
so so
areas areas
tragic tragic
in in
from from
have have
Euripides, Euripides,
his his
say, say,
of of
1351; 1351;
invented invented
to to
recognition recognition
known known
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tragedy, tragedy, him him
overturn overturn
is is
a a
that that
It It
dies dies
to to
own own
the the
departure departure
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taking taking
a a
as as
Troy, Troy,
and and
own own
it it
familiar familiar
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to to
and and
is is
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developed developed
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myth myth
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of of
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heroically.on heroically.on
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day: day:
local local
account account
text text they they
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because because
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day day
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to to
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tales, tales,
outmanoeuvre outmanoeuvre
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see see
merely merely
tragic tragic
is is
itself, itself,
Vickers Vickers
his his
at at
do do
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tradition, tradition,
the the
dramatic dramatic
wayP wayP
notorious notorious
to to
16 16
which which
to to
us us
an an
Steiner Steiner
from from
tragic tragic
less less
subject subject tokens tokens
close, close,
in in
own own
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show show
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follow follow
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novelistic novelistic
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it it
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Webster Webster
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plot plot
from from
of of
enjoyed' enjoyed'
that that
(197;) (197;)
intervention intervention
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Argos Argos
( (
plot, plot,
but but
field field
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We We
make make
events. events.
1984). 1984).
plays.
neither neither
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rate, rate,
versions versions
with with and and
state state
modern modern
also also
have have
from from
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to to
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festival festival
plot plot
the the
events events
had had
the the
a a
Homer's Homer's
names names Napoleon Napoleon
of of
esp. esp.
can, can,
(1967) (1967)
interpretation interpretation
tradition, tradition,
very very
there there
characterisa
reference reference
battle. battle.
who who
19 19
great great to to
in in
expectation. expectation. plays plays
history. history.
fleshing fleshing
example example
precedents precedents
the the of of
(145Ib2.I-
encouraged encouraged
stood stood
2.95-337· 2.95-337·
Aeschylus' Aeschylus'
result result
within within
could could
example example
as as
I I
Orestes). Orestes).
the the
affairs affairs
(e.g. (e.g.
between between
and and
fact fact
182.. 182..
believe, believe, and and
arc arc
deus deus
did did
purely purely
cycles cycles
based based
in in
great great
as as
open open
This This
find find
who who
self
that that the the
out out
the the
the the
the the
But But
few few
the the
not not
ex ex
of of
of of
in in
in in
in in is is PETER BURIAN Myth into muthos: the shaping of tragic plot
of myth have a certain prestige; they have become an integral part of the so. And, since the outcome has moral and even social dimensions, more system of tragic discourse. than just the aesthetic sensibilities of the audience can be engaged. Such As regards tragic plots based on recent history, the poets seem to have patterns also participate in broader ritual paradigms. The pattern of the discovered at an early point that their ability to comment on civic life and foundling's return, for example, clearly reflects the well-known rite de the affairs of the Athenian state was impaired rather than enhanced by passage marked by separation from normal society and a period of direct depiction of events from the immediate past (see Ch. r, pp. 24-5, for liminality and testing, which, if successful, finally leads to reintegration into further discussion of early tragedies based on contemporary themes). the social order at a new level. Patterning of this kind links the success or Aeschylus' Persians, the only such tragedy to survive, and as far as we know failure of tragic agents to the fate of the community as a whole. the last of its kind, dates from the 47os and dramatises the recent defeat of We find characteristically complex adaptations of this story pattern in the Persian invader. It is fascinating, among other things, for the degree to two surviving tragedies, Euripides' Ion, where it retains in a somewhat which it has been accommodated to what we might call the mythic mode, muted form the expected happy ending, and Sophocles' Oedipus the Kiug, with the full panoply of dreams, portents, and prophecy emphasising a where it forms a crucial element in the irony for which the play is famous. In pattern of divine punishment, while at the same time its focus on the hopes, Ion, Creusa's attempt to murder her son, a young temple servant of Apollo fears, and sufferings of the Persians compels compassion for the vanquished at Delphi whom she believes to be her husband's bastard, is thwarted, and foe. Ion, discovering that she is his mother and Apollo his father, at last assumes his destined role as prince of Athens and coloniser of Ionia. In Oedipus, the 3. Story patterns foundling plot reappears with ironic inversion, since Oedipus learns that he By story pattern, I mean the shape of a narrative, constructed according to is hereditary king of Thebes only by discovering the double secret of his the rules of its own inner logic as storytelling rather than the probabilities of hideous pollution, and loses his kingship in the act of recovering his everyday life, and capable of generating indefinite numbers of variants. 20 To birthright. begin with a familiar example: romance, fairy tale, and legendary history In speaking of story patterns, I am not claiming to isolate a set of master offer a large number and variety of stories in which royal children are plots to which all the narrative forms of tragedy can be referred; I am simply exposed, survive, and eventually return to claim their birthright. Notice first highlighting particular forms used repeatedly by the tragic poets in shaping that the story pattern reverses ordinary expectations. Whereas exposure of their plots. Each involves a characteristic type of conflict, each presupposes children in real life must usually have ended in death, the logic of the story a particular storytelling logic. We will examine a number of ways in which pattern demands the child's survival- no child, no story. Second, the logic these patterns inflect spectator response, above all by forming frames of of the plot coincides with clear moral and even social predispositions. We reference and what we might call frames of expectation for the experienced are invited to expect the child not only to live but to obtain what is rightfully Athenian tragedy-goer. Even as story patterns are manipulated and com his or hers by birth, and in particular to view the restitution of the birthright bined to meet the needs of a particular tragic subject, they still retain as an act not only of justice but of legitimation. 21 sufficient identity as shared and even conventional elements to provide Why might such a pattern appeal tp a tragic poet? The answer, I suspect, significant interpretative pointers. Their interest, then, lies largely in the is that both its narrative inevitabilities and its moral directionality can easily ways they meet, deflect, or defeat the expectations that they themselves be made problematic. Since the inner logic of the story pattern inevitably arouse. The commonest of these story patterns are those I shall refer to as sets up expectations that must be met or disappointed, the poet can direct retribution, sacrifice, supplication, rescue, and return-recognition. At the our responses to the unfolding drama by meeting or disappointing them, or risk of making them seem far more mechanical and less problematical than more precisely by controlling just how and to what extent the drama does they are as the tragedians deploy them - sometimes singly, but often in combinations and with surprising twists - to articulate their plots, let us 20 I adopt the term from Lattimore ( 1964). Two studies of Euripides are of special interest for take a brief look at each. their trearment of typology of plot: Strohm (I9S7l and Burnett (I97I), from which my The retribution pattern is organised around punishment for past offences. pattern-categories are adapted. 21 The pattern is thus at least as suited to comedy as to tragedy; we find a version of it in a It may involve conflict between gods and mortals, with the mortals' fragmentary fourth-century comedy, Menander's Epitrepontes (Arbitration). challenge to divine supremacy leading to their destruction. Aeschylus'
r86 l
J
l J !
seized an in Persians, and analogous the participation destroyed around tragedians
Oedipus' Aeschylus' own a from a
the of
individual community
There Euripides' self-sacrifice pattern, cian
protection or three from Danaus aged Children several
Women,
22 intended Orestes,
love
malign
The
the
The
course, action
See
group
centaur's
punishment
Bacchae.
choices.
Women).
the
Oedipus
below,
more
an
charm
control,
are four
sacrifice
involving
supplication
this
other
and
more
wounds
Euripides
the
in trick: curse
saviour
implacable
of
of
but
whose
is
and
conflict
provide
from
Alcestis
p.
Seven complex
its
suppliants,
deadly,
Heracles;
through
of
sole
revenge form
In
Prometheus the if
is
190
reconciled
often simplest
of
and
full-blown of
plays, her
the
pattern
Macaria those Sophocles'
by
is
a
and
rejects made
mothers
surviving
suppliant
choruses
Sophocles'
his
ruler
inflicted
goes
against
of husband
centaur
between
clear
no pattern since
and
and
Burnett
in
actions
and against
sons,
of
the
and
retribution,
notably
entails
form,
by
Euripides
means
pursued
so far
the
who
to
when
in
a
Iphigeneia
examples
Bound we
violent
suppliant
of Heracles'
willing
(1971)
one Women
which
community
him.
tragedy
Nessus,
suppliant's represent, involves
by Thebes
Children
should
bands,
of her
quman
Oedipus the
but
must
know
PETER
as
conflict
Deianeira excluded.
one
whose
Sophocles'
Euripides'
by The
husband.
184-7.
to
represents
divine
Seven
enemy
developed
they
participation
then as
ofTrachis,
allow an
ever
god
as- based
dramas
of
that
poisoned
188
shows
a
Aeschylus'
BURIAN
other
agents,
at
of
central triangular
do between
at
implacable
he
respectively, themselves
suit.
plays
in
retribution who
defend
Heracles
prefer
upon
Aulis
are
his
uses
Co/onus. a The
was
on
Euripides'
crisis,
Ajax form
Andromache
22
suppliant
an
in
retribution
as
victim
also
fell
although
contemporary
whose
arrows,
it,
figure
the interesting dying,
Electra
retribution
another
another
are
the
a
them,
of
and
she
and
confrontation:
resolved at
of
or
subsidiary
primary enemy;
corpus
bring
this
needs also
Supplication
organised
Thebes, will
the
is
unwittingly
Menqeceus
Euripides'
the
action plots
gave
Hecuba
telling
by
Euripides'
a
dramas
to
divine pattern
over
plays
to
at
lone not
fifty
force and
and special
sacrificial
of
seeks
her.
takes
in
plot
Deianeira
fruition
are
to
work
extant
events,
and
her
motif
whom
in
favour
a suppliant,
desires
daughters
The
fail
and
Heracles.
interest
around
of
if
provides
central
constructed
and
elements
Hippolytus
the
the
a
to carries
and
case,
in
Euripides'
necessary.
Suppliant
suppliant
when all
'charm',
through
(e.g.
tragedy:
use
by
form
Phoeni
Medea.
obtains end
is
he
victim.
of
rescue
of
blood
since
three
such
their
part
it
and
has
this
out
the
the
.the
the
an the
be
as of
of of In
example,
the
sacnfice:
may men.t
emphasis
Electr~ In
to
pected g•vmg
l~c~l suppliant
a
a
matte~.
In connected
episodes.
adaptation deployed
control.the
that
of
elements
dramatic
degree
of
mhentance. ?uter.
acter's
plot,
freedom.
husband Helen, plays
reumted,
particular
Tragic
one Medea
Soph.ocles'
These
In another,
some larger
T~
return-recognition
be
are
mvolvmg
l~gend
as
the
1t
are pattern
opposition
and
effec~ed
mset
rescue
.to
In
ignorance
a it in
widely
trag1c In
cases,
repeatedly
plots
m
plots .ends.
on
return-recognition pattern
We Once
suitable defeat
that
the
is
in
and
others,
to
which disturbing
which
overall
a~
of
~ther tra.gedy my~h
.of
in
We
mto
the
the
tragedy
Electra,
closely
but
pattern
cannot
m
of
Euripides'
myths
story
IS
Creon often
by
wife
But
again,
no
Oedipus'
used
a
have
segments the
a
his
recognition
for
not it
to
;:tchieving of
cases,
dramatic
of common
pairs a
Orestes' Myth into
shape
central
doubt,
the
seems
(and
constructs
three
establish
given
patterns,
dramas.
in Oedipus
specific
related
his
combine
in
for to
already enacts
ways. as assume
emerges
structured
the
tragedy,
pattern
the storytelling
of
brief
the own
comedy
subsidiary
Andromache.
example,
of
death
pattern Electra
clear
of
plot
the
return.
story
form.
foe
clever
its
muthos:
Sometimes
the
Euripidean other)
a
dramatic
stage;
heroic
The
pattern,
of
noticed
of true that at
that
but
struggle
particular
shape
two
from willing and
is
structure
that
tragedy,
in
Ion
course,
brother
Colo
and
a
as plays, pattern
can
extreme cases
complete
Greeks
In
identity,
identity.
the
Attica, the
variant
and work
legend the
or
outwit
of
the
elements
a the
and
Antigone,
of
romance,
be how
nus
conflict
ends.
sacrifice
revenge
whereby
shaping
many
more
drama
tragic
it
Euripides'
poet
Iphigeneia
the
are
the
action
used
providing
of effect
their
and
is
can
Oedipus
was
(brother
but that
the
of
a
It barbarian he
a By
special
same
actions
plot
has
underlying
kinds.
different
one
as poets
matter
is
sister arises
and
of
own
be two
of
rather is by
presumably·
tragedy
they
labouring
for
actions
shaped
a
are the hard
one
·adapted
tragic
able
pattern was
the
of retribution
made
narrative
Helen,
that among chief
a
to
salvation.
cases
the the principals,
and
inherited
proposed
As
and based
episode
the
from
satisfying
of
to
inherence
Sophocles'
to
plot
largely
articulate
oppressors kind:
is
Euripidean
by as
matter):
story
imagine
an
Ki
surviving most
sister to
patterns
reclaim
of
on
and
of
modulated a
against
11
·on
episodes
the
the
Antigone's
action
story
g,
n~t
narrative
serve
divine
forms
Euripides,
in
the
patterns,
Here
many
them
common
to
given
Taurians
one whereas
illustrate
central unexpectedly
in logic
a
of
part
composing recognition
dramatise.
compound
pattern
individual rescue
his
means
inner
adhering
in
one
another. examples
disparate
dramas
and
punish
are the
pattern
within already
others.
by for
of
by
proper
unex
forms
self
char
type
case
they
also
for
plot
the
and and
the
wi~
the
an
the
of the
of
to complex ending
expectations
- that
resulting which story,
effect
setting is
Suppliant it Philoctetes,
The
suppliant the
the if story track
the by
by different laus,
storytelling
and
the
This
matrix;
production patterns, scratch
require
is
are
Philoctetes
until an
on
a
In
offering
the
Surprising
expectations
Seven
myth
crucial
not
myth
more
dissonance
extraordinary
ethical,
repertoire
cases
the
patterns,
refuses
is
his
by
Theseus
suppliant
himself
Heracles
in
each
greater
a
some
supplied
plots.
rescue
terms
in
necessary
in
persuading
enacted
double
action
the
who
Women,
or
is
element
such
to offered
make
which
his
based
built time
can
to
social
less
to
legendary
saving
take
firmly
There
but the
brings
and
that
effort fell
plot
of
thus
destruction
intervenes take
actually
as
raised
pattern,
dislocation:
indeed
be
ready-made
a
the
abruptly
before
into
narrative
every
rescue
example
Philoctetes
of
at
part
in
poet
these,
on
are
has
unsettling
and
saved.
generated
against
are
myths
him
the
of
to
any
tragic
Thebes,
which
tensions
the
by
almost
available
to
in
set
subjects
composes
adapt
Heracles'
version
them
abject three
fails
4·
initially
oiia meanings political
from
the
to
the
action
story
the
be
ex
allow
his
themselves
of plots.
Something
The
of
forms
what
Theseus,
Neoptolemus
change
substituted.
in
when
PETER
interesting
sack
machina
patterns
really
home,
until
such
a
generated
them
his own
effects
invites
hero
that
constant
patterns
myth,
rescue
is
are
mythic
and
on
patterns
rejects
a
we
agonised
family,
a
is
of
patterns
the
his
terms-
new
for
same
to
congenial
means.
BURIAN
variant,
his
part
his
but
Troy.
finally
know
against
the
and
but
problematic
arise
Athens.
plot
to
suppliant's
own·
the
analogous
megatext
the
themselves.
drama.
by
mind;
nephew's
thing
this
repetition
of
set
audience
an to
family,
finally
they
their
exile
played,
tragic
gaps,
And
and
to
Breaches
in
plea
refuses
mother
what
the
also
to
succeed
alternative
the
action
all
be
to
Heracles:
is
and
arc
thereby
The
fulfilment
question.
disruption
the
on
for
myth
real
'saves'
these
the
the
not
stage.
and
from
we
putative
behalf,
and
as
to
also happens
Lemnos,
it
drama
of
in
Sophocles'
puts
intersection
of
aid
'right'
expectations
in
one
or
just it
on
might
consider
a
forms,
back
Orestes,
open
legends divine
were,
the
prevent
Tragic
potential,
not
the
a
rescue
the
of
rescue
any
the
another
the
suppliant
in
In
and
is
saviour,
of
the
outcome
conventions
narrative
invented
call
on
does
their
in
specific
deflection
played
plot
but
against
a
expectations
flexibility
while
punishment
plots, then, plots,
anew
must
mothers an
Philoctetes
track.
Troy's
and
where
system Euripides'
action,
in
the
not his
religious
back
between
to
aroused
entirely tragedy
Mene
action
others
out
tragic of
plots.
fail
own,
form
type:
story
what
form
from
wish
The
fall
the
his
on
of
as
of
in
of
of of
if
cultural
wanderings marriage),
adolescence
the
affirmation.
Attic
the
authorised can
dramatic
voices-
challenging
exclusion form
tragic
beliefs;
order
of in
production
defiance
way whether among
complex
myth,
those
central
deep
themes,
repertoire
repertoire participates but
of
The
The
Myth
tragedy
a
such
pattern
all
myths
as
relatively
old
structures as
in
and
issues
use
cultural
fact
claim
and
values
a
other
neither
well,
values
may
codes,
instances
which
figured
comedy,
of
functions
of
mode
network
of
reinscribes
of
going
of
absence
that
voice
of
of
that
an
narrative
of
and
in
outside
in
thus
Greek
myth
in
their
since
the
be
legendary
things,
transition
narrative
(and
small
Antigone,
the
a work at turn
roles,
challenge
that
itself
threats
tragedy
what
subject
as
it
of
about
as
series
other.
shares
stake.
itself
Myth
own
helps
acquires
tragedy
as
mythic
of
the
therefore
dramatises.
comedy,
truth,
of
generate
become,
number
justifying
the
and
of
is
it
in
forms
has
interconnections
a
the
to
murderous assault murderous
in
this
particularly of
truths,
imo
tragedy
to
a
subjects
inflects
explain
of
Evidently, The
this
system
forms
keeps
city
offers
sequences
a
order
nor
struggle
as
narrative
lacks
doubt,
been
megatext,
father
the
larger
cultural
muthos:
a
that
criticaVaffirmative
of
24
it
as
especially them. the
rite
particular
(not
justification
established
assert
were.
young
See
well-known
helps
reworking
an
and
it
This may
whose
why
the
called the
seen
is
~ntral
of
affirmation
contradiction,
were,
Henderson
(but
to
23
hospitable obvious,
this
fixed
the
receptive single,
work
of
its
passage
structures
mythic
their
Rather,
be
we
validate
not
to
pattern one
male
events
shaping
reaffirmation
presence
the
the
signifiers
at
canonical
observation
conflicts)
briefly
can
clarify
valence
as
abode
(cf.
of
own
which
every
authoritative
power
is
female
(1990)
to
'megatext'
political
legendary
and
a
involves,
and
a
mcgatcxt,
the
unequivocally
to
to
of
Chs.
to
cultural
of
adulthood
encodes
corpus
Clytemnestra
that
illustrated
stance.24
rights,
the
cultural
a
the
specific
accusation
suitably
tragic
-
and
level,
multiple
must
within
as arc
countenances
of
structures,
in
dialectic
I
threats
often
unconscious
express
a
(1993).
an
way
and
are
is
and
tragedy.
closely
of
subjects
plot
culture.
among
and
norms.
read
from of
related
the
intervention
voice
cultural
through
values.
at
discrete
it),
complex,
found
5
baneful
cultural
in
with
voices
Greek
all
above). to
the
of
of
tragedy
marginality
the
asserted
or
virginity
which
overtly
aligned
The
practices
of
-
other
criticism
Tragedy
It
male
wrongs.
and
centre
reference
to
the
even
in
a
underlying
a
is
patterns
issues,
of
narratives,
a
myth,
-
obsessive
dramatic
bard,
threat
satire
many
engaged,
a
Tragedy
example
political
tragedy
things,
both
tragedy
of
specific
power,
limited
divine
shared
to
in
of to
(not
The
and
the and
uses
and
the
the
the
the
the
the
of of
to
of
as
to
or mother).
structures
the
passage therefore
Pentheus),
the tragedy
adulthood
therefore
civic
purification
and and the show the simply safely
community
of
and
polis.
Orestes however,
assurance
the
its
symbolic
of honours
and
own of
leaves
trials be
25
In
In
On
a
observed.
consequences
the
the
initiation
time
rites
symbolic
male
establishes re-establish
killing
very
defeated
Aeschylus'
crisis.
Euripides'
mother.
this
to
These
the
negotiated,
the
as
community.
may
Furies,
is
prove that
of
of
In
element,
and
it
birth
different
the
with
evoke
absolved
in
threat
is
city
of
or
Tragedy
his
is
entails
is
other his
presupposes
sacrifice
include,
succeed
not
the
Pentheus'
pattern
adumbrate
fate
invested
But
always
a
the
even
set
by
disguised
his
mother.
the
the
his father's
Bacchae,
role
who
as
Oresteia,
the
itself
realised
for structure
the
women,
his
Furies' of
words, of
right
well
but
trilogy
shape,
claim
intervention
25
the
of
both
primacy
as
in
an
in
(as
and
Orestes
part not
horrifying
exclusions
seek
welfare
as
guilt
Before
with
in
a a
the
He
initiation
the
to
murder,
dangers
individual.
interpretation
it
as
genre
the
to
story
succeed
once
the
the
either
the
favour
has in
purification,
of
but concern Orestes'
does,
rule
dismembered
first
is
a for
vengeance
of
democratic
his
both
threat
tragedy's
all
of
same
female
are
then
Pentheus
great
dramatised liminality
PETER
of
but
household
the
accommodates
his
pattern,
father's
instance,
the
of
death
finally,
its case
Orestes
that
hope
is
of
given
as
and
the
mother's
city
driven
twice.
matrix
Apollo
plight of
marked
male
of
Its
destructiveness
rituals
worshipper
Eumenides,
passage
BURIAN
the
the pollution,
is
concern.
fail
he
for
meaning community.
in
and
for
place
is
leaves order
far
for
for
of
also
ritual
line
and
attempts
the Having
patrilinear
is
outcome
(cf.
out
one
must
of
and
larger
and
(as
Orestes),
the
less danger.
his
of
as
death
presented
its
male
reaffirmation
in
marked
Ch. elements,
by
once
symbolically
of
from
for happens
a
both of
communal
Athens, state,
shape
youth
emphasis
Argos.
mother's
for
and
overcome.
failure
returning of
persuasion
civic
granted
been
r
the
takes
transition
the
to
again
Dionysus,
is
above).
The
the
and
mythical
just
succession,
sacrifice
one
or
see
as
reclaim
and
is
is
not
narrative
in
consequences
mountains,
cast
But
in fail
continued
he
place
with
Seaford
a
rite figured
indeterminate.
those
terms
as
as
than state
sacrifice
its
a
blood; to
as
secondly
wins
of
propitiation
the
out
(as
devoured
But
a
of
new
and
yields
every
often
Oedipus),
armed initiation
narratives
be
the
in
his
and
hunted
trial
(
in
suggestive
those
passage,
that
of
1994)
to
elements
he
Athens,
precisely his
understood
this
primacy
law
the
patrimony
home
the
this
life instead
on
an
Dionysus
detail:
implies
is
in
another,
freedom
show
can
warrior
Athens'
2.8o-3oi.
case
for
hunted
set
city
whose victim
by action
which
behalf
of
time,
The
into
that
and
and
like
and
and
still
the
the
his
of
of
of in
of
he
at
of
of
it
a
27 28 29
26 theatrical constitute out meanings response. gical
centrality theatrical
literary
Greeks
religious representations nity, Given making
during perversion
that
the its
repeated animal ritual
because duces
and starting-point
himself
tells
The
METATHEATRE
status
Seidensticker
Pentheus' See last
Easterling On For
detail
of
sacrifice,
indeed
constitutes
him,
a
Seaford
this
themes,
Aeschylus,
scene
is
which
the
the
precarious
the
mythological
of
and
employed
allusion,
the as
of
subject,
similarly
tragic
ritual
of
The and
'alone
human
practice.
(chiefly
mere
character
of
stages
of (1988).
fifth
the
a of
his
(1987);
kill.
explicitly
a
death
much
the
(1979).
kind
led
we
theatrical given
for
ritual
see
traditions
emphasis,
intrinsic
suffering
see
century
a
produce 26
trope
background,
being.
in
play
you
Zeitlin
may
prominent
in
a
but
imbalance of
Myth
Goldhill
Rehm
The
them Homeric)
widespread.
is
of
of
communal
distorted
It
Such
situation,
procession,
may of
practice.
animal
also wear
should
On
tragedy's
cross-references
a
-
scapegoat
expect
described
overt
(1965);
(1994).
the
into
emotive
makes
AND
in does
resource
constantly
a
restore-
performance
in
(1986) the
but
a
elements
sense
yourself
every
tragic
perhaps muthos:
(and
prime
complexity
that
tragic
Dionysiac
sacrifice,
antecedents
27
for
benefit
to
but and
the
a
it
28
cult
THE
esp.
social
means
The
power
Euripides,
of
discover
or
equally
and
as
also
calls
for
case
Such
for
a corpus
representation
tragic
138-67.
be
aberrant
theme.
of
danger attempt
out the
from
do
dialectic
a
193
the
subversion
added
the
PRESSURE
slaughtered
the
meaning
of against)
inflecting
sacrificial
out
connected
of
with
shaping
in
connected
of
elements
content
not on
the
city,
likey
Foley
example
god.
directing
as
city's
Homer
inscribed traces
to
for
He
Athenian
that
for
tragedy
behalf
relation
constitute
a
his
restore-
forms,
of
by
(1985).
redress.
is
that
set
the
of
the
which
is
guilt,
assimilation
of
identified
and
of
mother
deflecting
victim
and
tragic
constituted.
have
reconstitution
with
onwards
of
of
of
in
of
with
well-being
between
this
and we
both
OF
in
are
Pentheus
but
variations
this civic
killing
extending a the
the distortion
and
will
plot
our
sacrifice
importance
primarily
the
sequence
modulating
the
(
PRECEDENTS
nothing
1246),
theatrical
as
'perverted
city,
also
poets
tragedy
by
find
punishment
and
by
representation
deformation
-
tragic
priestess
symbolically
as
and
29
his
of
of
one
alone'
providing
because
reflections
sacrifice
write
the
on
accounts
the
cultural
adorned
and the
of
killers
that
opposition
a
new. texts.
need
body
and
mytholo
audience
marriage
not
sacrifice'
commu
ritual,
form
possible
(963)
do
(
repro
1114)
to
as
upon
in
only
non
such
only
The
The
and
is
not
life
the
for see
the the for
an
of of
of
a PETER BURIAN Myth into muthos: the shaping of tragic plot think of the sustained parallels in the Odyssey between the homecomings of Allusions call on a cultural competence that the author counts on spectators Odysseus and Agamemnon, between what has already become of Clytem to share. Implicit relations among texts can thus be understood as part of a nestra, Orestes, and Agamemnon, and what may yet happen to Penelope, formal design that depends for its full realisation upon an act of recognition Telemachus, and Odysseus. Tragedy, especially in its choral lyrics, is full of -a form of audience complicity in the making of meaning. such mythological comparisons and exempla, but for our purposes the Another form of intertextuality depends not so much upon recollection of interesting phenomenon is the covert or implicit cross-reference, such as is parallel narratives as upon the evocation of prior theatrical experience. found, for example, in the well-known and striking use of Iliad book 6 in Here, the very conventions of tragedy arc used to overturn audience Sophocles' Ajax.30 The memorable scene of Hector's ·farewell to Andro expectations. As an example, let us look briefly at the end of Euripides' mache serves as model for the episode in which Ajax takes leave of Medea, a sequence both powerful and disturbing. Medea's final entrance is Tecmessa, though to call it a model is to understate the richness of not unexpected; on the contrary, everything has been pointing to a last Sophocles' allusive technique. His audience knew their Homer intimately, confrontation with Jason, and he arrives to pound on the door of her house and he expects them to recognise his use of Homer and to use it in turn to and demand it. But the manner of Medea's entrance - above the scene interpret the scene they are witnessing. Hector, whose sword will kill Ajax, building, on a chariot provided by her grandfather Helios - is a carefully looms behind him as husband, father, warrior, and enemy; Andromache, calculated and prepared surprise. Jason is told that Medea has killed their whose husband is her all, conditions our perception of the despairing children. 'Open the door and you will see the corpses' (qq), says the Tecmessa; even the child Astyanax informs the figure of Eurysaces (cf. Ch. 6 chorus leader, and an audience of tragedy-goers knows what happens next. above). They have seen those doors swing open to reveal the bodies of Agamemnon It is not the parallels, however, but the differences that emerge once the and Cassandra, Clytemnestra and Aegisthus, and no doubt many equally parallels have been recognised that carry the interpretative burden, as in the terrible spectacles before the production of Medea in 4 3 r. So every eye is striking contrast of the heroes' hopes for their sons. Hector, returning from fixed on the doors- but they do not open. Instead, Medea swings into view the battlefield, only thinks to take off his helmet when it frightens his son. on high, and her scornful words draw attention to the spectacular breach of Gently lifting the child into his arms, he prays that Astyanax will grow to be expectations: 'Why do you batter and unbar these gates seeking the bodies as great and strong as he is, indeed better by far (Iliad 6.476-Sr). Ajax, and me, who did the deed?' (IJI?-r8). This spine-chilling moment takes emerging from his tent after his mad slaughter of the flocks, grasps his son Medea literally out of range, but the point is not just in the scenic effect. in his bloody arms, saying that a child of his should be broken in to his own Medea appears ex mach ina like a goddess, because, against all expectations, raw ways, and wishes for the boy to be in every way like himself - only that is what she turns out to be, or something very like it. Her dreadful luckier (Ajax 5 so-r ). It is by such adaptation and inversion of Homeric wrath has made her an elemental power, destroying everything in her wake situations and even locutions that Sophocles prompts his audience to and then flying from the ruin she has wrought.31 compare characters, relationships, tones, outcomes. The allusion makes for This example, in its grim play with the conventions of the tragic stage, a brooding richness hardly imaginable without it, appropriating Homer and introduces a note of metatheatricality that we find again and again in at the same time inverting the Homeric value structure. Euripides. Two passages that have traditionally been treated as cheap shots The fact that such cross-references can remain implicit and still be present at Aeschylus are worth mentioning in this context. In the great central scene for the spectator as interpretative frames suggests that they should be (369-685) of Aeschylus' Seven against Thebes, Etcoclcs carefully and understood not with reference to the author, according to the traditional elaborately chooses warriors to meet the challenge of the Argive captains philological paradigm of source study, but with reference to the audience. attacking each of the city's gates, and finds in the end that he alone is left to defend the last gate against his own brother, thus fulfilling his father's curse.
3o See Easterling (1984c). Segal (1983) points out the interesting case of Sophocles' Women of In the Phoenician Women, Eteocles simply agrees to Creon's suggestion that Trachis, in which the central figures oscillate between Odyssean and Oresteian paradigms, he should select a captain to stand at each gate, adding that it would be too Herades appearing first as an Odysseus, then an Agamemnon, Hyllus as a Telemachus and 10 then a kind of Orestes, Deianeira as a Penelope who becomes an inadvertent Clytemnestra. time-consuming to name their names, but that he hopes find his brother For discussion of this kind of intertextualiry in Euripides, see Zeitlin (1980). For general discussion of allusion in Greek tragedy, see Gamer (1990). 31 On Medea as daimon, see Knox ( 1977), esp. 206-1 I.
194 195 a character call
childhood proved exposure hearted smoothly
critics, tially is genre, is
dramatic immediately mocking some
as
shamelessly have footprint
reference later frame opposite realism, smce Orestes' them rather
this his much 32 Electra his Electra,
i~
tame
wrong.
that The
The
Goldhill
role-playing
no
its
mother.
characters
form
plays,
Euripidean Aristophanes
piece
with
tended
of
to
an
than uncertain
the
second
fawn!)
conventions
conventional
it
had
~rother
by
in
but
impersonation
tragedy
score
him
assertive
(1986)
would
frame, of
of available
She is exposure
of
when
old
scar
scorn.
of
which
struggle
we
the
'acting'
the
the recognised
the
intertextuality,
it
see
Sophocles'
to
(748-55).
weaving
impugns
man
Euripides
'critique'
a
-
is
and
2.49.
occasionally
would
convention
consciously
even
it logical
machinery
naturally
take
stray
itself. direct
how terms albeit
self-reflexiveness
not
His
the
response
is
is
is
disguise
to
with destiny. her
of of
satisfactions
still
hidden.
right
simply
old
hair
hoarier,
this
self-delusive
critical
Old
she
cower Already
one
the
audience (and tragedy
the of
cunning the
conclusion
Euripides
of
is
Philoctetes
citing
servant
be
made
interested
a
would
as
tokens
to
Comedy.
Aeschylus,
acquired
of
to
return
of
are
is
incongruity
find
Daulian
32
pursue Aeschylus' an
bigger
in
deduce
point
a
recognition,
the
the
PETER
theatrical
in
but
commonplace,
it
the
(Ironically,
did
for
isolated Euripidean
welcome
what
address,
Aeschylus'
into in
be
trots burden
has
marks
because
notorious
of
that
countryside
of
incontestable,
as him
than
his
not
precisely
in
a
is
Nevertheless,
destructive
stranger
that
BURIAN
Orestes,
traditionally
question.
and
amounts
to
the
man's,
a
out
organised
Frogs
as view
play
bit permit his
of
recognition,
fall
hers;
mark
of
of
Orestes
or
she
intertextual because
a
the
the
in
tragic precedents.
critique
difference
of
Aeschylus' the recognition
child
Oresteia,
in
other
was
in
announcing
is. in
not
cannot
and only
the
he
self-conscious
literary tokens
the
his in
to
returning
The
the
.
405),
the
Although
and
could
fear has
girlish (525-46).
around
evidently
end,
tragic
Odyssean
been
such
by
vastly
by
courtyard
forms
arbitrary to
overt
essential of
which
believe
the
returned,
highlighting
we
but
of
self-destructive
by
from have
criticism.
development
not
Orestes'
a
Aeschylus'
theatrical
tokens
scene
curls
parody Aegisthus,
find
different
time
of sticking-point
which
Agamemnon
his he
a
breaking
this
still
Commentators his
Electra
a
only
theatrical
kind
does
and
that
while
outer
token
own
Clytemnestra
further
of of
like
famous
and
predecessor·
quintessen
be
is
Aeschylus'
within
identity
Euripides'
Euripides'
Euripides'
theatrical
functions
her
so
elements
it
purpose:·
death of
hers;
wearing
also
chasing
limit
and
lack
dismiss
Electra
of
he
of
of
not
irony
high
play-
ends
one,
self
and
can
the
the the
for
the we
his
an
so.
of
of
to
is
·
credibility strikingly appears does within-a-play mountains notorious the mocks The device Menelaus as and whom masque- scourge made priest. wrecked 33 Tiresias participant Helen whole commander's entrapment takes Dionysiac in just not inexperienced
than that
burial
hands has
Even
Euripides'
See
the
the
central
surprisingly,
how
whole
he
power,
already
Menelaus
in
Segal
as
feminine
to
escape
among
god's
honours,
Altogether,
becomes
them
of
the
is
more
any
of
ex
its
appear
Menelaus'
this
see
metatheatrical
playing
the
announce
(1982.)
for
his
the
deconstruction
to
as
machina
play spectators
in
intrigue
leitmotif
and
other
but
Bacchae become
surrogate,
elaborate
this,
appearance sacrificial
staged
plot,
maddened
maenads.
Ncoptolcmus, the
bringing
the disaster.
them,
mother barbarians
garb
reappear
2.14-71
then
in
obviously
not
is
providing
perhaps,
Myth
the
rites
tale
surviving
staged
costuming too,
with
maenadic
rags,
in
in
and
his
by
merely
costuming
the
uses
a
role constitutes
and
know
and
for
that
his
into
a
Only
is
heroes
procession
Odysseus
as
useful
own
becomes
In
the
gap
moment
long
in
way
at
the
the of who
for
Foley
his
of
since
'true'
the
of feels
his
a
muthos:
the
the
the
Menelaus
king,
first
a
the
sec
tragedy.
his
death.
divine when
between costume,
role-playing
to us
costume,
the
in hair
dead,
women
mortal
way
reminiscent
(1980).
stand
on
element
armour
threatened
ship
becomes
its
other
Chapter
god
guise
own
by
this
a be
the
surrogate
of to
hoodwinked
boundaries
stage
of
disconcerting to
central
the
the
into Dionysus,
Here, powers
197
a
and
bring
supreme
this
differed
in
and
Dionysus. play
priest
the
In
-
disguise,
appearance
shaping
Theban
is sailor
of the designed
unsuccessfully
that
escape
one
in
in
a
the
play,
only
7,
mountains
merely
a
resources
in
has
however,
Philoctetes
bleakly
character
by
Thebes
Helen's
way
rags,
of
major
pp.
victim
in
to
wishes
suits
Euripides'
palace
from
example sent
the
of
then of
the
order
escape a
the
who
plot
into
he
169-70.)
Bacchantes.
This
of
tragic
far
and
symbol
first
a
age
blurring
his
preoccupation. scene Orestes
plays
his
comic
and
of by
that
to
it
sailor
scheme,
and
announces
helping
has that more
but
where
to
needed. feeling
is
reputation;
were
in and
and
a
to
and
serve
plot
to
Odysseus
of
trying
the
reality.
punish
Helen,
in
mad
along a
Troy.
involving
been
the
of by
sent
tragic
make
vein,
to
who
complex
Helen's of
his
gender. number
story,
possible
god
Pcnthcus,
is his his
now
with
stage
In
since
gender identity fulcrum
sacrifice
Euripides
to
role
intensified
set
(On
them
with
Pcnthcus.
a
Cadmus
Helen
at
'true'
mctatheatre, loss
of
survived
the
him
negotiate
drama
but to
hackneyed
Menelaus'
by
in
the
a
The
of
thcatre.33 freedom.
a
Pentheus
they
of
the
function to
horrible
his of
end,
aid
'trader'
motion
seem
mortal
having
to attired
we
role
of
stages
outset
at
plays,
know
place
most.
ship
own
that
and
was
add
for
the
the
the
the are
He
his
he
as
a
a PETER BURIAN Myth into muthos: the shaping of tragic plot
us when the god breaks down the young ruler's last resistance by ,.,,J,uu.''"'-'1! From the parodos (entrance song) to the end of the play, the chorus is :z.ff.) him, robing him in full Bacchic regalia in a scene (9 r that endows ~JilhllU~lllYpresent in the orchestra, with rare and noteworthy exceptions, transvestitism of the theatre- men acting women's roles- with a real palpable the communal and public character of tragic drama. One 34 to sexual identity and male domination. ~n.seq1uelrlCeof this convention is that, apart from prologue speeches that in effect addressed to the audience to set the scene, there is practically no TRAGIC FORM AND THE SHAPING OF TRAGIC PLOT pLIOClUY in Greek tragedy, for at least the chorus is there to listen. (The suicide speech in Sophocles' Ajax, 815-65, is one of the exceptions.P7 The conventions of the tragic stage form the matrix in which a chorus does take part, through its leader, in the dramatic dialogue, as segment of legend takes shape on its way to becoming a plot. Chapter as participating in lyric exchanges with other characters. The odes, examines conventions in detail, and I limit. myself here to a few nh.,Prv<>J·•nr•" lho,wever, stand apart from the action. Actors often remain on stage Juring ,,. 'j• on the relation of plot and tragic form. Along with endless variations on odes, but do not directly acknowledge their performance or contents . 'l limited repertoire of heroic legends, the tragic poets· generated en•:>rn:lOIJlSIY:• 38 I . only exceptions constitute special cases.) As moments of lyric !•I; l inventive permutations and combinations of a limited repertoire of choral odes draw the spectator away from the immediate 'j ' forms, to some extent analogous to those of opera. From the formal ·~n•~cern~of the plot, while at the same time they inevitably have an effect on of view, the crucial fact is the alternation of speech and song, out of which. ~;dl:alll.attcmood, providing a kind of objective correlative for the spectator's each play makes its own distinctive musical patterns.35 We should not ::respc1ns•~sto the action. of these poetic forms as moulds into which a given story is poured, but Greek tragedy is essentially a drama of words. Characters enter, talk with 1: tl rather as flexible and expressive devices for developing and articulating. each other, exit. Very little 'happens' on stage- no battles and no blindings I tragic plots out of the materials of the legendary tradition. · as in Shakespeare. Physical action, though sometimes dramatically crucial, The choice of a chorus is one obvious way for the poet to articulate his is usually limited in scope and relatively static - acts of supplication, approach to a legendary subject. The chorus, after all, constitutes not only a gestures of affection or pity or lamentation. Violent events tend to be collective character standing in a defined relation to the other characters of described in messenger-speeches, a convention that has often been inter the drama, but also an intermediary between the world of the play and the preted as a matter of decorum, but more likely stems from the realisation audience whose perspective it helps to shape. Thus, for example, Aeschylus' that, within the conventions of the fifth-century theatre, such things can be decision to use Theban women rather than elders for the chorus of the made far more vivid through narration than through stage presentation (on Seven Against Thebes permits him to give voice to desperate fears for the this point, see Ch. 7, pp. 154-5). The confrontations of tragedy are also fate of the city against which we can measure the resolve of Eteocles, its essentially verbal, although they very occasionally spill over into the defender. Sophocles' choice of Theban elders for the chorus of Antigone, physical, and when they do, the effect in context is shocking (for example, rather than companions or servants of the heroine, initially furthers her Creon's seizure and abduction oL Antigone in Sophocles' Oedipus at
isolation but then permits a dramatically crucial shift in their understanding Colonus, 8r8ff.). But the threat ~fphysical violence is one of tragedy's 36 and sympathy. important verbal tools, and in general what we may call verbal violence is a
34 Even Pentheus' mask seems to play a special metatheatrical role in the equally chilling 37 The earliest instance we have of a chorus exiting and re-entering involves the only scene
'unmasking' of the horrible killing. Agave is made to see that the prosopon ('face' or 'mask') change in an extant play, that from Delphi to Athens in Aeschylus' Eumenides. The ~horus that she carries is her own son's severed h~:ad,not the lion she has imagined. of Ajax leaves the orchtstra to search for Ajax, allowing him to enter an empty stage and die 35 A detailed study of types and development of lyric exchange in·tragedy can be found in Popp undisturbed. The other cases (in Euripides' Alcestis and Helen and the Rhesus attributed to (1971). On the relation of lyric forms in tragedy to earlier Greek song traditions, see Euripides) similarly serve to facilitate a scene that would be difficult or impossible to play in Herington (1985) esp. IOJ-so. the presence of the chorus. 36 This play provides one of the striking exceptions to the convention that choruses do not 38 In Aeschylus' Suppliant Women, Oanaus, the father of the suppliant maidens who are both intervene directly in the action: after Teiresias has revealed that Creon's entombment of the chorus and de facto protagonists, explicitly praises the song of thanks they sing when the living Antigone and failure to bury the dead Polyneices have caused ominous signs of divine Argive assembly has voted to accept their plea and protect them. In Sophocles' Oedipus the a~ger,the leader of the chorus takes it upon himself to tell Creon in no uncertain terms that King, Oedipus appears to respond directly to the prayers of the choral parodos, and does so he must now try to undo his errors; Creon yields, but too late ( to9t-t 14). in language that claims oracular knowledge and power; see Knox ( r 9 57 I r 5 9-6o.
199 Myth into muthos: the shaping of tragic plot PETER BUR!AN
answers, adding the wish that he had died on the day he gave up the baby. regular feature of tragic discourse. Confrontation is not merely a matter of Another round of threats and laments leads to the further question, 'Where angry, emotional exchanges of insults. More often it is staged as a formal did you get the child?', which the shepherd evades by the vague 'from debate, with the whole panoply of opposing speeches and rancorous someone.' To Oedipus' repeated question, the shepherd answers with a stichomythia, extended alternation between two speakers by single lines or desperate plea to ask no more. But Oedipus threatens his destruction if he pairs of lines (d. Ch. 6 above, pp. 12.7-8). The primacy of the word in tragedy is not, however, merely a function of must be asked again, and he admits that the child was from the house of the resources of the theatre or conventions of the genre. Words are tools of Laius; On the verge of the terrible recognition, Oedipus asks the final question, 'A slave, or one born of Laius' own race?' To the shepherd's power in tragedy. Tragic discourse is still responsive to a notion of the. ominous quality of language itself, as can dearly be seen, for example, in lament that he is now about to speak the dread thing itself, Oedipus the constant etymologising of names like Ajax (from aiai, 'alas') or Pentheus responds with one of the most memorable lines of the play (line lqo): 'And (from penthos, 'grief'). The ominous refrain of the great opening chorus of I to hear - but hear I must.' This is certainly an extraordinary passage, but Agamemnon, 'Sing sorrow, sorrow: but good win out in the end',39 comes in precisely the respects we have been attending to it is characteristic, even as the Argive elders discover that their song keeps turning unbidden to dark paradigmatic, for Greek tragedy in general. Discourse, verbal interaction, is the essential action, not a mere reference to or representation of the action. events in the recent past, which they try to counter with the power of The issues of tragedy, lodged as they may be in political, moral, and/or positive speech. As the fifth century wore on, it might be argued, the discursive powers of speech, logical argument, sophisticated techniques of personal conflicts, are enacted through speech-acts. persuasion, came to have the upper hand over this archaic view of language. But, in whatever form, the power of words - intended or otherwise - THE EXAMPLE OF EURIPIDES' HIP POL YTUS remains one of tragedy's enduring themes in the form of prophecy, vow, curse, riddle, lie, and incantation. A closer look at one play may help to bring together some of the central themes of this chapter. I have chosen Euripides' Hippolytus, in part because The power of such words is not easily controlled, and it should come as of the many ways in which it typifies tragic practice and in part because of no surprise that their effects are often diametrically opposed to what the something that makes it unique. Hippolytus is the only known instance of a speaker intended or the hearer understood. A familiar case is Oedipus' curse second dramatisation of the same subject by the same poet.40 We know on the slayer of Laius, who turns out to be himself (O.T. :z.:z.:z.-75).Even enough about the lost first version to trace two very different ways of telling more arresting is the succession of speech-acts that produce the peripeteia of the 'same' story, and by comparing them we can clarify the distinction Oedipus the King: for Oedipus' downfall is constituted not by deeds, the between myth as the body lore available to the tragic poet and muthos, killing of the father or wedding of the mother (outside the drama, as of Aristotle would say), or even the self-blinding (after the fact and off stage), Aristotle's term for plot as a structure of events embodied in a particular drama. The chief thing we know about the first Hippolytus is that in it but by a dialogue sequence that puts special emphasis on the code of communication. I summarise the scene beginning at line r 146, with Phaedra made a deliberate attempt to seduce Hippolytus, who responded by particular attention to the thematics of speech. The old shepherd, realising covering his head in horror (thus the lost play's distinguishing title of that the garrulous messenger from Corinth may inadvertently reveal the Kalyptomenos, 'Hippolytus Veiling Himself'). That is to say, this version awful secret of Oedipus' origins, orders him to be silent. Oedipus counter conforms to the pattern of the biblical tale of Joseph and Potiphar's wife, in mands his order and threatens punishment. The !!hepherd asks how he has which a shameless advance by the woman was met with rebuff and followed by us to erred, and Oedipus reproaches him for refusing to tell about the child of a false accusation of (attempted) rape. Our evidence permits deduce which the messenger has spoken. The shepherd attempts to allay Oedipus' a few more things about the first Hippolytus with reasonable certainty. The scene of the play was probably Athens, not Trozen as in the surviving play. suspicion by alleging that the messenger is speaking nonsense. Oedipus again threatens torture, the old man begs to be spared, Oedipus orders his Phaedra's nurse may have tried to restrain her mistress's passion, rather arms to be twisted. Again 'oedipus asks, and this time the shepherd 40 There is also a Phaedra of Sophodes, which may well have intervened between the first and second Hippolytus. Discussion and fragments of both lost plays in Barrett (1964) ro-45. 39 Lines t:z.r, 139, 159; quoted in Lattimore's translation.
201 200
-
sending sending
death death
concluding concluding
story story moral moral
Hippolytus' Hippolytus' than than
perhaps perhaps
to to
this this
otherwise otherwise
than than offered offered
audience audience of of new new
story, story,
41 41
relation relation
curses curses
Euripides Euripides husband husband
passion, passion,
supplicates supplicates
rape rape
Hippolytus, Hippolytus,
because because
but but
she she make make becomes becomes
Phaedra. Phaedra.
'illness', 'illness',
lytus' lytus'
blameworthiness' blameworthiness'
double double
This This
We We
No No
The The
reader reader
tion tion
Greek Greek
resist resist
seems seems
plots plots
the the
centres centres
bring bring
against against
encourage encourage
will will
permit permit
shock shock
following following
dear dear
of of
the the
can can
his his
doubt doubt
balance balance
can can
first first
by by
Hippolytus, Hippolytus,
through through
not not
to to
a a
characters characters
then then
who, who,
her her
through through
Theseus, Theseus,
the the
He He
to to
tragedy tragedy
own own
be be
is is
death) death)
are are
poet poet
to to
now now
dishonour dishonour
bull bull
consult consult
the the
that, that,
that that
as as
in in
able able
scathing scathing
of of
is is
but but
only only
salvage salvage
told. told.
the the
version version
makes makes
be be
figure figure
Hippolytus Hippolytus
passion passion
there there
known known
remarks remarks
betrays betrays
order order
here here
in in
son, son,
when when
gravity, gravity,
between between
is is
manuscript manuscript
turn turn
at at
from from
even even
knowledge, knowledge,
final final
within within
its its
to to
a a
the the
free free
in in
a a
the the
what what
It It
of of
that that
merely merely
work work
there there
confession confession
number number
answered answered
only only
were were
present present
and and
expression. expression.
of of
Phaedra Phaedra
is is
a a
to to
her her
its its
to to
surviving surviving
she she
are are
what what
denunciation denunciation
to to
scenes scenes
of of
upon upon
bare bare
to to
and and
the the
her her
in in
frame frame
seduction, seduction,
I I
our our
new new
some some
portrayal portrayal
force force
a a
all all
them, them,
by by
to to
to to
in in
was was
vary vary
have have
reputation. reputation.
playing playing
Hippolytus Hippolytus
motivations motivations
finds finds
many many
frame frame
for for
of of
sea sea
show show
by by
no no
little little
or or
outline, outline,
the the
discover discover
the the
version's version's
herself herself
the the
tradition) tradition)
recent recent
of of
meanings meanings
and and
a a
means means
a a
of of
by by
most most
Theseus Theseus
her her
approaching approaching
not not
that that
on on
discussed discussed
and and
to to
second second
the the
that that
PETER PETER
play play
nurse's nurse's
woman woman
same same
some some
confrontation confrontation
we we
other other
that that
the the
After After
Phaedra's Phaedra's
with with
Phaedra's Phaedra's
to to
interpretative interpretative
kill kill
of of
only only
mistress mistress
drama drama
at at
and and
intended intended
where where
of of
of of
can can
'saves' 'saves'
but but
she she
his his
elements elements
with with
ways ways
expectations expectations
2.02. 2.02.
woman's woman's
hypothesis hypothesis
only only prescribes
outline outline
Phaedra Phaedra
least least
apparently apparently
the the
Phaedra Phaedra
these these
BURIAN BURIAN
succinctly succinctly
of of
Hippolytus. Hippolytus.
Hippolytus, Hippolytus,
can can
changes changes
Phaedra Phaedra
to to
her her
affirm affirm
the the
innocence innocence
betrayal betrayal
fighting fighting
also also
cannot cannot
in in
audience, audience,
the the
to to
the the
the the
find, find,
in in
to to
emerge emerge
the the
children. children.
to to
vicariously, vicariously,
shame shame
place place
of of
Hippolytus Hippolytus
this this
expectations expectations
part, part,
focus focus
previous previous
constitute constitute
which which
(approach (approach
essays essays
curse curse
.central .central
new new
its its
reveal reveal
with with
leaves leaves
between between
desire. desire.
and and
character character
and and
from from
do do
to to
made made chapter.
construction. construction.
(a (a
emphasise emphasise
and and
calls calls
and and
shocked shocked
entirely entirely
as as
and and
based based
on on
from from
manner manner
suppress suppress
brief brief
some some
change change
where where
so, so,
that that
he he
The The
this this
on on
The The
he he
the the
the the
even even
a a
this this
the the
the the
she she
Rethinking Rethinking
versions versions
figures. figures.
can can
the the
the the
her her
written written
is is
lies lies
him him
as as
-
~ynopsis ~ynopsis
in in
play play
its its
the the
Poseidon Poseidon
41 41
truth truth
play, play,
assurance assurance
barest barest
on on
secret secret
nurse nurse
that that
the the
sequence sequence
ready ready
then then
rebuff-
first first
and and
Phaedra's Phaedra's
on on
suicide suicide
gauge gauge
'unseemliness 'unseemliness
the the
she she
her her
accusation accusation
and and
strength strength
The The
dying. dying.
The The
and and
old old
the the
sketchiest sketchiest
and and
and and
it it
typifies typifies
from from
Hippolytus. Hippolytus.
new new
emotional emotional
as as
And And
killed killed
to to
motivation motivation
theatrical theatrical
was was
stead. stead.
in in
wheedles wheedles
English-language English-language
accusation accusation
outline outline
source source
timing timing
myths. myths.
first first
to to
extremity extremity
offended offended
conquer conquer
his his
and and
this this
to to
which which
the the
with with
the the
fulfilled fulfilled
accusation accusation
emphases, emphases,
die die
suffices suffices
of of
rPv.,.,..,.t1 rPv.,.,..,.t1
effects effects
attempts attempts
precisely precisely
interpreta
the the
how how
of of
features features
subject, subject,
version version
Hippo
events, events,
second second
to to
of of
of of
rather rather
which which
of of
I I
All All
these these
single single
king king
and and
and and
and and
her her
her her
her her
the the
the the
of of
to to
of of
of of
of of
in in
· ·
· ·
;be,coiines ;be,coiines
story story
expresses expresses
Hippolytus Hippolytus
Phaedra Phaedra
transferred transferred
from from
from from
another another
the the
Aphrodite Aphrodite
sacrifices sacrifices
represents represents end, end,
female. female.
who who
anger. anger.
Hippolytus; Hippolytus;
into into
desire desire
revenge revenge
ways, ways,
through through
ll.l.,.,n, ll.l.,.,n, Bacchae. Bacchae.
here here
~ttern, ~ttern, drama drama
of of
: :
The The
out out
(1990), (1990),
make make
love, love,
that that
appearance appearance
culmination culmination
introduction introduction
the the
with with
becomes becomes
ironically ironically
must must
the the
the the
as as
of of
......
but but
to to
plot plot
play, play,
But But
when when
Hippolytus' Hippolytus'
orbit orbit
for for
particularly particularly
civic civic
that that
the the
neither neither
and and
the the
an an
Phaedra's Phaedra's
sea sea
just just
metatheatrical metatheatrical polis polis
remain remain
recognised recognised
not not
At At
another another
the the
is is
brings brings
a a
puts puts
finally finally
of of
to to
is is
the the
interesting interesting
Mitchell Mitchell
drama drama
the the
this this
danger danger
rooted rooted
transition transition
represents represents
the the
in in
of of
of of
his his
as as
rite, rite,
Hippolytus Hippolytus
associated associated
the the
human human
she she
symbolic symbolic
to to
at at
him him
accused accused
loss loss
the the
of of
passage. passage.
its its
Phaedra Phaedra
version version
of of
refusal refusal
end end
remove remove
Dionysus Dionysus
a a
virginity virginity
gods. gods.
Myth Myth
on on
change change
drama's drama's
relinquish relinquish
useful useful
that that
promises promises
Aphrodite's Aphrodite's
love) love)
(1991). (1991).
virgin, virgin,
itself itself
Aphrodite Aphrodite
pattern pattern
to to
in in
in in
blurring blurring
of of
cultivation cultivation
of of
and and
a a
truth truth
the the
the the
the the
her her
to to
into into
and and
of of
To To
Segal Segal
both both
coup; coup;
of of
god god
Hippolytus, Hippolytus,
of of
some some
for for
a a
as as
insists insists
of of
The The
can can
from from
adulthood. adulthood.
position position
the the
nor nor
community, community,
feminisation feminisation
end end
a a
but but
kind kind
own own
the the
resisted, resisted,
extent extent the
muthos: muthos:
stages stages
of of
the the
of of
the the
rather rather
(1965), (1965),
ever ever
adult adult
the the
status status
her her
to to
to to
of of
also also
divine divine
scapegoat, scapegoat,
Potiphar's-wife Potiphar's-wife
Euripides Euripides
threat threat
herself herself
his his
failure failure
the the
the the
of of
anyone anyone
wrath, wrath,
cult-figure cult-figure
on on
of of
violation violation
(142o-2). (142o-2).
of of
granting granting
destroy destroy
set set
distinctions distinctions
maidenhood maidenhood
in in
Artemis. Artemis.
be be
life life
first first
the the
play-within-a-play play-within-a-play
special special
of of
Reckford Reckford
power power
sexuality sexuality
the the
the the
the the
associated associated
Trozenian Trozenian
2.03 2.03
the the
Hippolytus Hippolytus
retribution. retribution.
to to
seen seen
Artemis Artemis
that that
the the
This This
as as
of of
to to
shaping shaping
responsibility responsibility
action action
secret secret virginal virginal
and and
to to
of of
its its
else else
uses uses
speaker speaker
scene. scene.
the the
one one
his his
reluctant reluctant
of of
the the
the the
it it
of of
in in
of of
case case
Hippolytus Hippolytus
safety. safety.
By By
to to
In In
(1972.) (1972.)
is is
in in
also also
Theseus' Theseus'
the the
at at
father's father's
male male
eros. eros.
his his
the the
is is
liminal liminal
second second
nature nature
accomplished accomplished
all all
between between
whom whom
such such
foretells foretells
of of
of of
death death
story story
to to
in in
even even
cult cult
of of
Artemis Artemis
Trozen Trozen
But But
not not
light light
tragic tragic
symbolises symbolises
probability, probability,
and and
occasion occasion
Greece Greece
father's father's
denied denied
of of
Aphrodite's Aphrodite's
come come
To To
metatheatricality. metatheatricality.
to to
maiden, maiden,
In In
with with
means means
against against
the the
of of
Hippolytus Hippolytus
(1974), (1974),
of of
for for
theatrical theatrical
maidens maidens
Hippolytus. Hippolytus.
the the
merely merely
figure figure
curse curse
curse curse
of of
reach reach
staged staged
a a
plot plot
that that
the the
male male
attempted attempted
Phaedra's Phaedra's
prologue, prologue,
last last
in in
an an
Aphrodite Aphrodite
to to
the the
can can
extent extent
primarily primarily
and and
marriage marriage
is is
of of
next next
by by
accompanies accompanies
the the Zeitlin Zeitlin
overriding overriding and and
the the
like like
who who
the the
sexual sexual
her her
in in
violent violent
ironic ironic
the the
by by
we we
and and
destructive destructive
reveal reveal
the the
on on
Poseidon Poseidon
favourites favourites
repressed, repressed,
a a
exclusion exclusion
that that
passion passion
convenience convenience
prologue prologue
Persephone, Persephone,
Aphrodite's Aphrodite's
the the
such such
will. will.
partakes partakes
plot plot
arc arc
number number
is is
exposition exposition
(1985), (1985),
the the
Unlike Unlike
affliction, affliction,
seduction seduction
matching matching
female female
maturity maturity
reversal, reversal,
(and (and
with with
expelled expelled
death death
goddess goddess
bed, bed,
the the
dealing dealing
it, it,
This This
drawn drawn
eve eve
divine divine
In In
ritual ritual
that that
Goff Goff
bull bull
and and
and and
the the
the the
the the
the the
his his
he he
of of
to to
of of
of of of of
of of
in in
is is
it it
is is it it PETER BURIAN Myth into muthos: the shaping of tragic plot marriage dedicate locks of their hair. His heroic status corrects- tragically so much more than any word Hippolytus might speak that he launches his too late and for others, not himself- the imbalance of his life. curse even before hearing what his son has to say (887-90). Ironically, Finally, the nature of confrontation and conflict as verbal - the character Theseus appears to doubt the efficacy of his own curse, since he adds exile of Greek tragedy as a drama of speech-acts - can nowhere be better as the alternative punishment should it fail, and later tells Hippolytus that illustrated than in Hippolytus. Bernard Knox's isolation of the choice swift death would be too easy (1047). He displays a complete unwillingness between speech and silence as the motor of the plot provides a useful to consider Hippolytus' solemn oath. Like his son, he knows what he knows 42 starting-point. The drama proceeds as a series of encounters in which and refuses to acknowledge that what he doesn't know is of any conse misguided estimations of the power of words successively produce omis quence. When Hippolytus suggests that he at least consult the utterances of sions, repressions, indiscretions, irrational outbursts, and lies in a concate soothsayers, the King replies, 'As for birds flying overhead, a fond farewell nation that brings destruction on all the parties. Phaedra and her old nurse, to them!' (I059). This is the very same phrase of dismissal with which, at in very different ways, overvalue speech. In Phaedra's case, this verges on the beginning of the play, Hippolytus 'greeted' Aphrodite. fetishisation when she can think of no way of speaking compatible with her In the end, only the gods can line up their words infallibly with the results honour and takes refuge in ~ilence.The nurse, on the other hand, is a great they wish to achieve. (Even Phaedra's apparently authoritative writing can believer in the ability of logos to solve any problem. Her mistress' silence only destroy Hippolytus, not save her own reputation.) Both Aphrodite and exasperates her, and she wheedles a confession from her. Having ground Artemis assert, reveal, promise, predict, damn with a certainty unknown to down Phaedra's resistance with rhetorical cunning, she goes strai~htto mortals, while the mortals make the best they can of a world of uncertain Hippolytus, and when we next see her, she is begging the enraged youth to meanings, broken promises, unrealisable wishes, ineffectual regrets. After be silent about what she has told him (603). Yet, despite the disastrous Theseus' curse has mortally wounded his son and Artemis .has arrived to failure of her speech, she does not lose faith in its power. Her final words to instruct and rebuke him, the King can only wish that the curse had never Phaedra are, amazingly, an offer of further machination, to which Phaedra come to his lips; it cannot be called back. The only effective human speech replies by telling her one last time to stop talking and dismissing her with left comes from the dying Hippolytus, the words with which he frees his the tragic formula for sending an enemy packing, 'Get out of my way!' father from blood-guilt (1449). Like Phaedra, he finally makes the word do (708). Having fully grasped the extremity of her situation, Phaedra takes his bidding, but too late, when death is upon him. full charge, and her remaining speech-acts are decisive, efficient, indeed (in the case of her final written message, the indictment of Hippolytus) masterful and devastating. As she becomes Aphrodite's agent in the destruc CONCLUSION: MYTH, INNOVATION, AND THE DEATH tion of Hippolytus, she assimilates a divine ability to make her words OF TRAGEDY achieve her ends. The great period of Greek tragedy seems to have lasted less than a century. Theseus and Hippolytus may be called, by contrast, men who undervalue The extant plays date from a period of roughly seventy years (except for the the word, repeatedly misapprehending its relation to its conventional Rhesus ascribed to Euripides, which may well be a fourth-century play), and opposite, the deed. Hippolytus, comfortable only among the age-mates who it is admittedly risky to make guesses about what we have lost. Nevertheless, share his values, leads them in hymning Artemis but refuses even the pro if it is true, as Aristotle tells us, that Aeschylus added the second actor, then forma prayer to Aphrodite urged upon him by his old retainer. Unmindful tragedy in its fully developed form began with him and as far as we can tell of the danger of withholding honour from so powerful a god, a perfunctory the cultural dominance of tragedy did not survive Athens' loss of the 'fond farewell to your Cypris' (I 13) is all he can muster. His response to the Peloponnesian War. Of course, new tragedies continued to be produced, nurse's pleading of Phaedra's suit is the opposite of reticent, however. He and we know that a number, such as the Hector of Astydamas (a great launches on an extraordinary tirade against all womankind, a heady grandson of Aeschylus!), had enormous success43 but tragedy never again mixture of absurd hyperbole, offended sensibilities, and assorted male attained the centrality that it maintained in Athens through the fifth century. anxieties (616-68). Theseus trusts the truth of Phaedra's written accusation
43 For a positive view of such successes and the state of tragedy in the early fourth ccnrury, sec 42 Knox (1952b). Easterling (1993a) 559-69 and Ch. 9 of this volume.
204 205 explanation
complex Nietzsche,
by
flowering intertextual important
tragedy fifth-century
discussing the tion,
focused
embedded
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passionate
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of
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god.
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innovation
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remember in tragic
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this
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framework
performance, Athens its
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equally
in
PETER
tragedy
questions. guises
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legend as
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sense, concentration
the the
of
breaching
rival the
meteoric
century
that 44
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Ch.
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at
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Greek At
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us drama,
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year
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of time
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To
As
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says,
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poets.
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passage
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competitions,
voice
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to an
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body
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emphasised expectation muthos: to
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often
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the the
tragedy that
the
between and
theirs
disputes.
responsible
fully
for
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of relation
experience.
intensity
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stretch
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authentic
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2.07
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after
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and
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comment
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addition,
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'rhetorically' tragic
that
token
characters
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Poetics the
(145rb3
its
and
thoughtful is
at dramatic
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repetition
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repetition discourse
all
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of classical restoration ultimate
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issues the
its
on
of performance
effect
Menander).
choreography,
of
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too
actors;
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comedy
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plot is
own the
cultural
the s-s:z.ar century acting,
festivals,
those telling:
its
the
easy
speak
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'old'
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theatrical public
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decline? repertoire
megatext attention
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I450b7-8).
demands
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War,
the
writing
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poets
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good
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'politically',
innovation,
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courtroom,
write
innovation
intellectual A
affairs
democracy
comparing oratory
tragedians
in
their
but
the
removed in
typically
Charles display.
tragedy
has
(i.e.
for
Athens
on the
of
of
which
poets,
of
off many life of
later such
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The and
the but not
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the
the
the
its
as
of
(a mythic
we tion
frantic century, attempt inextricably
myth rhetoric
that lost
marginal. advancement
Many collections and
(1988). Euripides with (Cambridge,
Rome (1996). performance: and
(Hanover 46
On
On
Segal On
make
of
London
8: Nietzsche
much
other
in
myth
general
New
their performance
music
the system
earlier
See (1983)
to
the
and powerful
and
and
tragedy,
of
free system artistic
and
of
Surveys
also search
pace,
1996); MA,
wedded
closing
Socratic
essays
the
in books
184-5·
bibliography
of
London
and
its
tragedy
deplored
drama
Goldhill
tragedy:
Poetics
social
1995).
genres
responsible
new and
West prestige criticism
for
the
no
in
by
on texts?',
to see
the
1984) rationalism
meaning.
BIBLIOGRAPHICAL
its final
Charles matter Greek
forms
from
dialogue.
(1992). of A
see
(1986); but
Foley myth
W.
Classics,
dissolution'.
can
new Sorrow
Essays cf.
Herington
as
text
and
the
rather
tragedy C.
of
Ch.
for
PETER
be
(1985);
Segal:
edition how
a
seems
Musical The
Zimmermann discourse
of traditional
Scott,
in
the found tool
12, (Durham,
Once
no.
may
the
Criticism
as
extreme
opening deal Interpreting
with
dissolution
BURIAN
Buxton 208
( of
r6)
46
clear
19
for
a
system;
Musical
in
be
Design
myth
Richard
8 5
Culmination,
recognition
with
appeared
bibliography,
Lesky
were
the se~n NC,
);
tales;
45.2
from
(1994);
Arion
the
of
(1991);
the is
NOTE
in
simultaneously
discovery
Design
199
competing
not tragic
Buxton's
(1983); Greek
in of
(1995)
Sophoclean
innovations
and subject
the
in
3 3
myth?
doubt,
Seaford
rd );
as
that
1995.
Rehm
Sophocles'
by
and
discourse
failure
certainly;
series Tragedy
in
93-120.
the
CHCL
matter
Sophocles
the
myth
of
Aeschylean That
0.
successfully
tragedy (1994).
For
assault
(1992);
Theater
3
end
Taplin,
truth
.1
of to
the
1;
tragedy's
(Ithaca
of
tragedy
had
Tragic
(
to
but
19
of
Metis
it Agathon's
Chapters
(Greece culmina
sophistic
on
9 5
and
becomes
and the
or (Hanover
'Opening
already
should
Theater );
1986); World myth
3.1-2.
how with
Nagy
fifth
was
three
links
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